Unit 1 Introduction to Composite materials Introduction Modern technology required materials with unusual combination of properties that cant

be met by conventional metal, alloys, ceramics, and polymeric materials. Composite is the answer for structural materials that have low density, strong, stiff, abrasion, and impact resistance and not easily corroded. In designing composite materials scientists and engineers have indigenously combined various metals, ceramics and polymers to produce a new generation of extra ordinary materials. Definition A composite material is defined as a structural material created by combining two or more material having dissimilar characteristics. The constituent are combined at macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other. One constituent is called Matrix (Resin) phase and the other is called reinforcing (Fiber) phase. Reinforcing phase is embedded in the matrix phase to give the desired characteristics. Natural composite Wood lingix matrix reinforced with the cellulose fiber. Bone mineral matrix called apatite reinforced with collagen fibers. Mud walls of houses reinforced with bamboos Glass fiber reinforced resin for helmet Reinforced concrete Automobile tyres The main advantage of composite material is the combination of different properties which are seldom found in conventional materials. The unusual combination properties include high strength to weight ratio, higher stiffness to weight ratio, improved fatigue resistance, improved corrosion

Man made Composites

Need for developing composites

resistance, higher resistance to thermal expansion, excellent optical and magnetic properties, wear resistance, good fracture toughness, acoustical insulation. Present trend is to go for light weight construction for easy handling and reduced space. Classification of composites 1) Based on matrix

2) Based on Reinforcement Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers

Reinforcing material

Particulate Reinforced

Fiber Reinforced

Structural Reinforced

Functions of matrix 1) Binds the fiber together and acts as medium by which an externally applied stress is transmitted and distributed to the fibers. matrix material should be ductile Elastic modulus of fiber should be much higher than that of matrix.

2) Matrix protects the individual fiber from surface damage as a result of mechanical abrasion or chemical reaction with environment. 3) Matrix suppurates fibers and by the virtue of it relative softness and plasticity, prevents the propagation of brittle cracks from fiber to fiber catastrophic failure. In other word a matrix phase serves as a barrier to crack propagation. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) PMCs consist of polymer resin as a matrix. They are used in greatest diversity of composite applications as well as in largest quantity in light of there room temperature properties, ease of fabrication and cost. The matrix often determines the maximum service temperature, since it normally melts softens and degrade as much as lower temperature then the fiber reinforcement. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during

cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and extract the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues, including attempts to replace metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation. Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their creep over an extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which the usage of resins is constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can increase the failure load as well as creep resistance.
Thermosets Resin cost is low. Thermosets exhibit moderate shrinkage. Thermoplastics Resin cost is slightly higher. Shrinkage of thermoplastics is low Interlaminar fracture toughness is low. Interlaminar fracture toughness is high. Thermosets exhibit good resistance to fluids and solvents. Composite mechanical properties are good. Thermoplastics exhibit poor resistance to fluids and solvents. Composite mechanical properties are good. Prepregability characteristics are poor. Prepreg shelf life and out time are poor. Prepreg shelf life and out time are excellent.

Prepregability characteristics are excellent.

Different types of thermosets and thermoplastic resins commonly in use are as follows: Thermosets Phenolics & Cyanate ester Polyesters & Vinyl esters Polyimides Epoxies Bismaleimide (BMI) Thermoplastics Polypropylene Nylon (Polyamide) Poly-ether-imide (PEI) Poly-ether-sulphone (PES) Poly-ether -ether-ketone (PEEK)

Metal Matrix Composite

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are characterized by high moduli. Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminum and magnesium are the popular matrix metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The strength-to-weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys. The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various temperatures determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and

compounds can be used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes more stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.

Ceramic Matrix Materials

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a favorite for applications requiring a structural material that doesnt give way at temperatures above 1500C. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature applications. High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics posses, have combined to cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement. This is because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective quantum of load to the reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume is high enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of highstrength fiber to a weaker ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be weaker. The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to some extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being increasingly resorted to as an option. When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials, the resultant composite is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the composite will develop strength within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in micro cracks extending from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Micro cracking can result in a composite with tensile strength lower than that of the matrix.

Reinforcement Types Dispersoids Hard inert sub-micrometer size particles are disperse in to the metallic or non-metallic or inter metallic matrix. More often particles of 0.01 micro-meter to 0.1 micro-meter are uniformly dispersed in a value of concentration of 10 to 15%, which acts as obstacles for dislocation movement. The presence of hard particle also increases the elastic limit causing rapid hardening. The strength of composite depends up on the particle size, shape, distribution and physical characteristics. In this composite material, matrix is the measure load bearing constituent.

Particulate These types of composites consist of particles of one or more materials suspended in a matrix of another material. Here size of particle varies from 1mm or more and volume concentration varies from 20 to 40% volume. Because of slightly bigger size particle, they cant interfere with dislocation and exhibit strengthens effect by hydrostatically restraining the movement of matrix close to it. The elastic modulus of particulate composites follows the rule of mixture Upper Limit Ec = Em Vm + Ep Vp Lower Limit Ec= EmEp / (Em Vm + Ep Vp) Ec, Ep, Em = Elastic modulus of composite, matrix and particulate V = Volume fraction. The rule of mixture equation predict that the elastic modulus should

Fiber Reinforcement

Fibers are grouped as whiskers, fibers and wires based diameter and character.

Whiskers are vary thin single crystal, have extremely very large length to dia ratio (20 200). They have small size, high degree of crystalline perfection, high strength. Ex graphite, silicon, carbide, silicon nitride, Al oxide. Fibers Fiber materials are either polymer or ceramics which have small diameter. Ex polymer, glass, carbon, graphite, boron, silicon, quartz. Wires have relatively large diameter. Ex steel, tungsten, molybdenum. * Discontinuous reinforcement Used in polymeric composite, referred as fillers of various shapes and short fibers up to 20 mm. Ex Metallic powders Al, Fe, Mg, Ti, Zr etc Non metallic powder Al oxides, calcium carbonate, silica, carbon etc * Continuous fiber reinforcement Natural Silk, Jute, Wool, Cotton Organic fibers from extended flexible polymers like polyethylene, polymer. Glass fiber Most inorganic fibers are based on amorphous 3D networks structure of silica. They are isotropic in nature and can be drawn easily near their glass transition temperature. Where they exhibit Newtonian viscous flow. Depending on chemistry and property of fiber, they can be classified as E glass Electrical applications C glass Corrosion resistance application AR - Alkali resistance S higher tensile and stiffness value

Structural Composites a) Laminated Multi layer composite consist several layers of fibrous composites bounded together by organic adhesives. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and is very thin about 0.1 mm. when several such identical or different layers are bound together, form multi

layer composites. The constituent materials in each layer are called laminates. If multi layer composite is made up of layers of different constituent materials. They are called hybrid composites.

Ex Reinforced plastic sheet clawed with copper, provided in the printed circuit which gives better electrical conductivity. Pure aluminum is bonded to high strength aluminum alloy protects ply from corrosion. b) Sand witches

Sand witches consisting of thick low, density core, sand witched between two high density facing materials. Sand witches can offer high strength and high bending stiffness. Function of core It suppurates the faces and resists deformation perpendicular to the face plane. It provides a certain degree of shear rigidity along planes which are perpendicular to the face. Core materials can be either sheets made of foam or honey comb structural made of polystyrene foam, polyurethane foam, and polyvinyl chloride foam, plastic honey comb carbon or Kevlar. Face sheet is generally made of Al or FRP. The challenge is making a structure as light as possible without sacrificing strength. This requirement leads to stabilize thin surface to with stand tensile and compressive loads and combination of face sheet and core to resist bending and torsion. Prepegs Is ready made type composite available in standard width of 76 to 1270 mm and thickness varies from 0.1 to 3 mm. A tape is stored at room temperature or in refrigerator. The resin content varies from 35 to 45%. Prepegs are in 3 grades Continuous fiber embedded in resin matrix

Discontinuous but aligned fibers embedded in resin matrix. Discontinuous and randomly distributed.

Rows of fibers such as glass, aramid, boron or carbon fibers are collected and passed through collimator with tension rolls. The collimatric fibers pass through resin bath. In heating chamber curing take place. Stage A Un cured stage, where in the resin is to flow easily. Stage B Middle stage Semi viscous to allow process easily. In this stage both heat and pressure applied. Stage C Prepegs become hard and partially cured. After curing the prepegs pass through take up rolls back with releasing film. The releasing film keeps prepegs from non-sticking. Hybrid Composites Hybrid is obtained by using two or more different types of fiber in a single matrix. A verity of fiber combinations and matrix materials are used. There are number of ways in which the two different fibers may be combined. Fiber may be aligned and intimately mixed with one another. Laminates may be constructed consisting of layers, each of which consists of single fiber type, alternating one with another. Ex Commonly carbon and glass fiber are incorporated in to a polymeric resin. Carbon fibers are strong and relatively stiff and provide low density reinforcement. Glass fibers are inexpensive and lacks of stiffness of carbon. The glass-carbon hybrid is stronger and tougher has a higher impact resistance and may be produced at lower cost. When hybrid composites are stressed in tension, failure is usually doesnt occur suddenly. The carbon fibers are first to fail, at which the load is transferred to glass fiber. Upon the failure of glass fiber the matrix phase must sustain the applied load. ApplicationsLight weight land, water, air transport structural components, sporting goods, light weight orthopedic component.

Desirable characteristics of Fiber Reinforced Composites (Parameters or Factors) 1. Length of fiber 2. Diameter or size of fiber 3. Orientation of fiber 4. Volume fraction of fiber 5. Fiber properties 6. Matrix properties 7. Bonding and Interface strength Length of fiber: Usually the ends of fibers have lower load carrying ability and hence higher the ends lower will be load carrying capacity of the composite. Longer the fiber, number of ends will be lower and hence higher will be the load carrying capability. It has also been found that for the same volume fraction of fibers, increasing the length of fibers is found to increase the tensile strength of fibers.

Diameter of fibers By reducing the diameter of fibers has following advantages: The number of flaws is greatly reduced and strength is increased Contact surface area increased. Smaller the size, more fibers will accommodated and hence the contact surface is increased which in turn improves the efficiency of load transfer from the matrix to the fiber. Flexibility of fibers is greatly increased whereby the fibers can be bent, wound and woven easily.

Volume fraction Increasing the volume fraction or amount of fibers lead to increase in the specific property of the composite. However, maximum volume fraction is restricted to 80% to ensure that each fiber is surrounded by the matrix phase. It has been found that if the volume fraction is below 28% the fibers do not effectively reinforce the matrix. Orientation of fiber

1) Continuous aligned fiber under longitudinal load. 2) Continuous fiber under transverse load. 3) Discontinuous and aligned fiber. 4) Discontinuous and randomly oriented. Fiber Properties Fibre reinforcement not only comes in a variety of materials with different strengths and stiffness, but also in a variety of forms, e.g. mats, straight rovings, woven fabrics. In some forms the fibres are grossly kinked to conform to a weave pattern and this can reduce the strength of the composite material. Unlike most conventional materials, the strength and stiffness of the material can be varied by adjusting the fibre content. Matrix Properties
The wide variety of polymers with different characteristics is further complicated by the addition of fillers and Plasticizers which can significantly alter the composite properties. This can result in published properties being of little value because the exact composition is not

stated or cannot be reproduced. Some matrices may exhibit poor bonding with the fibre reinforcement and are thus unable to develop the full strength capacity of the fibres. Bonding and Interface Strength

It is extremely important that the bonding between the reinforcing phase and matrix is very good. The fibers should not pull out and get de-laminated or de-bonded. To facilitate good wettability, coupling agents or coatings are used.

1.2 COMPOSITES 1.2.1 Why a composite? Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics and ceramics have been the dominant emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of composite materials have grown steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets relentlessly. Modern composite materials constitute a significant proportion of the engineered materials market ranging from everyday products to sophisticated niche applications. While composites have already proven their worth as weight-saving materials, the current challenge is to make them cost effective. The efforts to produce economically attractive composite components have resulted in several innovative manufacturing techniques currently being used in the composites industry. It is obvious, especially for composites, that the improvement in manufacturing technology alone is not enough to overcome the cost hurdle. It is essential that there be an integrated effort in design, material, process, tooling, quality assurance, manufacturing, and even program management for composites to become competitive with metals. The composites industry has begun to recognize that the commercial applications of composites promise to offer much larger business opportunities than the aerospace sector due to the sheer size of transportation industry. Thus the shift of composite applications from aircraft to other commercial uses has become prominent in recent years. Increasingly enabled by the introduction of newer polymer resin matrix materials and high performance reinforcement fibres of glass, carbon and aramid, the penetration of these advanced materials has witnessed a steady expansion in uses and volume. The increased volume has resulted in an expected reduction in costs. High performance FRP can now be found in such diverse applications as composite armoring designed to resist explosive impacts, fuel cylinders for natural gas vehicles, windmill blades, industrial drive shafts, support beams of highway bridges and even paper making rollers. For certain applications, the use of composites rather than metals has in fact resulted in savings of both cost and weight. Some examples are cascades for engines, curved fairing and fillets, replacements for welded metallic parts, cylinders, tubes, ducts, blade containment bands etc.

Further, the need of composite for lighter construction materials and more seismic resistant structures has placed high emphasis on the use of new and advanced materials that not only decreases dead weight but also absorbs the shock & vibration through tailored microstructures. Composites are now extensively being used for rehabilitation/ strengthening of pre-existing structures that have to be retrofitted to make them seismic resistant, or to repair damage caused by seismic activity. Unlike conventional materials (e.g., steel), the properties of the composite material can be designed considering the structural aspects. The design of a structural component using composites involves both material and structural design. Composite properties (e.g. stiffness, thermal expansion etc.) can be varied continuously over a broad range of values under the control of the designer. Careful selection of reinforcement type enables finished product characteristics to be tailored to almost any specific engineering requirement. Whilst the use of composites will be a clear choice in many instances, material selection in others will depend on factors such as working lifetime requirements, number of items to be produced (run length), complexity of product shape, possible savings in assembly costs and on the experience & skills the designer in tapping the optimum potential of composites. In some instances, best results may be achieved through the use of composites in conjunction with traditional materials. 1.2.2 What is a composite? A typical composite material is a system of materials composing of two or more materials (mixed and bonded) on a macroscopic scale. Generally, a composite material is composed of reinforcement (fibers, particles, flakes, and/or fillers) embedded in a matrix (polymers, metals, or ceramics). The matrix holds the reinforcement to form the desired shape while the reinforcement improves the overall mechanical properties of the matrix. When designed properly, the new combined material exhibits better strength than would each individual material. As defined by Jartiz, [7] Composites are multifunctional material systems that provide characteristics not obtainable from any discrete material. They are cohesive structures made by physically combining two or more compatible materials, different in composition and characteristics and sometimes in form. Kelly [8] very clearly stresses that the composites should not be regarded simple as a combination of two materials. In the broader significance; the

combination has its own distinctive properties. In terms of strength or resistance to heat or some other desirable quality, it is better than either of the components alone or radically different from either of them. Berghezan [9] defines as The composites are compound materials which differ from alloys by the fact that the individual components retain their characteristics but are so incorporated into the composite as to take advantage only of their attributes and not of their shortcomings, in order to obtain an improved material Van Suchetclan [10] explains composite materials as heterogeneous materials consisting of two or more solid phases, which are in intimate contact with each other on a microscopic scale. They can be also considered as homogeneous materials on a microscopic scale in the sense that any portion of it will have the same physical property. 1.2.3 Characteristics of the Composites Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases embedded in a continuous phase. The discontinuous phase is usually harder and stronger than the continuous phase and is called the reinforcement or reinforcing material, whereas the continuous phase is termed as the matrix. Properties of composites are strongly dependent on the properties of their constituent materials, their distribution and the interaction among them. The composite properties may be the volume fraction sum of the properties of the constituents or the constituents may interact in a synergistic way resulting in improved or better properties. Apart from the nature of the constituent materials, the geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size and size distribution) influences the properties of the composite to a great extent. The concentration distribution and orientation of the reinforcement also affect the properties. The shape of the discontinuous phase (which may by spherical, cylindrical, or rectangular cross-sanctioned prisms or platelets), the size and size distribution (which controls the texture of the material) and volume fraction determine the interfacial area, which plays an important role in determining the extent of the interaction between the reinforcement and the matrix. Concentration, usually measured as volume or weight fraction, determines the contribution of a single constituent to the overall properties of the composites. It is not

only the single most important parameter influencing the properties of the composites, but also an easily controllable manufacturing variable used to alter its properties. The orientation of the reinforcement affects the isotropy of the system. 1.3 COMPONENTS OF A COMPOSITE MATERIAL In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at least two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk material (the matrix), and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the matrix. 1.3.1 Role of matrix in a composite Many materials when they are in a fibrous form exhibit very good strength property but to achieve these properties the fibres should be bonded by a suitable matrix. The matrix isolates the fibres from one another in order to prevent abrasion and formation of new surface flaws and acts as a bridge to hold the fibres in place. A good matrix should possess ability to deform easily under applied load, transfer the load onto the fibres and evenly distributive stress concentration. A study of the nature of bonding forces in laminates [12] indicates that upon initial loading there is a tendency for the adhesive bond between the reinforcement and the matrix to be broken. The frictional forces between them account for the high strength properties of the laminates. 1.3.2 Materials used as matrices in composites In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at least two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk material (the matrix) and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the matrix. RULE OF MIXTURES Rule of Mixtures is a method of approach to approximate estimation of composite material properties, based on an assumption that a composite property is the volume weighed average of the phases (matrix and dispersed phase) properties. According to Rule of Mixtures properties of composite materials are estimated as follows:

Density dc = dm*Vm + df*Vf Where dc,dm,df densities of the composite, matrix and dispersed phase respectively; Vm,Vf volume fraction of the matrix and dispersed phase respectively.