Lecture 9 Poissons Ratio, toughness, creep, fatigue, thermal stresses We will investigate some additional properties of materials that

t are always present in structures, but are usually not a major structural design consideration. 1. Poissons Ratio In a tension test, we noticed the tension specimen necking down as loads increased, as seen in the figure below:

Loriginal

Ldeformed

Reduced x-sectional area

Original Test Specimen Stretched Test Specimen

The change in dimension between the original un-stretched specimen and the stretched specimen is shown below:

long

Original un-stretched specimen Stretched specimen

lateral Poissons Ratio, (mu), is the ratio of lateral strain, lateral, to longitudinal strain, long, (epsilon) and has typical values ranging from 0.2 to 0.4. Steel has a = 0.28.

lateral long

Lecture 9 - Page 1 of 7

2. Toughness Toughness is a characteristic of a materials ability to absorb energy prior to fracture. It is characterized by its ductility and is measured as the area bound by the stress-strain curve as shown below:

A materials strength is not necessarily a measure of its toughness. For example, certain high-strength bolts have a yield stress that is much higher than mild steel used for plates. However, the plates have a greater toughness than the bolts because the bolts fracture point occurs at less strain than that of the plate steel. In other words, the bolts are more brittle than the plates. A high toughness is desirable when the material is subjected to impact loading.

Lecture 9 - Page 2 of 7

3. Creep Creep is the continued elongation (stretching) of a material under load over time. The stress-strain curves obtained for materials are typically shown under short-term static loads, and do not indicate the effect of long-term loading. Some materials exhibit an appreciable amount of elongation due to sustained loads. Prestressed concrete, for example, is susceptible to creep due to the long-term high tensile loading of the prestressing wires. Excessive creep causes unacceptable floor deflections. Creep is greatly exaggerated at elevated temperatures. One method used to offset the effect of creep is to camber the member. Cambering is producing an upward deflection in a member that will flatten out after loads are applied.

Elongation

Time 4. Fatigue Members under many cycles of loading and unloading are subject to fatigue. Studies have shown that repeated cyclic loading creates internal heat which lowers the modulus of elasticity. When the modulus of elasticity is lowered, even small loads can cause permanent irreversible deformations. Eventually, hairline cracks and localized failure occurs at stress levels far below the allowable stress. Fatigue failures are rare in typical building structures because loads tend to be relatively static (non-moving) in nature. Abrupt changes in a members cross-section (such as holes and corners) create localized stresses that are considerably higher than in the rest of the cross section. These high localized stresses increase the propagation of fatigue.

Lecture 9 - Page 3 of 7

The variation of applied stress is referred to as the stress range. For example, a road bridge may have a significant stress range from being unloaded at one moment to fully-loaded the next moment. It has been determined that the number of cycles of the stress range will dictate when failure occurs. Fatigue in Steel Structural Members: The following 3 figures are used in the determination of the number of cycles to failure for steel structural framing members for the use in bridges.

Lecture 9 - Page 4 of 7

Logarithmic Scale

Lecture 9 - Page 5 of 7

5. Thermal Stresses All materials expand and contract due to changes in temperature. Whenever a building component is prevented to expand due to elevated temperatures, internal stresses occur. These internal temperature stresses are called thermal stresses, thermal and is determined by the following: thermal = TE where: (alpha) = coefficient of thermal expansion = 0.0000065 in/in/0F for steel = 0.0000060 in/in/0F for concrete = 0.0000030 in/in/0F for wood T = change in temperature, 0F E = Modulus of elasticity, KSI or PSI The elongation of a member due to thermal stresses, , can be calculated from the following: = LT where: L = original length of member, inches Example GIVEN: A steel bridge beam is subjected to an annual temperature variation of 900 in the summer to -200 in the winter. Use E = 29,000 KSI. REQUIRED: 1) How much is the bridge beam going to stretch due to temperature during a typical year? 2) What is the thermal stress developed in the beam during the temperature change? Beam length = 80-0

Lecture 9 - Page 6 of 7

Determine elongation due to temperature: = LT = (0.0000065 in/in/0F)(80-0 x 12/ft)(900 (-200)) = 0.69 in. Determine stress due to temperature: thermal = TE thermal = (0.0000065 in/in/0F)(900 (-200))(29,000 KSI) = 20.7 KSI

Lecture 9 - Page 7 of 7