9.1..

SULPHURIC ACID
9.1.1 Uses of sulphuric acid
A molecule of sulphuric acid

1. Sulphuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals. About 140 million tonnes are manufactured in the world every year. 2. It is used in most industries ranging from agriculture fertilisers to paints, soap and the cleaning of rust.

making fertilisers paints chemicals detergents removing rust from steel other uses

Uses of sulphuric acid, H SO

3. The main use of sulphuric acid is in producing fertilisers, particularly superphosphate and ammonium sulphate. a) Superphosphate fertiliser : It is manufactured from the reaction between sulphuric acid and calcium phosphate. 2H SO (1) + CA(PO)(s) Ca(HPO)(1) + 2CaSO(s) b) Ammonia sulphute fertiliser : It si manufactured by the reaction between sulphuric acid and ammonia. 2NH(aq) + HSO(aq) (NH)SO(aq) c) Potassium sulphate : It is manufactured by the neutralisation of sulphuric acid and potassium hydroxide. 2KOH(aq) + HSO(aq) KSO(aq) + 2HO(1) 4. Initially, sulphonic acid is produced by the reaction between sulphuric acid and hydrocarbon compound.

5. Sulphonic acid then reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium alkyl sulphonate, which is a detergent. 6. Accumulators need an electrolyte to carry charges and to react with the positive and negative plates during the charging and discharging processes. 7. In the acid accumulator, sulphuric acid acts as the electrolyte.

Table 9.1 Uses of sulphuric acid in the laboratory

Uses of Sulphuric acid Drying agent Example Concentrated sulphuric acid is generally used to dry gas in the laboratory. However it is not suitable to dry alkaline gases such as ammonia. Concentrated sulphuric oxidises copper to form copper( ) sulphate. 2HSO(1) + Cu(s) CuSO(aq) + 2HO(1) + SO (g) However dilute sulphuric acid does not react with copper. When concentrated sulphuric acid is added to sugar, a violent reaction accurs. The water content in the sugar is extracted by the acid and the sugar becomes carbon. It reacts with the salt of the weak acid such as sodium ethanoate to form a weak acid. 2CHCOONa(s) + HSO(1) 2CHCOOH(aq) + NaSO(aq)

Oxidising agent

Dehydrating agent

Strong acid

9.1.2 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid

1. Today, sulphuric acid is made from sulphur dioxide, by the Contact Process. There are three stages for the production of sulphuric acid by the Contact Process.

Stage 1 a. In the furnace, sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide. S(1) + O(g) SO(g) b. In the Contact Process, sulphur powder is sprayed inside a furnace at a temperature of 100C. Here sulphur is converted to sulphur dioxide. c. Sulphur dioxide can also be produced by heating metal sulphides such as zine sulphide. Stage 2 (Preparation of sulphur trioxide) a. Sulphur dioxide and air are passed over a catalyst called vanadium(V) oxide, (VO). b. he temperature used here is a out (450 500)C. If the temperature is less than this range, the vanadium(V) oxide may not be able to catalyse. c. The reacting pressure is about 2 to 3 atmospheres. d. At this stage, sulphur trioxide is produced. 2SO(g) + O(g) 2SO(g) e. This reaction will produce about 98% sulphur trioxide. Stage 3 (Formation of sulphuric acid) a. The sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a product called oleum, HSO. his is carried out until the concentrated sulphuric acid has reached a concentration of 99.5%. SO(g) + HSO(1) b. The product, oleum will not show any property of an acid. This is because, oleum will not ionise without the presence of water. c. Water is then added to the oleum to produce concentrated sulphuric acid. HSO(1) + HO(1) 2HSO(1) d. The reaction of (a) and (b) is equivalent to dissolving sulphur trioxide in water.
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SO(g) + HO(1) HSO(aq) e. However this reaction is not carried out in industry. This is because the reaction is too vigorous. f. It produces a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist. This mist is corrosive and pollutes the air.

Contact Process
Sulphur
Burnt in air

Sulphur dioxide SO
Further oxidation Catalyst: VO emperature: (450 500) C Pressure: 1 atm

Sulphur trioxide SO
Dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid, HSO

Oleum HSO
Dilute with water

Concentrated sulphuric acid, HSO

9.1.3 Sulphur Dioxide and Environmental Pollution

1. Sulphur dioxide is the main by product produced when sulphur-containing fuels such as coal or oil are burned. 2. Sulphuric acid is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulphur dioxide in the presence of water . It also produces sulphurous acid. 3. Sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid are constituents of acid rain. 4. Acid rain can cause many effects such as: I. Corrodes concrete buildings and metal structure. II. Destroys trees and plants. III. Decrease the pH of the soil and make it become acidic. IV. Acid rain flows into the rivers and increases the acidity of water and kill aquatic living things. 5. Hence, we must reduce the sulphur dioxide from the atmosphere by: I. Use low sulphur fuels to reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide in exhaust gases. II. Remove sulphur dioxide from waste air by treating it with calcium carbonated before it is released.

Acid rain and environmental pollution

9.2..AMMONIA AND ITS SALTS

9.2.1 USES OF AMMONIA
1. Ammonia that is produce commercially has many uses. A molecule of ammonia 2. It uses: I. In the manufacture of chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonia nitric, ammonia phosphate and urea. II. To manufacture nitric acid and explosive. III. In the making of synthetic fibre and nylon. IV. As a degreasing agent in aqueous form to remove greasy stains in the kitchen.

9.2.2 PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS

1. The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following: I. It colourless and has a pungent gas. II. It is highly soluble in water and form a weak alkaline solution. NH(g) + HO(1) NHOH(aq) III. It less dense than air. IV. It easily liquefied (at about 35.5C) when cool. V. Ammonia melts at -77.7C and oils at -33.35C. VI. Its density is 0.68 (at its boiling point and at 1 atmosphere of pressure) 2. The chemical properties of ammonia gas: I. Ammonia dissolves into water to give an alkaline solution with a pH value of 9-10. II. Its turns moist red litmus paper to blue. III. Ammonia is an alkali. It will neutralise acids to make ammonium salts. NH(g) + HSO(aq) (NH)SO(aq) Ammonia sulphuric acid ammonium sulphate NH(g) + HNO(aq) NHNO(aq) Ammonia + nitric acid ammonium nitrate
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IV.

Gaseous ammonia reacts with gaseous hydrogen chloride to form white fumes of ammonium chloride. NH(g) + HCI(g) NHCI(s) Ammonia + hydrogen ammonium chloride chloride When ammonia chloride heated, it changes back into ammonia and hydrogen chloride. Ammonia dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide. Ammonium hydroxide, NHOH, is strongly asic. It has similar chemical properties as compared to other hydroxides of alkali metals. Ammonia reacts with metallic ions (except Na, K and Ca)to form metallic hydroxides.

V. VI.

VII.

9.2.3 MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY (Haber Process)

1. Ammonia is made by synthesis through Haber Process. 2. Nitrogen and hydrogen are combined directly together to form ammonia. 3. To supply the Haber Process, a) Nitrogen gas can be distilled from liquid air. b) Hydrogen is produced by electrolysing brine (sea water) 4. Nitrogen and hydrogen can also be obtained from natural gas (methane). 5. The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst under controlled optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas. I. Temperature: 450-500C II. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres III. Catalyst used: Iron fillings 6. Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into ammonia gas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over the catalyst again in the reactor chamber. 7. The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it condenses into a liquid in the cooling chamber.

The manufacture of ammonia, NH3 through the Haber Process 1) Gases mixed and scrubbed
Haber process com ines N gas from the air with H gas from natural gas to form NH. The two gases are mixed. The mixture is scrubbed to get rid of impurities.

2) Compressor
One volume of N gas and three volume of H gas is compressed to a pressure of 200 500atm N(g) + 3H(g) 2NH(g)

3) Converter
Then, it goes to the converter. It is then passed through layers of iron catalyst with aluminium oxide as a promoter at a temperature of 450C 500C

4) Cooler
A mixture of three gases leaves the converter. It is cooled until the ammonia condenses. The nitrogen and hydrogen are pumped back to the converter for another chance to react.

5) storage tanks
NH is formed and then liquefy and separated to get a better yield. he NH is run into tanks and stored as a liquid under pressure.

Making Ammonia in School Laboratory

1. Ammonia can be produced in the laboratory by warming an ammonium salt with an alkali. 2. Example: heating ammonium chloride with sodium hydroxide NHCI(s) + NaOH(aq) NaCI(aq) + NH(g) + HO(I) 3. In the laboratory, a mixture of solid ammonium chloride and dry calcum hydroxide is heated. 4. The damp ammonia gas prepared in the laboratory can be dried by passing it through calcium oxide. 5. Other drying agent agents such as concentrated sulphuric acid and anhydrous calcium chloride cannot be used. They react with ammonia. 2NH + HSO (NH)SO 4NH + CaCI CaCI.4NH

FLOW CHART FOR THE HABER PROCESS H N

450 - 500C

Refrigeration NH

AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS
1. Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which are necessary for growth and cell repair. 2. Most plant are not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air although it is abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds from soil through their roots. 3. The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and ammonia salt which are manufacture as chemical fertilizer.
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4. Reactions of ammonia with acids produce ammonium fertilizers.

9.3..ALLOYS
9.3.1 Meaning of Alloy
1. Alloys are materials that contain more than one element. 2. Usually, alloys are mixtures of metallic elements two or more metals. 3. Pure aluminium is light but not strong enough to make aeroplane bodies. If a small amount of manganese and magnesium are added then an alloy duralumin is formed this alloy is hard and strong for aeroplane frames. 4. Thus an alloy is a mixture of metals are made for a certain purpose.

9.3.2 Arrangement of Atoms in Metals

1. In pure metals, the atoms are all of the same size. 2. They are arranged in layers as shown in the figure below.

3. When the pure metals are hit with a hammer, the layers of atoms can slide over each other easily. 4. Thus, pure metal can easily change its shape. They are said to be Ductile as they can be drawn into long wires Malleable as they can be hammered to form any shapes.

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9.3.3 Arrangement of Atoms in Alloys

1. Alloys have more than one kind of atoms. These different atoms are of different sizes. They are mixed when they are in the molten state (liquid). 2. The layers of atoms in an alloy cannot slide over each other as easily as shown in the figure below. 3. The movement of atoms get jammed up. This makes tem difficult to move. 4. This makes the alloy not ductile and not malleable. 5. However, alloys are harder and stronger than the original constituent metals. 6. There are different ways of arranging the different atoms in alloys. Solution alloys are homogeneous alloys in which the different atoms are distributed uniformly throughout. In heterogeneous alloys, the different atoms are not distributed uniformly. 7. Homogeneous alloys have definite properties and compositions.

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9.3.4 Aim of Producing Alloys

1. The basic aim of making alloys is to modify the properties of the pure metal elements. Sometimes this is necessary to make ornaments. 2. Pure gold is too soft to be used in jewellery. However, an alloy of copper and gold is quite hard for this purpose. 3. To prevent or minimise corrosion Iron is easily corroded especially in polluted, acidic and damp industrial areas. An iron alloy will be less likely to rust if carbon, nickel, or chromium is added to it. Stainless steel is an alloy of iron. It will not rust even under extreme conditions. The presence of chromium in it, will form chromium (III) oxide. The presence of nickel in it will form nickel (I ) oxide. The presence of layers of these oxides will prevent corrosion and oxidation. 4. To improve the physical appearance Fresh metal surfaces are usually shinning. These shinning surfaces are usually tarnished if they are coated with a layer of oxides. Alloys are not easily oxidised. This is because the oxide layers are not easily formed. Thus, surfaces of alloys will remain shinning for a longer time. Stainless steel utensils are more shinning then iron utensils.

9.3.5 Composition, properties and uses of alloys

1. Like metals, all alloys are conductors of Heat and Electricity 2. Like metals too, all alloys have shinning surfaces. They have a lustrous appearance. However, most alloys are more shinny than pure metals if they are kept for a long time. This is because alloys do not corrode or oxidise easily. Metals tend to have a layer of oxides after some time.

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3. Alloys are less malleable than metals. They are not easily hammered into sheets.

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9.4..SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
9.4.1 Meaning of Polymers
1. Polymers are large molecules made up of many identical repeating sub-units called monomers which are joined together by covalent bonds. 2. Monomers are joined into chains by a process of repeated linking known as polymerisation. 3. A polymer may consists of thousands of monomers. 4. The process of forming polymers is polymerisation. 5. If the molecules simply join together, then this type of polymerisation is called additional polymerisation. 6. There are two main groups of polymers: Man-made polymers or synthetic polymers Natural polymers

9.4.2 Natural Polymers

1. Rubber is an example of a natural polymer. 2. Other natural polymers are : a. Fat in cells; b. Carbohydrate in cells; c. Protein in cells. 3. All these substances are large molecules that are joined together. Thus, fats, carbohydrates and proteins are natural polymers.

9.4.3 Synthetic Polymers

1. Synthetic polymers are man-made polymers. 2. The monomers used are usually obtained from petroleum after going through the refining cracking processes. 3. Examples: polythene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) polystylene, Perspex , and nylon. 4. Synthetic polymers are very stable and do not corrode or decay, and also difficult to dispose. 5. They may cause pollution, blockage of drainage systems and flash floods.

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Polythene

Open up of double bonds of ethene molecules

1. Double bonds of ethene molecules, open up to form single bonds.

Formation of polyethylene polymer

2. Opened molecules of ethene, join together to form polyethylene polymer a. If ethene gas is heated under pressure, it will polymerise to form a waxy white solid as shown in figure below. b. This process is called man-made polymerisation. c. Ethene is called a monomer and the product polythene is a synthetic polymer.
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Perspex

PVC..

Polystyrene

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Synthetic polymers and their users

Polymers Monomer Uses Characteristic

PVC

Chloroethene, C H CI

Polythene Polypropene (polypropylene) Perspex

Ethylene, CH CH Propene CH CHCH Methyl 2-methyl Propenoate CH C(CH )COOCH Carboxylic acid

Drain pipes, insulation for electric wiring, artificial leather, water-proof clothes, shoes Plastic bags, cups and wrappers Film for packaging, snap-on lids, bottles Lenses, window glass

Tough and flexible

Not easily torn Strong and light Light, strong and stable to sunlight Strong and long lasting, easy to wash. Can be drawn into threads Keep in shape after washing, light and soft but strong Strong and light. Can be made into foam

Nylon (polyamide)

Curtain rails, hinges, fibres for clothes, ropes, stocking, parachutes, fishing line Fibres for clothes, video tape, plastic bottles Foam drinking cups, insulation, furniture, packing materials

Terylene (polyester) Polystyrene

Ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid Styrene

Synthetic Rubber
1. There are two main types of synthetic rubber : a. SBR rubber or styrene butadience. b. Neoptene. 2. SBR rubber or styrene- butadience a. This rubber is made by combining one part of styrene (IUPAC name : phenylethene) with three parts of butadience (IUPAC name : 1 , 3 diena).

Styrene and butadience 18 addition undergo reaction..

b. This type of polymerisation is called copolymerisation. c. This polymer was developed during World War II and it used mainly to make tyres. 3. Neoprene a. This rubber is made from monomer called chloroprene. b. Its IUPAC name is 2-chloro- 1, 3-butadiena. c. The term diena means that this molecule contains two double bonds. d. When these molecules polymerise they form the synthetic rubber polymer called neoprene.

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9.5..GLASS AND CERAMICS

9.5.1 Glass
o The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2 which found in sand. o Properties of glass: Transparent, hard but brittle, chemically inert, heat insulator, electrical insulator, impermeable to liquid.

Fused glass (SiO)

Highly heat-resistant glass High transparency High melting point Resistant to chemical attack Uses : Laboratory glassware, lenses, telescope, mirrors

Soda-lime glass (SIO, NA, CaO)

Borosilicate glass (SiO, NaO, CaO, AlO,BO)

Low thermal expansion coefficient Resistant to heat and chemical attack High melting point Uses : Cooking utensils, laboratory glassware, automobile headlights

Glass

Lead crystal glass (SiO, NaO, PbO, KO, AlO)

Soft and easy to melt. High density High refractive index Uses- Lead crystal glassware, art objects, lens, prisms and chandeliers

Good chemical durability High thermal expansion coefficient Easy to make into different shapes Low melting point Uses Bottles, window panes, mirrors, electrical bulbs, flat glass and all kind of glass containers

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9.5.3 Ceramics
Ceramics are made from clay, for example kaolin, a hydrated aluminium silicate, AlO.2SiO.2HO. When the clay is heated to a very high temperature, they undergo a series of chemical reaction and are hardened permanently to form ceramics. Ceramics are very hard, brittle, have a very high melting point, chemically inert and do not corrode. The are good insulators of electricity and heat. Uses of ceramics: construction materials bricks, tiles, cement and pipes Ornamental articles bowls, cups, plates, vase and porcelain Electrical insulators spark plugs, fuses, insulators in electric iron and oven Superconductors

9.5 Uses of Composite Materials

o Composite materials is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more different substance such as metal, alloys, glass, ceramics and polymers. o The resulting material has properties that are superior than those of the original components. o Composite materials are created for specific application.

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