Seminar Report on

Mechanisms of Wear in
HSS cutting tools

Prepared by
JYOTI RANJAN NAYAK
jyotiranjan_541@yahoo.c
om
 Contents

Introduction

The cutting process in brief

Tool material properties

 High temperature strength
 Fracture strength vs. hardness
Common work materials for HSS cutting tools

Tool wear

Wear mechanisms of uncoated tools

 Abrasive wear

 Adhesive wear

 Large scale plastic deformation

 Fatigue and fracture

 Diffusion wear

Wear mechanisms of coated tools

 Coating removal due to poor substrate preparation

 Coating removal due to thermal softening of the substrate

Distribution and evolution of edge wear

Towards better performance of HSS cutting tools

 Improving the HSS material

 Improving the surface integrity

Conclusions

References

Introduction

Metal cutting puts extreme demands on the tool and tool material through
conditions of high forces, high contact pressures, high temperatures, and
intense chemical attack by difficult to cut work materials. In addition, the tool
geometry and cutting conditions in terms of sharp edges, cyclic engagement
and presence of cutting fluid will add to the severity. Most often cutting tools
are used close to their ultimate resistance against these loads, especially to
the limiting thermal and mechanical stresses.

In spite of the increasing use of high performance tool materials, such as CVD
and PVD coated cemented carbides, cermets, ceramics, cubic boron nitride
and diamond, high speed steels (HSS) are still frequently used in tools for
metal cutting applications. The relatively high toughness and the possibility of
economic manufacturing of tools with complicated geometries still justify the
use of HSS in many cutting operations. The introduction of powder
metallurgical grades in combination with Electro Slag Heating (ESH) and
Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) coating technologies has further improved
the performance of HSS cutting tools.

Since the successful introduction of the PVD-Tin coating in the late 70’s, the
academic research on HSS metal cutting tools has been concentrated to
developing even better coating materials and techniques for their deposition.
This paper is a brief overview of the mechanisms of wear of HSS cutting tools
and includes illustrations from both uncoated and coated tools. More details
on the metal cutting process, the mechanisms of tool degradation, and the
properties of HSS materials and their coatings are found in Reference 1to 10.
The cutting process in brief

To understand the wear mechanisms in metal cutting it is necessary to have a

brief understanding of the severe contact conditions prevailing at the cutting
tool/work material interface, see Fig. 1. The common model illustrates
orthogonal cutting, but it applies to any cutting operation including turning,
milling, sawing, drilling, tapping, broaching, etc. Through plastic shear of the
work material and sliding of work material against the tool flank and rake face
a characteristic temperature profile is established. The principle heat sources
are located at the primary shear zone in the forming chip and in the frictional
contact between chip and tool (secondary shear zone), and the highest
temperature is consequently reached on the rake face at some distance from
the edge.

Fig. 1. Principle action and temperature distribution of a HSS metal cutting

edge exposed to its practical limit of thermal loading
To illustrate the forces and mechanical stresses acting on the tool edge in one
picture is less strait forward since they change considerably with cutting
operation and cutting parameters. In intermittent cutting they also may
change completely from entrance to exit during the Wear mechanisms of HSS
cutting tools individual edge engagements. Generally, the over all cutting
force F is related to cutting speed and feed as indicated in Fig. 2. It is indicated
that a low friction coating can lower the cutting force and thereby giving a
lower edge temperature, which can be utilized to increase the productivity.

We know from the type of failure mechanisms that HSS cutting tools are used
close to their limits of yield and fracture stresses, see § 6 and on. Since the
cutting edge is forcing its way through the interior of the work piece like a
propagating wedge, both surfaces of the opened “crack” represent highly
chemically reactive metal. The fact that there is no access to external oxygen
or cutting fluids to this region means that there is no formation of oxide films
or any other protecting interlayer. Consequently, the tool edge is also exposed
to extremely severe conditions.

Fig. 2(a). Schematics of cutting force F vs. cutting speed

Fig. 2(b). Schematics of cutting force F vs. feed

Tool material properties

• High temperature strength

A metal cutting tool must be able to combine high hardness (or high yield
strength) with high fracture strength at elevated temperature, see Fig. 3a. The
latter is especially important in Primary shear zone Wear mechanisms of HSS
cutting tools interrupted cutting. A high thermal conductivity is also a desired
tool property since it will reduce the tendency to local thermal softening. The
high thermal resistance of carbides, nitrides and oxides indicates their
potential as protective thin PVD or CVD coatings, but also their strengthening
ability when present in the form of small particles in the tool material.
However, they are also common as strengthening elements in most work
materials where they contribute to abrasive wear, see § 6.1.

• Fracture strength vs. hardness

High hardness is associated with brittleness, and strengthening metallic
materials such as HSS by martensitic hardening, dispersion of hard particles,
etc. of a metallic materials most often results in a material with a lower
fracture strength as indicated by Fig. 3b.
 a) b)

Figure. 3. a) Hot hardness (HV) of HSS compared to that of carbon steel and
austenitic stainless steel. The superior hot hardness of carbides, nitrides and
oxides in the whole temperature interval is also indicated.

b) Room temperature fracture strength (Rmb) vs. hardness (HV) of some

common tool materials.

Common work materials for HSS cutting

tools

Generally, the work materials in metal cutting with HSS tools are
macroscopically much softer than the tools, see Table 1. However, many work
materials contain constituents (carbides, nitrides or oxides) that are harder
(HV 1500 – 3000) and more temperature resistant than the HSS matrix, as
indicated in Fig. 3a, and contribute to the tool degradation by abrasion. High
toughness, large fracture elongation (ductility) and ability to work harden all
add to generate a high temperature during chip formation. High temperatures
reduce the strength of the HSS tool, but will also facilitate chemical reactions
and possibility to form inter-metallic phases between tool and work material.
This will increase the friction between these materials and thus further
aggravate the situation.

Another fact that has to be considered when comparing the mechanical

properties of tool materials with those of work materials is that chip formation
generally occurs by extremely high shear rates. Taking high strain rate into
account, the work material curves of Fig. 3a are Wear mechanisms of HSS
cutting tools lifted up such that the corresponding RT hardness of a carbon
steel may well match the hardness of the cutting edge at its working
temperature, as indicated by the two ovals in this figure [11]. The illustrated
situation is accentuated in intermittent cutting when a hot tool edge suddenly
meets cold work material.

Table 1. Work materials and their nominal properties related to tool wear in
metal cutting
Work material Hardness [HV] Hard particles Ductility Work harden
C-steels 200 - 250 Cementite Yes Yes
Cast irons 200 - 250 Cementite - -
γ−steels 180 - 250 - Yes Yes
Al-alloys 100 - 150 Oxides, AlFeSi Yes -
Ti-alloys 200 - 350 - Yes Yes
Ni-based alloys 200 - 350 Yes Yes Yes

Tool wear

Taking orthogonal cutting as a model the general characteristics of a worn HSS

cutting tool are schematically illustrated in Fig. 4. Primarily, depending on
cutting operation, cutting parameters, cutting parameters, work material and
tool material the performance of the tool is limited by nose wear, flank wear,
crater wear, edge chippings, or combinations of these. Depending on the
same parameters, the wear either occurs gradually by abrasive or adhesive
wear, through plastic deformation, by more discrete losses of material through
discrete fracture mechanisms, or by combinations of these.

Below, illustrative micrographs from scanning and optical microscopy (SEM

and OM, respectively) of used HSS tools will be used to demonstrate the wear
mechanisms.
Cutting tools can be used only when their edges produce parts with specified
surface finish and dimensional tolerance. When the quality of the cutting edge
is lost due to wear, the tool reaches its limit and must be replaced by a new
one. In this paper, we will discuss about the mechanisms that lead to the tool
wear. Presently, no viable theories exist for predicting tool wear on the basis
of properties of tool and work material. Optical and electron microscopic and
auto radiographic observations suggest that the tool wear phenomena occur
at microscopic and atomic levels. Each tool wear location such as wearland,
crater, nose, notch and trailing (see Fig.4 b)involves a different wear
mechanism. This is because the temperature, sliding velocity and stresses are
different at each location. Also, the applicable mechanism for each location
may be different for different tool materials, work materials, and machining
speeds, feed, depths and cutting fluid. This multiple nature of tool wear
phenomena has led to a number of possible mechanisms but, however, no
predictive theories have evolved as yet.
Lim and Ashby consider that two major forms of wear are commonly observed
on a cutting tool: flank wear and crater wear [3]. This is illustrated in Fig.1.
Flank wear (occurring on the major and minor flank of a tool) generally causes
an increase in the cutting force and the interfacial temperature, leading
normally to dimensional inaccuracy in the workpieces machined and to
vibration which makes the cutting operation less efficient. Crater wear takes
place on the rake face of the tool where the chip moves over the tool surface.
A crater is ussualy formed at some distance from the cutting edge (see Fig.4b)
and it is most frequently observed when cutting steels and other high-
melting-point metals at relatively high cutting speeds [4]. This crater gradually
becomes deeper with time and may lead to the breakage of the cutting edge,
rendering the tool useless.
 a)

b)

Figure. 4. a) Schematic of tool wear distribution. Wear mechanisms of HSS

cutting tools

b) Typical wear patterns of turning tool (carbide insert)

Wear mechanisms of uncoated tools

• Abrasive wear

Abrasive wear dominates the flank and crater wear of the HSS tool edge seen
in Fig. 5. The grooved pattern is a combination of the scratching action of hard
particles in the work material, and the protection against scratching offered by
the hard phases in the tool material. Behind large tool carbides, seen in the
chip flow direction, there are typical ridges of protected tool material. The
individual abrasive scratches are too small to be resolved in the picture.

Abrasive wear is counteracted by a high yield strength (high hardness) and

large carbide volume of the HSS.

Abrasive wear on the tool surface is caused by hard particles in the work
material. Their effect on the tool wear can be explained theoretically by three
abrasion models, these are micro ploughing, micro chipping and micro
cracking (Knotek, 1993).

Many work materials (cast iron, steel), contain particles of phases which have
a hardness that is much higher than of the workpiece. The particles can
typically be carbides or oxides, particularly Al2O3, but also silica and some
silicates (Trent, 1979). The particles may also be highly strain-hardened
fragments from an unstable built-up edge on the tool (Moore, 1975). In
particular the wear at the flank face may be attributed to abrasive wear. In
abrasive wear the influence of tool surface hardness is considerable (Budinski,
1980; Kramer, 1986; Konig 1992)

Abrasion [1] occurs when a harder material (the tool) shears away small
particles from the softer work material. However, softer work material also
removes small particles from the tool material although at a smaller rate. The
hard tool particles are caught between the hard tool and soft workpiece, and
this causes additional abrasion wear. Tool and workpiece contain carbides,
oxides, and nitrides with hard microstructures; these cause abrasion wear
during machining.
a)a)
b)

c) d)

Fig. 5. Typical appearance of abrasive wear.

a) Wear dominates the crater and flank wear of a milling tool. The arrows point
at ridges of HSS material relatively resistant to abrasion. There is also
evidence of edge fracture. Work material: C-steel.
b) Paper knife. An extremely fine-scaled abrasion, only resisted by the hard
carbides, dominates the tool wear.
c) and d) Abrasive wear of the cutting tool
• Adhesive wear

When viewed in low magnification the dominating wear mechanism of the

milling tooth of Fig. 6 appears to be abrasive, i.e. a ploughing action of hard
constituents in the work material (carbon steel). However, higher
magnification (Fig. 6b) reveals that it is rather a combination of abrasive and
adhesive wear. This adhesive component, often referred to as mild adhesive
wear, is a tearing of superficial HSS material by high shear forces resulting in
a slow drag of the surface layer and removal of small fragments in the
direction of chip flow.

If the tool is used to its upper limit of heat resistance, severe adhesive wear
may result as a large scale plastic flow of surface material in the direction of
the chip flow, see Fig. 7. Wear mechanisms of HSS cutting tools

Adhesive wear dominates the flank and crater wear of HSS tools if the edges
reach high temperatures, i.e. at high cutting speed. Adhesive wear is further
promoted when cutting chemically aggressive materials.

Both mild and severe adhesive wear are primarily resisted by the HSS material
through its high yield strength at elevated temperature (high hot hardness).

a) b)

Fig. 6. Crater in a milling tool that has been cutting in low carbon steel. In low
magnification (a) the dominating wear mechanism appears to be abrasive.
However, a close up (b) reveals that it is dominated by a mild adhesive
component with shear fragmentation of the HSS material in the direction of
chip flow (arrow).

a)

b)
c) d)
Figure. 7. a) Optical micrograph of cross-sectioned hob tooth after cutting
austenitic stainless steel.
b) Detail of a). The arrows indicate the chip flow direction and flow pattern of
superficial HSS material, respectively. The latter is indicative of severe
adhesive wear.
c): The wear of cutting tool determined by adhesion and d) built-up edge

Adhesive wear is caused by the formation of welded asperity junctions

between the chip and the tool faces and the fracture of the junctions by the
shearing force so that tiny fragments of the tool material are torn out and
adhere to the chip or the workpiece. This kind of wear may occur at the flank
face in low speed cutting when the contact temperatures are not so high. It
may involve oxidation of the tool surface, or other chemical interaction with
the surrounding atmosphere, followed by mechanical removal of the products
of the reaction.
Another point of view regarding the adhesion wear is presents by Yusuf
Altintas and represents the analyze making by Oxley [5]: When there is a
relative motion between the two bodies that are under the normal load,
fragments of softer workpiece adhere to the harder tool. The adhered material
is unstable, and it separates from the cutting tool and tears small fragments
of the tool material. The 1819 typical example in metal cutting is a built-up
edge, which usually occurs at low cutting speeds when part of the chip
material welds to the cutting edge. Depending on the size and stability of the
built-up edge, either the forces decrease because the effective rake angle
becomes positive or the lumped built-up edge dulls the tool and increases the
forces. An unstable, large built-up edge occurs close to the cutting edge at low
speeds where the tool-chip interface temperature is low. The material is still
strong at this point and difficult to move over the rake face. As the chip moves
over the rake face, the chip-tool interface temperature increases, leading to a
softer chip, which is easier to move. As the cutting speed is increased, the
magnitude and length of the built-up edge becomes smaller and localizes
close to the cutting edge. Predicting the tool chip interface temperature is
therefore important in identifying cutting speeds where the built-up edge is
minimum.

• Large scale plastic deformation

Sometimes, the HSS tool edge is loaded beyond its yield strength and deforms
by large-scale plastic deformation, see Fig. 8, resulting in edge blunting. This
has been observed when high speed tools soften due to annealing during
machining

a)
b)

Fig. 8. Plastic deformation of HSS tool edge. a) The edge line in the central
part of the picture is being plastically moved downwards and will soon leave
the edge as the adjacent parts of the edge already have.

b) Cross section of the plastically deformed edge showing signs of adiabatic

shear.

• Fatigue and fracture

Macroscopic fracture of the whole tool can occur but is a rather scarce event.
More common is localised chippings of the tool edge, see Fig. 9. Note that the
chippings in (a) seem to be initiated by grinding marks running parallel to the
edge.

a)
b)

Fig 9. Small (a) and somewhat larger (b) edge chippings due to local
overloading and fatigue of hob teeth. Wear mechanisms of HSS cutting tools

• Diffusion wear
Diffusion wear characterizes the material loss due to diffusion of atoms of the
tool material into the work piece moving over it. Requirements for diffusion
wear are metallurgical bonding of the two surfaces so that atoms can move
freely across the interface, a temperature high enough to make rapid diffusion
possible, and some solubility of the tool material phases in the work material

In a theoretical model of diffusion wear proposed by Kramer and Suh (1980)

and Kramer (1986) the wear rate is considered to be controlled by the mass
diffusion rate. However, tool wear prediction according to the model is not in
agreement with experimental results reported by Sproul (1987), Ono and
Takeyama (1992) have shown that in diffusion wear at the minor flank (relief
face) of the tool the chemical reaction taking place at the interface has a
major effect on wear. They showed that oxygen gas accelerates the formation
of oxide layers that are continuously torn off resulting in increased wear,
whilst wear is decreased by an environment of argon gas.

From the analyze proposed by Altintas (2000), the diffusion wear appear
when the temperature of the tool and work piece increase at the contact
zones, the atoms in the two materials become restive and migrate to the
opposite material where the concentration of the same atom is less.
Typically, in a tool material such as tungsten carbide (WC), where carbide (C)
provides the hardness, while cobalt (Co) binds the WC grains, carbon diffuses
to the moving steel chips, which have less concentration of the same atoms.
Progressive diffusion of the tool materials into the chip gradually leads to a
weakened cutting edge and eventual chipping or breakage of the tool.

Figure: Diffusion wear of the cutting tool

Wear mechanisms of coated tools

Since the late 70’s when the TiN-coating was introduced on HSS metal cutting
tools, PVD coating has become standard in tool wear protection, and today
coating centres offer a considerable number of thin ceramic coatings for HSS
tools [9]. A thin (1 – 10 µm) PVD coating will primarily protect the cutting edge
in two ways:
• Acting as a shield against abrasive and mild adhesive wear.

• Reducing the tool temperature by reducing the friction between tool and
work material, especially between chip and rake face.

The coatings combine a superior hardness (abrasive wear resistance) with

relatively low chemical reactivity with metallic materials (low solubility), the
latter giving protection against the welding mechanism that is the prerequisite
for adhesive wear. Consequently, most of the common PVD coatings of today
rather fail by fatigue and discrete delamination /detachment than removal by
slow gradual wear [9]. Once the coating is removed, the wear mechanisms of
coated tools are the same as those of uncoated, although more severe
because more severe cutting parameters are normally used for coated tools.
• Coating removal due to poor substrate preparation
There are primarily two ways by which failure in HSS substrate preparation
can occur.

• The surface temperature during grinding/polishing reaches above the

austenitisation temperature resulting in a brittle interlayer of untempered
martensite, see Fig. 10.
• The resulting substrate surface is too rough, see Figs. 11 and 12.

a) b)
Fig. 10. Metallographic cross-sections through surface finished HSS materials.
a) Superficial layer of untempered martensite due to excessive heat generation
during finishing.
b) Properly surface finished HSS.

Used as substrate for PVD coating, the untempered martensite in Fig. 11a
would constitute a brittle interlayer inferior to coating adhesion. 10 µm 10 µm

PVD coatings on HSS tools possess internal compressive stresses of the order
of 1-5 GPa. Typically, TiN deposited on HSS has a lateral compressive residual
stress of around 4 GPa. This stress acts positively for the coating cohesion, but
negatively on its adhesion to the substrate. In combination with a rough
substrate, excessively high compressive stresses may cause spontaneous
detachment without any external loads [10, 12]. The reason is that lateral
compressive stresses in the coating combined with a rough substrate will
generate tensile stresses across the coating/substrate interface as illustrated
in Fig. 11a [12]. If such a system is externally loaded, coating detachment is
facilitated along regions of maximum tensile stress, i.e. along the coarse
ridges on the tool of Fig. 11b. These ridges are the result of a too rough
grinding process / incorrect grinding parameters.

Another example of topographically induced coating failure is shown in Fig. 12

where it also is indicated that cracks nucleated in the coating may spread to
the underlying HSS material. Through fatigue, they may later cause edge
chippings and large-scale edge fracture.

a) b)
Fig 11. a) The lateral compressive stresses state σ present in most PVD
coatings will generate interfacial stresses S. At the top of e.g. grinding ridges
this stress is a tensile “lift off” stress that may reach the same order of
magnitude as the residual stress σ [12]. Such ridges can result from rough
grinding.
b) Tin coating detachment along grinding ridges of a HSS cutting tool.

a) b)
Fig. 12. Microscopic fatigue cracks observed on the rake face close to the
edge of a hob tooth that has been cutting in carbon steel.
b) Close up of a). The direction of the cracks coincides with the direction of
surface finishing. 25 µm Wear mechanisms of HSS cutting tools

• Coating removal due to thermal softening of the

substrate
Once the HSS substrate material reaches a temperature level of excessive
softening, it fails to resist the contact pressure, and the brittle coating
fractures, see Fig. 13a. Note the dark etching contrast underneath the coating,
which reveals thermal softening due to over tempering. The coating fractures
and individual fragments are then detached in the form of small fragments,
see Fig. 13b.

a) b)
Fig. 13. Coating detachment of hob tooth used for making gears of carbon
steel.
a) Coating fracture due to thermal softening of the substrate.
b) Removal of small coating fragments and initial wear of the underlying HSS
material. The thickness of the fragments is the same as the original coating
thickness.

Distribution and evolution of edge wear

The macroscopic wear pattern of a cutting tool edge was illustrated in Fig. 4.
The mechanisms described above will eventually cause wear that exceed the
worn out criteria, either as a certain width of the flank, the rake face or as a
certain edge blunting. Figure 14 shows the development of a large crater in a
TiN-coated hob tooth. The work material was carbon steel and the wear that
eventually controlled tool life occurred on the rake face.

Initially, the hob teeth suffered from limited edge chipping (Fig. 14b and c). At
the same time, thermal softening of tool material in the rake face (over
tempering revealed by the dark contrast adjacent to the coating) reduced the
load bearing capacity of the coating, which failed by cracking and brittle
fracture (Fig. 14b), cp. Fig. 13. Once the coating was removed, a large crater
was rapidly developed in the unprotected HSS by severe adhesive wear, Fig
14d.

Irrespective of the location of the critical wear, its evolution can be illustrated
as in Fig. 15. An initial wear, often involving tip blunting through minor
fractures (chipping) is followed by a linear, steady-state wear regime
dominated by abrasive and adhesive wear. A gradual tip blunting is one of the
reasons behind a successively increasing edge temperature, and eventually, a
situation of accelerated wear through edge fracture or severe plastic
deformation is reached.

It is also indicated in Fig. 15 that a smoothening of the tool surface and

sharpening of the edge will prolong tool life. This is further accentuated by
coating. However, the improved wear resistance obtained by coating is often
used to increase the productivity rather than to obtain a longer tool life.

Fig. 14a) Fig. 14b)

Fig. 14c) Fig. 14 d)

Fig. 14. Successive wear of TiN-coated hob teeth revealed by SEM and etched
metallographic cross-sections.
a) Overview of one tooth from a used tool.
b) Initial stage of edge chipping and thermal softening of the coating substrate
on the rake face.
c) Close up of edge chipping in cross-section. Cracks running from both rake
and clearance face
d) Final stage of severe crater wear. The etching in b) and c) reveals
superficial thermal effects.

Fig. 15. Tool wear evolution. The three ovals represent initial, steady state
and catastrophic tool wear, respectively. Influence of tool surface preparation
and coating is also indicated.

Table 2 summarises the wear mechanisms of HSS cutting tools. Normally, the
tool suffers from a combination of two or more of these mechanisms, and it
can be difficult to judge which is dominating. It is also indicated in the table
how the different wear mechanisms result from a combined effect of
properties of work and tool materials as well as cutting parameters.

Table 2. Common wear mechanisms of HSS cutting tools, their cause and
how to fight them.

Wear Cause of wear Counteractive tool

mechanism properties
Abrasive wear Hard particles or other hard High matrix
phases in the work material hardness, large
remove material by a volume of hard
ploughing action. phases, hard coating

Mild and High cutting speed Smooth surface,

severe generates high tool surface sharp edge, high hot
adhesive wear temperatures that facilitate hardness, high
strong adhesion between thermal
work and tool materials. conductivity,
The worst situation prevails chemically inert
for tough, ductile and (anti sticking)
chemically reactive work coating
materials with low thermal
conductivity.
Plastic High cutting speed High hot hardness,
deformation generates excessive edge high thermal
temperatures in Conductivity.
combination with high loads.

Fracture and Interrupted cutting, Smooth tool surface,

fatigue especially in high fracture
combination with high toughness promoted
cutting speed and use of by a defect free HSS
cutting fluid, a tough and with a fine grained
ductile work material. Use of structure of both
insufficiently sharp tool matrix and hard
edges. phases

Towards better performance of HSS cutting

tools
Improving the HSS material
From the demonstrated mechanisms of wear of HSS cutting tools we can draw
the conclusion that hardness, heat resistance (hot hardness) and fracture
toughness both macroscopically and microscopically are the prerequisites of
high tool performance. Recent HSS development has focused on the
homogeneity and cleanliness of the HSS steel. Through the PM technology it is
possible to obtain a fine grained, homogeneous structure. However, the
authors think that it is possible to further improve the hardness/toughness
ration demonstrated in Fig. 2b. By further reducing the size of the matrix
grains and hard phase particles down to the nanometer range (applying nano-
technology) a further step is possible as illustrated by the general
hardness/toughness relation given in Fig. 16.

Fig. 16. Reducing the size of the microstructure constituents and improving
the cleanliness improves the hardness/toughness ratio.

Improving the surface integrity

Another means to further improve HSS tool performance is to improve the
surface finish, i.e. avoiding deterioration of the superficial HSS material by
excessive heat generation. The macroscopic strength and the resistance to
edge chipping of HSS materials (Fig. 14.c) is very sensitive to surface defects
generated by the surface preparation, see Fig. 17, and consequently the
surface of the cutting tool edge must be accurately prepared in order to avoid
premature failure. A smooth tool surface contributes to the resistance against
micro cracking and to avoid premature detachment of coatings as
demonstrated in Fig. 11.

Figure. 17 Four point bend strength of AP 2023 illustrating the influence of

surface condition on strength.

Conclusions

The most typical models of tool wear in metal cutting are the flank wear at the
front of edge of the tool and crater wear at the tool face.

Flank wear is caused by friction between the flank face (primary clearance
face) of the tool and the machined workpiece surface. At the tool flank-
workpiece surface contact area, tool particles adhere to the workpiece
surface and are periodically sheared off. Adhesion of the tool and workpiece
materials increases at higher temperatures. Abrasive wear occurs when hard
inclusions of work material or escaped tool particles scratch the flank and
workpiece surface as they move across the contact area. Although adhesive
and abrasive wear mechanisms are predominant in flank wear, some diffusion
wear also exists [1]. It is the dominating wear mode at low cutting speeds
(Thangaraj and Weinmann, 1992).

Crater wear occurs at the tool-chip contact area where the tool is subject to a
friction force of the moving chip under heavy loads and high temperatures.
At higher speeds, the temperature on the rake face of a carbide tool may
reach over 1,000°C. At these high temperatures, the atoms in the tool
continuously diffuse to the moving chip. The temperature is greatest near the
midpoint of the tool-chip contact length, where the greatest amount of crater
wear occurs due to intensive diffusion. As the crater wear approaches the
cutting edge, it weakens the wedge and causes chipping of the tool [1]. Crater
wear is caused primarily by the dissolution of tool material by diffusion or
solution wear since it occurs in the region of maximum temperature rise
(Subramanian, 1993). Crater wear is the formation of a groove or a crater on
the tool face, typically some 0.2 to 0.5 mm from the cutting edge, at the place
where the chip moves over the tool surface. Crater wear can be minimized by
selecting a tool material that has the least affinity to the workpiece material in
terms of diffusion.

Mapping of wear data for flank or crater wear of uncoated high-speed-steel

(HSS) cutting tools, during dry turning operations is presents by Lim (1993),
(Fig.18). The map for flank and crater wear for HSS tools can be useful
because shows that by suitable choice of cutting parameters a safety zone
with low wears can be reached.
Figure 18: The wear map of uncoated HSS cutting tools during dry turning
operations
References
1. Söderberg, S., Wear mechanisms and tool life of hhigh speed steels related
to microstructure, PhD Thesis of Uppsala University, Sweden, Acta
Universitatis Upsaliensis 1982

2. Söderberg, S., Jacobson S., Olsson, M., Wear Atlas of HSS Cutting Tools,
Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on Tribology (Eurotrib 89),
Helsinki, Finland, Finnish Society for Tribology, 1989

3. Trent, E.M., Metal Cutting. 3rd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heineman, 1991.

4. Alden Kendall, A., Friction and wear of cutting tools and cutting tool
materials, ASM Handbook, Vol. 18, 1992, pp 609-620

5. Holmberg, K., Matthews, A., Coatings tribology, Properties, techniques and

applications in Surface Engineering, Ed: D. Dowson, Elsevier 1994.

6. Alvelid, B., Wisell, H., Wear of HSS in orthogonal milling, Scand. J. of

Metallurgy 9 (1980) 59-67

7. Lim, S.C., Lee, S.H., Liu, Y.B., Seah, K.H.W., Wear maps for uncoated high-
speed steel cutting tools, Wear 170 (1993) 137-144.

8. Lim, C.Y.H., Lim, S.C., Lee, K.S., The performance of TiN-coated high speed
steel tool inserts in turning, Tribology International 32 (1999) 393-398

9. Hogmark, S. Jacobson, S., Larsson, M., Wiklund, U., Mechanical and

tribological requirements and evaluation of coating composites, In Modern
Tribology 2000. Ed. B. Bushan, Vol II, 931-959 CRC Press 2001

10.Le May, I., Principles of mechanical metallurgy, Elsevier 1981

11.Larsson, M., Olsson M., Hedenqvist, P., Hogmark, S., Mechanisms of coating
failure as demonstrated by scratch and indentation testing of TiN coated
HSS - On the influence of coating thickness, substrate hardness and surface
topography, Surface Engineering 16, 5 (2000) 436-444

12.Wiklund, U., Gunnars, J., Hogmark, S., Influence of residual stresses on

fracture and delamination of thin hard coatings, Wear 232 (1999) 262-269