Biology: Ch.

7, 8 and 9 Roy Brown: May 1991 Cayuga county, sold magazines, custody battle, alcoholic, a social worker deemed him unable to raise a child, threatened to kill the social worker, served 8 months in prison, after sentence police came to his door, a 49 year old social worker was found beaten, bitten and stabbed to death, suspected him of this murder due to his recent release, 8 months later her was found guilty of homicide with a motive of revenge and sentenced to 25 to life, petitioned for a retrial, new evidence came about in 2004 after his sentence in 1993 and he contacted a group called the innocence project designed to exonerate criminals that were falsely convicted with the use of DNA evidence, Previous methods of convicting criminals are at times inaccurate while DNA can never lie, Hair: Made of keratin, a protein found in other parts of the body such as fingernails, Exonerated from DNA evidence found in saliva on a night shirt that belonged to berry bench DNA Structure and Gene Function DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid 2% codes for all the proteins 98% dose not code but is used to regulate traits of chromosomes -Found in the nucleus of the cell and is found within a series of structures as follows: Histones- the proteins (8) that DNA double helix is wrapped around. Nucleosomes- the collection of 8 Histones wrapped with DNA strands Chromosomes- several nucleosomes wrapped around each other -Chromatin- is condensed DNA and is visible under a microscope. (Once replication comes about, the DNA condenses further, and chromosomes become visible) -DNA is made of 2 strands of Nucleotides consisting of rails and rungs -rails: sugars linked by Phosphate groups where the phosphates are bonded to the rungs -rungs: Consisting of a sugar: deoxyribose , a nitrogenous base

GATC Protein bases Guanine Adenine Thymine Cytosine Nucleotide- the structure that consists of a phosphate, a sugar (Deoxiribose), and a nitrogenous base. Protein bases only bond with one other type of base. The pairing is as follows: GC TA Complementary paring: Understanding that a protein base of DNA has a complementary protein base. Ex. Guanine only binds with Cytosine, therefor if we have a Guanine we know it will only bind with Cytosine

DNA Replication -Occurs in the nucleus in the cell -hydrogen bonds are broken and strands are pulled apart by enzymes - An enzyme by the name of DNA polymerase will add complementary bases to both of the strands that have recently split: This is semi-conservative in that it uses old DNA rather than creating new DNA from scratch -DNA replication is an endergonic reaction in that it creates bonds with new basses that require energy Karrie Mullis: Created a method of replicating DNA at high rates (circa 1993). : Polymerase chain reaction: The method is simple in which you separate the existing DNA by heating the DNA solution up, and then add the complementary bases by first cooling it down and adding an enzyme found in a Thermus aquaticus that is found to add the bases where other enzymes would be deformed. Thermus aquaticus likes to hang out near sulfur compounds and geysers and very warm and wet places. DNA Chromosome traits -For a given trait, a human inherits a chromosome form the mother and the father. -Each Chromosome repeats a STR (Short tandem repeats) sequence at differing rates from the mother and father that determines the characteristics of the trait and allows us to distinguish between people. -STR are found in 15 different chromosome regions - Gel electrophoresis: A method of showing the differing regions of the STR in differing DNA samples. Smaller and larger DNA samples will have various numbers of STRs and Gel electrophoresis shows the differing samples of DNA and how much STR are presented in each to distinguish between them. DNA Transcription/Translation -Transgenic organisms: Any organism that has received the DNA from another organism. -Medication: Anti-thrombin: Medication protein manufactured from a transgenic goat that is designed to take out clotted blood when blood is unable to flow. Anti-thrombin protein is very scarce in blood and 50,000 blood samples are needed to find a sample of anti-thrombin. Scientists used goats that produce proteins in their milk and inserted the human anti-thrombin in the DNA of the milk protein to produce anti-thrombin in the goat milk. -Amino acid sequence determines the type of protein produced from the coding of DNA -3 bases respond to one Amino acid: A genetic triplet

Gene: 2 parts -Regulatory sequence: controls timing, location and amount of gene expression -Coding sequence: Determines sequence of amino acids in proteins.

Translation- RNA that has already been transcribed is used to create a protein with the use of a ribosome.

Translation process

Transcription Process

Codon: three bases on messenger RNA that call for a specified Amino acid Notice: mRNA contains a sugar base uracil that bonds with adenine.

RNA polymerase: Makes a messenger molecule (mRNA) from decoding DNA shown in the process above.

20 differing Amino acids in existence that has differing codons that correspond to them.

Genetic Mutation: BRCA 1, BRCA 2: Inherited gene mutation: Breast cancer susceptibility found in chromosomes 13 and 17: susceptibility to breast and ovarian cancer. = 40-80% for breast cancer and 20% for ovarian cancer.

Hereditary cancer:

Each BRCA has 2 pairs of mutated Alleles on each chromosome. In this case an extra nucleotide pair is added to the Allele thus mutating it. : This is call Genetic insertion mutation. Once every 1000-10000 times DNA replication can make an error in that the DNA is not replicated directly. Most of the time this error is repaired. When it is not repaired the defense meconium is for the cell to kill itself to stop the infected replication process. When interrupting the proteins that degrade the cell and impairs this defense mechanism, malicious genetic mutation occurs.

Somatic mutations: A mutation occurring in any cell that is not destined to become a germ cell -Not inherited Gremlin mutation: Mutation that occurs in the germination cells such as sperm and egg cells before one or the other connects. The mutation effects the corresponding cell in fertilization thus becomes inherited. -Inherited

Substitution mutations: Mutation occurring when one base is changed rather than taken out or added to the sequence. -Missense mutation: alter amino acids (Replacing one base for another) >Ex. Sickle-cell anemia -Nonsense Mutations: Alter stop codons (UAA, UAG) Once altered it stops prematurely thus changing the protein molecule. >Ex. Cystic fibrosis

RNA is read in codons, so if you shifted the sequence down or back by inserting bases or deleting bases. -This is called Insertion and deletion mutations >Loss or gain of one or more bases >Ex. Muscular dystrophy, Cystic Fibrosis, Hemophilia, Hypercholesterolemia -Can cause a frame shit: An insertion of 1 or 2 bases only causing a shift in codon order because codons come in groups of 3 bases.

Examples:

Causes:

Mutagens: External agent that induces a mutation >Ex. High voltage lines that leak voltage in the insulation of homes >Ex. Dioxin from places such as paper mills > Malignant melanoma: A spot mutation of one spot of skin cells and there for is not inheritable. Mutagen in this case would be the suns UV rays

Cell interphase: The lifetime of a cell between introduction and reproduction/cell division. S Phase: Synthesize phase where replication occurs >Damaged base pair= Stop cycle and repair with enzymes If it cannot be repaired then it undergoes Apoptosis: cell self-destruction/cell death used as a defense mechanism. > On occasion, Apoptosis cannot occur and then the cell will divide with the defect and will reproduce the malicious cell. A common example of this is Cancer.

-Proto-oncogenes, when they mutate, will become oncogenes and will cause malicious tumors such as the one above. -Cancer causing agents: >Oncogenes: A mutation in the proto-oncogenes > A mutation in the tumor suppressor genes -Proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes regulate the speed that cells divide thus giving the cell time to undergo Apoptosis once mutated

Chapter 8 PC-SPES: Mixture of 8 herbs from china that causes shrinkage in prostate tumors. >Medical test experts of the FDA placed this drug under clinical testing -Found that the drugs did shrink the prostate tumors, but found toxic agents in differing bottles and various unknown agents such as bacteria and heavy metals. -2004 FDA put procedures in place that put drugs under 5 year protection from competitors (such as pricing) if drugs undergo product control up to the FDA standards to provide extra incentives to provide quality control for medical drugs. -As a result the drug PhytoCeutica was produced to satisfy this new FDA procedure that reduces the growth of prostate tumors. Contained a Chinese herb combination of PHY906

DRUGS FROM PLANTS

Paclitaxel or Taxol: Drug used in chemotherapy to reduce malignant tumors as presented in the slide above.

Cell Division: Once given the orders to divide: 1) S phase: DNA Replication after Interphase 2) G2 Phase: Preparation for cell division after DNA replication 3) Mitosis: Makes copy cells of the mother cell based off of Copied DNA from S phase. These cells are EXACTLY the same. Takes place in any body cell or somatic cell (excluding the germinated cells such as sex cells) 4) Cytokinesis: Physical process of splitting the cell. 5) G1 Phase: Checks for mutations and grow the cell by adding cytoplasm and new organelles. -Note interphase is the longest part of the cells life and cell division is a relatively short part of the cells life

DNA condenses before cell division -Chromatid- one of two identical copies of a replaced chromosome -Sister Chromatids: Pair with identical DNA sequence -Centromere: Point of attachment

Karyotype: The 23 pairs of chromosomes

Mitosis: Reserved for somatic cells 1.Interphase 2.Prophase 3.Metaphase 4.anaphase 5.Telophase

Taxol: Hypotaxol: Interferes with the attachments of chromosomes and interferes with cell division (In this case cancer cells) in the metaphase portion thus killing the cell.

Is cell Self-destruction bad? -Prevents the spread of cancers/tumors - Certain cells die to form an embryos shape

Failures: Cancers that form tumors when checkpoints fail and Apoptosis can not occur

Lukemia Cells:

Differences: 1. Color 2. Size 3. Contact Inhibition: the natural process of arresting cell growth when two or more cells come into contact with each other October 1951: Henrea Lax: Developed cervical cancer. From a tobacco farming company. The person on her case took her cells as a sample to a lab to investigate their growth. The labs found that these cells do not die and continue to divide: These were called Hela cells.

Stem cells: Cells that sit in the tissue waiting for the process of being assigned a location. (These cells wait to be told to become a skin cell, a liver cell, a stomach cell.. ect) -Stem cells are being studied to engineer cells so that we can create tissue to repair human organs. - Stem cells are designed to create a specific type of cell based on what it is told to become.

Types of stem cells: 3 major types

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer: Taking the nucleus of one somatic cell of one organism and using it to produce a clone of the same organism. 1) Enucleate an egg from mother donors skin cell 2) Enucleate the recipients egg 3) Place the donors nucleus (Full Genome) into the enucleated cell of the recipient 4) Cells then develop and divide and grow embryo and so on

Stem cell induction: Stem cells can be reconstructed to produce the genetic process desired. Work in process. Reducing committed cell to primitive states and inducing the desired genome. Note- every cell has the entire Genome, but the function and gene expression can be different to make differing somatic cells.

Chapter 9: Sexual reproduction and Meiosis Gene for Cystic fibrosis: CFTR= makes protein to allow the ions pass to allow the mucus production to be reduced to a manageable consistency -Chromosome 7 -Inherited -Reshapes the cilia containing cells resulting in the passing of mucus 23 Chromosomes -22 chromosomes are called autosomes - The last x and y chromosome is the sex chromosome Biodiversity: The demographic differences and anatomy differences in people as a result of sexual reproduction -Asexual reproduction cannot exhibit biodiversity -Sexual reproduction can create several sets of traits Benefits of Biodiversity -Differing alternative traits when ecological disaster strikes >Ex. Black rhinos are forced to move due to poaching and then the changes in weather cause their sexual traits to change due to the weather conditions. Meiosis Diploid condition- All of the chromosome pairs are present (2n) Haploid condition- Half of the chromosome pairs (n) Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis Power-point slides. Independent assortment: Chromosomes line up independently during metaphase during meiosis. Nondisjunction: When meiosis carries both chromosome pairs to one cell can leaves one cell empty. Can occur in meiosis 1 or 2 >Trisomy- Three chromosomes at the end of Meiosis (The cell that got both chromosome pairs) >Monosomy- one chromosome in the cell form the male recipient (The cell without a chromosome pair)