1 Generalized equations.......................................................................................................

2
1.1 Continuity equation.......................................................................................................................................2 1.2 Momentum equation.....................................................................................................................................2 1.3 Energy equation...........................................................................................................................................3 1.4 Isentropic Condition......................................................................................................................................3

Table of contents

2 Gas Dynamics and Nozzle.................................................................................................4

2.1 Speed of sound and mach number..............................................................................................................4 2.2 One-Dimensional flow..................................................................................................................................5 2.2.1 Energy equation....................................................................................................................................5 2.2.2 Sonic Properties....................................................................................................................................6 2.2.3 General 1-D flow equations...................................................................................................................6 2.2.4 Critical pressure ratio............................................................................................................................9 2.2.5 Effect of friction...................................................................................................................................10 2.2.6 Normal Shock Waves..........................................................................................................................12 2.2.7 Diffuser................................................................................................................................................13 2.3 Nozzle........................................................................................................................................................14 2.3.1 Flow of steam through nozzle.............................................................................................................14 2.3.2 Condition of maximum discharge........................................................................................................15 2.3.3 Supersaturated flow and effect of friction............................................................................................15

Gas Dynamics Nozzles

March 2013

1
1.1 Continuity equation

Generalized equations

The time rate of change of the mass contained in the volume V is equal to the (negative) value of the mass flux across the surface. Mass flux is density x velocity. =u.dS

(steady one-dimensional flow)

Where, is mass flow rate is density dS is small change in area V is volume u is velocity Bold represents vector

1.2 Momentum equation

The time rate of change of the fluid momentum in volume V equals the surface integral of the momentum flux due to fluid flow across S, plus the effect of the pressure P acting on the fluid across the surface S, plus the contribution of external forces (e.g. gravity) acting on every point of V (causing an acceleration a)

(steady one-dimensional flow)

1.3 Energy equation

The time rate of change of the total fluid energy (kinetic energy of fluid motion plus internal energy, where e denotes the specific internal energy) equals the surface integral of the energy flux (kinetic + internal), plus the surface integral of the work done by the pressure plus the volume integral of the work done by external forces (e.g. gravitation):

is rate of heat added per unit mass e is internal energy (steady one-dimensional flow)

1.4 Isentropic Condition

Flow which is adiabatic, nonviscous, nonconducting and is in equilibrium condition is isentropic.

s=constant Where, s=entropy h=enthalpy The equilibrium condition cannot be attained in reality as flow is adjusting itself everytime to new condition. And the rate of adjustment depends on gradient in the flow.

Gas Dynamics and Nozzle

2.1 Speed of sound and mach number

Sound waves travel through the air at a velocity that is related to mean molecular velocity of air, as molecular collisions cause sound waves to propagate. Sound waves are weak waves. Lets assume that velocity of sound is a through the air. Because there is continuous change in the flow properties, the flow behind has different velocity. However the change is very small, therefore change in velocity be da.

Applying continuity equation, For 1-D flow,

Applying momentum equation,

Change is isentropic, the fundamental equation for speed of sound:

Speed of sound in standard sea level is 340.9m/s. Mach number (M)=flow velocity/ speed of sound. Classification of different flow(in mach number) M<1 its subsonic flow M=1 its sonic flow M>1 its supersonic flow In supersonic flow the due to large pressure difference, shock waves are produced, which spread backwards and outwards of an aircraft forming a cone called mach cone. Mach number is proportional to the ratio of kinetic energy and internal energy:

It is measure of directed motion compared to the thermal motion generated in molecules. Stagnation conditions are those that do or would exist if the flow at any point in a fluid stream was isentropically brought to rest. When the velocity of fluid element is u=0, the pressure and temperature is total pressure p0 and total temperature T0. The actual p and T are called static pressure and static temperature. Stagnation speed of sound Stagnation density Stagnation enthalpy

2.2 One-Dimensional flow

2.2.1
If no heat addition,

Energy equation

By above equation we can find the u2 required, for sonic cases. Stagnation condition, and fluid is isentropically brought to rest(isentropic flow implies reversible and adiabatic condition) u2=0 so,

By substituting the ratio of pressure and density, could be found. Mach number for calorically perfect ideal gas is

2.2.2

Sonic Properties

Let *" denote a property at the sonic state M2=1

2.2.3

General 1-D flow equations

Flow with area change is illustrated by the following sketch of a control volume:

For this problem adopt the following conventions >surface 1 and 2 are open and allow fluxes of mass, momentum, and energy >surface w is a closed wall; no mass flux through the wall >external heat flux qw (Energy/Area/Time: Wm2 ) through the wall allowed-qw known fixed parameter >diffusive, longitudinal heat transfer ignored, qx = 0 >wall shear (Force/Area: Nm2 ) allowed{ known, fixed parameter >diffusive viscous stress not allowed =0 >cross-sectional area a known fixed function: A(x) The amount of mass in a control volume after a time increment t is equal to the original amount of mass plus that which came in, minus that which left. Using continuity equation:

For steady state case:

By momentum conservation equation:

Steady state case By energy conservation equation:

Steady state case

Effect of area change In the isentropic limit the mass, momentum, and energy equation:

Now, substituting energy and mass equation into momentum we get,

It is noted that >equation singular when M2 = 1 >if M2 = 1, one needs dA = 0 >area minimum necessary to transition from subsonic to supersonic flow!! >can be shown area maximum not relevant.

Consider A at a sonic state. From the mass equation:

Substituting to the earlier equations, we get

Note: > has a minimum value of 1 at M = 1 > 1, there exist two values of M as M 0 or M .

>For each >

2.2.4

Critical pressure ratio

The pressure at which area is minimum while the discharge per unit are is maximum is called critical pressure.

Infinite Reservoir

P0 , v0 , T0 , V0

P 1 , v1 , T 1 , V1

The critical pressure ratio is the value of

P1 / P0
k

below which no further increase of Cp / CV=k

will occur.

Pv = C .
Our problem is now to find

r=

P1 P0

for which

&= m

AV1 v1
1

is maximum.
1

P k 1 k v1 = v o o = v o r P1
uo + Povo +
Where, =volume V=velocity u=internal energy Let Vo
2 1

Vo2 V12 = u1 + Pv + 1 1 2 2

=0

V = uo u1 + Po vo Pv 1 1 2 Noting that uo u1 is equivalent to isentropic work:

V12 P0 v0 Pv k kP Pv 1 1 0v 0 1 1 = + P0 v0 Pv ( P0 v0 Pv 1 1 1 = 1 1) = 2 k 1 k 1 k 1 P 0 v 0

but,

v1 P0 k = v0 P 1

and

P r= 1 P0

; therefore,

k 1 V12 k = Po v0 1 r k 2 k 1
k 1 k

2k V1 = P0 vo 1 r k 1

&= m

2 k +1 2 k+ 1 AV1 2 k P0 k k k k =A r r = A const r r v1 k 1 vo 1

k +1 +1 1 2 2 2 21 k + 1 k k & m = ( const ) r k r k r k r =0 r k k

2r

2 k k

( k + 1) r k = 0
1

2 ( k + 1)

rk r
2k k

=0

2 ( k + 1) r
r

k 1 k

k 1 k

= 0 ; and, finally: 2 = k +1
k

2 k 1 rcr = k + 1

rrc = 0.527 For superheated steam k 1.28; rcr = 0.546 For dry, saturated steam k 1135 ; rcr 0.577 .
For air k=1.41;

2.2.5

Effect of friction

In real life, all fluids are viscous, and this leads to friction between the walls of duct and the fluid causing changes in the properties of flow along the duct. Frictional forces are considered as shear stress at the wall acting on the fluid. Shear stress varies with distance x along the duct. Compressible adiabatic flow in constant area duct with frictional effect is called fanno flow. Using momentum equation with shear stress included. Let the duct be cylinder with diameter D and length L. So the momentum balance equation in control volume for small portion of duct in steady flow: Here, C is perimeter and V is velocity of flow in duct and A is area. Now consider mass conservation equation: Hence momentum eq result can be expressed as: Heat transfer through the duct wall is negligible(adiabatic), energy equation is:

Equation of state gives:

Combining all above equations:

Using Above equation can be written as:

Since the wall shear stress , the velocity and the mach number are always positive, the above equation indicates that dM depends on sign of (1-M2). This equation states that if M<1 friction causes the mach number to increase while if the M>1 friction cause mach number to decrease. Viscosity, therefore always causes mach number to tend towards one. Once the M=1 is attained, changes in downstream condition cannot effect the upstream condition, it follows that choking can occur due to friction. In general Here Re is reynold number and is wall roughness. Above equation can also be written as:

Could also be written in entropy equation:

These equations show that if M is less than 1, dT and dp are negative while if M is greater than 1, dT and dp are positive. The entropy, however always increases. The maximum entropy point on the Fanno line is the point at which the mach number is 1. Now integrating and solving for M along the duct between two points distance L, f is assumed to be constant:

Setting M2=1 then gives:

The equation for pressure and temperature variation could be similarly integrated:

From the above equation it follows that:

2.2.6

Normal Shock Waves

Where there are supersonic flows, there are usually also shock waves. A fundamental type of shock wave
is the normal shock wave the shock wave normal to the flow direction. The extremely thin region in which the transition from the supersonic velocity, relatively low pressure state to the state that involves a relatively low velocity and high pressure is termed a shock wave. In the case of a normal shock wave, the velocities both ahead (i.e. upstream) of the shock and after (i.e., downstream) of the shock are at right angles to the shock wave. STATIONARY NORMAL SHOCK WAVES: Attention will first be given to the changes that occur though a stationary normal shock wave. In order to analyze the flow though a stationary normal shock wave, consider a control volume. This control volume has a cross sectional area of A normal to the flow direction. The shock wave relations are obtained by applying the laws of conservation of mass, momentum, and energy to this control volume. Conservation of mass gives: Next consider conservation of momentum. Since the only forces acting on the control volume in the flow direction are the pressure forces, Now rearranging the above eq and adding the two equation gives:

Because one-dimensional flow is being considered there are no changes in the flow properties in any direction that is normal to that of the flow and, because the upstream and downstream faces of the control volume lie upstream and downstream of the shock wave, there are no temperature gradients normal to any face of the control volume. The flow through the control volume is, therefore, adiabatic and the energy equation, therefore, gives:

The stagnation temperature therefore does not change across the shock.

The above three equations give the density, velocity and temperature ratios, across a normal shock wave in terms of the pressure ratio, across the shock wave. The pressure ratio, is often termed the strength of the shock wave. This set of equations is often termed the Rankine-Hugoniot normal shock wave relations. While the application of conservation of mass, momentum and energy principles shows that a shock wave can exist, it does not indicate whether the shock can be either compressive (i.e., p2 /p1 > 1 ) or expansive (i.e., p2 / p1 < 1 ). To examine this, the second law of thermodynamics must be used.

Now, the second law of thermodynamics requires that for an adiabatic process the entropy must remain unchanged or must increase, it is found that this will only occur if:

It therefore follows that the shock wave must always be compressive, i.e., that p2 / p1 must be greater than 1, i.e., the pressure must always increase across the shock wave. Using the equations for the changes across a normal shock then shows that that the density always increases, the velocity always decreases and the temperature always increases across a shock wave. The entropy increase across the shock is, basically, the result of the fact that, because the shock wave is very thin, the gradients of velocity and temperature in the shock are very high. As a result, the effects of viscosity and heat conduction are important within the shock leading to the entropy increase across the shock wave. Because the flow across a shock is adiabatic, the stagnation temperature does not change across a shock wave. However, because of the entropy increase across a shock, the stagnation pressure always decreases across a shock wave. While the relations derived in the previous section for the changes across a normal shock in terms of the pressure ratio across the shock, i.e., in terms of the shock strength, are the most useful form of the normal shock wave relations for some purposes, it is often more convenient to have these relations in terms of the upstream Mach number M1 . To obtain these forms of the normal shock wave relations, it is convenient to start again with a control volume across the shock wave and to again apply conservation of mass, momentum and energy to this control volume but in this case to rearrange the resulting relations in terms of Mach number. Considering mass conservation we get:

Considering momentum conservation we get:

Considering energy conservation we get:

Combining the above equations we get:

By second law of thermodynamics, results show that It, therefore, follows that the Mach number ahead of a shock wave must always be greater than 1 and that the shock wave must, therefore, as discussed before, always be compressive, i.e., the pressure must always increase across the shock wave.

2.2.7

Diffuser

Diffuser is used to slow the flow with smallest possible loss of total pressure. Ideal diffuser would compress the flow isentropically, hence no loss of total pressure.

2.3 Nozzle
2.3.1 Flow of steam through nozzle

Steam flow through nozzle is adiabatic and no external work is done during the flow, therefore heat transfer and work both are zero. Applying the energy equation, velocity of steam at the exit of nozzle:

Velocity of steam entering the nozzle is very small, so could be neglected. The isentropic flow of steam through the nozzle may be represented by an equation:

Where =1.135 for saturated steam and 1.3 for superheated steam. Work done during expansion is , its equal to the change of internal energy.

Net work done for increasing kinetic energy of steam:

V=specific volume of steam and u=velocity of steam and H is enthalpy. Solving the above equation we get,

2.3.2

Condition of maximum discharge

The mass flow rate per unit area is maximum at the throat due to minimum area at throat. This is the condition of maximum discharge. Discharge of nozzle is function of only.

Thus m/A is maximum when

is minimum.

Differentiating above equation for maximum discharge with respect to pressure ratio will give:

Now using the above value in the maximum discharge condition we get value of maximum discharge:

2.3.3

Supersaturated flow and effect of friction

Due to expansion of superheated steam inside nozzle, the change of phase should start at a particular pressure. But condensation does not occur as there is very limited time due to high velocity of steam. Thus this phenomenon is delayed and vapour continues to expand and is said to be superheated. This type of flow is superheated flow. The density of superheated steam exceeds that of equilibrium condition which in turn increases the mass of steam discharge. It also increases the specific volume and entropy while reduces exit velocity.

Effect of friction in a nozzle >It reduces the enthalpy, and therefore effects velocity. >energy lost in friction is transformed as heat and makes the steam superheated, effecting the final condition of steam.

coefficient of friction