Unit 1 - Overview

DESCRIPCIN DE LA ASIGNATURA (Tomado del Programa de la asignatura)

Prctica de la traduccin 1 es una aproximacin integrada a la traduccin del ingls al castellano a partir de textos no especializados. Tiene como propsito que conozcan el planteamiento terico y tcnico que acompaa al ejercicio de la traduccin y desarrollen competencias traductoras mediante la prctica y la aplicacin de los conocimientos aprendidos en clase. Si bien el enfoque es eminentemente prctico, tiene una vertiente terica que se ofrecer por medio de las explicaciones de clase. La vertiente prctica estar basada en la traduccin de textos de manera individual y grupal. OBJETIVOS GENERALES
10 5

Quienes aprueben este curso podrn (i) comprender textos escritos en lengua extranjera de un nivel idiomtico intermedio, en relacin con las unidades temticas que se presentan, (ii) realizar la transferencia del texto original al castellano, utilizando correctamente las equivalencias lxicas y morfosintcticas correspondientes. OBJETIVOS ESPECFICOS Comprender las ideas expresadas en el texto original en el idioma extranjero a travs de la lectura, del anlisis y de la documentacin. Investigar el significado del lxico y estructuras contenidas en el texto original y encontrar la equivalencia correspondiente en castellano. Reconocer el significado de los trminos claves que registren los textos tratados. Identificar, analizar y resolver problemas de traduccin Usar los equivalentes lxicos y morfosintcticos en la lengua de traduccin. Reconocer las estructuras morfosintcticas: los tiempos verbales, los regmenes preposicionales de los verbos y utilizar sus equivalentes en lengua materna. Reconocer los aspectos tericos bsicos en torno a la traduccin.

15

20

CONTENIDOS
25

30

Los contenidos se ensearn a partir de textos cortos (100 a 200 palabras) de dificultad idiomtica moderada, contenidos en publicaciones con temas de carcter general. - La traduccin: definiciones y conceptos. Etapas del proceso de traduccin. - Grados de fidelidad al escritor del texto original. Contexto y registro. - Etapas de la Traduccin: anlisis, documentacin y transferencia. - Conectores y su equivalencia. - Lxico especfico de los temas tratados.

INTRODUCCIN
En el rea de la traduccin e interpretacin, al igual que en otras reas asociadas a los oficios o las artes, nos encontramos con personas que se desenvuelven en nuestro mbito profesional sin tener las herramientas tcnicas adecuadas ya sea por que dominan LT (lengua trmino) y LO (lengua origen) como es el caso de los hablantes nativos bilinges o de los especialistas en diferentes reas de un conocimiento o ciencia en particular (el fsico que lee y traduce textos de fsica avanzada). Los traductores profesionales, en cambio, somos profesionales tcnicos, lingistas especialistas en lenguaje y en las sociedades y culturas relacionadas con l; nos dedicamos a mejorar constantemente nuestras habilidades para comprender LO y expresar en LT.
40

35

Para este constante perfeccionamiento y para traducir de manera ms eficaz y precisa/fiel necesitamos una metodologa bsica que cada uno de nosotros ir complementando o modificando de acuerdo a su propia experiencia. DEFINICIONES DE TRADUCCIN La traduccin es el proceso de convertir un texto de un idioma a otro. Es decir, traducir es examinar un texto original escrito en lo que se conoce como "lengua fuente" y escribir un texto equivalente en otro idioma, llamado "lengua meta", con el objetivo de mantener el tono y el significado del texto original. Los traductores distinguen la traduccin de la interpretacin, que consiste en la traduccin oral de un discurso. (www.universidadperu.com). Traducir es enunciar en otra lengua lo que ha sido enunciado en una lengua fuente, conservando las equivalencias semnticas y estilsticas. (G. Yebra, Teora y prctica de la traduccin) La traduccin consiste en reproducir en la lengua terminal el mensaje de la lengua original por medio del equivalente ms prximo y ms natural, primero en lo que se refiere al sentido, y luego en lo que atae al estilo. (E.A. Nida, La traduccin: teora y prctica) Segn Vinay y Darbelnet, pasamos de una lengua A a una lengua B expresando una misma realidad y para Seleskovitch, realizamos un acto de comunicacin en el que transmitimos el sentido de los mensajes.

45

50

55

Nida y Taber afirman que debemos reproducir, mediante una equivalencia natural y exacta, el mensaje de LO en LT; otros autores plantean que realizamos un proceso comunicativo en un contexto social; que la traduccin es un acto transcultural o una ecuacin cultural y que los traductores somos los operadores culturales; que el proceso de traduccin se relaciona con la comprensin y reexpresin ms que con la comparacin de dos lenguas. M. Larson establece que la mejor traduccin es aquella que usa las formas idiomticas que son naturales y caracterizan a LT, que comunica al hablante nativo de LT el mismo significado que entienden los hablantes nativos de LO y que mantiene la misma dinmica del texto original, es decir, con la que los receptores de LO y LT responden de la misma manera.

60

Estas definiciones muestran la complejidad que encierra la nocin y prctica de la traduccin y nos permiten identificar sus rasgos caractersticos: texto, acto comunicativo y proceso cognitivo. PROCESO DE TRADUCCIN No es posible considerar la traduccin desde un enfoque puramente lingstico, tampoco es posible centrarse de manera exclusiva en la relacin entre las distintas culturas. En el mbito de la traduccin conviven estos conceptos que conducen a una visin unilateral, como afirma Witherspoon:

65

If we look at culture from a linguistic point of view, we get a onesided view of culture. If we look at language from a cultural point of view, we get a one-sided view of language

Si observamos la cultura desde un punto de vista lingstico, obtenemos una perspectiva unilateral de la cultura; si observamos la lengua desde un punto de vista cultural, obtenemos una visin unilateral de la lengua.

Para poder describir los procesos mentales de la traduccin, es necesario dejar temporalmente de lado los mecanismos individuales de las microactividades y analizar el proceso de traduccin como un todo. James S. Holmes, estudioso de la traduccin, propuso un enfoque mental de los procesos de traduccin, que denomin mapping theory y que sintetiza en la idea siguiente:
70

Entiendo que, en realidad, el proceso de traduccin se realiza en varios niveles: al traducir trazamos mentalmente un esquema del texto original y a la vez otro del tipo de texto que deseamos producir en el idioma de destino. Aunque la traduccin se efecte de frase en frase, nos apoyamos en dicho concepto estructural, de modo que cada frase de la traduccin no est determinada slo por el original, sino por los dos esquemas, el del original y el de la traduccin que vamos creando.

75

As, el proceso de la traduccin debera considerarse como un sistema complejo en el que comprensin, procesamiento y proyeccin del texto traducido son partes interdependientes de una misma estructura. METODOLOGA BSICA 1. Leer atenta y cuidadosamente el original. Se refiere a que analizamos el texto; lo leemos y buscamos el estilo del autor, del texto, a quin va dirigido (nuestro pblico objetivo) y los problemas que nos presentar el texto al momento de traducirlo. Este primer paso nos permite determinar el tipo de herramienta que vamos a utilizar: glosarios especficos, diccionarios generales y de especialidad, enciclopedias, manuales, etc. Investigar el tema. Este paso marca la diferencia profesional en nuestro producto trmino. Para esto contamos con diferentes herramientas, por ejemplo, Internet, diccionarios, glosarios, enciclopedias, estudio de casos, artculos, especialistas (fuente de origen), clientes, lo que se le ocurra. Traducir. Aplicamos nuestra habilidad, nuestro saber hacer para resolver los problemas de traduccin que se presentan. El saber hacer se relaciona con el conocimiento operativo que, fundamentalmente, se adquiere con la prctica (competencia traductora) Reposar. Es conveniente tomar distancia, desvincularnos absolutamente del texto, as, las dudas se aclaran y llegan nuevas ideas. Editar. En esta etapa debemos leer nuestro producto para detectar errores tcnicos (gramtica), para mantener una unidad de cuerpo (redaccin), para aplicar formato de manera homognea (presentacin) y para determinar nuestros aciertos en la resolucin de problemas. Deberamos comparar nuestro texto con el original para eliminar omisiones y para resolver dudas de comprensin, de concordancia y para ser fieles a la realidad textual y comunicacional del texto original.

80

2.

3.
85

4. 5.
90

95

DICCIONARIOS Y AFINES Son nuestras herramientas de trabajo, con ellos realizamos la actividad bsica de nuestra profesin que es la documentacin e investigacin y ampliamos nuestro vocabulario para mejorar nuestra competencia traductora. Los usuarios no profesionales caen en la trampa de usar la primera acepcin que nos da el diccionario, debemos analizar el contexto en el que se presenta la palabra para acotar la bsqueda y determinar la mejor acepcin para ese contexto.

100

El diccionario es una herramienta que nos permite garantizar que nuestros registros de vocabulario personal son precisos porque: Nos entregan la ortografa y pronunciacin correctas del trmino. Nos acopian informacin gramatical de la palabra (plural, gerundio, adjetivo, etc.). Nos dan el significado(s), adems de sinnimos y antnimos. Nos proporcionan ejemplos de la utilizacin de la palabra (entregan el trmino en contexto).

105

PASOS DE LA TRADUCCIN Leer el original de forma general Aclarar palabras desconocidas o que presten duda Redactar la primera versin Leer la versin Corregir la versin Escribir la versin final (Copia) Insertar materiales pictricos o grficos Corregir la copia final Comparar la traduccin con el original

110

115

Para hacer una buena traduccin se debe leer el texto para tener claro el tema central, las palabras claves y los problemas y la estructuracin general del texto. No es til leer exhaustivamente, ni detenerse en los detalles mnimos, esta primera lectura permite adquirir una visin global e ir de lo general a lo particular.

120

Antes de empezar a escribir, debemos utilizar nuestras herramientas de consulta para encontrar las equivalencias de las palabras claves y de las que nos hacen incomprensible el contenido general. Es ideal comenzar a escribir sin interrupciones para no perder la conexin de ideas que se han captado. Debemos redactar lo mejor posible desde el principio. Con el fin de lograr una buena redaccin desde el inicio sin perder el hilo, podemos dejar algunos espacios en blanco o poner destacadamente las palabras tentativas para buscar, posteriormente, las palabras que ms nos acomoden.

125

Despus, hacemos la primera revisin confrontando la traduccin con el original para as asegurarnos que hemos cumplido con los requisitos bsicos de la traduccin (traspaso fiel de todas las ideas utilizando el lxico adecuado para el pblico objetivo). Con esta primera versin corregida, nos desvinculamos del original y luego leemos nuestra traduccin como si la estuviramos viendo por primera vez. Es bueno leerla en voz baja con la expresividad, entonacin y puntuacin que el texto presenta para detectar construcciones deficientes, problemas de concordancia, redundancias, omisiones y aciertos. La relacin lgica entre pensamiento y lenguaje indica que mientras ms amplio sea nuestro lenguaje mejor y ms neta ser nuestra traduccin. LECTURA/ANLISIS DEL TEXTO La primera etapa en el proceso traductor es la etapa de la comprensin (anlisis, exgesis, decodificacin) que consiste en leer atentamente el texto origen para extraer su contenido y valor expresivo para luego realizar su reformulacin en LT que constituye la segunda etapa. En ambas etapas, comprensin y reformulacin, como traductores debemos tener competencia lingstica en los idiomas de trabajo y conocer la cultura tanto del autor como de los receptores. En el caso de los textos tcnicos o de especialidad es absolutamente necesario documentarse, durante todo el proceso, en ambos idiomas

130

135

140

Debemos intentar ser los mejores lectores del texto puesto que debemos ser el vnculo entre el emisor y sus receptores; realizamos la transferencia y comprensin de informaciones, opiniones, detalles, diferencias entre personas, lenguas y culturas. En una primera lectura nos familiarizamos con el texto como un todo, con los temas que aborda y con sus caractersticas; identificamos los posibles problemas que pueden ser (i) textuales (lxico, conceptos desconocidos, citas, refranes, siglas, ambigedades) y que se resuelven mediante el uso de las herramientas de consulta y (ii) extratextuales (motivo y funcin de la traduccin, especificidad del lector, las distancias culturales) donde debemos aplicar la competencia traductora. Al comprender el texto cada elemento, textual y extratextual, adquiere significacin y una funcionalidad especfica que surge de su relacin con los dems COMPETENCIA TRADUCTORA La competencia/habilidad/destreza traductora segn Lowe, se refiere a las caractersticas que trazan el perfil ideal de un traductor: (i) comprensin lectora en LO; (ii) capacidad redactora en LT; (iii) comprensin del estilo de LO; (iv) dominio del estilo en LT; (v) comprensin de los aspectos sociolingsticos y culturales de LO; (vi) dominio de los aspectos sociolingsticos y culturales de LT, y (vii) velocidad Pym la relaciona especficamente con el uso y dice que es (i) la habilidad para generar distintas opciones para el texto original y (ii) la habilidad para seleccionar slo una relacionada con el fin especfico y el destinatario. RESUMEN DE TCNICAS DE TRADUCCIN

145

150

155

Prstamo - Es una palabra que se toma de una lengua sin traducirla y que pone de manifiesto un vaco lxico en LT, por ejemplo, conceptos o trminos tcnicos nuevos como chip, bulldozer y taxi. Se emplea como equivalente lxico para un concepto que no existe en LT. En general, cuando se emplea como equivalente de nombres propios se agrega un concepto que lo aclara, por ejemplo El Loa llega al mar El ro Loa llega al mar, El puma habita en las cumbres de Nahuelbuta El puma es un animal/felino que habita en las cumbres de la cordillera de Nahuelbuta.

160

Calco - Palabra o frase extranjera que se traduce literalmente e incorpora en otra lengua, ej., week-end fin de semana. football sera un extranjerismo, ftbol un prstamo y balonpi un calco. Muchas veces al calcar un trmino caemos en un error de traduccin, por ej., the problem challenges the ingenuity of the artist. Traduccin Literal - Traduccin palabra por palabra. Se puede aplicar como tcnica cuando no es necesario cambiar la forma de LO para traspasar el mensaje de manera natural en LT, por ej.: The cat is on the chair El gato est sobre la silla. Se presenta como problema de traduccin cuando no se logra expresar naturalmente en LT, por ejemplo, al mantener la forma y no traducir o adaptar los pasivos del ingls se obtiene un texto comprensible pero poco fluido, calcado estructuralmente de LO. Transposicin - Cambiamos la categora gramatical de la palabra o de parte de la oracin, es decir cambiamos su funcin, por ejemplo, verbo por sustantivo, sustantivo por preposicin (ej. Emisor por De), al igual que en resto de las tcnicas, sta puede ser obligatoria o facultativa (por razones de estilo), un ejemplo clsico de transposicin (obligatoria) es traducir los gerundios de ttulos del ingls (ing). Modulacin - Cambiamos el punto de referencia, el punto de vista, la perspectiva, la categora cognitiva, por ejemplo, de abstracto a concreto, causa por efecto, parte por el todo, cambio geogrfico. Tiene que ver con categoras de pensamiento ms que con categoras gramaticales. Todas las tcnicas anteriores se aplican para los solucionar problemas estructurales que presentan dos sistemas lingsticos, en la modulacin sumamos el factor cultural y lingstico. Por ejemplo, cambio de voz activa a pasiva (del espaol al ingls), en textos cientficos y tcnicos, por ejemplo, el ingls opta por un lenguaje ms cercano a la realidad y el espaol elige las formas ms cultas derivadas del latn o griego (wind speed indicator anemmetro; color blindness daltonismo; wormlike - vermiforme) Equivalencia - Al establecer una equivalencia transmitimos la misma situacin con una estructura y estilo completamente diferentes, traducimos una frase por otra distinta, excuse me permiso / perdn. Un ejemplo extremo es el caso de los proverbios, dichos y refranes, They are as like as two peas son como dos gotas de agua. Adaptacin - Tambin se conoce como Equivalencia de situaciones o Equivalencia cultural; existe un vaco cultural en LT, la situacin que se describe en LO no existe en la cultura de LT, LT no conoce determinadas imgenes que aparecen en LO, por lo tanto, tenemos que inventarlas en base a otra situacin para naturalizar el mensaje, por ejemplo, la conversin n de unidades de medida o de notacin musical; los n tipos de blanco que conocen los inuitas. DATOS PRCTICOS Como traductores, trabajamos sentados durante muchas horas y para evitar molestias debemos contar con: una buena silla que nos permita estar con la espalda recta y los pies apoyados en el suelo un atril para el documento buena iluminacin que no interfiera con la pantalla algn objeto que nos permita mantener apoyadas las muecas mientras utilizamos el teclado. Cuando establecemos un trato con un cliente es preciso que quede claro: cul es el objetivo de la traduccin, a quin va dirigida y para qu. las condiciones econmicas adems de la forma y fecha de pago el plazo de entrega los requisitos de formato o presentacin. Para poder ponernos de acuerdo con nuestro cliente sobre esos puntos y para entregar un presupuesto adecuado es fundamental conocer el original tanto para tener claro el tema, estilo y potenciales problemas como el formato, stos son los parmetros que tenemos para establecer el plazo de entrega (que se refleja en el costo). La llegada ms importante con nuestro cliente se establece al momento de la entrega oportuna del encargo que nos encomend.

165

170

175

180

185

190

195

200

Conectores (texto de apoyo a la redaccin)

La causa encaja con el efecto, las consecuencias corresponden a los antecedentes y los diversos prrafos de un escrito se articulan de manera variada y armoniosa.
205

La oracin simple tiene un solo predicado, es decir, un solo verbo (Mara sali a comprar) y la compuesta tiene ms de un predicado, ms de un verbo; enfrentamos a dos enunciados que es necesario cohesionar para que la informacin tenga sentido y esta unin se logra por medio de un conector (Mara sali a comprar y trajo fruta) que se define como un nexo o elemento relacionante entre oraciones, como un organizador textual. Existen diversas clases de organizadores o conectores textuales cuya utilizacin depender del sentido que se quiera dar y de las formas como se vinculen las oraciones en un texto.

210

Caractersticas: - La correspondencia contextual que se busca establecer determina el conector que se va a utilizar. - No tiene gnero ni nmero, por lo tanto, es invariable. - Permite organizar las ideas y entregar un mensaje claro.

215

- No pertenecen a una categora gramatical determinada, que pueden ser preposiciones, conjunciones, adverbios o pronombres relativos [utilizados para reemplazar a un sustantivo, adjetivo o adverbio que ya ha sido mencionado anteriormente en el texto (quien, que, cual, etc.)]. Algunos tipos segn funcin y ejemplos Causa y efecto/causales: en concordancia, porque, por consiguiente, por esta razn, de ah que, puesto que, por lo tanto, pues.

220

Adversativa o de ruptura: pero, sin embargo, a pesar de, por el contrario, por ms que, por otra parte, aunque, aunque. Temporal: despus, antes, anteriormente, ms tarde, ahora, actualmente, entonces, ltimamente, cuando. Orden: Sealan las diferentes partes del texto; comienzo de discurso: bueno, bien, ante todo, para comenzar, primero; cierre: en fin, por ltimo, en suma, para resumir/concluir. Primero, a continuacin, luego, finalmente.

225

Resumen: por dichas razones, en suma, en conclusin, resumiendo, en sntesis. Aditivas o Continuativas: tambin, adems, sumando lo anterior, ms an, ejemplo, al mismo tiempo. nfasis: ciertamente, lo que es ms importante, enfatizando, repitamos. Concesin: en vista de (esos datos), concedido que, por supuesto, aunque.

230

Comparativas: Subrayan algn tipo de semejanza entre los enunciados, como, as, de esta forma, de este modo, ambos, al igual que, del mismo modo, de modo similar/anlogo, como, as como, ms/menos/igual que, tan como. Espacial: a travs, al frente, a lo largo, alrededor, detrs, por el otro lado, entre, debajo, detrs, en el centro. Condicionales: si, como, cuando, con tal que, siempre que, dado que, ya que, siempre y cuando donde no. Conjuntivas: y, sin embargo, a pesar de, no obstante.

235

Disyuntivas: o, u, ya, bien, sea, que. Introduccin: se utilizan para iniciar un discurso o un texto Adicin/aditivos: se utiliza cuando queremos aumentar puntos al discurso que estamos haciendo. Expresan suma de ideas: y, adems, tambin, asimismo, por aadidura, igualmente, encima, es ms, ms aun, incluso, hasta, para colmo.

240

Transicin: se utilizan para indicar numeracin o cambio de tema. De oposicin o positivos: Expresan diferentes relaciones de contraste entre enunciados. Comparativos: Subrayan algn tipo de semejanza entre los enunciados. Causativos-Consecutivos: Expresan relaciones de causa o consecuencia entre los enunciados: por (lo) tanto, de ah que, en consecuencia, as pues, por consiguiente, por eso/esta razn, entonces, entonces resulta que, de manera que, luego, as que, de tal forma, en ese sentido, enseguida, en efecto, por otro lado, dicho de otro modo, por ejemplo, en pocas palabras. Explicativos: se utilizan para explicar o hacer hincapi en algn punto. De ejemplificacin: como su nombre lo indica, se utilizan para ejemplificar o detallar algn punto del discurso: por ejemplo, as, as como, verbigracia, incidentalmente, en particular, para ilustrar.

245

250

De recapitulacin: se utilizan para resumir la idea del discurso o de un prrafo en particular, en resumen, en resumidas cuentas, en suma, en total, en una palabra, en otras palabras, en breve, en sntesis. De finalizacin: se utilizan para cerrar el discurso. De concesin: con todo, a pesar de (todo), aun as, ahora bien, de cualquier modo, al mismo tiempo, aunque, aun cuando, a pesar que, no bien.

255

De restriccin: pero, sin embargo, no obstante, en cierto modo/medida, hasta cierto punto, si bien, por otra parte, aunque, sino, en cambio, al contrario. De reformulacin: El enunciado posterior reproduce total o parcialmente, de otra forma, lo expresado: es decir, o

sea, esto es, a saber, en otras palabras, para que, con el fin/propsito de que. De correccin: mejor dicho, o sea, bueno
260

De transicin: por otro lado/parte, en otro orden de cosas, a continuacin, acto seguido, despus. De digresin: por cierto, a propsito, a todo esto. De certeza: indudablemente, claro, es evidente, en realidad, como nadie ignora, como es por muchos conocido.

List of Connectors
265

270

275

280

285

290

295

300

305

1. Linking words for essays, reports, papers listing firstly, secondly ... to begin / start with ..., to conclude with in the first place, in the second place next , then , finally, last(ly) to conclude ... last but not least ... to summarise , to sum up adding also, too, then furthermore ... moreover ... in addition to that ... above all ...... what is more ... additionally comparing equally, likewise, similarly, in the same, in a different way compared to/with, in comparison with as ... as , both ... and ... you cant compare it with ... concluding all in all..., in conclusion ... to sum up ... I draw the conclusion, arrive at the conclusion that ... I conclude ... consequently .. exemplifying for example (e.g.), for instance ... such as ... namely ... clarifying that is (i.e.) that is to say result As a result ... consequently hence therefore thus

310

315

320

325

330

335

340

345

as a result because of that ...thats why ... reformulating to put it another way in other words alternative on the one hand... , on the other hand ... contrasting on the contrary in contrast to that but , yet, however nevertheless ... whereas ..., while ... neither .... nor ... on the one hand ..., on the other hand ... concession besides, however, still, though, in spite of that, despite that admittedly if , unless 2. Giving ones own opinion In my view; To my mind, In my opinion, As I see it, I think that , I believe that , I have come to the conclusion that, I would not say that ..., Therefore I cannot agree with ..., I am doubtful whether / certain that ... According to the text ... It seems to me that ... Another argument is that ... As far as I am concerned, .... One reason is that ... I would say that ... As we have seen, ... As we know from ...., ... For all the above-mentioned I would support the view that In short ... With regard to ... It is for this reason that I think ... I am convinced that ... I feel that ...

350

Adversativos: but, however, nonetheless, yet, still, on the other hand, instead, instead of, on the contrary Causales: because, for, because of, as a result of, due to, owing to, since, as Comparativos: as, as as , not as as , not so as , just as so , as if, as though Concesivos: although, though, even though, even if, despite, in spite of, not even if, regardless of Conclusivos: therefore, hence, thus, so, consequently

355

Condicionales: if, whether, unless, provided, providing, as long as, in case, in case of Continuativos: then, moreover, furthermore, besides, in addition to Copulativos: and, not only but also , not only but as well, both and , no sooner than Disyuntivos: or, either or , neither nor , whether or , else, otherwise Funcionales: so, so that, so as to, so as not to, in order to

360

Fuentes:
Lpez Guix y J. Minett Manual de Traduccin Ingls/castellano Teora y prctica Trics Preckler, Manual de traduccin Francs/Castellano M. Larson La traduccin basada en el significado
365

Vinay and Darbelnet, Stylistique compare du franais et de langlais Hurtado Albir, Traduccin y Traductologa Introduccin a la Traductologa Meta, XLVII, 4, 2002 Documentos Universidad del Per, de Barcelona y Catlica de Chile. Fernando Vsquez Rodrguez - En: Caja de Herramientas para la escritura:

370

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LExLPXbHbWQJ:aprendeenlinea.udea.edu.co/lms/moodle/mod/re source/view.php%3Finpopup%3Dtrue%26id%3D76784+conectores+gramaticales&cd=8&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=cl http://www.icarito.cl/ ORELLANA, MARINA. La Traduccin del Ingls al Castellano - Gua Para el Traductor. Editorial Universitaria, Santiago de Chile, 1998.

375

LPEZ GUIX, Juan Gabriel y MINETT WILKINSON, Jacqueline. Manual de traduccin Ingls -Castellano. Gedisa Editorial, Barcelona, 1997 Problemas lingsticos y extralingsticos en la traduccin de lenguas afines, M. Romero Fras y A. Espa, Universit di Sassari: http://www.ucm.es/info/especulo/numero29/l_afines.html

Bibliografa de consulta en biblioteca:

380

Diccionarios generales monolinges (en castellano e ingls) y bilinges Enciclopedias en castellano e ingls Lpez Guix y J. Minett Manual de Traduccin Ingls/castellano Teora y prctica Hurtado Albir, Traduccin y Traductologa Introduccin a la Traductologa

Bibliografa de consulta en lnea:

385 http://www.rae.es/rae.html http://www.sinonimos.org

http://www.sensagent.com
http://www.merriam-webster.com 390

http://www.macmillandictionary.com (http://www.linguee.com)

Translation Overview
395

The need for translation has existed since time immemorial and translating important literary works from one language into others has contributed significantly to the development of world culture. Both ideas and forms of one culture have constantly moved and got assimilated into other cultures through the works of translators. Ideas and concepts from the East notably India, China and Iraq have influenced the Western culture since as early as sixth century B.C. when trade ties were first established between India and the Mediterranean countries. Many medical theories of Plato and Galen of Greece had considerable influence from those of India. Many of the philosophical and scientific works of ancient Greece were rendered into Arabic as early as ninth century A.D. This knowledge spread to Europe via Spain which was a predominantly a Muslim country then. The school of translators of Toledo in Spain established by Alfonso VI of Castile and Leon in 1085 AD was responsible for translating from Arabic to Latin and then to Spanish these scientific and technological work which later led to the European Renaissance. Despite their key contributions, ancient translators have often remained unknown or in the background and the credit due to them have not been acknowledged. They have done their job with painstaking efforts despite many violent conflicts that have dotted throughout history. Translators have enabled Holy Scriptures like the Bible written in esoteric languages like Latin to be understood by ordinary people by translating them into more common languages without depending on a few elite priests or the members of clergy to explain what they contained. Some translators even had to pay with their life for doing it like the famous Bible translators William Tyndale who was arrested and executed in Holland by the king in 1536 for translating the Bible from its original languages into the common vernacular of English. Chinese monk Xuanzang is supposed to have translated 74 volumes of Buddhist scriptures originating from India into Chinese in 645 AD. One of the earliest recorded translations of considerable effort in English is perhaps the translation of the Bible around 1100 AD. British translator Constance Garnett made the translating community proud through her brilliant translations of th Russian classics including those of Turgenev, Gogol, Tolstoy, Chekhov and Dostoyevski in late 19 century. Another famous translator is Gregory Rabassa who has translated many Latin American fictions into English. Dr. Arthur Waley is one of the worlds foremost translators of the twentieth century of Chinese and Japanese literature into English. More recently Gladys Yang translated many Chinese classics into English over the last 50 years. Thus translators have made important contribution over the centuries in dissemination of ideas and information to a larger audience, in shaping of cultures and in a sense helped unite the world. (482).

400

405

410

415

420

PROOFREADING YOUR WORK By S. Gomez, bilingual translator and interpreter.

425

Every translators nightmare is to proofread their work. You send a translation to a client and you realize later that it had a mistake. Or worse, the clients send it back to you marked with so many corrections that it looks like they bled on your work. Poor punctuation or misspelled words are practically unforgivable. Every document you translate is a reflection on you and your skills. Some people devote only a few minutes to proofreading, hoping to catch any obvious errors that jump out from the page, but a quick job, especially after youve been working long and hard on a translation, usually misses a lot. Here are a few tips to make your translation as close to perfect as possible: Take a break between writing and proofreading. Set the document aside for at least 20 minutes or longer whenever possible. Go for a run. Get a bite to eat. Watch a movie. Approach your writing with a clear head so you can look at the translation fresh. Proper lighting is essential. Use spell-check wisely. Word-processing programs have spell-checkers that will catch most but not ALL spelling errors. They might suggest a word that isnt what you want at all. Make sure that your text says that Shes anxious to meet him. And not meat him. Dont rely entirely on spell-checkers. Print out your work. Youre more likely to catch mistakes looking at a hard copy. The eye tends to scan

430

435

440

information on a screen, but actually reads it when its on a printed page. Break up your tasks. The number of things you need to look out for may overwhelm you. For example, one proof for spelling, one for type of font and size, etc. Read the text out loud and slowly, articulating each word as it is actually written. When you read silently or too quickly you may skip over errors or make unconscious corrections. Proof tables and lists separately. Proof the most prominent text separately such as headings, table of contents, titles, etc. When proofing a numbered or lettered list, take a moment at the beginning and run down the list counting each number out making sure that the numbers or letters flow in their proper order. Make sure all headings are formatted identically and numbered properly. Check spacing, bullets, and tabs. Make sure the tabs line up especially from page to page. Keep a glossary. Write out proper names and specific terminology on a separata. The proofreading process becomes more efficient as you develop and practice a systematic strategy. Youll learn to identify the specific areas of your own writing that need careful attention and try to have a method for finding errors will help you focus more on translating your text. Use specific notations. When marking the document, try using proofreader marks. Use colored ink that will pop out at you as you look at the page.

445

450

455

Know your weak areas. Create a list of the errors you make repeatedly so that you can pay more attention to them next time you translate something. (531) (~990).

Unit 2 Famous Characters

Saint Jerome - Eusebius Hieronymus, more widely known as Saint Jerome, is universally recognized as the
460

"Father of Translation." Every translator and translator student should understand who Saint Jerome was and why he is regarded as such. St. Jerome was from Stridon, Dalmatia, a place that now forms part of Croatia. He was born in the late 300s and lived until the early 400s.

465

The reason he is regarded as the father of translation, as well as the founder of translation theory, is because he was commissioned by Pope Damascus in the year 382 to translate the Old Testament into Latin from Hebrew rather than Greek. This edition of the Bible is referred to as the Vulgate. In addition to this new edition of the Bible, Jerome translated other less well-known works and wrote many letters and commentaries regarding his translation work.

470

In addition to his translation work, he was the forerunner in translation theory. He was alone in his idea that translation should be "sense for sense" instead of "word for word." This was not a popular theory accepted by translators at the time, especially biblical ones. It's a lesson that all translators should be reminded of today. (201)

Malintzin. - Harlot, Heroine, Translator and Traitor?

Cultural Background
475

The word Aztec is believed to stem from the name Aztln, an allusion to the original homeland of the Aztecs. Some scholars believe this land lies in today's northern Mexico, extending north to the southwestern United States and to Utah. Others trace it back to the primeval migration from Asia. Whatever the source, among the Mesoamerican populations Aztln was also equated with a mythical paradise, like Eden or Atlantis, which was considered heaven or the home of their founding gods.

480

Doa Marina, La Chingada, La Malinche, Malitzin, (c. 1502 - 1527). No matter what name you use, there is no doubt that she is one of the most influential interpreters in history and one of the most legendary and important of the historic figures involved in the Conquest of Mexico. Slave, interpreter, secretary, mistress, mother of the first "Mexican." her very name still stirs up controversy.

485

One of the most controversial figures of the Spanish Conquest, the woman known as La Malinche or Doa Marina (ca. 1500-1527?) exemplifies the importance of the interpreter in the course of history. She was born to a

noble family, was enslaved, became an interpreter and confidante to the Spanish explorer Hernn Corts, and bore him a son. Some view her as the betrayer of the Aztecs, while others consider her to be a scapegoat for Moctezuma's failure to defend his kingdom successfully.
490

The woman called "la lengua de Corts" (Corts's tongue, or interpreter) was at birth named Malinalli (Nahuatl for one of the 20 days of the Mexicatl month, as well as for a kind of grass that can be used to make rope). She was also called Malinalli Tenpal. The Nahuatl word tenpal means "a person who speaks a lot, with enthusiasm and fluency." Marina was born into a noble family at a seigniory in Coatzacoalco. When her father died, her mother remarried and gave birth to a son. Although Marina was her father's firstborn and rightful heir, her mother and step-father favored the new baby. So that the new baby would inherit, Marina's mother gave her away or sold her into slavery and declared that she was dead. Thus at a teen age, she became the property of the Cacique (ruler or chief) of Tabasco, Marina traveled in captivity from her native Nahuatl-speaking region to the Maya-speaking areas of Yucatn, where she learned that language. During this period, Hernn Corts had come to the Tabasco coast from Cuba with his interpreter, Jernimo de Aguilar, who had learned Maya after being shipwrecked, enslaved by the Yucatecan Maya, and later rescued by the Spaniards. Having decided to curry favor with the Spaniards rather than fight them, the Maya gave them food, cloth, gold, and slaves. Besides acting as interpreter, Aguilar, who had himself taken holy orders, helped in the conversion of the Maya. The slave women, Marina among them, were baptized in March 1519. Her age at baptism is not known. Corts gave the baptized women to his military staff. Marina first went to Alonso Hernndez de Puertocarrero, then back to Corts a month later. She soon began to work as an interpreter with Aguilar. When Corts reached the Nahuatl-speaking areas farther west along the Gulf coast, she would interpret between Nahuatl and Maya for Aguilar, who could interpret between Maya and Spanish.

495

500

505

510

Marina quickly extended her linguistic skills by learning Spanish. She earned Corts's confidence, became his secretary, and then his mistress, bearing him a son. Corts was often offered other women, but he always refused them, demonstrating his respect and affection for Marina. He wrote in a letter, "After God we owe this conquest of New Spain to Doa Marina." Historians do not consider Marina responsible for the success of the Spanish Conquest. The Spanish appetite for gold, the smallpox and, of course, the military superiority of the Spanish were major factors. However, her interpreting skills played an enormous role since she certainly facilitated communication and negotiations between Corts and various native American leaders, key among them the Tlaxcalans, who were seeking allies against the Aztecs with their brutal demands for human sacrifice and tribute. After an initial armed clash, an alliance was forged that brought thousands of warriors to fight alongside the Spaniards. The high point of her interpreting career was undoubtedly the initial face-to-face meeting between Corts and Moctezuma, but she was directly involved in numerous exchanges between the Spanish and the many people he encountered and dealt with. She is said to have actively encouraged negotiations over bloodshed. But from another standpoint, the fate of the Aztec Empire was sealed in the very first meetings of the emissaries of Moctezuma with Cortes, when they gave him gifts of gold and silver that Bernal Diaz valued at over 20,000 pesos de oro. Prescott, writing in 1947, valued each peso de oro at $11.67 U.S. Dollars. The Spanish appetite for gold was whetted, making the Conquest inevitable. But had Cortes failed, the next expedition, perhaps without an interpreter, would certainly have shed more Mexican blood. Although some have considered her a traitor, many Chicana women consider La Malinche an outstanding historical figure, one whose denigration and defamation of character parallel their own. She was outcast from her own people, and she owed no allegiance to the other Mesoamerican powers. She did take advantage of her linguistic skills to secure her own position. But there is evidence that once she was enlisted in the Spanish cause, she was totally loyal to Corts, despite many opportunities to betray him as the convoluted history of the conquest unfolded. The Mexican author Gmez de Orozco states that La Malinche "was an instrumental part of the Spanish strategy, interpreting in three languages and providing essential information about economic organization, knowledge of native customs, the order and succession of kingdoms, forms of tribute, rules governing family relations, and so on." After the conquest Corts, who already had a wife in Spain, demonstrated his respect for Marina by arranging a

515

520

525

530

535

540

marriage for her with Don Juan Jaramillo, a Castilian lieutenant. Although Marina was just one of many Native American women to bear children with Spanish fathers, she is the most prominent, and her son by Corts, Don Martn Corts, was the first mestizo of historical note. He eventually held a position in government, was a Comendador of the Order of St. Jago, and in 1548 was accused of conspiracy against the Viceroy and executed. Marina also bore a daughter, Doa Mara, to her husband, Don Jaramillo. As the mother of both a son and a daughter of mixed blood, Doa Marina may rightfully be considered the Mother of the Mexican Nation. (1112)

545

Moses (flourished 14th13th century BCE)

Hebrew prophet, teacher, and leader, delivered his people from Egyptian slavery and founded the religious community known as Israel, based on a covenant relationship with God. As the vehicle and interpreter of the Covenant, including the Ten Commandments, he exerted a lasting influence on the religious life, moral concerns, and social ethics of Western civilization.

550

555

According to the biblical account, Moseswhose Hebrew name is Moshe ben Hamram o Mosh Rabenu was a Hebrew foundling adopted and reared in the Egyptian court. Raised there, according to the biblical account, by his biological mother, who was hired to be his nanny, Moses came to know of his Hebrew lineage. As an adult, while on an inspection tour, Moses killed an Egyptian taskmaster who was beating a Hebrew slave. Fearing the wrath of the pharaoh, Moses fled to Midian (mostly in northwest Arabia), where he became a shepherd and eventually the son-in-law of a Midianite priest, Jethro. While tending his flocks, he saw a burning bush that remained unconsumed by the flames and heard a call from the Godthereafter called Yahwehof Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to free his people, the Hebrews, from their bondage in Egypt. Because Moses was a stammer, his brother Aaron was to be his spokesman, but Moses would be Yahwehs representative. Ramses II, who reigned 127913 BCE , was probably the pharaoh of Egypt at the time. He rejected the demand of this unknown God and responded by increasing the oppression of the Hebrews. The biblical text states that Moses used plagues sent by Yahweh to bend Ramses will. Whether the Hebrews were finally permitted to leave Egypt or simply fled is not clear. According to the biblical account, the pharaohs forces pursued them eastward to the Sea of Reeds, a papyrus lake (not the Red Sea), which the Hebrews crossed safely but in which the Egyptians were engulfed. Moses then led the people to Mount Sinai (Horeb), which lies at the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula. Yahweh appeared to Moses there in a terrific storm, out of which came the Covenant between Yahweh and the people of Israel, which included the Ten Commandments. Moses began issuing ordinances for specific situations and instituted a system of judges and hearings of civil cases. After leaving Mount Sinai and continuing the journey toward Canaan, Moses faced increasing resistance and frustration from the Hebrew people and once got so angry at them that, according to tradition, Yahweh accounted it as a lack of faith and denied him entrance into Canaan. As his last official act, Moses renewed the Sinai Covenant with the survivors of the wanderings and then climbed Mount Pisgah to look over the land that he could not enter. The Hebrews never saw him again, and the circumstances of his death and burial remain shrouded in mystery. Tradition states that Moses wrote the whole Pentateuch, but this is untenable. Moses did formulate the Decalogue, mediate the Covenant, and begin the process of rendering and codifying interpretations of the Covenants stipulations. In a general sense, therefore, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible can be described as Mosaic. Without him there would have been no Israel and no collection known as the Torah. (544)

560

565

570

575

580

Buddha Gotama (fl. c. 6th4th century BCE, Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, kya republic, Kosala kingdom [India]d. Kusinr,
Malla republic, Magdha kingdom [India])

585

Buddha Gotama (a.k.a. Siddhrtha) was the founder of Buddhism. The term buddha, literally meaning awakened one or enlightened one, is not a proper name but rather a title, and Buddhists traditionally believe that there will be innumerable buddhas in the future as there have been in the past and that there are other buddhas in other presently existing cosmos as well. The Buddha who belongs to the present era of the cosmos in which we are living is often referred to as Gotama. When the term the Buddha is used, it is generally assumed that it refers to the Buddha Gotama. According to virtually all Buddhist traditions, the Buddha lived many lives before his birth as Gotama; these previous lives are described in Jtakas (birth stories), which play an important role in Buddhist art and education.

590

Most Buddhists also affirm that the Buddhas life continued in his teachings and his relics. The Pli Tipitaka,

which is recognized by scholars as the earliest extant record of the Buddhas discourses, and the later Pli commentaries are the basis of the following account in which history and legend are inextricably intertwined. The Buddha was born in the 6th or 5th century BCE in the kingdom of the kyas, on the borders of present-day Nepal and India. Gotama is said to have been born of the king and queen of the kyas, Suddhodna and Mahmy. The Buddhas legend, however, begins with an account of a dream that his mother, Mahmy, had one night before he was born. A beautiful elephant, white as silver, entered her womb through her side. Brahmins (Vedic priests) were asked to interpret the dream, and they foretold the birth of a son who would become either a universal monarch or a buddha. The purported site of his birth, now called Rummindei, lies within the territory of Nepal. (A pillar placed there in commemoration of the event by A oka, a 3rd-century BCE Buddhist emperor of India, still stands). The child was given the name Siddhrtha (Sanskrit), which means one whose aim is accomplished. Gotama is said to have led a sheltered life of great luxury, which was interrupted when, on three excursions outside of the palace, he encountered an old man, an ill man, and a corpse. Each time he asked a servant to explain the phenomenon and was told that all men are subject to such conditions. Gotama then met up with a wandering ascetic and decided that he must discover the reason for the mans display of serenity in the midst of such misery. Renouncing his princely life, Gotama went in search of teachers who could instruct him in the way of truth. He took up the practice of various austerities and extreme self-mortifications, including severe fasting. These experiences eventually led Gotama to the conviction that such mortifications could not lead him to what he sought.
610

595

600

605

Buddhist mythology states that the Buddha went to meditate beneath a pipal tree (Ficus religiosa), now known as the bodhi tree. There he was tempted by Mara (the Buddhist Lord of the Senses), but Gotama remained unmoved. Later that night the Buddha realized the Four Noble Truths, achieving enlightenment during the night of the full moon day of the month of Vesakha at a place now called Bodh Gay. After this enlightenment, the story continues that the Buddha sought out five companions and delivered to them his first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (Sermon on Setting in Motion the Wheel of Truth), at Sarnath. An ancient stupa marks the spot where this event is said to have occurred. The Buddha taught that those in search of enlightenment should not follow the two extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Avoiding these two extremes, the Thatgata (He Who Has Thus Attained The Truth) discovers the middle path leading to vision, knowledge, calmness, awakening, and nirvana. This middle path is known as the Noble Eightfold Path and consists of right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right living, right endeavor, right mindfulness, and right concentration. The First Noble Truth is that sentient existence is always tainted with conflict, dissatisfaction, sorrow, and suffering. The Second Noble Truth is that all this is caused by selfish desire. The Third Noble Truth is that there is nirvanaemancipation, liberation, and freedom for human beings from all this. The Fourth Noble Truth, the Noble Eightfold Path, is the way to this liberation. After this sermon the five companions became the Buddhas first disciples, were admitted by him as monks, and became the first members of the sangha. After the Buddha had trained followers, his mission was fulfilled. At Kusinara (now called Kasia) on the full moon day of the month of Vesakha (May), the Buddha Gotama entered parinirvnan end to the cycle of being reborn. His body was cremated by the Mallas in Kusinara, but a dispute over the relics of the Buddha arose between the Mallas and the delegates of rulers of several kingdoms. It was settled by a venerable Brahmin on the basis that they should not quarrel over the relics of one who preached peace. Stupas were then built over these relics. (878)

615

620

625

630

Hippocrates
635

Born on the island of Cos off Asia Minor, Hippocrates came from a family of physicians. Later he taught at the medical school in Cos, one of the most prominent in the Greek world. Famous in his lifetime, he traveled around Greece and other lands, lecturing on his principles of medicine. He died in Larissa on the eastern coast of Greece. Hippocrates earned his reputation of father of medicine because he was the first doctor to identify the causes of disease in nature rather than claim the gods caused them. In the more than sixty books attributed to him (probably written by his followers), he established careful methods for medical treatment. He believed that doctors should simply aid the body in healing itself, and he stressed diet, rest, and a clean environment. These are very modern concepts, but Hippocrates was less forward-thinking in his belief that diseases came from an imbalance of four humors, or bodily fluids. One of these humors was blood. Medieval physicians acceptance of this idea would lead to the ghastly practice of blood -lettingthat is, of bleeding patients to heal them. One of Hippocrates greatest contributions to medicine was in the area of ethics, or moral behavior, on the part

640

645

of a doctor. The Hippocratic Oath, probably written by his followers, instructs physicians t o place the patients well-being above all other concerns. Medical students today often swear to a version of the Hippocratic Oath, which can be found on display in many doctors offices. (249)

Euclid
650

Geometry is a branch of mathematics dealing with various shapes, their properties, and their measurements. Though not the father of geometry, Euclid collected all the knowledge gathered by those before him and established a system that came to be known as Euclidean geometry. Beyond the fact that he founded a school of mathematics in Alexandria in about 300 B.C., however, little is known of Euclids life. Euclids book The Elements discusses a variety of subjects related to geometry, in particular planes, or flat surfaces; irrational numbers; solid geometry, which deals with three-dimensional figures such as boxes; and number theory, which examines the properties of integers that is, all the positive and negative whole numbers, as well as zero. The Elements, with its carefully written, understandable style, became a model for mathematical and scientific works over the next two millennia. Likewise Euclids plane geometry was the only geometry until a number of mathematicians in the 1800s began developing non-Euclidean forms. (160)

655

Archimedes
660

(Syracuse, Sicily). It is said that while trying to weigh the gold in the kings crown, Archimedes discovered the principle of buoyancy. The principle of buoyancy states that when an object is placed in water, it loses exactly as much weight as the weight of the water it has displaced. Supposedly Archimedes made his discovery in the bath and was so excited that he ran naked through the streets shouting Eureka! (I've found it.) Physics deals with the physical properties of objects and their interaction with one another, involving factors such as mass and acceleration. It is a pure science, not dealing with practical matters. Archimedes, on the other hand, put his discoveries to much practical use. Among his most important inventions was the Archimedes screw, a device for pumping water still used in many parts of the world.

665

Through geometry, Archimedes proved that a lever, or bar, and a fulcrum, an object it rests against, can greatly increase the power of its operator. This led to his development of pulley systems and cranes. His creations, most notably the catapultwhich Rome later adopted as its ownaided Syracuse in a war against the Romans. He is also said to have developed a set of lenses which, using the light of the Sun, could set ships on fire. Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier when Rome took Syracuse. Known as the father of experimental science, the use of models and trials to test scientific principles, Archimedes was also a mathematician. He came up with the first reliable figure for pisymbolized by the Greek letter which is used in calculating the area of a circle. Pi, typically rendered as 3.1416, is an irrational number, meaning that there is an apparently infinite amount of digits following the decimal point, with no repeating pattern. In his work with curved surfaces, Archimedes used a type of mathematics similar to calculus, which would only be developed some 2,000 years later. (327)

670

675

Akhenaton c. 1370 B.C - 1336 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh, religious reformer. It takes a truly remarkable person to inspire
controversy more than 3,000 years after his death, but the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaton was just such a figure. He attempted a thorough reform of Egypts religion, banning the worship of all gods except Aton, a deity represented by a sun-disk. He is often credited as the originator of monotheism, or the worship of a single god. His reign also saw enormous developments in Egyptian art, which up to that time had been stiff and unrealistic. Akhenatons religious reformation ultimately failed, however. The Egypti ans, horrified by what they considered his disrespect for the gods, would remove his name from their historical record. But was he truly the villain his successors believed him to be, or was he a heroic figure, as he has often been regarded in modern times? Were his religious beliefs sincere, or were they, as some historians have suggested, directed more by circumstances than by heartfelt convictions? It is a measure of Akhenatons complex character that these questions are still being asked.

680

685

Amon is pleased
690

It is ironic that the pharaoh who later changed his name to Akhenaton, or Servant of Aton, should have been born with the name Amenhotep (sometimes rendered as Amenophis), meaning Amon is pleased. Amon had once been worshiped as a separate god in Upper Egypt, but eventually the gods identity merged with that of Ra, a deity of Lower Egypt. Akhenaton no doubt grew up worshiping Amon-Ra, along with a host of lesser deities. He was raised in the royal court, first at Memphis in Lower Egypt, and later at Thebes in Upper Egypt. Both cities served as capitals at different times and represented the two Egyptian kingdoms united almost 2,000 years before Akhenatons time. Akhenaton was born the son of king Amenhotep III and Queen Tiy. His mother, unlike most Egyptian queens,

695

was a commonerthat is, someone not of royal blood. At the time of his birth, Akhenatons parents did not expect him to become king since he had an older brother, Thutmose. But his brother died at a young age; therefore, Akhenaton became pharaoh when he was eighteen years old.

A new religion In the year he became pharaoh, Akhenaton married the princess Nefertiti. It is possible he
700

ruled jointly with his father for some time, a common practice in Egypt. For the first four years of his reign, Akhenaton ruled under the title Amenhotep IV. In the fifth year, however, he changed his name, which is sometimes cited as Akhenaten, Akhnaten, Akhnaton, or Ikhnaton. The year of the name changeperhaps 1347 B.C. marked the beginning of a religious revolution that would rock the foundations of Egyptian life. Akhenaton declared that Aton was supreme above all gods and renamed himself servant of Aton. He also declared that Nefertiti would become Nefer -nefru-aton, or exquisite [nearly perfect] beauty of Aton. The worship of Aton itself was not new. It had begun as early as the time of Akhenatons grandfather, Thutmose IV. What was new was Akhenatons insistence that Aton should be worshiped exclusively, or rather almost exclusively. From the beginnings of Egypt, pharaohs had held the status of living gods. Akhenaton was no different in this regard. Although he is considered the founder of monotheism, in fact he upheld the tradition of pharaoh-worship, presenting himself as a go-between: the people would worship Akhenaton, who in turn would speak to Aton on their behalf. His worshipful Psalm to the Blessed Aton is considered one of the greatest works of ancient Egyptian literature.

705

710

The Amarna Period It soon became clear that Akhenaton intended to completely reshape Egyptian religion,
715

720

and thus Egyptian life. He ordered the closing of temples devoted to the gods as well as the seizure of the temples property. Throughout the land, agents of Akhenaton destroyed statues and removed the names of rival deities. He even had all monuments to his father defaced, so as to remove the name Amon (also rendered as Amen) from Amenhotep. As part of his radical revolution, Akhenaton moved the capital to what later became known as Amarna, along the Nile River almost exactly halfway from Memphis to Thebes. For this reason, Akhenatons reign is known as the Amarna Period. In his time, however, the city was called Akhetaton, or The Horizon of Aton. Rather than take his old court with him from Thebes, Akhenaton surrounded himself with an entirely new group of associates. In keeping with Akhenatons radical departure from past ways, sculpture during the Amarna Period underwent a remarkable change. Prior to that time, Egyptian artwork had been very stiff and unreal-looking, with the pharaoh depicted as a man twice as tall as ordinary men. Amarna sculptors went in the opposite direction. To judge from their portrayals of their king, Akhenaton was not a handsome man. His hips and thighs were wide, his calves and arms skinny, his neck abnormally long, and his stomach flabby. For a time, this grotesque style of representation became the norm. That he permitted such an unflattering depiction of himself says something about Akhenatons complex personality.

725

730

Sculptors of his time also produced numerous portrayals of Akhenaton and Nefertiti enjoying an ordinary family life. For instance, one such sculpture shows them playing with their children. Never before had pharaohs been depicted in such a human light.

The revolution that failed When it came the religion, however, Akhenaton was uncompromising. He seems
735

to have been unwilling to allow the people to get used to the radical changes he offered. Instead, he demanded that they accept the new religion all at once. They grudgingly gave in to the new system, simply because he was pharaoh. Once he died at the age of about thirty-five, though, they went back to worshiping a variety of gods Aton among them. Akhenaton had no sons. Of his six daughters, four died during his lifetime. One married a very young prince named Tutankhamen, who moved the capital back to Thebes and returned to the worship of Amon-Ra. Akhenaton had meanwhile been branded a heretic. Many of his statues were defaced. The Egyptians even tore down a number of the buildings he had constructed. Eventually Akhenaton and the three pharaohs who followed him would be erased from the list of Egyptian kings. (1054)

740

Confucius
745

Born 551 B.C. -Died 479 B.C. Chinese philosopher. One of the most influential individuals who ever lived was a minor Chinese scribe and teacher named Kung Chiu. He came to be called Kung Fu -tzu, or Master

Kung. He is best known throughout the world by the Latinized version of his name, Confucius. Though he never professed to be a religious leader, a religion later developed around him. Aside from his contemporary Buddha, he remains perhaps the most admired figure in the Eastern world.
750

Confucius taught a philosophy of mutual respect and social harmony, a belief in shared obligations between ruler and ruled. He stressed the value of education. Out of his teachings emerged a new class of scholar whose influence in China would grow in coming centuries. Later monarchs would twist his ideas, but the essence of what Confucius taught would remain the foundation of Chinese society more than 2,000 years after his death.

An age of philosophers
755

Confucius lived at almost exactly the same time as the Buddha. Because his views related more to human society tan to spiritual life, it is perhaps more important to note that his dates also more or less coincided with those of Pythagoras. Confucius was born around the time when Thales, father of Greek philosophy, died. Confucius would die just before the birth of the man who transformed Western thought, Socrates. Though the Greeks and Chinese were unaware of one anothers existence, it is interesting that philosophy, a discipline that seeks to reach a general understanding of values and of reality, blossomed in both societies at about the same time. Both in China and Greece, the flowering of philosophy did not seem to require a state of peace; in fact, it seemed to thrive on turmoil. Thus Confucius was born into a land caught up in the Spring and Autumn Period (722481 B.C.), a time when, despite its pleasant-sounding name, China saw almost constant warfare between rival states. He was born in the town of Chu -fu, located in what is now Shantung Province in northeastern China. In his time, however, it was the capital of one of those warring states.

760

765

A hunger for learning As with many world-changing individuals, there are legends concerning Confuciuss
birth. For instance, one story tells of how dragons kept watch over his mother as she delivered him. Supposedly he descended from Huang Ti, one of Chinas legendary early emperorsnot to be confused with Chin Shih Huang Ti.

770

Though his family possessed a noble title, the family had no money. His father, seventy years old at his birth, died before Confucius was three years old. His mother was able to give her boy little more than encouragement. He worked after school to help support her but did not think of quitting school: from the age of fifteen, he determined that he would be a great scholar. Apparently Confucius married at the age of nineteen, then divorced four years later. In the meantime, he had become a teacher at age twenty-two. Perhaps as a result of his own childhood hardships, he believed in offering an education not on the basis of what a student could pay but on the basis of how much the student hungered for learning.

775

Confucius the teacher Confucius believed, as he said, that it is not easy to find a man who has learned for
780

three years without coming to be good. This idea is similar to Socratess identification of virtue with learning. The two mens methods of teaching shared similarities as well. As with the Socratic dialogue, the Confucian method of teaching was based on asking questions rather than on hammer a point home. Neither Confucius nor Socrates were merely teachers to their students; they were like fathers and friends to them as well. Of the 3,000-odd young men who studied under Confucius during his career, the ones most eager to learn lived with the master and ate and drank with him. They also joked with him; it appears he had a great sense of humor. He loved to hear his students tell a story about a man who had described him (Confucius was apparently rather odd-looking) as having the downcast appearance of a stray dog. Confucius and Socrates both favored the spoken word over the written word. Each left no writings of his own. The famous Analects and other Confucian Classics, were actually compiled by students. Also like Socrates or at least, the Socrates of Platos RepublicConfucius believed that an education in music was essential for cultivating a well-developed mind.

785

790

Principles of a good society A significant difference between Confucius and Socrates, however, lay in their
attitudes toward their personal contribution to society. Whereas Socrates saw himself as an outsider in the society of Athens, Confucius had an interest in influencing the political life of Chou Dynasty. He shared with the Socrates of the Republic, as opposed to the real Socrates, an interest in establishing the best possible political statea realm in which men of learning would lead.

795

Looking around him at the problems of his times, he saw princes who thought only of their own interests and not of the people as a whole. Therefore he sought to influence the princes through a new corps of civil servants with

a strong training in morals. Because morality and education went hand in hand, he believed, it was necessary to focus on learning. But learning had another purpose as well: in a world of crafty, self-serving princes, it was best for the scholar to know as much as he could.
800

Socrates would later say that he knew nothing, but that he helped others formulate ideas of their own. Confucius was similarly humble, as befit his image of the proper scholar. He claimed that he had thought of nothing new, but rather had recombined old ideas. Though this was far from the case, it is true that the Confucian social philosophy was based around a new interpretation of two old concepts in Chinese thought: li or ones proper place in society; and jen, which might be described as inner virtue or conscience. It is very hard to find English equivalents for either term, since both are deeply rooted in the Chinese culture. In any case, someone who developed a proper awareness of both jen and li became mature. He became what Confucius described as a gentleman, or chun-tzu. Confuciuss ultimate goal, through cultivating schol ars, was to raise up a generation of rulers possessing both jen and li. Only when all people, from the top down, appreciated their place within the fabric of social life, could there truly be peace and happiness in the world. (1113)

805

810

Vlad the Impaler (1431-1476)

815

As you may well know, author Bram Stoker (1847-1912) based the title character of his 1897 novel Dracula on an actual human being, or should we say inhuman being and in the article herein we will try our best to make the distinction between the real and the imaginary, the facts and the fiction. This is not an easy task, considering the amount of vampire lore which has imbibed our culture since Dracula was first published in 1897. Even if you haven't yet read Stoker's novel you have probably seen some of the many films based on his character. Some of the most important cinematic adaptations are F.W. Murnau's 1922 masterpiece "Nosferatu", which was loosely based on Dracula but subjected to a "makeover" for copyright reasons, Todd Browning's "Dracula", which starred Bela Lugosi, a Romanian actor who had previously incarnated the titular character on the stage, and would forever be remembered, and unfortunately typecast as Dracula. While there were others in between, one of the most interesting, although flawed adaptation, of Dracula was Francis Ford Coppola's 1992 release, "Bram Stoker's Dracula". Coppola's version is noteworthy for it's inclusion of the "Order of the Dracul", which cleverly interwove the fictional vampire with the historical figure. What is interesting to note, is that Stoker's vampire, while being loosely based on Vlad the Impaler, is nowhere near as threatening, nor as sadistic. Stoker's Dracula is a mysterious, somewhat sensual character who kills and feeds to survive, much like any being in nature. In fact, as much as there is reference to the evil of Dracula, it can be reasoned that all of his actions were motivated by survival. Vlad the Impaler, on the other hand, killed not to feed, but to revel in his own power, and just for the sheer pleasure of seeing the suffering of his numerous victims. Vlad the Impaler wasn't a "real" vampire, but he probably caused more rivers of blood to flow than any other tyrant in the history of the world. Bear in mind that there are many versions of Vlad the Impaler's life story, and there are no entirely accurate ones.

820

825

830

835

The Dracul Family. The historical Dracul family begins with Basarab the Great (1310 - 1352) who ruled the province of Wallachia located in Romania, bordered by Transylvania to the north and Bulgaria to the South. By the 1400's, the Basarab clan had split into two rival factions. One was led by Prince Dan and the other by Prince Mircea the Old. During these times battles amongst the rival families became quite bloody. Assassination and massacres were the order of the day. Prince Mircea the Old became known as Vlad I. His son was known as Vlad Dracul II with the Dracul portion of his name being derived from the phrase 'son of the Dragon'. Vlad Dracul II's son, born in 1431, inherited his father's name and was called Vlad Dracul III. His name further expanded to Vlad Tepes which translated to English means Vlad the Impaler. Vlad the Impaler. Little is known of Vlad Dracul Tepes's family. It is believed that his father died violently during war. His brother, Mircea and younger brother, Radu also dies untimely deaths (it is rumored that Mircea was buried alive by his enemies).

840

845

In 1448, Vlad Dracul Tepes, whom we'll call Dracula from this point on, took over the thrown of Wallachia briefly. During this time ownership of the thrown was not dictated by inheritance but rather by how effective you were in taking control by whatever means necessary. After only 2 months in control, Dracula was forced to surrender the thrown to Vladislav II. Around 1456, Dracula regained his kingdom by killing Vladislav in bloody combat.

850

Dracula's Rule. Dracula's primary rule extended from 1456 through 1462. He ruled the land with an iron hand, believing that the only way to keep the civilians and merchants in line was to strike fear in their hearts. Any acts of dishonesty by local merchants meant severe and painful death. Not surprisingly, Dracula was respected by his subjects as a warrior and a stern ruler. The Horrors. Impalement was Dracula's favourite method of punishment. Not only was this method of punishment extremely painful, but Dracula seemed to derive sick pleasure from watching his people being tortured. In fact, wood cuttings from this time period indicate that Dracula often dined surrounded by the decaying bodies of the dead. Impalement was initiated by taking a oiled stake about as wide as a burly man's arm, and inserting it through the victims buttocks, often until it protruded from their mouths. The stake was purposefully kept dull to keep the victims from dying too soon from shock. The victims legs were tied to two horses while the stake was placed in position. Upon command the horses slowly pulled the victim's legs until the stake was impaled into the victims body. After the stakes were in place, they were driven into the ground and placed around the outside perimeter of Vlad's castle. Bodies were left in these positions for months, the stench of rotting bodies permeating throughout the kingdom. It was reported that the invading Turkish army turned back in horror when it encountered twenty thousand decaying corpses along the banks of the Danube river. Their leader proclaiming "how could we possibly fight a monster that could do such atrocities". Massive impalements such as the one the Turkish army stumbled upon, were by no means uncommon. 10,000 were impaled in the Transylvanian city of Sibiu and on St. Bartholomew's Day, Dracula had 30,000 merchants impaled in the city of Brasov.

855

860

865

870

Although impalement seemed to provide sick pleasure for Dracula, it was not the only method of punishment utilized. Reports indicate that tortures included nails in the head, cutting off of limbs, strangulation, burning, cutting off of noses and ears, mutilation of sexual organs, scalping, skinning, exposure to the elements or wild animals, and boiling alive. No one was immune from these horrors - men, woman, children, lords and ambassadors from foreign powers were all reported to have died at the hands of Dracula. The End of the Era. Finally, in 1462 the Turks invaded Wallachia and overthrew Dracula. He was imprisoned for 12 years during which time he somehow managed to father two sons. During this time it was reported that he still practiced his favorite pastime. He often captured mice and birds which he proceeded to torture and mutilate or impale on using tiny spears. He was released in 1474 at which time he once again regained control of Wallachia. He ruled for two years until 1476 when he was killed by the Turks. It is rumoured that he was decapitated by the Turks and his head sent to Constantinople where it was displayed on a stake as proof of his death. He was reported buried in Snagov, an island monastery located near Bucharest. The Evidential Pamphlets. Much of the Dracula history comes from political pamphlets published in both Germany and Russia during the early 1500's. The printing press had just been invented and apparently these types of stories served as entertainment for the persons of that era. The German publications portrayed Dracula as a sinister, evil being. The Russian writings, however, took a different view and indicated that Dracula was simply a ruler that got the job done. Either way, historians note that both sides seem in agreement of the atrocities that were committed proving that these stories are certainly based upon truth. Here are some of the stories as reported by the press of that era ... The Golden Cup. Dracula was well know throughout the kingdom for his fierceness. In a brazen and arrogant display of that fear, Dracula placed a golden cup in the centre of the city. Unprotected and openly displayed, it was known that anyone who stole the cup would be caught and punished in the most gruesome manner imaginable. The cup remained unmolested throughout Dracula's 12 year reign. The Honest Merchant. A merchant from a foreign land once visited Dracula's castle proclaiming that someone had pilfered his cart. The merchant was shocked to find that 160 golden ducats were missing. Dracula soothed the poor man and assured him that the thief would be caught and his money would be recovered. He then graciously insisted that the merchant spend the night in the castle. Immediately, Dracula order soldiers to place 160 ducats plus 1 into the merchants cart. When the merchant returned to his cart the next morning he counted his money and discovered that 161 ducats had been returned. He went back to Dracula and told him that the money had been returned and in fact, the thief had added an extra ducat to the pot. Meanwhile, the real thief had been caught and was order to be impaled. Dracula informed the merchant of the true story of the return of his

875

880

885

890

895

900

gold and indicated that if he had not reported the extra ducat, he would have been impaled alongside the thief. Dracula's Mistress. The old pamphlets indicate that Dracula had a mistress that lived in the back streets of the city of Tirgoviste. Dracula was often moody and depressed and the woman made every effort to bring Dracula out of his gloominess. Once, when Dracula was in a particularly sorrowful state, she attempted to cheer him up by telling a lie, proclaiming that she was pregnant with his child. Dracula warned her not to lie about such a thing but she persisted to insist that she was with child. When Dracula had the woman examined by midwives, he was angered to find that she had been dishonest with him. He proceeded to draw his knife and cut her open from the groin to her breasts 'while proclaiming his desire for all the world to see where he had been'. He then left the woman to die in agony. (1658) (7300)

905

910

Unit 3 Peoples, Places, and Customs

The Peoples of the Americas
915

The word Indian, when used to describe the people living on the American continent at the time Christopher Columbus arrived in A.D. 1492, is based on Columbuss mistaken belief that he had reached India. In order to overcome this error, in the late twentieth century the name Native American became more common. However, this name has its own problems, because there is no such thing as a native American. Even the peoples who inhabited the Americas before the arrival of the Europeans were migrants, though they beat the Europeans to the New World by a good 20,000 years or more. The first Americans came from eastern Siberia, now part of Russia, where even today one will find a hardy native population with facial features much like that of the American Indian. They began arriving somewhere between 30,000 and 20,000 B.C., during the last Ice Age. With much of North America covered in a sheet of ice two miles thick in places, the seas were lower than they are now. This created a land bridge across what is now the Bering Sea between Alaska and Siberia, and thus like the Israelites crossing the Red Sea, the first Americans simply walked to the new land.

920

925

Origins of the Native Americans There is much dispute concerning the approximate date of the first
Americans arrival, how they spread throughout the New World, and the dates of subsequent migrations by groups from Siberia. But it is fairly clear that they could have come only by this northern route, by far the closest approach from the Old Worldthat is, Asia, Africa, and Europeto the New. It is likewise clear that many of them moved southward. By about 9000 B.C., people lived in the southern tip of South America. They continued to spread throughout the Americas. Over thousands of years, the first Americans divided into thousands of groups in every part of the New World, yet all these groups shared certain characteristics. This was particularly true of the two most outstanding civilizations of ancient America: the Olmec and the Chavn.

930

Olmec, Chavn, and other ancient Americans There is enormous variety in the lands of North and South
935

America. This variety causes wide differences in the peoples ways of life. The Olmec homeland in Mesoamerica was a land of steaming rain forests and lush, vegetation-covered mountains. By contrast, the Andes the high mountains of South America where the Chavn settled, were rocky and dry. Despite these differences in environment, however, the two groups had much in common. It is a mystery why the Olmec and Chavn, widely separated by distance and apparently ignorant of one another, both constructed pyramids. It is a mystery, too, why pyramid building seems to have taken place primarily in northeast Africa and in the Americas, areas separated by thousands of miles of ocean. Some people believe that beings from another planet built the pyramids of Egypt, as well as those of the Americas. However, even if one attempts to approach the question from the standpoint of a scientist (that is, by studying the facts and attempting to build a theory from them, rather than starting out with a theory and trying to find facts that agree with it), there seem to be no clear answers. Another curious aspect of ancient American cultures is their relatively low level of technological development in comparison to their achievements as builders. It appears that the Egyptians of the Old Kingdom who built the pyramids had no knowledge of the wheel. When the peoples of America built their own pyramids some 1,500 years later, they also did so without the use of wheels. This is a curious fact, since archaeologists have found wheeled toys at various sites, particularly in Mesoamerica. Why the Olmec did not adapt the wheel to more practical uses is yet another mystery. Furthermore, although the Inca would later domesticate the llama, a relative of the camel that lives in the high

940

945

950

Andes, ancient Americans were without beasts of burden.

955

Nor did they possess sophisticated tools. The Chavn became highly accomplished in the art of fashioning objects from gold, but it appears that the Americas did not enter the Bronze Age until about A.D. 1200. Metal was chiefly for decoration, such as gold jewelry; tools, on the other hand, were of stone. Thus, as one contemplates the pyramids of Mesoamerica, it is amazing to consider that they were built by more or less Stone Age peoples. Both the Olmec and the Chavn civilizations grew out of agricultural systems that began developing in about 3500 B.C. however, each had a central crop as important to their lives as rice was in India and China: corn (or maize) in Mesoamerica, and potatoes in the Andes. Both served as parent civilizations to others that developed around them. Not only did they trade goods with these satellite groups, but they also passed on knowledge and culture to them. Both groups built holy cities, or ceremonial centers, to which worshippers made pilgrimages. Like most peoples of ancient times, these early Americans believed that everything had a spiritual significance. Hence agriculture and religion were closely linked, and the power of ancient American gods centered around their ability to bring rain and grow crops. Finally, the two groups were linked by time. Each fit into the period designated as Formative, or Preclassic, by archaeologists. This era lasted from about 1500 B.C. to A.D. 300. The Formative Period included not only the Olmec, Chavn, and their surrounding cultures but the earliest stages of what would become the greatest civilization of pre-Columbian America: the Maya. The latter would flourish during the Classic Period, from A.D. 300 to 900, continuing long after ancient times. Finally came the Postclassic Period ( A.D.9001540), dominated by the Aztec in Mesoamerica and the Inca in the Andes. These great cultures of later periods, however, would not have been possible without the Olmec and Chavn who preceded them.

960

965

970

Other Mesoamerican culture: Teotihuacn

975

Built in about A.D. 100, Teotihuacn was the first true metropolis in the Western Hemisphere. Within 500 years, it would grow to become the sixth-largest city in the entire world. Like Rome and Babylon, Teotihuacn would become a symbol and an example to later civilizations; but unlike those splendid urban centers of the Old World, Teotihuacn, whose name means Place of the Gods, was not at the center of a warlike empire. The Teotihuacnos were a peaceful people. Teotihuacn appears to have been a planned city: that is, rather than simply springing up as most cities do, it was designed and laid out. Covering 8 square miles, a vast area for an ancient city, Teotihuacn had a population of between 125,000 and 200,000. Again, this is an astounding figure for its time. Because of sewage and sanitation problems, among other difficulties, ancient cities were seldom larger than small towns in modern times. Like Rome, Teotihuacn was a meeting place for many cultures. It appears that people from all over Mesoamerica lived in apartment-like buildings. The skyscrapers of Teotihuacn were its pyramids, the most significant of which was the Pyramid of the Sun. It stood on the citys main street, which the Aztec later dubbed the Avenue of the Dead. Other great temples lined the avenue, which ended at the Pyramid of the Moon. The people of Teotihuacn worshiped a variety of gods, the most important of which was Quetzalcatl. Depicted as a serpent with feathers, Quetzalcatl appears to have been a peaceful god of agriculture. The archaeological evidence shows no record of human sacrifice or warfare at Teotihuacn.

980

985

990

Teotihuacn survived until about A.D. 750, when it began to decline rapidly. Archaeologists have suggested several possible reason for its downfall, including a fire that engulfed much of the city. The fire may in turn have been the result of organized action, either by rebels or outside invaders such as the warlike Toltecs, then on the rise. On the other hand, the end of Teotihuacn may have come because its great population depleted natural resources and created sanitation problems, which resulted in widespread disease.

995

The Andes About 2,500 miles south of the Olmec lived the people of the Chavn culture, around the border
areas of modern Peru and Ecuador. The term Chavn refers to Chavn de Huntar, a ceremonial center that developed in what is now north-central Peru about 1200 B.C. Like the ceremonial centers of Mesoamerica, Chavn de Huntar was a city of pyramids and platforms, including a large structure dubbed the Great Pyramid by archaeologists. The name calls to mind the Great Pyramid of Cheops, but unlike the pyramids of Egypt, those of the Americas were places of worship rather than burial chambers. Chavn de Huntar was about one and a half miles across and contained a Great Plaza, or open area, in the southeast. To the northwest was the court and temple of the Lanzon, a stone idol representing the supreme deity worshipped at Chavn. Like the Mesoamericans, these people also revered the jaguar; hence there were also the Stairs of the Jaguars leading down to the Great Plaza from the Great Pyramid.

1000

1005

Like other ceremonial centers, Chavn de Huntar had a small resident population (probably no more than 1,000 people)with thousands more (presumably farmers and laborers to serve the priests and rulers) living in surrounding areas. Between 400 and 300 B.C., however, Chavn de Huntar entered a period of decline. Eventually a less advanced group of people built a village over the site. Yet its memory lived on to inspire the Inca, just as Teotihuacn did the Maya and Aztec.

1010

Other Andean peoples Numerous other peoples in the Andes were influenced by Chavn culture. Among its
contemporaries were the Paracas, who lived on the southern coast between 1100 and 200 B.C., and who apparently practiced mummification. Another coastal group were the Moche or Mochica people, a nation of warriors who controlled an area about the size of modern Vermont. They flourished between 200 B.C. and A.D. 700, producing fine ceramics and some of the most advanced metal objects in ancient America. Still another coastal people influenced by the Chavn culture were the Nazca. The Nazca flourished between 200 B.C. and A.D. 600. Their most famous works of art are the Nazca Lines. The lines are representations of spiders, birds, and other creatures, made out of rock formations and grooves cut into the earth. The representations are so large they can be seen only from a great height. Naturally, this fact has long perplexed archaeologists. If the Nazca possessed no flying machines why and how did they create the designs? There is much dispute over this question. Another impressive site near Chavn de Huntar is Tiahuanaco, in the Andean highlands of what is now Bolivia. It was to the Andes what Teotihuacn was to Mesoamerica: a great city, much more than a ceremonial center, which served as a focal point for the peoples all around it. Like Teotihuacn, it was the site of impressive achievements in architecture and engineering, including the massive Gateway of the Sun, cut from a single stone. Yet one feature distinguished Tiahuanaco from Teotihuacn or virtually any other major city, then or now. Tiahuanaco had an altitude of 13,125 feet, meaning that it was actually two and a half miles high. Though it flourished between 200 B.C. and A.D. 600 (making it contemporary with the Moche and Nazca civilizations, as well as Teotihuacn), Tiahuanaco continued to exert an influence over an area from southern Peru to northern Argentina until about A.D. 1000. (1927)

1015

1020

1025

1030

Galpagos Islands
Situated in the Pacific some 621 miles off the South American continent, these islands and the surrounding marine reserve have been called a unique 'living museum and showcase of evolution'. Located at the confluence of three ocean currents, the Galpagos are a 'melting pot' of marine species. Ongoing seismic and volcanic activity reflect the processes that formed the islands. These processes, together with the extreme isolation of the islands, led to the development of unusual animal life such as the land iguana, the giant tortoise and the many species of finch that inspired Charles Darwin's theory of evolution following his visit in 1835. The site is situated on the Galpagos Submarine Platform, and consists of about 120 islands. The larger islands are Isabela, Santa Cruz, Fernandina, Santiago and San Cristobal. The islands were formed by volcanic processes and most represent the summit of a volcano, some of which rise over 9,840f from the Pacific floor. The western part of the archipelago experiences intense volcanic and seismic activity. The larger islands typically comprise one or more gently sloping shield volcano, culminating in collapsed craters or calderas. Long stretches of shoreline are only slightly eroded, but in many places faulting and marine erosion have produced steep cliffs and lava, coral or shell sand beaches. Other noteworthy landscape features include crater lakes, fumaroles, lava tubes, sulphur fields and a great variety of lava and other ejects such as pumice, ash and tuff. The marine environments are highly varied and are associated with water temperature regimes reflecting differences in nutrient and light levels. These range from warm temperate conditions brought on by vigorous upwelling (Equatorial Undercurrent) and a moderately cool, warm temperate-subtropical influence (Peruvian Flow).
1050

1035

1040

1045

1055

There is considerable variation in altitude, area and orientation between the islands which when combined with their physical separation, has contributed towards the species diversity and endemism on particular islands. Coastal vegetation occurs along beaches, salt-water lagoons and low, broken, boulder-strewn shores. Protected coves and lagoons are dominated by mangrove swamps. The arid zone is found immediately inland from the coastal zone, and is the most widespread formation in the islands. The humid zone emerges above the arid zone through a transition belt in which elements of the two are combined. It is a very damp zone maintained in the dry season by thick, garua fogs which accumulate through most of the night and last well into each day. A ferngrass-sedge zone covers the summit areas of the larger islands where moisture is retained in temporary pools.

1060

1065

The endemic fauna includes invertebrate, reptile and bird species. There are a few indigenous mammals. All the reptiles, except for two marine tortoises, are endemic. These include the Galpagos giant tortoise, with 11 subspecies on different islands, all of which are endangered, terrestrial iguanas, marine iguana, three racer species, numerous lizards and geckos. The native avifauna includes 57 residents, of which 26 (46%) are endemic and 31 are regular migrants. Endemic taxa include 13 species of Darwin's finches, including Floreana tree finch and mangrove finch. Other noteworthy species include dark-rumped petrel, Galpagos flightless cormorant, Galpagos penguin, lava gull, Floreana mockingbird, Galpagos hawk, lava heron (a.k.a. Galapagos Heron), and nocturnal swallow-tailed gull. The native mammalian fauna includes six species: Galpagos fur seal, Galpagos sea lion, two species of rice rat, bat and hoary bat. Marine fauna includes several species of sharks, rays and Cetaceans. Green turtle and hawksbill turtle are common in surrounding waters, and nesting on sandy beaches. (578)

Kurds
1070

1075

The Kurds were most likely an Indo-European people who migrated from Central Asia to Asia Minor and northern Mesopotamian regions, living among Assyrian and Babylonian inhabitants sometime between the second and first millennium b.c.e. For centuries the Kurds maintained their own civilization, establishing a number of kingdoms and tribal fiefdoms in the high mountain areas in the Iran-Mesopotamia regions. The modern Kurdish people are the descendants of the original Kurds who were living in the Zagros Mountains and northern Mesopotamia, and they now populate territories known as Kurdistan, regions stretching from northwestern Iran to southeastern Turkey, northern Iraq, and northeastern Syria. Kurdish tribes can also be found in other countries such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Lebanon. Kurds are the fourth-largest ethnic population living in southwest Asia. Most sources indicate that today there are more than 30 million Kurds. Kurdish societal structure remains tribal, with loyalty of each Kurdish group directed toward an immediate family clan, but many modern Kurds now live in large cities. They do share a common cultural heritage that goes beyond their tribal social structure. The distinct Kurdish language belongs to the Iranian subgroup of the Indo-European languages. The Kurds are mainly Sunni Muslims of the Shafii theological school of thought, which places more emphasis on the consensus of the community than on the authority of individual clerical scholars as a source of interpreting Islamic law. Many Kurds in Iraq, Iran, and Turkey also adhere to Sufism, or the mystical branch of Islam. Kurdish Islam evolved into a distinct form of vernacular religion with unique Kurdish cultural characteristics. A minority of Kurds are also Shii Muslims, Bahai, and Christian; Jewish communities can also be found among the Kurdish population, with the Jewish Kurds mainly living in Israel.

1080

1085

1090

1095

The modern political history of the Kurds has been a quest for national autonomy. Although the 19th century saw a number of rebellions, Kurdish nationalism made its first appearance with the 1880 revolt of the Kurdish League, led by the charismatic Sheikh Ubay dallah of Nehri. Despite defeat by the Ottomans, Sheikh Ubay dallahs movement marked the first Kurdish national rebellion that included Kurds of the Ottoman Empire and Qajar Persia. With the rise of the Young Turks Revolution in 1908, which removed the rule of Abdul Hamid, Emperor of the Ottomans, Caliph of the Faithful, and restored the 1887 constitution, the Kurds began to form their own political parties. Following the demise of the Ottoman Empire, on August 10, 1920, Britain, France, and Italy designed the Treaty of Sevres, which officially recognized Kurdish claims for national autonomy and an independent Kurdistan. The treaty was signed by the Allies and Turkey, recognizing that the Kurds have the right to exercise local autonomy. Following the signing of the Lausanne Treaty in 1923, which mainly settled the boundaries between Armenia, Greece, and Turkey, the newly founded Ataturk government rejected the Treaty of Sevres and subsequently found an opportunity to suppress the Kurdish right for national independence. The Kurds revolted against the Turkish state in 1925, 1930, and 1937, all three revolts brutally defeated. After that, all Kurdish nationalist movements experienced the same fate. A recent liberation movement for national autonomy was led by the Kurdish Workers Party, a.k.a. PKK (Partyiya Karkeren Kurdistan). The Marxist nationalist party was founded in 1973 and toward the end of the 1970s expanded its influence in the Kurdish regions of Turkey by using guerrilla warfare and terrorism as a way to destabilize the Turkish authority. The PKK proved to be the most violent of all Kurdish political groups in the modern history of Turkish nationalism. In return the Turkish army used various violent means to put down the Kurdish rebellion. These included the arbitrary murder and detention of Kurdish civilians, and the repression of Kurdish thinkers, journalists, and

1100

1105

1110

businessmen. The PKK lost much of its strength with the 1999 capture of the organizations leader, Abullah Ocalan. On August 2004 the party declared a unilateral cease-fire. (660)

Hittites
1115

1120

The Hittites were Indo-Europeans who entered Anatolia in approximately 2300 b.c.e. and in the following centuries managed to become one of the dominant powers of the ancient Near East. The word Hittite derives from their term for central Anatolia, hatti, which was derived from those who lived in the area before the Hittites, the Hattians. Most of the information regarding the Hittites comes from thousands of clay tablets discovered in the Hittite capital of Hattusha. Three distinct Indo-European languages have been deciphered in these texts: Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic. The texts were written in cuneiform and hieroglyphic scripts, and many words were borrowed from the local population and from surrounding nations. Hittite history is usually divided into the Old Kingdom and the New Kingdom. The former covered the period from 1750 to 1600 b.c.e., while the latter lasted c. 14201200 b.c.e. The intervening period (c. 16001420 b.c.e.) is sometimes referred to as the Middle Kingdom.

1125

During the Old Kingdom the Hittites were able to achieve foreign expansion. First, during the reign of Hattushili I, the Hittite army campaigned to the west as far as Arzawa and to the southeast as far as northern Syria. Second, during the reign of Murshili I, the army made the long march through Syria and into Babylonia, where they were able to overpower Babylon and bring to an end the first dynasty of Babylon (c. 1595 b.c.e.). However, during the reigns of Murshilis successors, the kingdom seems to have lost control of lands to the east and southeast.

1130

1135

The founder and first ruler of the New Kingdom was Tudhaliya II (c. 14201370 b.c.e.). Although he was able to revive the kingdom, it was not until the reigns of Shuppiluliuma I (c. 1344 b.c.e.), and Hattushili III (c. 1239 b.c.e.) that the Hittites were able to achieve their greatest foreign expansion. They were able to expand the kingdom throughout all of Syria, defeating Mittani, and extending almost as far south as Damascus. Battles with the Egyptians, most famously the Battle at Kadesh, led to a treaty between Hattushili III and Ramses II in which a Hittite princess was given to Ramses in marriage. Although the treaty with Egypt remained in force for the remainder of the Hittite New Kingdom, new threats arose that eventually led to the demise of the Hittites. Assyria under Shalmaneser I became aggressive toward the Hittites. In addition, various smaller nations surrounding the Hittite homeland began to pressure the Hittites militarily and economically.

1140

Unfortunately, it is still impossible to tell the exact nature of the downfall of the Hittite capital Hattusha. What is clear is that limited Hittite rule continued in other areas, particularly Carchemish. These local centers were ruled by Neo-Hittite dynasties governing individual city-states. These city-states were eventually absorbed into the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

1145

Hittite religion and cultic practices are becoming increasingly better known through archaeological excavations. Unfortunately, no mythological text in the old Hittite script has yet been discovered. Cultic practices are mentioned in the various festival descriptions found in royal archives and in texts from provincial centers. Much is known about these festivals, special times when the statue of the deity was brought out from the temple and honored with sacrifices and offerings given amid music and dancing. New moon festivals were held to mark the beginning of each new month. Knowledge of ancient Near Eastern temples, including the Solomonic Temple of the Old Testament, is greatly advanced through the excavations of various Hittite temples. At least five temples have been uncovered in the capital of Hattusha, and some estimate there to be as many as 20 present in the city since every Hittite city had at least one temple staffed by both male and female personnel serving as cooks, musicians, artisans, farmers, and herders. (630)

1150

1155

Saharawi
Originally, the Saharawi were desert nomads who traveled from place to place with their camels. Today, they can be found in the desert in southern Morocco, in the Western Sahara region, in the North of Mauritania, in Algerian refugee camps, and in the Canary Islands. A sub-group of the Moors, they are of mixed Berber, Arab, and black African descent. Some Saharawi are herdsmen, others are traders, and still others are warriors. However, all speak an Arabic dialect called Hassaniya. In addition, their religion, way of life, and dress are Arabic in flavor and style.

1160

1165

By the 1300's, the Arabs ruled the region, causing conflict with the Berbers until the end of the 1600's. The Saharawi are descendants of these two groups and their slaves. Until 1904 when Spain gained control, the Saharawi were threatened by Morocco's desire to annex the Western Sahara region. Since Spain's withdrawal in 1976, many Saharawi have fled to Algerian refugee camps, returned to the deserts, or joined the Polisario, which continues to demand independence. The many years of the Spanish presence in Morocco greatly affected the nomadic lifestyle of the Saharawi. Current society is varied, with some very wealthy Saharawi, and others very poor, still living in the refugee camps. In Saharawi homes, families sleep on skins covered with blankets. At meal times, the men eat before the women and children. Because of their poverty, most Saharawi generally have only one wife, although their Muslim faith allows them to have up to four. In addition, marriages are endogamous (within the tribe). Agriculture among the Saharawi remains limited, since the average rainfall is only two inches per year. Now that slavery is outlawed, their exports are limited to livestock.

1170

1175

There is a long-standing conflict between Morocco and the Saharawi Polisario Front. Morocco claims the Western Sahara, but Algeria sides with the Polisario, hoping to later negotiate for an outlet to the ocean. Sovereignty in the area currently remains unresolved. As a result of the war, many young Saharawi men have joined the army, dividing the family. Women and children have fled to refugee camps and depend on special programs for basic necessities. Saharawi society consists of four main groups: warriors; marabouts, or holy people; tribute payers, who pay taxes to the higher classes; and black slaves. Craftsmen and musicians form separate, low-caste groups. In the past, differences in social class were clearly marked. The eight Saharawi tribes were constantly at odds with one another, struggling for supremacy. Fighting, robbery, and revenge were the means of surviving drought, plagues, or another robbery. Peace through negotiation always followed. Today, classes serve more as a means of identification rather than a way of life. When the original Berbers were conquered by the Arabs, many fled to the desert, while others were assimilated. All of them, however, accepted the Arab Muslim religion with open hearts. As they embraced their new faith, they carried it with them on their nomadic journeys. Despite their devotion, however, the Berbers retained many of their traditional beliefs. To this day, West African Islam, with its mixture of beliefs, is more tolerant of diversity than Islam elsewhere. While some pre-Islamic beliefs still exist among the Saharawi, they like to think of themselves as pure Muslims. Like most North African groups, there are some beliefs that certain dead Muslim teachers have a power that can be accessed for healing through pilgrimage to their grave sites. Some scholars have mentioned that the Saharawi also worship a god known as Sidi Erbbi, who is paternal and full of life. The Saharawi live in an area of war and political turmoil. As a result, families have been divided, and many have been displaced in refugee camps. Their desire for political recognition and independence is strong. (627)

1180

1185

1190

1195

Sites of Mystery and Power

Throughout their history of cultural and religious development, humans have always discovered or created places that are special to them - sites where they might gather to participate in social rituals or where they might retreat for solitude and reflection.
1200

In such places, many people claim to experience a sense of the sublime, something larger than life. Others, while in a solemn place of worship or in a beautiful natural setting, attest to feeling a special energy that raises their consciousness and perhaps even heals their physical body. Mysterious megaliths (from the Greek: mega means large, lithos means stones) are those placed at a site by ancient people who left no records explaining how they managed to lift and transport stones weighing several tons. Such sites include the monoliths of Zimbabwe, and the monuments of Easter Island. All of these places were ostensibly significant to an ancient society or religion, but many were long abandoned by the time they became known to the larger world, and the meaning of the megaliths remains unexplained. The most popularly known megalithic structures are probably Stonehenge in Great Britain and the complex of pyramids and the Great Sphinx in Egypt. Like many ancient megalithic structures, those sites have been examined, written about, mythologized, and speculated upon for centuries, yet they still continue to conceal old secrets and occasionally yield surprising information that forces new historical interpretations of past societies. Rising up on a plateau called Giza, 10 miles west of present-day Cairo, Egypt, the Great Pyramid, its two

1205

1210

1215

companion pyramids, and the Sphinx are probably the worlds oldest and best -known enigmas. Among the mysteries of the pyramids are the questions of where the immense amount of rock forming them (11 million cubic yards of stone for the Great Pyramid alone) was quarried, and how it was moved and then erected into an astonishingly precise structure. Academic debates are ongoing concerning what surveying methods and equipment were used to ensure that the landscape was leveled and that measurements were accurate. Many researchers argue about the number of workers needed for such an undertaking and wonder how such an army of laborers could be mobilized, housed, and fed. Other mysteries surrounding the pyramids are the contentions that the structures are situated at cardinal points on the compass, and their numerous astronomical uses show knowledge of mathematics in advance of other civilizations. In addition, the body of the King Cheops for whom the tomb was built, and precious objects that usually surround the bodies of royalty in Egyptian tombs, have never been found. In fact, all three of the pyramids at Giza were allegedly erected as tombs, yet not a single body has been found in any of them. Other places have become mysterious sites because things have happened there that are impossible to document fully, yet physical evidence remains that promotes further speculation. The claimed miraculous healings at Lourdes, the accounts of spiritual illumination at Jerusalem and Mecca, and the sacred visions at Taos provide testimonies of faith and wonder that must be assessed by each individual. The Mayans of Mexico and Central America left behind immense structures that were eventually overrun by the surrounding rainforest. In present-day Bolivia, the amazing structures of Tiahuanaco were constructed and abandoned before the great Inca dynasty conquered the area in the fifteenth century. The Great Houses of the Anasazi in the southwestern area of the present-day United States were left behind more than five centuries before they were seen by the first white settlers. Some sites acquire a reputation for being eerie because of their appearance or because of events that are alleged or rumored to have happened there. The Nazca Lines of Peru and various so-called spirit pathways are cloaked in mystery as to their actual purpose as places of worship, initiation, or contact with alien beings. Lines where spirits or natural energies pass have been traced in Great Britain (where they are called Ley lines) and Germany (where they are called holy lines). Based on the idea that earlier civilizations were more attuned to mysterious Earth energies and built their sites along those lines, proponents of leys attempt to recreate those lines by tracing alignments of ancient sites. Many ancient structures were erected with consideration for the surrounding landscape and adjacent structures. In that sense, the community erecting the structure viewed the area as a sacred landscape. The landscapes were integral to rites performed there. More than 2,500 years ago, a legend first began to spread about an ideal society of the past that enjoyed an abundance of natural resources, great military power, splendid building and engineering feats, and intellectual achievements far advanced over those of other lands. Called Atlantis, this ancient society was described as existing on a continent-sized area with rich soil, plentiful pure water, abundant vegetation, and such mineral wealth that gold was inlaid in buildings. In the ensuing centuries, no evidence of Atlantis has been found, but its attributes have expanded to include engineering and technological feats that enhance its legendary status in the popular imagination. Atlanteans are commonly thought by enthusiasts to have had cosmic connections with extraterrestrial life. The truth behind such alleged places of mystery and power as the Bermuda Triangle, an area off the coast of Florida where ships and aircraft are said to vanish without a trace; El Dorado, the city of gold which drove the Spanish conquistadors on endless fruitless searches; and Avalon, the mystical place where the legendary King Arthur was taken after receiving mortal wounds in battle are still examined.

1220

1225

1230

1235

1240

1245

1250

1255

Although the stories of Camelot, Arthur, and the Knights of the Round Table are only myths, there are actual sites on which Avalon may well have been based. Some sources suggest that Avalon lies off the coast of Great Britain or is possibly the island of Greenland. Others have considered Arran, an island off the coast of Scotland, as a possible model for Avalon. Sometimes legends really do come to life. The Lost City of Willkapanpa the Old, a principal city rumored to consist primarily of Incan rulers and soldiers, was not discovered until 1912 when a historian from Yale University found the site now known as Machu Picchu hidden at 8,000 feet in altitude between two mountains, Huayana Picchu (young mountain) and Machu Picchu (ancient mountain) in Peru. The ridge overlooks a sacred river and valley called Urubamba. The most accepted view of Machu Picchu is that it was a religious sanctuary that served high priests and virgins of the sun. Even though many mysteries abound about Machu Picchu, many researchers have been inspired to call it the eighth wonder of the ancient world. (1115)

1260

1265

Best Places to Visit on Halloween

(Photo courtesy of Flickr users.)

If you were a witch, could you imagine a nicer place to dwell? This abandoned church is located in Burkittsville, Maryland, filming location of 1999s The Blair Witch Project.
1270

1275

Who can resist the thrill of fear? We imagine that hotels and churches are haunted, and we love to believe it when locals tell us that witches, werewolves and the undead lurk in the nearby woods. And though these legends and rumors often terrify us, and though our instincts tell us to run, curiosity kills the cat and we often go tiptoeing into the tombs, graveyards and forests of our nightmares. Next Halloween, indulge in the nerve-zapping thrill of being afraid, and consider visiting these real-life destinations of ghostly legends and dark history: The Blair Witch Forest. The Blair Witch Project, that terrifying low-budget cult film of 1999, reminded millions that we may have nothing to fear in a dark and gloomy forest but our own imaginations. The movie never showed a single image of ghouls or supernatural forces, yet it scared some of us almost to death and ruined camping for the rest of the summer. The story follows three film students into the rural backwoods of Maryland to interview locals on-camera and explore the dark forests as they documented a local legend about the so-called Blair Witch. They never caught the mean old lady on film, but she began visiting them each evening after they retired to their tent, and, night by night, turned the expedition into a nightmare. The film was partially shot in the real-life town of Burkittsville. If you go, you wont be the first, as countless film buffs and Bl air Witch believers have already swarmed this little hamlet of 200. Instead of bugging the locals, who have had to replace their town sign several times in the wake of film-fan thievery, take a walk in the nearby woods after dark and try not to panic. The mummies of Guanajuato. Around 1865, the local government in the town of Guanajuato, in the mountains of central Mexico, decided to begin collecting a 1290 cemetery tax from relatives of the deceased. Bodies of families unable to pay were exhumedand some, it turned out, had been naturally preserved in the awkward poses of death. These were placed in storageand they became, gradually, a draw for curious visitors. So was born Guanajuatos famed mummy museum. The assembly of the dried-out dead features more than 100 bodies 1295 displayed behind glass, where they grimace unhappily at about a million tourists per yearpeople with that familiar urge to see up close the feared but fascinating face of death. Visitors to Guanajuato should be warned that the mummy museum is not an attraction for the timidor one to treat irreverently. The bodies are of real people who died only several generations ago and, in some cases, may even have been buried alive. Scientists have speculated how the bodies became mummified. Some have suggested that high mineral content in the soil preserved them, while others believe the mummies are simply the result of a warm and dry climate. The Capuchin Catacombs of Sicily. On one wall of the Capuchin Catacombs in Palermo, Italy, are deceased men, on another women, and another children. Still other chambers feature virgins, priests, monks and professionals, many preserved in varying states of life-like quality. This resting place of some 8,000 people was born in the 1500s when the cemetery serving the local Capuchin monastery ran out of bunk space, requiring the monks to dig out a new tomb to lay their dead. The chambers were originally meant to serve only friars, but the Palermo catacombs eventually expanded operations to include members of the public, whose families paid fees for the housing of their dead loved ones. Like many catacombs around the world, this communal tomb is not just a burial site but a place intended for preservation and display. The monks dried the bodies on racks, applied vinegar, glycerine and other chemical preservatives, and dressed the corpses in various styles of clothing. Fees from living families helped maintain the collection. Today, tourists mayif they wishdescend from the idyllic, sunny streets of Sicilys chief city and go underground to meet the dead. Other catacombs of the world include those of Vienna, Granada, Melbourne, Lima and Paris. In the latter, sub-city tunnels have been filled with bones, and urban legends tell of tourists who have become lost in the maze-like corridors, which go on for hundreds of miles. The moral: Dont ditch your tour guide. The Hotel of The Shining. It was during Stephen Kings 1974 visit to th e Stanley Hotel in Estes Park, Colorado, that the story of The Shining was born. The author, who stayed in Room 217 with his wife, reportedly saw fleeting images of children in the hallways of the mountain lodge, and these flights of imagination eventually unraveled into the story, and psychological turmoil, of his most famous book and the 1980 movie that followed. The film, however, was shot at other locationsincluding the Timberline Lodge near Mount Hood, Oregon,

1280

1285

1300

1305

1310

1315

1320

where the fictional Overlook Hotels exterior shots were taken. The Timberlines hotel managers, who granted director Stanley Kubrick permission to film onsite, worried that tourists might be scared away from staying the night, so they asked that the director edit his script to make the haunted Room 217 into the nonexistent Room 237.
1325

1330

1335

Alcatraz Island. It was once a nest of thieves, but today, according to the legends and local lore that shroud The Rock, Americas most infamous historic prison is a den of ghouls. Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay was first documented by Europeans in 1775 when Spaniard Juan Manuel de Ayala named the 22-acre, guanofrosted outcropping Island of the Pelicans. In 1845 the American government bought the islan d, which would serve as a cannon-studded fort and a military prison. Then, in 1934, the convicts came to stay, and for the next three decades the worst of Americas murderers and gangsters paid their dues and, sometimes, died here. One prisoner was supposedly found strangled to death in isolation cell 14D, and it is said that moans and cries still echo from the chamber. And though Al Capone died at his Florida mansion, his ghost is said to haunt the prison where he spent four and a half years. Capone reportedly took up the banjo at Alcatraz, and off-key twangs are sometimes heard today, according to employees and park rangers at what has become a national historic monument. Tourists may visit the island for self-guided daytime tours, while evening walks through the jail require a guide, who is sure to be well-versed in ghost stories of Alcatraz Island. The Abandoned Villages of Chios. Guided ghost walks show visitors through the haunted districts of many cities, including New Orleans, Philadelphia and London, but for a ghost experience completely off the charted tourist path, go straight to the Greek island of Chios. Here, blue waters and tavernas on the beach draw crowds of sun-seeking Germans and Britonsbut a darker history seems to lurk in Chios remote mountains. For as the island develops into a summer and fall tourist hotspot, it has left behind numerous villages, where abandoned homes stare from the dry slopes like so many skulls half buried in the earth. Anavatos is the most famous vacant villageand now a national historic site. And a number of empty villages seem to have no names at alland good luck finding them. But Potamia in the islands northeast is among the few abandoned towns that remain on the maps. A cluster of decaying old homes with broken out windows, like eye sockets, and crumbling doorways, Potamia is accessible by goat trails and can be reached by hikers and bikers with a hankering for the rare and stomach-fluttering feeling of exploring a whole town with not a soulor at least not a personin it. Walking through the slumping dirt streets, one may wonder where once was the bakery, the butcher, the school, and the chapel. (1357) (~6900) (~15200)

1340

1345

1350

Unit 4 Food and culture

Give something different as a gift by giving Speciality Foods
How many fruit baskets have you sent or received during the past holidays or on past birthdays? I find that specialty foods easily surpass the traditional gifts and are some of the best gifts given or received for three reasons: they're unique, there's a wide range of choices, and they're tasty! During the next holiday season or for any gift-giving occasion, it will serve you well to remember that everyone appreciates receiving a specialty food gift. Nobody wants to be known as having sent a gift that is a repeat gift, or that when you see it arrive, and see who it's from, you know exactly what is inside. I know that when I see a specific fruit basket arrive each year on our doorstep, I know precisely who it's from, and I know exactly what I'm going to do with most of the contents, and that is turn it into a quick fruit salad and be done with it. That same distinct lack of variety can rub off onto you as the gift giver. The distinctiveness of a specialty food gift is in the variety. A specialty food gift once upon a time meant something from the international food section of your local grocery store. Today, it can mean anything from a set of exotic teas and candles to different fruit jams, to the most exceptional noshes you could possibly imagine, each for the discerning or curious palette. The word choice refers to a variety of things, and specialty food lets you avail yourself of not only several different choices of one type of item, such as nuts, but allows you to pick and choose, say nuts and fruit, or nuts and candy, or even exotic items like chocolate caramel treats imported from Europe. And there is variety even in the most simple of items like jams, featuring not only your normal pear jam, but also a red pepper jam that will serve as a key component to a great appetizer. The sure way to anyone's heart is through their stomach, and this is never so true as with specialty foods. Often a memorable component of any cocktail hour, many of these items are not of the sweet and salty dessert

1355

1360

1365

1370

classification, but rather of the antipasti tradition. A sure way to make an indelible impression is to be sure you are remembered as someone enjoys the delectable hors d'oeuvre you helped to provide.
1375

One of the best specialty foods gifts I ever received was chocolate covered fruit, but fruit that you wouldn't expect to be chocolate covered. These were being cherries and blueberries, dried, and coated in chocolate, creating such a unique flavour combination, but yet so satisfying that your five fruits a day allowance didn't seem so hard to meet after you sampled some of these treats. When you give a gift, you want it to be memorable, enjoyable, and something that the will actually surprise the recipient. As in the Japanese tradition, a gift itself should be equalled only by the way the gift is put together, or presented. A specialty food serves that purpose well, and ensures that not only the gift itself, but the way it arrives, and the presentation of the gift itself are an experience that the receiver will find indelible.

1380

Neandertals Ate Their Veggies, Tooth Study Shows

News
1385

by Sara Goudarzi, National Geographic

Tiny bits of plant material found in the teeth of a Neandertal skeleton unearthed in Iraq provide the first direct evidence that the early human relatives ate vegetation, researchers say. Little is known about diet of Neanderthals, although it's widely assumed that they ate more than just meat. Much of what is known about their eating habits has come from indirect evidence, such as animal remains found at Neanderthal sites and chemical signatures called isotopes detected in their teeth. The new hard evidence is microfossils of plant material that investigators found in the dental plaque of Neanderthal teeth originally dated to 50,000 years ago, said lead study author Amanda Henry, a graduate student in hominid paleobiology at The George Washington University. "The formation of dental plaque traps the plant microfossils from food particles within the matrix of the plaque deposits, so the microfossils are protected and are a unique record of the plant foods put into the mouth," Henry said. "So we can say with confidence that this individual Neanderthal ate plants," she added. The Shanidar Skeleton. Neanderthals lived in parts of Europe and Asia for more than 200,000 years and disappeared around 30,000 years ago. They lived in many different environments and survived numerous climatic changes, including some of the coldest and harshest glacial periods, Henry said. "It seems logical to me that they took advantage of any food sources they had available in their environments, which would vary from place to place and from time to time," she said. But there had been little hard evidence of variety in their diet, she added. The skeleton Henry studied was discovered in the 1950s at the cave site of Shanidar, in the Zgros Mountains of northeastern Iraq. Dubbed Shanidar III, the skeleton is that of a male possibly in his 40s and includes four teeth and several bone fragments.

1390

1395

1400

1405

The discoverers of the Shanidar III, Ralph and Rose Solecki, sampled the soil around the skeletons for pollen. Analyses revealed elevated levels of pollen grains of unusual plants around one of the skeletons. "The Soleckis interpreted this as strong evidence for the dietary use of plants, and even took it a step further and argued that this was evidence of intentional burial with flowers as grave goods," Henry said. This prompted Henry to sample the teeth of Shanidar III in 2007. Three of the teeth had excellent preserved plaque that contained microscopic fossils of plant material, she explained. "We know that this individual ate a variety of plants, including grass seeds, more commonly called grains today". What Did Neandertals Eat? Henry cautions that Shanidar III is only one fossil and does not provide enough evidence to make conclusive statements about the entirety of the Neandertal diet. "The finding suggests that characterizing Neanderthals as obligate meat-eaters may be wrong, but there is still a lot more work to be done on this issue," Henry said. In a 2006 study published in the journal Science, it was showed that the carbon isotopes preserved in the teeth of early human ancestors were evidence of a varied diet. But the technique does not indicate whether an individual Neandertal ate plants once or a thousand times. It also doesn't show the relative proportions of a food type in the individual's diet. (558)

1410

1415

1420

Art of cheese-making is 7,500 years old

Nidhi Subbaraman12 December 2012

Neolithic pottery fragments from Europe reveal traces of milk fats. Neolithic dairies may have been producing cheese as early as 7,500 years ago

1425

Traces of dairy fat in ancient ceramic fragments suggest that people have been making cheese in Europe for up to 7,500 years. In the tough days before refrigerators, early dairy farmers probably devised cheese-making as a way to preserve, and get the best use out of, milk from the cattle that they had begun to herd. Peter Bogucki, an archaeologist at Princeton University in New Jersey, was in the 1980s among the first to suspect that cheese-making might have been afoot in Europe as early as 5,500 BC. He noticed that archaeologists working at ancient cattle-rearing sites in what is now Poland had found pieces of ceramic vessels riddled with holes, reminiscent of cheese strainers. Bogucki reasoned that Neolithic farmers had found a way to use their herds for more than milk or meat. In a paper published in Nature, Bogucki and his collaborators now confirm that theory, with biochemical proof that the strainers were used to separate dairy fats. Mlanie Salque, a chemist at the University of Bristol, UK, used gas chromatography and carbon-isotope ratios to analyse molecules preserved in the pores of the ancient clay, and confirmed that they came from milk fats. This research provides the smoking gun that cheese manufacture was practiced by Neolithic people 7,000 years ago, says Bogucki. This is the first and only evidence of [Neolithic ] cheese-making in the archaeological record, says Richard Evershed, a chemist at Bristol and a co-author of the paper. The finding, he adds, is not only an indication that humans had by that time learned to use sophisticated technology, but is also evidence that they had begun to develop a complex relationship with animals that went beyond hunting. Its building a picture for me, as a European, of where we came from: the origins of our culture and cuisines, he says. Cheese-making would have given the Neolithic farmers a way to make the most out of the resources available from their herds. Early humans were unable to digest milk sugars, or lactose, after childhood; however, traditionally made cheese contains much less lactose than fresh milk. The making of cheese would have allowed them to get around the indigestibility of milk without getting ill, Evershed says.

1430

1435

1440

1445

Its one small step, but its filling out the picture of that transition from nomadism, says Heather Paxson, a cultural anthropologist at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, who studies US artisan cheesemakers. She suggests that Neolithic people might have curdled their milk with bacteria that are found in nature, resulting in a clumpy version of modern mozzarella. Evidence of dairy farming has previously been found at archaeological sites dating from the fifth millennium BC in Africa and the seventh millennium BC near Istanbul. But no sieves have been found at those locations, so there is no indication that cheese was being made there. (505)

1450

The Right Tea Kettles Make the Perfect Tea

1455

There is nothing like the smell of fresh hot tea served to reinvigorate you on a busy day. It does not matter if it is made from the convenience of a teabag or from the classic spoonful of loose tea leaves; your perfect drink should start with the right water temperature and taste. As you sip your afternoon tea, think about the fact that all the flavor and aroma filling your senses are made possible by the perfect equipment, the tea kettle. Tea kettles were made not only for decorative purposes in your kitchen, they were actually invented so that hot water for your tea could reach the ideal temperature that will eventually steep your leaves into the ideal concentration. Truly, kettles make tea preparation so much easier without spoiling the flavor of the leaves.

1460

There are various types of tea kettles in the market. From the overly stylish to the plain functional ones, These are basically classified according to the material they are made from. Choose from the following list the type of kettle that is most convenient for you; and remember that with proper care, a kettle will serve you the perfect tea for many years to come. Stainless tea kettles are the most durable ones around. Stainless steel is relatively thicker and will not bend easily like copper. Also, a kettle made from stainless steel definitely outlasts one which is made from glass. As for the taste, stainless does not tarnish the taste of boiling water which commonly happens with copper kettles. Stainless kettles can be cleaned in a jiffy; therefore they are not difficult to care for. Depending on the thickness of the base, some stainless kettles heat fast just like the ones made from copper.

1465

1470

Tea kettles made from copper are the most practical. Copper heats very quickly that is why it is the most conducive material to make kettles. The efficiency of copper kettles results in fast tea preparation without necessarily increasing fuel or heat. In fact, a copper tea kettle should not be placed over high heat for it to have longer service life. If you are using a lacquered kettle, you can maintain its polished look by using cleaning solution that is not abrasive to copper.

1475

Glass is very light and easiest to clean. Tea kettles made from glass tend to be very stylish, with mostly modern and minimalist designs. For obvious reasons, glass kettles may not be as durable as the others. In fact they can have, somewhat, delicate caring procedures. When boiling water with a glass kettle, it is best to sandwich a piece of metal between your stove and the base of the kettle to avoid direct heat contact. Never allow glass tea kettles to dry up while boiling as this may leave a stain at the base. With all these constraints, using glass may result in slow boiling of water; hence, slower tea preparation. Tea kettles made from cast iron are much heavier and definitely thicker. If only rust can be kept from cast iron tea, then they will be the most durable too. Fortunately, when boiling water using cast iron kettles, a sort of protective layer of minerals build up on its base overtime. With this layer, these kettles will not easily take in rust.

1480

1485

Nostalgic of the farming countryside, some of the most beautiful kettles around are made from painted enamel cast iron. These tea kettles require special care to prevent the paints from chipping off. They should never hit on other hard objects and in no occasion should they be left boiling dry. Some painted enamel cast iron kettles have even become expensive collectors item. To prevent rusting, keep your cast iron kettle dry as much as possible. Take out the water immediately after boiling. If you ever spot rust on the base inside, boil on it some water solution with baking soda and lemon juice. Do not use abrasive cleaning materials as these can cause scratches that can take in rust. (675)

1490

Plant Foods that Contain Complete Proteins By Bryan Nelson, July, 2012
One of the prevailing dietary myths out there is the idea that vegans and vegetarians are at risk of protein deficiency due to their plant-based diets. The truth is, nearly all foods, whether from animals or plants, contain all nine of the essential amino acids that we must consume so our bodies can build enough protein. Protein is so ubiquitous in everything we eat that the odds of becoming protein deficient are virtually nil, provided that calorie intake meets daily recommended standards. Like with most great myths, though, the protein myth isnt completely steeped in falsehood. Its origin can be traced back to an inkling of truth a remote fact, however inconsequential, that allows it to endure. In this case, the myth likely hails from the oft misunderstood distinction between complete and incomplete proteins.
1500

1495

While nearly all foods contain the nine essential amino acids we need, proportions do vary. Foods with amino acids in the correct proportion for human dietary needs are said to contain complete proteins, whereas foods with proportional deficiencies are said to be incomplete. (Hereinbelow is a lists the optimal dietary proportions of the essential amino acids). It just so happens that almost all animal-based foods contain complete proteins, while most plant-based foods are incomplete.

1505

This doesnt mean that vegans and vegetarians are in any danger of protein deficiency, vis -a-vis the protein myth (even a moderately varied plant diet easily balances out any amino acid deficits ). But its a fact that may nevertheless be relevant to protein-conscious veggie-dieters interested in maximizing the efficiency of their protein intake. Luckily, there are a number of plant-based foods that do provide complete proteins. Here are a number of them: Quinoa. A grain-like crop originating in the Andean region of South America, quinoa was considered sacred food by the Incas. Due in large part to its nutritional value, its importance was secondary only to the potato in pre-Columbian times. It was even considered more valuable than maize. Aside from being a complete protein, quinoa is also gluten-free and a good source of calcium, iron and phosphorous. It has even been considered a potential crop for NASAs Controlled Ecological Life Support System , to offer nutrition for astronauts on sustained spaceflight missions.

1510

1515

It is typically prepared much like rice, boiled and simmered in water, and its consistency and texture is much like a combination of rice and couscous. Amaranth. Amarath is another crop important to pre-Columbian people of Central and South America. The plant is valuable both for its seeds, which can be ground into a nutritional flour, and for its leafy greens, which rival spinach and kale nutrients. Its flour makes excellent tasting flatbreads, pastas and cereal. Its leaves make for a protein-rich addition to salad.

1520

Soybeans. Perhaps the most common and widespread plant-based complete protein, soybeans were first cultivated in East Asia but have since spread around the world. Tofu, soy milk and a wide variety of meat and dairy substitutes are derived from the soybean. Besides being a source of complete protein, soybeans have also been shown to reduce cholesterol, help prevent prostate cancer, and even fight osteoporosis. Soybeans also account for 80 percent of domestic biofuel production in the United States, and are an important resource for cattle feed.

1525

Buckwheat. Despite the name, buckwheat is not actually related to wheat, as it is not a cereal or grass. First cultivated in Southeast Asia, buckwheat is perhaps most widely eaten in the form of soba noodles, popular in Japanese and Korean

cuisine. In many regions of Europe, such as Russia and France, buckwheat is also transformed into pancakes. Buckwheat should also not be confused with wheat in that it is gluten-free. In fact, it is a common substitute for other grains when brewing gluten-free beer.
1530

Hempseed. Although probably best known for belonging to the Cannabis genus, hemp is far more valuable as a food source and building/textile material than as a psychoactive crop. Hempseeds are rich in protein and can be eaten raw, ground into a meal, sprouted, or even made into hemp milk. Hempseeds are also rich in Omega-3 fatty acids, essential fatty acids vital to our metabolism. The plant is also valuable as a building material and textile, used to make everything from clothing fibers to concrete-like blocks called hempcrete. Chia. Salvia hispanica seeds provide a rare plant source for complete protein. First cultivated by the Aztec of Central America, chia is a flowering plant in the mint family. The seeds may be eaten raw or ground into a flour. They are also often added to water or fruit juices to create a nutritional drink. Chia sprouts can also be consumed much like alfalfa sprouts, to be used in salads or sandwiches.

1535

1540

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. Technically, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae is not really a plant; it is a blue-green algae, belonging to a different taxonomic kingdom from plants. Even so, it provides an animal-free source of protein for vegans and vegetarians all the same. The algae is most commonly used as a food supplement, sold as tablets. Aside from being a source of complete protein, it has also been shown to have benefits for the immune system.

1545

Although it is known to grow in many regions of the world, by far the most abundant source of the cyanobacteria comes from a single lake in southern Oregon: Klamath Lake. Every year, the algae experiences a massive bloom, choking out all other microphytes in the lake. Since the algae comes in both toxic and non-toxic forms, caution should be advised before harvesting it as a food supplement.

1550

Spirulina. Another microalga that offers an animal-free source of complete protein is spirulina. First used as a food source by pre-Columbian Mesoamericans, today it is cultivated worldwide and primarily used as a dietary supplement. Spirulinas value as a nutritious food supplement has been recognized by several member states of the United Nations, who have assembled an organization called the Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition. The organization aims to utilize spirulina to combat malnutrition in famine-struck regions. (1016)

1555

Spicy Thai Cuisine

Thailands cuisine is a unique combination of flavors and techniques that has, over the centuries, been heavily influenced by Asia and Europe. The Thais love of curries and spices comes from India, the method of stir-frying food in a wok comes from China and rather surprisingly, traders from Portugal first brought the chili to Thailand. Food is the Thai nations favourite topic of conversation. Instead of enquiring after your health or commenting on the state of the weather, a Thai will greet another with a cheerful; Have you eaten yet? If the answer is; not eaten, whether you are family, friend, neighbour or even the visiting repair man, you will be invited to eat. Hospitality and community are very important to Thai society and so the bonding formed whilst sharing food is central to every household. At anytime of the day, no matter where you look, someone will be eating, preparing or cooking food. During a traditional meal, a cloth will be laid on the floor and everyone will gather around it, the women sitting with their legs to one side, the men cross-legged. The food is placed in the centre and the diners will help themselves and each other. The meal is eaten using a fork and spoon (with the fork being used to push food onto the spoon). The Thais only use chopsticks when eating noodles. Along with the staple food of rice, the typical Thai meal will consist of a soup, a spicy hot curry or spiced salad, a dip with accompanying fish/meat and vegetables and sometimes a creamy sweet desert. Ideally, the meal will offer a delicious combination of sweet, salty and sour, with spicy hot and bitter as minor accents to the flavors. There must be a harmony of tastes with the spicy hot dish being balanced with other milder dishes. Each of the four regions of Thailand has its own speciality. In the north, the food tends to be saltier, sweeter and spicier (hotter). Southern Thais have more curry dishes than the rest of Thailand and they prefer their food a little more sour. There are no real food taboos in Thailand, in the rural Northeast eating insects is common and crickets, silkworms, mealworms and the giant water bug (mang da) are popular snacks. But eating cheese and milk products are considered strange and to some disgusting, especially by the Northern Thais (Isaan)

1560

1565

1570

1575

1580

As well as Pad Thai, Red and Green curries and Thai fish cakes--dishes that regularly appear on Western menus, there are many more delicious taste sensations for you to explore. (433)

What is the difference between white wine, red wine, and ros wine?
Unless youre a wine aficionado, you may only have a vague idea of the differences between white, red, and ros wine. While its true that all three do share some characteristics, its also true that there are some very large differences between the three, and it doesnt all have to do with taste, though that is one of the biggest differences. Some people may wonder why it matters to know the difference between the three. Choosing the wrong wine to go with a meal, especially in a social setting, can be a major faux pas in some social circles. All wines are made from grapes, and this is where the differences between the different types of wines begin. There are actually six different types of wines: white, red, ros, sparkling, dessert, and fortified wines. However, white, red, and ros wines are the most popular. One of the sparkling wine champagne--is also fairly popular, especially at events like weddings. White wines have very little pigmentation, and almost all white wines are made from white grapes. However, black grapes can also be used because their juices are actually clear. The grape skin is removed before the wine is fermented. White wines vary in tastesome are quite dry, while others are fairly sweet. There are a number of popular white wines, including Chardonnay, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc, and Gewurztraminer. Wine makers use black grapes to make red wine, as well, but unlike white wine, red wine has a red or sometimes even a blue colour to it. This colour comes from the grape skins, which are kept with the juice during the fermentation process. These skins include tannins, a polyphenol that causes a dry feeling in the throat and mouth. These tannins also make red wine last longer, so it can be aged longer than white wine. Red wines include Zinfandel, Merlot, Pinot Noir, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Red wine is perfect for red meat, pasta, and grilled food of all types. Some people have never heard of ros wines. This is because they are sometimes called pink wines or blush wines. They are also made from black grapes, but unlike red wines, the skins are removed after a few hours. This gives the wine a slight pink colour and a bit of that dry taste caused by tannins, but not as much as red wine. Ros wines are usually pretty sweet, although traditional ros wine from Europe is some of the driest wine available. Ros wines include White Merlot and White Zinfandel. Finally, champagne is a type of sparkling wine that is usually drunk on New Years Eve and at major events. Technically, a sparkling wine can only be called champagne if it is made from grapes from the Champagne region of France. The major difference between champagne and other wines is that champagne contains carbon dioxide. This is what gives champagne and other sparkling wines their bubbles. (498)

1585

1590

1595

1600

1605

1610

Quick, Hot Meals to Start Your Day

1615

The reason we fall into the cereal/bread rut is because we run out of ideas and arent able to get things done on time. If youre looking for quick recipes for breakfast, its really a matter of thinking ahead. Meal planning can be invaluable, even if you only do it for breakfasts. Have everything on hand and look for recipes for breakfast that you can even make the night before. This saves a lot of time in the morning and ensures that you can get everything done and everyone fed on time. Need some ideas? Rice Pudding: Traditionally a dessert, this dish is actually excellent as a breakfast and you don t even have to cook anything extra! Just use leftover rice from dinner, add in eggs, milk, raisins and spices and a little sugar and youve got yourself a delicious breakfast that can be served cold or heated in the microwave. Waffles and Pancakes: The next time you make either of these Sunday favorites, make a double batch and freeze half. Just layer them with wax paper between and pop into a zipper bag. To thaw, toss in the toaster or toaster oven. No need to spend tons of money on the ready-to-eat Waffles!

1620

1625

Coffee Cake: There are infinite variations of coffee cake recipes and you can make them for a year without ever repeating. They are really quick to whip up and while they do have to bake, you can be getting the kids dressed

or having a shower during this time since you dont have to stand there watching over the food. Poached Eggs: There are a lot of things you can do with poached eggs. Theyre super simple; just drop the egg into boiling water. Serve as is, poach in soup or serve hot on top of cheese and toast.
1630

Smoothies: Why stick to solids? You can whip up a very tasty smoothie with a little milk or yogurt, a couple of bananas and any other fruit you might like. Some people take this a step further and make healthy green smoothies by adding spinach which doesnt flavor the smoothie but adds vitamins and fiber. There are so many ways to make breakfast without having to get up hours in advance. Youll feel a lot better if you have a nice meal in your stomachs as you head off to school and work, too! (404)

1635

What makes good olive oil?

Pure Olive Oil and Light Olive Oil are not as the names indicate. The former is considered lower quality produced using refining processes, while the latter is merely lighter in colour and flavour and is not low in fat content as some people might think.

1640

When you next visit the supermarket for a good olive oil read the labels, which should be clearly marked and graded by the International Olive Oil Council (IOOC). A good quality olive oil starts with Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO), which is a superior grade of olive oil that is produced from the first pressing of olives by physical means, or centrifugation, and it cannot contain any refined oils. Also, it has less than 0.8% acidity. Extra Virgin Olive Oil should display fruity characteristics as it is a natural olive fruit juice. For centuries health experts have advocated the consumption of olive oil in preference to other edible oils. Extra Virgin Olive Oil has more antioxidants and may reduce the production of bad cholesterols, alleviate digestive problems and also help reduce the risk of chronic diseases, including cancer. Then theres Virgin Olive Oil, which is similar to Extra Virgin, but with slightly higher acidity (less than 2%). Likewise, Virgin Olive Oil cannot contain any refined oil.

1645

1650

Then we come to the common blended Olive Oil, which is often cheaper because it contains mainly refined oils blended with virgin olive oil. This adds a milder flavour and mild aroma and is up to 3.3% free acidity. Pure Olive Oil is good for cooking and frying and contains less antioxidants. Good oils should have a good balance of fruitiness, bitterness and pungency and above all should be fresh. Australians grow their own olives in certain parts of the country. One of the most respected growers is the Pukara Estate in the Upper Hunter Valley of New South Wales. The cool winters allow the olive trees to rest and recuperate before the long hot summer that follows and these climatic conditions, as well as the terrain, provide the perfect environment to grow premium quality olives. (352)

1655

Peru: Lima Beans and New World Wine

1660

Francisco Pizarro was the conquistador who came to Peru in 1532. The nightmare that had occurred with the Aztecs repeated itself for the Inca the capture and death of the leader, Atahualpa; the demands for gold. The Inca, too, died in horrifying numbers from European diseases. In 1525, Pizarro founded the city of Lima, now the capital, so he could defend himself against Inca warriors. The city eventually gave its name to one of the members of the bean family native to South America. Between 1540 and 1550, Spain transplanted foodstuffs to Peru: wine grapes, figs, pomegranates, quinces, wheat, barley, and citrus. This explosion of Spanish food was subsidized by the crown, which offered a huge prizetwo bars of silverto the first person in each town who produced Spanish foods like wine, olive oil, wheat, or barley on a large scale in Peru. There was wealth to be made in cultivating the old foods, but getting them to survive and thrive in the New World wasnt always easy. Of the more than 100 olive tree cuttings that one man imported to Peru, only three survived. These were so valuable that he planted them on a walled farm in a valley and had them guarded by more than 100 blacks and 30 dogs, which were either bribed or distracted, because one of the plants was stolen and showed up far away in Chile where it produced numerous trees. Three years later, somebody sneaked back to the farm and replanted the original tree exactly where they had stolen it. From the early 1520s to the late 1550s, vineyards of European grapes were established in Central and South America, on both sides of the Andes. Wild grapes grew in the Americas, but they were unsuitable for wine. How did viticulture spread so quickly? It was the law. Under the encomienda system, Spanish settlers in New Spain were given land and Indians to work it, and were required to plant 1,000 vines of the best quality for every 100 Indians they owned. Grapevines didnt thrive in Mexico because of the climate, but they did in Peru, especially in

1665

1670

1675

1680

the south in the Moquegua Valley. There was a ready-made market for wine in Peru, too, because the vineyards were near the silver mines at Potos and all their enslaved Indian workers. Peruvian wine makers were so successful after they began producing wine in 1551 that Spanish wine makers protested; in 1595 Spains King Philip II protected Spanish vintners by restricting grapevine planting in the colonies. Peru had a thriving wine industry until it was heavily damaged in the late nineteenth century by an epidemic of phylloxera, a yellow louse almost impossible to see with the naked eye, that eats the roots of vinifera grapevines. Peruvians took to the coconut quickly. The word coco is Spanish for monkey, because they are both rou nd, have brown fur, and eyes. Coconut milk is used frequently, replacing water, chicken or beef broth or stock, or tomato sauce or juice in many recipes. In 1991, food historian Raymond Sokolov wrote: Perus traditional dishes comprise the last great cuisine undiscovered by a world gone mad for new tastes. However, he conceded that roast or stewed guinea pig has no future in the non-Andean world. And probably neither does roasted llama heart on a stick. (563)

1685

Argentina: Gauchos and Beef

1690

European horses running wild on the pampas the prairiesof Argentina reproduced to the point that it took a day for a herd to pass by. Horses preceded humans into the flat plains of the area around what is now the capital, Buenos Aires, because permanent settlers in 1580 found huge wild herds already there. The Spanish brought their cattle, the ancestors of the Texas longhorns, and those thrived, too. Herds doubled nearly every fifteen months. Soon, beef was plentiful and cheap. As historian Alfred Crosby says, there were probably more cattle in the New World in the seventeenth century than any other type of vertebrate immigrant. Beef provided food for the enslaved Indians working in the mines. But a more important use was for tallow to make candles, especially to light the mines. Hides, too, were more important uses of cattle than food. They were tanned and turned into armor and vessels of all kinds, from trunks to drinking cups. A beef cuisine grew in Argentina, especially using a technique learned from Caribbean nativesthe barbecue. Argentine barbecue is basted with brine. Barbecue sauce is the vinegar-based chimichurri and modern Argentine marinades and salsas are often based on reductions of Argentine wines. Another classic Argentine dish is empanadas, roughly translated as stuffed turnovers. They, too, would not have been possible without Old World foods. The dough is made from wheat and lard; the filling usually contains meat. In Argentina, the meat can be mixed with New World potatoes, or sometimes fruit, like Old World peaches. Along with the cattle and beef cuisine, the Spanish transplanted their cowboy culture. Americans didnt create the cowboySpain did, in the Middle Ages. He was a vaquero, from vaca, the Spanish word for cow, and he knew how to use a horse to wrangle a herd, how to handle a branding iron, and what to do on a round-up. In Argentina and Uruguay, the vaquero was called a gaucho. He brought the rest of his Spanish cowboy vocabulary with him: bronco, lasso, rodeo. (344)

1695

1700

1705

1710

The Caribbean: Sugar For the most part, European settlers were more interested in seeing if Old World
foods with already established markets could be produced more cheaply and in greater quantities in the New World. One food in particular fit the bill. It quickly rose to dominate the international market, created huge fortunes on both sides of the Atlantic, caused millions of people to be enslaved, created new professions, and changed the eating habits of Homo sapiens completely. It was sugar, Saccharum officinarum.

1715

1720

The introduction of chocolate, coffee, and tea into Europe caused a rise in the demand for sugar, while the availability of sugar increased the demand for chocolate, coffee, and tea. A sugar spiral developed: as sugar became more available, its price dropped; as its price dropped, it became more available to more people. What had been a medicine for the rich in the Middle Ages was a staple for even the poor by the middle of the eighteenth century. Sugar growing, harvesting, and processing were extremely labor intensive, and the labor was African slaves. (178)

Turmeric is known as the golden spice as well as the spice of life. It has been used in India as a medicinal
plant, and held sacred from time immemorial. Turmeric has strong associations with the sociocultural life of the people of the Indian subcontinent. This earthy herb of the Sun with the orange -yellow rhizome was regarded as the herb of the Sun by the people of the Vedic period.
1725

No wonder the ancients regarded turmeric as the Oushadhi , the healing herb, the most outstanding herb, the one herb above all others (Jager, 1997) . Turmeric has at least 6000 yr of documented history of its use as medicine and in many socio-religious practices. It is probably a native of Southeast Asia, where many related species of Curcuma occur wildly, though turmeric

1730

itself is not known to occur in the wild. Turmeric is cultivated most extensively in India, followed by Bangladesh, China, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Philippines. On a small scale, it is also grown in most tropical regions in Africa, America, and Pacific Ocean Islands. India is the largest producer, consumer, and exporter of turmeric. The name turmeric has originated from the Medieval Latin name terramerita, which became terre merite of French, meaning deserved earth or meritorious earth, a name by which powdered turmeric was known in commerce. Ancient Indians had given many names for turmeric, each one denoting a particular quality for instance Krimighni killing worms, antimicrobial, Mahaghni indicates antidiabetic properties, Anestha not offered for sacrifice, Haridra indicating that it is dear to Hari, Bhadra denotes auspicious or lucky, or Hridayavilasini giving delight to heart, charming. In the Sanskrit language, turmeric has about 55 synonyms that are associated with its religious or medicinal uses. In English, turmeric was also known as yellow root and Indian saffron. Herbal experts consider turmeric as one of the greatest gifts of Nature because it is endowed with a variety of curative properties. In all South Asian countries, turmeric has been in use from ancient time as a spice, food preservative, coloring agent, and cosmetic and in the traditional systems of medicine ( Ayurveda , Sidha , Unani , and Tibetan). In the past, turmeric as well as its wild relatives such as C. aromatica was used to dye clothes (cotton, silk, and wool), though the color degrades rapidly in presence of sunlight. In modern times, the coloring matter of turmeric (curcumin) is used as a safe food color in cheese, spices, mustard, cereal products, pickles, potato flakes, soups, ice creams, yogurt, etc. Studies have indicated that curcumin is nontoxic to humans even at a dose of 8000 mg/d taken continuously (Cheng, 2001). The medicinal uses of turmeric and curcumin are indeed diverse, ranging from cosmetic face cream to the prevention of Alzheimers disease. Turmeric is also qualified as the queen of natural Cox-2 inhibitors (Duke, 2003). Recent researches on turmeric are focused on its antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antimicrobial properties, in addition to its use in cardiovascular and gastrointestinal disorders.

1735

1740

1745

1750

HISTORY The earliest reference about turmeric can be seen in Atharvaveda (Ca. 6000 yr B.P.), in which
1755

turmeric is prescribed to charm away jaundice. It was also prescribed in the treatment of leprosy. Reference to turmeric has also been made in the Yajnavalkyasamhita (composed, Ca. 4000 yr B.P.) at the time of the epic Ramayana. Turmeric was listed as a coloring plant in an Assyrian herbal dating about 2600 yr B.P. Marco Polo, in 1280 A.D., mentioned turmeric as growing in the Fokien region of China (Rosengarten et al, 1969). Evidences indicate that turmeric was under cultivation in India from ancient times, but whether the turmeric that they used was C. longa or some other species having yellow rhizome, is not known. Garcia de Orta (1563) described turmeric under the name Crocus indicus. Fluckiger and Hanbury (1879 ) wrote several varieties of turmeric, distinguished by the names of the countries or districts in which they are produced are found in the English market; although they present differences that are sufficiently appreciable to the eye of the experienced dealer, the characters of each sort are scarcely so marked or so constant as to be recognizable by mere verbal descriptions. Linschoten (1596) , while describing with the utmost details the trade in Cochin makes no mention of turmeric. The original home of turmeric is shrouded in mystery. Although several species of Curcuma are natives of India, some of which might have been used as haridra (turmeric), there is little evidence to indicate that C. longa is a native of India. All the earlier writers speak of turmeric only as cultivated (e.g., Roxburgh, 1810; Watt, 1872). Ainslie (cited by Watt, 1872) remarked that Curcuma longa grows wild in Cochin China, and is there called as Kuong huynh. In all probability, it seems that the true turmeric (C. longa) came to India from the ancient regions of Cochin China (present day Vietnam) or China either through the movement of the ancient tribal people during their migration to the Northeast region of India, or through the Buddhist monks and ancient travelers who reached India during the post-Buddha era. To the ancients turmeric was not a spice but was a dye and a remedy for many ailments. The travelers might have been carrying turmeric rhizomes as a remedy for two of the most common ailments that they were usually subjected to wounds and stomach troubles. Gradually, turmeric became popular in India and in course of time replaced the indigenous types that were in use. It possibly might have been introduced into cooking for preservation of food products and subsequently used to impart color to the dishes. For such uses, the other Curcuma species might not have been preferred due to their very bitter taste. Taste,

1760

1765

1770

1775

1780

1785

color, and medicinal property all merged in C. longa, which in due course acquired magical associations. In course of time, turmeric became associated with many traditions and myths in the centuries that followed. Sopher (1964) writes, the wild Curcuma from which Curcuma domestica evolved may first have attracted attention as an incidental source of food, but the important property that became the object of conscious selection was the yellowish color of turmeric. As a quickly growing plant with a strikingly colored rhizome, turmeric acquired magical properties, some apparently associated with the fertil ity of the earth Attitudes and practices expressing these ideas would be disseminated together with the human dispersal of the plant over a wide area. (1076) (~7170) (~22380)

1790

Referencias y fuentes:
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1 Ancient Civilizations: Almanac Map of the Americas http://www.smithsonianmag.com
1795

http://revmodo.com http://www.nature.com
http://www.callrid.com/guide/food-and-beverage/ http://www.dime-co.com/food-and-drink/

http://www.ArticleStreet.com/profile/gdavis1-15461.html
1800 http://www.articlecity.com/

Cuisine and culture : a history of food and people / Linda Civitello. 2nd ed.