The Sinusoidal Waveform

The Sinusoidal Waveform

Before starting this module, you should be able to: Define the terms voltage and current. Cite the units of measure for voltage and current.

When you complete this module, you should be able to: Describe the difference between DC and AC voltage and current. Describe the shape and main features of a sinusoidal waveform. Calculate the instantaneous value of a current or voltage sine waveform, given the maximum value and angular displacement.

DC Current vs. AC Current

Direct current (DC) flows in one direction the circuit. Alternating current (AC) flows first in one direction then in the opposite direction.

The same definitions apply to alternating voltage (AC voltage):

DC voltage has a fixed polarity. AC voltage switches polarity back and forth.

There are numerous sources of DC and AC current and voltage. However:

Sources of DC are commonly shown as a cell or battery:

Sources of AC are commonly shown as an AC generator:

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The Sinusoidal Waveform The Sinusoidal AC Waveform The most common AC waveform is a sine (or sinusoidal) waveform. The vertical axis represents the amplitude of the AC current or voltage, in amperes or volts. The horizontal axis represents the angular displacement of the waveform.

The units can be degrees or radians. The sine waveform is accurately represented by the sine function of plane trigonometry: y = r *sin where: y = the instantaneous amplitude r = the maximum amplitude = the horizontal displacement Instantaneous Current and Voltage i = Ipsin where i = instantaneous current in amperes Ip = the maximum, or peak, current in amperes = the angular displacement in degrees or radians

v = Vpsin where v = instantaneous voltage in volts Vp = the maximum, or peak, voltage in volts = the angular displacement in degrees or radians

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Amplitude of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Amplitude of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Before starting this module, you should be able to:

Sketch a sinusoidal waveform and point out the positive and negative phases. Describe how the time axis of a sinusoidal waveform is divided into degrees.

When you complete this module, you should be able to: Define the terms peak and peak-to-peak as they apply to sinusoidal waveforms. Convert between peak and peak-to-peak values. Describe the meaning of root-mean-square (RMS) as it applies to sinusoidal waveforms. Convert between RMS values and peak values. Describe the meaning of average values of a sinusoidal waveform. Convert between averages values and peak values. Describe how instantaneous values for voltage and current differ from peak, RMS, and averages values. Use values assigned to the formula for instantaneous voltage to sketch an accurate graph of the corresponding waveform.

Peak and Peak-to-Peak Voltage Peak and peak-to-peak values are most often used when measuring the amplitude of ac waveforms directly from an oscilloscope display. Peak voltage is the voltage measured from the baseline of an ac waveform to its maximum, or peak, level. Unit: Volts peak (Vp) Symbol: Vp For a typical sinusoidal waveform, the positive peak voltage is equal to the negative peak voltage. Peak voltages are expressed without a + or - sign. Peak-to-peak voltage is the voltage measured from the maximum positive level to the maximum negative level. Unit: Volts peak-to-peak (Vp-p) Symbol: Vp-p For a typical sinusoidal waveform, the peak-to-peak voltage is equal to 2 times the peak voltage. Peak-to-peak voltages are expressed without a + or - sign .

Convert Vp to Vp-p: Vp-p = 2 Vp

Convert Vp-p to Vp: Vp =0.5Vp-p

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Amplitude of a Sinusoidal Waveform EXAMPLE: 1) What is the peak-to-peak value of a sinusoidal waveform that has a peak value of 12 V? Ans: 24 Vp-p 2) What is the peak value of a sine wave that has a peak-to-peak value of 440 V? Ans: 220 Vp Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Voltage AC levels are assumed to be expressed as RMS values unless clearly specified otherwise.

RMS voltage is the amount of dc voltage that is required for producing the same amount of power as the ac waveform. Unit: Volts (V) Symbol: Vrms The RMS voltage of a sinusoidal waveform is equal to 0.707 times its peak value. Vrms = 0.707Vp In a dc circuit, applying 2 V to a 1 Ohm resistance produces 4 W of power. In an ac circuit, applying 2 Vrms to a 1 Ohm resistance produces 4 W of power. RMS voltages are expressed without a + or - sign. Convert Vp to Vrms: Vrms = 0.707Vp EXAMPLE: 1) Determine the RMS value of a waveform that measures 15 Vp. Ans: 10.6 V 2) Determine the peak value of 120 V. (Hint: Assume 120 V is in RMS) Ans: 170 Vp Average Voltage Convert Vrms to Vp : Vp =1.414Vrms

Average voltage is the average value of all the values for one half-cycle of the waveform. Unit: Volts average (Vave) Symbol: Vave The average voltage of a sinusoidal waveform is equal to 0.637 times its peak value. Vave = 0.637Vp The average voltage is determined from just one half-cycle of the waveform because the average value of a full cycle is zero. Average voltages are expressed without a + or - sign . Eng. Teach Travaglianti Armando 4

Amplitude of a Sinusoidal Waveform Convert Vp to Vave: Vave = 0.637Vp EXAMPLE: 1) Determine the average value of a waveform that measured 16 Vp. Ans: 10.2 Vave 2) What is the peak value of a waveform that has an average value of 22.4 V? Ans: 35.1 Vp Convert Vave to Vp: Vp =1.57Vave

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Frequency and Period

Frequency and Period of a Sinusoidal

Waveform Before starting this module, you should be able to:

Define the terms instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current. Use the formula for instantaneous sine voltage and current to sketch an accurate sinusoidal waveform.

When you complete this module, you should be able to: Define the period of a waveform. Cite the units of measure for the period of a waveform. Define the frequency of a waveform. Cite the units of measure for the frequency of a waveform. Convert between values for the period and frequency of a waveform.

Period of a Waveform

The period of a waveform is the time required for completing one full cycle. Math symbol: T Unit of measure: seconds (s) T = 1/f

One period occupies exactly 360 of a sine waveform. The usual units of measure are: seconds (s), milliseconds (ms), microseconds (ms).

Frequency of a Waveform

The frequency of a waveform is the number of cycles that is completed each second. Math symbol: f Unit of measure: hertz (Hz) f = 1/T This example shows four cycles per second, or a waveform that has a frequency of 4 Hz. The usual units of measure are: hertz (Hz), kilohertz (kHz) 103 Hz megahertz (MHz) . Eng. Teach Travaglianti Armando 6

Frequency and Period 106 Hz, gigahertz (GHz), 109 Hz Period to Frequency f = 1/T Frequency to Period T = 1/f EXAMPLE: 1) A certain sine waveform has a frequency of 100 Hz. What is the period of this waveform? Ans: 10 ms 2) What is the frequency of a waveform that has a period of 200 s? Ans: 5 kHz

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Phase Angle

Phase Angle
Before starting this module, you should be able to:o: Use the formula for instantaneous sine voltage and current to sketch an accurate sinusoidal waveform.

When you complete this module, you should be able to:

Describe the meaning of phase angle. Expand the formula for instantaneous sine voltage and current to include a phase angle, then apply the formula to sketch accurate sinusoidal waveforms. Define the terms leading and lagging as they apply to sinusoidal waveforms. Determine whether a given waveform is leading or lagging a reference waveform.

Phase Angle The phase angle of a waveform is angular difference between two waveforms of the same frequency. Math symbol: (theta) Unit of measure: degrees or radians Two waveforms are said to be in phase when they have the same frequency and there is no phase difference between them. Two waveforms are said to be out of phase when they have the same frequency and there is some amount of phase shift between them. Leading and Lagging Phase Angles A leading waveform is one that is ahead of a reference waveform of the same frequency.

In this example, the blue waveform is taken as the reference because it begins at 0 degrees on the horizontal axis. The red waveform is said to be leading because it is already at about 90 degrees when the reference waveform begins at 0 degrees.

A lagging waveform is one that is behind a reference waveform of the same frequency. In this example, the blue waveform is taken as the reference because it begins at 0 degrees on the horizontal axis. The red waveform is said to be lagging because it has not yet completed its cycle while the reference waveform is beginning a new one at 0 degrees.

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Phase Angle

Keeping straight whether one waveform is leading or lagging another is commonly a confusing point for students of AC electricity (and no small number of practicing technicians as well). So it pays to keep in mind whatever pictures or gimmicks that are required for helping you specify which of two out-of-phase waveforms is leading and which is lagging.

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Sinusoidal Power Waveform

Sinusoidal Power Waveforms

Before starting this module, you should be able to:

Use the formula for instantaneous sine voltage and current to sketch an accurate sinusoidal waveform. Cite the basic equations and units of measure for DC power.

When you complete this module, you should be able to:

Sketch voltage, current, and power sine waveforms on the same axis. Explain why the power waveform is always positive as long as current and voltage are in phase. Cite the fact that average power is equal to the product of RMS current and RMS voltage. AC Power Waveform

The current and voltage waveforms are shown in phase. This is typical for a resistive load. The shaded green areas represent the corresponding levels of power. The instantaneous value of power is equal to the instantaneous current times the instantaneous voltage.

p=ixv where: p = instantaneous value of power in watts i = instantaneous value of current in amperes v = instantaneous value of voltage in volts

A positive value of power indicates that the source is giving power to the load. A negative value of power would indicate that the circuit is returning power to the source (which will not happen in a resistor circuit).

The power waveform is always positive because the values of current and voltage always have the same sign--both negative or both positive. In algebra, this means that the product of the two values is always a positive value.

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Sinusoidal Power Waveform Average AC Power

When the current and voltage waveforms are in phase, the average power is equal to the RMS voltage times the RMS current: Pave = IRMS x VRMS

Conventional use allows us to write this equation more simply as: P = I x V It is then assumed that P is an average value and the other two terms are RMS values. It would seem more natural to say that the average power dissipation of a circuit is the product of the average values of current and voltage. But some simple math can show that it is not. Variations of the AC power equation include: P = I2R P = V2 / R

I = P/V V=P/I

DC Power
I V

R Vs

Vs

DC Power:

P = Vs x I ;

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