Bernoullis Principle S

Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782)

Understanding Bernoullis principle as it applies to aerodynamic lift

Paul G. Hewitt

everal physics teachers Ive recently spoken with say their understanding of Bernoullis principle is unclear, particularly when the principle is applied to aerodynamic lift. Some teachers favor using Newtons laws instead of Bernoullis principle to explain the physics behind lift. Some also consider Bernoullis principle too difficult to explain to students and avoid teaching it altogether. The following simplified treatment of the principle ignores most of the complexities of aerodynamics and hopefully will encourage teachers to bring Bernoulli back into the classroom.
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Understanding Bernoulli
Bernoullis principle states that when an incompressible, smoothly flowing fluid gains speed, internal pressure in the fluid decreases, and vice versa. Ignoring changes in temperature and density, and energy dissipated by friction, Bernoullis principle can be expressed in units of pressure, 1/2 v 2 + gy + p = constant, where is the density of the fluid, v its speed, y its elevation, and p its internal pressure. If y doesnt change, then an increase in v means a decrease in p, and vice versa. When v = 0 (the motionless condition referred to as hydrostatics), Bernoullis equation reduces to the familiar p = gy, which gives the increase in pressure with increasing depth in a motionless fluid. Bernoullis equation is derived for the smooth steady flow (laminar flow) of constant-density fluid. In practice it works well even when density undergoes small changes. For flow speeds too great, the flow may become turbulent and follow changing, curling paths (eddies). This exerts friction on the fluid and transforms some of its energy to thermal energy. Then, Bernoullis equation doesnt hold (although in practice it often works surprisingly well!). Fluid flow is best analyzed via streamlinesthe smooth paths, or trajectories, of fluid particles. Streamlines are visible when dyes or smoke are passed through evenly spaced openings, as in a wind tunnel. Because the flow is continuous, flow speed is greater where the flow is constricted, such as in a pipe when the crosssectional area is narrowed. Faster fluid flow in narrow regions is a consequence of the principle of continuity. Squeezing the end of a garden hose, for example, increases the speed of ejected water. Bernoullis equation applies to points on specific streamlines. Changes in velocity and pressure should properly be referenced along the same streamline (just as potential difference and gravitational potential energy need reference points). The velocity and pressure at a point on one streamline should not be compared with the velocity and pressure on another streamline, especially for unparallel streamlines.

Demonstrating pressure
Pressure changes can be illustrated with a Venturi tube. Pressure changes are also nicely evident in water that contains air bubbles because bubbles provide a visual pressure reference (Figure 1). The volume of a bubble depends on the surrounding water pressure. When water gains speed, pressure is lowered and the bubbles are bigger. In slower, higher-pressure water, bubbles are squeezed smaller. The decrease of fluid pressure with increasing speed may at first seem surprising to students, particularly if they fail to distinguish between the pressure within the moving fluid (inappropriately called static
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pressure ) and the pressure by the fluid on something that interferes with its flow (dynamic pressure). Many people miss this distinction. My science mentor 50 years ago, Jacque Fresco, a designer of novel aircraft, is one of a large group of accomplished people who overlook the distinction between static and dynamic pressure. He said that when he puts a vane in the path of swiftly flowing water, pressure on the vane increases with increasing water speed. How can pressure decrease when the experiment shows otherwise? When I was a physics student, I was similarly bothered. I had seen movie footage of people being knocked off their feet by high-speed water from fire hoses. How can we say pressure goes down as speed increases? Again, the pressure within the water must be distinguished from the pressure exerted by the water on whatever interrupts its flow. Jets of high-speed water are used to cut steel and have very little internal pressure. However, the stream exerts enormous pressure on the steel that halts it. When the momentum of moving water or anything else is suddenly reduced, the impulse exerted can be relatively huge. The pitot tubewhich sticks out in front of an airplanes nose or wing into the undisturbed airflow and is used for determining airplane speedillustrates these different pressures (Figure 2). Air coming to rest at the back of the tubes central duct produces dynamic pressure. Small holes along the side of the tube, perpendicular to the flowing air, measure atmospheric pressure. Even though the air may be rushing by these holes at hundreds of kilometers per hour, the pressure of the air is atmospheric (at the airplanes altitude). To see this, consider a streamline at the holes and the same streamline a long way in front of the plane. In both locations the speed of air relative to the plane is the same (when you measure speed and pressure elsewhere along the same streamline, then youre doing Bernoulli properly). If soap bubbles were in the air to indicate ambient air pressure, the bubbles would have the same size at both locationswhether seen at rest or whizzing by at high speed. Therefore, atmospheric pressure in front of the plane and at the holes is the same, which explains why a pitot tube is often called a static pressure tube. Quite importantly, high-speed air doesnt necessarily mean low-pressure air. Pressure differences are caused by changes in the speed of air or any fluid; if there are no changes in speed along a streamline, then there will be no differences in pressure.

Applying the principle

Classroom demonstrations of Bernoullis principle include hovering a beach ball in an air stream, blowing between a pair of air-filled balloons, and blowing across a sheet of paper. The teacher can ask students if anyone has noticed anything unusual about the soft top of a

FIGURE 1

Pressure changes are nicely evident in water that contains air bubbles.

FIGURE 2

The pitot tube illustrates different pressures.

Vair

Uh Mercury

FIGURE 3

Wind blowing over a peaked roof illustrates Bernoullis principle.

convertible car in motion. The top puffs upanother demonstration of Bernoullis principle. A puzzler for many teachers, however, is aerodynamic lift. Some controversy exists as to whether lift is best explained by Bernoullis principle or by Newtons laws (Smith 1972). I submit that in most cases Bernoulli is the key. Just as we ignore forces when applying momentum conservation to collisions, we can do the same with Bernoullis principleknowledge of pressure differences is all we need.

Wind blowing over a peaked roof is a good example to start with (Figure 3). Air pressure inside the house may be the same as in the wind well removed from the house. Again, fast moving air does not necessarily mean low-pressure air. But above the roof, the flow of air is constrained in a way similar to air passing through a narrowed pipe. This is indicated by the crowded streamlines above the peaked roof. Curvature of the streamlines and their closeness indicate that pressure at that point is reduced. The pressure difference on the roof due to inside and outside air does not need to be very much because a small average pressure difference over a large roof area can produce a formidable upward force. In short, the roof experiences lift. The blown-off roof can be viewed as similar to an airplane wing. In both cases a greater pressure below pushes the roof and wing into a region of lesser pressure above. Wings come in a variety of designs. What they all have in common is that air is made to flow faster over the top surface than the bottom surface. A common misconception is that air flows faster over the top because of a longer path along the top than underneath (air molecules on top move faster to keep up with molecules flowing below). But molecular motion is randomeven molecules in air at rest dont stay close to one another, and theres no reason for molecules to keep up with one another while flowing over and under a wing. Air does flow faster over the top of a wing experiencing lift, but not because it resists shearing from the air below. The air flows faster because of continuity (for much the same reason air flows faster in a narrowed pipe or any other constricted region). Most often, but not always, different speeds of airflow over and beneath a wing are accomplished by a difference in the curvatures (camber) of the upper and lower surfaces of the wing and an upward tilt (the angle of attack ). The result is more crowded streamlines along the top wing surface (Figure 4, p. 54). When the average pressure difference over the wing is multiplied by the surface area of the wing, a net upward force is attainedthe vertical component being lift (or more correctly, the component of force perpendicular to the direction of flight). Lift is greater when the plane has a large wing area and is traveling fast. A glider does not have to travel fast due to a very large wing area relative to its weight. At the other extreme, a fighter plane designed for high speed has a small wing area relative to its weight. Consequently, it must take off and land at high speeds. Interestingly, wings without camber provide lift. Balsa-wood model planes, for example, have flat wings. The slot that holds the wing is cut at a small angle to give it an angle of attack. Airflow above and
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FIGURE 4

Closer streamlines above the wing's top surface indicate reduced pressure. Differences in pressure between the bottom and top wing surfaces produce an upward forcewith components of lift and drag.

Demonstrating Bernoullis principle in the classroom.

Soft drink cans.
Begin by suspending a pair of soft drink cans from strings so that approximately a centimeter of space exists between the cans. Students then blow between the cans. Their breath increases in speed as it moves between the cans, reducing pressure there. The cans will then click together as Bernoullis principle predicts. The cans can also be placed on a few parallel straws on a tabletop. When students blow between the cans, the cans roll together and click, once again demonstrating Bernoullis principle.

Lift

Table tennis.
Drag Students begin this activity by lining a cardboard tube with sandpaper. Next, students make a prediction about what will happen when they sling a table tennis ball from the tube sidearm, and whether they can reproduce their results or improve their launcher. The sandpaper will produce friction that will make the ball skid down the tube and emerge spinning. Students will observe that the ball breaks from a straight-line path (streamlines around a spinning ball are asymmetric and produce curving of the ball). This is the reason that table tennis paddles have a rough surfaceso that the ball spins when it is properly struck.

FIGURE 5

Very little downward deflection of streamlines is shown in this typical wind-tunnel photo.

below the wing is similar to that of the cambered winggreater pressure below and less on top. Years ago I did a lot of painting, mainly on Masonite board rather than on canvas. Masonite board is sold in 4 8 ft. slabs. I remember buying a slab and putting it on the roof of my car. The salesperson was concerned that I refused his offer to tie it down. Nope, I said, were less than a mile away so save the ropemy wife and I will hold it down by hand. What a surprise to find that the drooped board made an airfoil, which allowed a top
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speed of 25 kph. Any greater speed would rip the board from our grip. This experience added to my understanding that airliners weighing many tons can fly. Their wings have more surface area and they go considerably faster than 25 kph! Early in my teaching career I put a lot of effort into trying to explain aerodynamic lift in terms of billiardball physics, via differences in molecular impacts on the top and bottom surfaces of wings. All I achieved was a sense of futility, especially when experiments showed that molecules flowing past the wing surface dont make direct impact on the surface anyway. Impact is instead on thin boundary layers of air that are carried with the winglayers with circulation patterns of their own that can greatly alter the effective airfoil shape. I ended my quest for a molecular-collision model when a friend showed me dust on the surface of whirling fan blades. A small wonder that aerodynamicists investigate parcels of air rather than molecules. Ive since been resigned to hydrodynamics being too complex for a billiard-ball physics explanation. Some physicists attribute aerodynamic lift to only Newtons laws, maintaining that lift occurs because air is

constantly being pushed downward. Bernoulli is seen as superfluous, and lift is seen as the result of downward deflected air (Waltham 1998; Swartz 1999). By whatever means, if air produces an upward force on a wing, the wing produces a downward force on the airno exceptions! But if other forces act on the air, it may not acquire downward momentum. Where, for example, is the downward momentum of air inside the blown-off peaked roof in a hurricane or inside the convertible car with the puffed-up top? Interior air is unaccelerated as the roof pushes down on it and the floor pushes up. Downward reaction force on the interior air contributes to its atmospheric pressurenot to any downward momentum. The interior air goes nowhere. Advocates of non-Bernoullian lift might say that air behind the peaked roof or convertible top is swept downward. But that air isnt whats pushing up on the roof or top. The air in the interior does that. Neither Newton nor the impulse-momentum theorem explains lift for the roof or car top. Pressure difference does, however, and thats what Bernoullis principle is all about. When wind blows against a wall and bounces from the wall, the force on the wall isnt affected by what happens to the wind after it bounces. A golf player may exert more force on a ball when he or she follows through on their swing. However, after the ball leaves the club, subsequent swing motion doesnt affect the ball. Similarly, when air interacts with a wing, what happens to the air after the interaction doesnt affect lift. Whether the air is downwashed or rides on the cushion of air below, after interaction, lift is no longer affected. When one blows horizontally across the curved top of a sheet of paper, air pressure there is reduced. The paper is pushed upward by the atmospheric pressure below. Whereas the bottom of an aircraft wing can push oncoming air downward, the sheet of paper canFIGURE 6

not. Any downward push on low-pressure air crossing over the top of the paper is by the weight of some 30 km of air above. Likewise for blown-off roofs, convertible cars, and airplane wings. Very little downward deflection of streamlines is shown in the typical wind-tunnel photo shown in Figure 5. The more crowded streamlines above the airfoil and wider-spaced ones below indicate differences in pressure that produce lift. Even with no downwash at all, if the average pressure difference on the wing multiplied by the wing area equals the weight of the craft, lift is sufficient for flight. If air careens off the bottom producing downwash, then even greater pressure is exerted on the lower surface of the wing, producing a greater upward force. There are situations, however, where lift is better explained by Newton. Consider, for example, the upward motion of a piece of plywood held at an angle when a stream of water from a fire hose is deflected off it. The lift force should be very close to the rate of change of momentum of the deflected stream, with no other significant force deflecting the stream other than that provided by the slab of wood. Invoking Bernoullis principle would be comparing water pressure on the bottom of the slab to nonexistent water pressure on the top. Is the little girl with the broken umbrella in Figure 6 correct? Or should she credit Isaac Newton for her misfortune? And when students are asked if birds were able to fly before the time of Daniel Bernoulli, should teachers further ask if birds could fly before the time of Isaac Newton? The next time youre in an airplane marveling at the wonder of such an auditorium in flight, make a toast to Daniel Bernoulli. Go ahead and make a secondary toast to Newton if you wish. Unless youre in a helicopter, which is when youd want to make your primary toast to Isaac Newton. Nevertheless, dont be hesitant to teach Bernoullis principle in the classroomits definitely worth exploring. n

Is the little girl in this picture correct? Or should she credit Isaac Newton for her misfortune?

Paul G. Hewitt is Professor Emeritus at the City College of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94112; e-mail: pghewitt@aol.com.
Acknowledgments
This article is the outgrowth of wonderful discussions with friends Paul Doherty, Marshall Ellenstein, Ken Ford, and Walter Steiger.

References
Smith, N.F. 1972. Bernoulli and Newton in fluid dynamics. The Physics Teacher 10:451455. Swartz, C. 1999. Quibbles, misunderstandings, and egregious mistakes. The Physics Teacher 37:297305. Waltham, C. 1998. Flight without Bernoulli. The Physics Teacher 36:457462.

COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR

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