Lawrence Collins 14 March 2013 Japanese CM160 Buddhist Reactions to Christianity in Early Japan The status and acceptance

of Christianity in Japan has had a long and dichotomous history. Though initially permitted and even advocated by high-ranking government officials, Christians and Christianity, as well as Westerners in general, began to be persecuted and nearly disappeared from Japanese society completely. The causes for the change of tolerance of Christianity include societal, political, and economical pressures, all of which were ultimately influenced by the religious traditions of Japan. Text used in exploring the issue of the status of Christianity and other religions in pre-modern (-1886) Japan include Bowrings The Religious Traditions of Japan: 500-1600, Earharts Japanese Religion: Unitiy and Division, Fujitas Japans Encounter with Christianity, as well as Tanigawas article, National Character and Religion. These sources, with Japans Encounter with Christianity being the most exhaustive and methodical, evaluate the status of Christianity in Japan, as well as the primarily Buddhist rejection of Christianity. Primarily focusing on Buddhism, Richard Bowrings The Religious Traditions of Japan: 500-1600 shows the history and change of Buddhism in Japan, as well as its integration with Confucianism and Shinto. With regard to Christianity, Bowring dedicates a small portion near the texts end to Christianity. Bowring touches briefly on the experiences of the first priests to come to Japan, starting with Jesuit Francis Xavier, Francisco Cabral, and Alessandro Valignano. Though Bowring ends his analysis at the start of the reign of Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1585), almost completely

Collins overlooking the reign of Oda Nobunaga, Bowring elaborates on two critical Japanese/Buddhist responses to the introduction of Christianity. The local daimys (feudal lords) only accepted the Westerners, Xavier and his associates, initially as they wished to trade with the Europeans, and permitted Xavier to preach (Bowring 431). Secondly, the cultural and religious differences between the Europeans and Japanese made the missionaries task difficult, with Cabral claiming the Japanese to be conceited, covetous, inconstant, and insincere, making it difficult to convert them to Christianity. (432) Though Valignano was able to alleviate the cultural

divide by educating the missionaries on Japanese customs, the doctrinal differences between Christianity and Buddhism, and its integration with other religions in Japan, proved to be an ongoing cause of rejection by many Japanese. In Japanese Religion: Unity and Diversity, Earhart too offers a comprehensive overview of the variety and complexities of Japanese religions. Focusing on the Christian Century (1549-1650), Earharts analysis of Christianity in Japan elaborates in greater detail the conflicting view of Christianity, especially by the constantly changing government. Some of the initial attraction to Christianity for Japanese, especially to the bushi (warrior class), included both a self-sacrificing ideal and an uncompromising moral code that was highly valued by the bushi, as well as the guarantee for salvation, which was attractive for the non-warriors (Earhart 118). In attempt for greater cohesion and acceptance of Christianity, the Jesuit priests only exposed the Japanese to Roman Catholicism, not revealing the contemporary Protestant division within the Church. The shogun (general) of Japan during the second half of the 16th century was Oda Nobunaga, who allowed

Collins Christianity to be preached in Japan, not as an act of promoting the foreign religion, but as an opposition to Buddhism, which he felt to be a threat to his rule, who went

as far as to kill the monks and others associated with the Tendai school of Buddhism at Mount Hiei in 1571 (120). When Toyotomi gained control of Japan, he began to eliminate his religious opponents, both Christian and Buddhist. Fearing that the Christians were plotting to take control of Japan and that loyalties to the Christian God would undermine his authority, Toyotomi forbade the practice of Christianity. Toyotomis successor, Tokugawa Ieyasu, began the deportation of Christians, and his descendants would begin the persecution and execution of Christians, both nonJapanese and Japanese, forcing Christianity to become a secret religion in Japan. Earhart concludes with the juxtaposition of Buddhism and Christianity, to which though Buddhism, like Christianity, began as a foreign religion and adopted Japanese traits whereas Christianity did not become Japanized to the extent that it could be considered a Japanese tradition (122) by the masses and remained a foreign religion. Dr. Tanigawas article, National Character and Religion, explores the Japanese identity from the perspective of the many religions of Japan. Comparing and contrasting various facets of Shinto, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Christianity, Tanigawa demonstrates the influences and effects of these religions with each other, and how they are, or are not, able to integrate together in Japanese society. On Buddhism, Tanigawa mentions the integration of Buddhism and Shinto as a result of the governments effort to maintain the divine ordination of the Emperors rule. This allowed the spread of Buddhism as the state religion while simultaneously not

Collins usurping the power from Shinto-based institutions (e.g. the Emperors ancestry). The importance of ancestor worship in Japanese Buddhism is also discussed. This tradition (as explained further in Fujitas text) was an important factor on Japaneses acceptance (or rather rejection) of Christianity, with ones ancestors being an integral part of the Japaneses religious life. For Christianity, Tanigawa outlines many of the differences, as well as some similarities, between Christianity and other Japanese religions. The concepts of kamis (deities) and Buddhas in

Japanese religions vastly differed from the Christian idea of God. The Shinto account of the creation of Japan, which ultimately established the Imperial family line, and the potential for humans to become a Buddha, likewise causes dissention between the Japanese religions and Christianity. Despite strife with Japanese nationalism, based on the Shinto identity of the Emperor as a kami and Japan as a sacred land, and Christianity, some such as Kanz Uchimura view the attractiveness of Christianity to Japanese culture, such as that Christ and his disciples could be regarded as models for the warrior (Tanigawa 13), similarly as it was seen by some during the pre-modern era, as a way of integrating Christianity with Japanese thought, as Buddhism had been previously, and that the differences are not insurmountable for the Japanese. Neil S. Fujitas text, Japans Encounter with Christianity, is a thorough examination of the political, social, historical, and religious state of Christian missionaries in Japan beginning in the mid-sixteenth century until Japan entered the modern era in the middle of the nineteenth century. This text not only provides the historical works of the individuals, but detailed and extensive biographical

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information as well. Presented chronologically, Encounter begins with the mission of Francis Xavier, the first missionary to Japan. His work in Japan is well documented, from his initial difficulties with the suspicious Japanese to his success mission until his departure from Japan, and Xavier is among the most significant individuals presented in Encounters. Xaviers successors too had great success in spreading Christianity, including gaining favor from officials such as Oda Nobunaga. Fujita ends each chapter of his text with a comprehensive summary of the aforementioned information, detailing the key points of the missionaries in Japan. Once Toyotomi Hideyoshi took power of Japan, various factors led to the increase of opposition towards Christianity. Fujita outlines the various regulations and religious/cultural causes for said opposition in great detail, creating specific categories and subcategories for each cause. Among the causes for such opposition include the perceived forced conversion towards Christianity, the destruction of Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples, and that Japan is a shinkoku (country of gods) (Fujita 112114). These and other causes were based in opposition to traditional Japanese/ Buddhist teachings and traditions. The destruction of religious sites and symbols was thought of as being sacrilegious towards the respective religions, and the belief that Japan is a shinkoku, originating from Shinto, is a synthesis from the three religions of Japan, which was seen as incompatible/irreconcilable with Christianity. The concept of tenka (all under heaven), that Japan and its leaders were under the governance of divine rule, again a synthesis between Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism, too was used as justification for the resistance towards Christianity.

Collins Resentment would escalate leading to Tokugawa Ieyasus rule, which would begin the era of the outlawing and persecution of Christianity in Japan. The second-half of Earharts text revolves around the persecution and struggles of Christians during the Tokugawan rule. As Tokugawas life and rule was greatly impacted by Buddhism, Tokugawas distrust resided solely on Christianity and the foreign Westerners. Ieyasus descendants would begin an era of mass persecution and executions of Christians, both foreign and Japanese. The culmination of many theological and intellectual debates between Christian priests and religious leaders, including Buddhist and Confucianists, demonstrated the cultural and religious differences between the Japanese and the Westerners. Citing the perceived intolerance/segregation of Christianity, and other, again perceived, anti-Japanese doctrine such as Christianitys only recent arrival to Japan, increased hostility amongst Buddhists and other religious leaders. Ultimately, the Tokugawa government would expel and execute all foreign missionaries in Japan, leaving only Japanese Christian who by 1650 would keep their faith hidden under threat of torture and death. The few remaining Japanese Christians continued their faith and practices in hiding, as discovery of their Christian faith would lead to torture and death. In attempt to remove remaining remnants of Christianity from Japan, they people would have to register with a local Buddhism temple, renouncing Christianity in the process, and though many registered to avoid persecution, many

would secretly include Christian symbols and traditions within their Buddhist relics and practices such as hiding crosses behind statues of Buddha. Only after Japan opened its borders again to the West, and under international pressure, were

Collins Christians slowly allowed to reveal themselves, who though continued their beliefs

and practices without influence from the West, had slowly changed Christianity that new missionaries to Japan were initially unsure if the Christians in Japan were following Christianity. Fujita concludes his text with a summarization of the text, reemphasizing the various differences between the Japanese cultural and religious perspective of many issues and Christianity, creating a comprehensive, thorough text in and of itself. Despite initial acceptance and spreading throughout Japan, Christianity faced severe political, social, and religious opposition. The three religions practiced in Japan, Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism had been synthesized and melded together into a cohesive, singular Japanese thought. The perceived incompatibility of Christianity with this Japanese thought, and the subsequent Japanese culture and society as a whole, led to Christianity continuous status as a foreign religion, despite Buddhism and Confucianism also being originally from a foreign origin. The several texts on Japanese religion and Christianity in Japan highlight and contrast this turbulent and even violent state of Christianitys status in Japanese society. To many, the cultural and doctrinal differences gave justification for the persecution and execution of those who did not integrate their religious beliefs and practices with the accepted, conventional teachings, which in itself was a reflection of the Japanese religious convention. The state of Christianitys role in Japanese religious life often was in opposition to the conventional teachings of the varied, yet singularized, religions of Japan and the Japanese culture as a whole. The three centuries long status of Christianity evolved from initial acceptance, to rejection, to

Collins eventually slowly being reintroduced to Japanese society at the beginning of the modern era.

Works Cited Bowring, Richard. The Religious Traditions of Japan: 500-1600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print. Earhart, H. Byron. Japanese Religion: Unity and Diversity. 3rd edition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1982. Print. Fuijita, Neil S. Japan's Encounter with Christianity. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1991. Print. Tanigawa, Tetsuzo. "The National Character and Religion." Contemporary Religions in Japan. 1.2 (1960): 1-15. Web. 10 Mar. 2013.