CHAPTER THREE - THEORY AND DESIGN

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The study of the microwave propagation theory is important in microwave communication
because it provides important properties of the microwave link upon which the feasibility of the
link depends. Some of the functions of the theory are as follows;
The propagation theory identifies the prediction models for estimating the power required
to establish reliable communications.
It gives clues to the receiver techniques for compensating the impairments introduced
during the transmission of signals.
The propagation effects and other signal impairments are often collected and estimated.
The communication channel is well study and investigated.
The various channel models for microwave communications are also defined in the
propagation theory. These models are the Physical models and Statistical Models.
In addition to propagation impairments, the other phenomena that limit microwave
communications are noise and interference. All of these phenomena are treated in the
propagation theory [13].
3.2 THE FREE SPACE PROPAGATION MECHANISM

Fig 3.0 A Typical Transmission System
Microwave transmission is characterized by the generation of the information signal from the
source. In the transmitter (TX), an electric signal representing the desired information is been
given the required amount of power required to propagate through the channel without
interference in a process called modulation. A highly sensitive receiver (RX) at the far end of
transmission estimates the transmitted information from the recovered electrical signal and
recreates the information that was transmitted in a process called demodulation. The antenna at
both the transmitting and receiving ends acts as a transducer which converts between electrical
signals and radio waves, and vice versa. The transmission effects are most completely described
by the Maxwells equations as well as the Friis transmission equations. Here we assume a linear
medium in which all the distortions can be characterized by attenuation or superposition of
different signals [14].
3.3 COMMUNICATION NETWORKING
Communication Networking is the arrangement of hardware and software that allows users to
exchange information. It is one of the fastest growing areas in electrical engineering [15].
The type of communication networks includes;
Telephone network
Computer network
Cellular telephone networks
Television broadcast networks
Internet.
3.4 MECHANISM OF RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION.
The mechanism of radio wave propagation considers the exact physics of the propagation
environment (site geometry). It provides reliable estimates of the propagation behaviour. Some of
the basic mechanisms of propagation of radio waves include; Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction,
line of sight, Ducting, Scattering etc [13].
Wireless communication networking is achieved through electromagnetic wave (radio)
propagation. This ranges from short distance to very long distance propagation. An example of
short distance propagation is infrared and blue tooth and that of long distance is the microwave.
There are different nodes in long distance radio propagation. They are [13]
Sky wave propagation
Ground wave propagation
Space wave propagation
3.5 FREE SPACE PATH LOSS
The free space propagation model assumes a transmit antenna and a receive antenna to be located
in an otherwise empty environment, neither absorbing obstacles nor reflecting surfaces
considered. The influence of the earth surface is assumed to be entirely absence. For a
propagation distance much larger than the antenna size, the far field electromagnetic wave
dominates all other components. We model the radiating antenna as a point source with neglible
physical dimension; hence the energy radiated by the Omni-directional antenna is spread over the
surface of a sphere. This helps to analyze the effect of distance on the received signal power [8].
If the surface area of the sphere of radius ; then the power density at that distance with
transmit power and antenna gain is given as;
Then the available power at the receiving antenna with is given as
Where; = effective area (aperture) of the antenna and , the product of transmit
power and antenna gain at the transmitter is known as the effective radiated power at the
transmitter [8].
Consider a signal transmitted through free space to a receiver located at a distance Km from the
transmitter. Assume there are no obstruction between the transmitter and the receiver and that the
signal propagates along a straight line between the two. The channel model associated with this
transmission is called a line of- sight channel, and the corresponding received signal is called
ray. Free space path loss introduces a scale factor resulting in the received signal [8];
;
Where is the product of transmit and the receive antenna field radiation pattern in the LOS
direction. The phase shift is due to the distance that the waves travel. The power in the transmitted
signal S (t) is , so the ratio of received power to the transmitted power from the above equation
is
Thus the received signal power falls off in the inverse proportion to the square of the distance
between transmit and received antenna [8].
3.6 SOME TERMINOLOGIES AND DEFINITIONS IN MICROWAVE LINK DESIGN.
Microwave design is not a one step procedure but involves better understanding of the
electromagnetic theory and other terminologies. Some terminologies and technologies associated
with the microwave design that will help in better understanding of the project are explained
below.
3.6.1 Free Space Loss: As signals spread out from a radiating source, the energy is spread out
over a larger surface area. As this occurs, the strength of that signal gets weaker. Free space loss
(FSL), measured in dB specifies how much the signal has weakened over a given distance. The
type of antenna used has no effect on FSL, since at any appreciable distance all antennas look like
a point source radiator. The area that the signal spreads out into is called the Fresnel zone. If there
is an obstacle in the Fresnel zone, part of the radio signal will be diffracted or bent away from the
straight-line path. The practical effect is that on a point-to-point radio link, this refraction will
reduce the amount of RF energy reaching the receive antenna. The thickness or radius of the
Fresnel zone depends on the frequency of the signal the higher the frequency, the smaller the
Fresnel zone [5].
3.6.2 Receive signal level: This is the actual received signal level (usually measured in negative
dBm) presented to the antenna port of a radio receiver from a remote transmitter [5].
3.6.3 Receiver sensitivity: This is the weakest RF signal level (usually measured in negative
dBm) that a radio needs receive in order to demodulate and decode a packet of data without errors
[5].
3.6.4 Antenna gain: This is the ratio of how much an antenna boosts the RF signal over a
specified low-gain radiator. Antennas achieve gain simply by focusing RF energy. If this gain is
compared with an isotropic (no gain) radiator, it is measured in dBi. If the gain is measured
against a standard dipole antenna, it is measured in dBd. Note that gain applies to both transmit
and receive signals [5].
3.6.5 The Transmit Power: This is the RF power coming out of the antenna port of a transmitter.
It is measured in dBm, Watts or milliWatts and does not include the signal loss of the coax cable
or the gain of the antenna [5].
3.6.6 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP): This is the actual RF power as measured in the
main lobe (or focal point) of an antenna. It is equal to the sum of the transmit power into the
antenna (in dBm) added to the dBi gain of the antenna. Since it is a power level, the result is
measured in dBm. The figure below shows how a 24dBm power can be boosted to 48dbm [5].
Fig 3.4 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
3.6.7 System Operating Margin (SOM):This is the difference (measured in dB) between the
nominal signal level received at one end of a radio link and the signal level required by that radio
to assure that a packet of data is decoded without error. SOM is the difference between the signal
received and the radios specified receivers sensitivity. SOM is also referred to as link margin or
fade margin [5].

Fig 3.5 System Operating Margin
3.6.8Multipath: The transmitted signal arrives at the receiver from different directions, with
different path lengths, attenuation and delays. The summed signal at the receiver may result in an
attenuated signal. When signals arrive at a remote antenna after being reflected off the ground or
refracted back to earth from the sky (sometimes called ducting), they will subtract (or add) to the
main signal and cause the received signal to be weaker (or stronger) throughout the day [5].
3.6.9 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR): This is the ratio (usually measured in dB) between the signal
level received and the noise floor level for that particular signal. The SNR is really the only thing
receiver demodulators really care about. Unless the noise floor is extremely high, the absolute
level of the signal or noise is not critical [5].
3.6.10 Path Loss: Path loss is the loss of power of an RF signal travelling (propagating) through
space. It is expressed in dB. Path loss depends on: The distance between transmitting and
receiving antennas, line of sight clearance between the receiving and transmitting antennas and
antenna height [5].
3.7 LINK BUDGET FOR THE MOBILE SYSTEM
A link budget is a method of calculation used to determine the signal strength that a receiver will
receive from a transmitter located some distance away. In the GSM environment, it is critical to
balance the link budget on the uplink and downlink. Different coverage on the uplink and
downlink results in the dissipation of unnecessary energy resulting in increased interference to
other users in the network, increased costs and increased handover failures [16].
The factors affecting the link budget will be reviewed and link budgets will be determined for
various operating scenarios. These link budgets will be developed using spreadsheets [16].
The scope to be determined in the link budget includes [17];
Coverage Area; Definition, % Coverage
Propagation into and within Buildings
Transmission Feeder Loss Table.
Some factors affecting the link budget for a mobile system are as follows [16];
Receive Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the receiver of either the base station or the mobile
phone in dBm.
Feeder Loss: The attenuation of the amplitude of the radio frequency signal over the
length of the co-axial cable, measured in dB.
Mast Head Amplifier (MHA) Gain: The gain of an amplifier situated at the top of a mast,
measured in dB. This value should reflect the improvement in system sensitivity due to
the introduction of the MHA.
Antenna Gain: The amount of gain an antenna has relative to an isotropic radiator,
measured in dBi.
Diversity Gain: The gain in the received signal strength by using multiple antennas
separated from each other either in space or in polarity to overcome fading, measured in
dB.
Duplexer Loss: The loss associated with the insertion of a duplexer in the transmit and
receive path of the antennas, measured in dB.
Splitter Loss: The loss associated with the insertion of a splitter in the transmit and receive
path of the antennas, measured in dB.
Output Power: The power transmitted by the base station or the mobile phone, measured
in dBm.
Fade Margin: The margin introduced to overcome the fact that the received radio signal is
destructively interfered due to reflections off objects near the vicinity of the receiver,
measured in dB.
Frequency Hopping Gain: The gain introduced by frequency hopping due to reduced
interference in the network.
Path Loss: Attenuation of the radio signal due to propagation losses.
Slant Polarization Loss (Downlink path): due to difference in propagation characteristics.
(Only downlink, as uplink loss is taken into account by reducing the polarization diversity
gain).
3.7.1 TYPICAL VALUES OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE FADE MARGIN
As can be seen from appendix A, the feeder loss can vary according to the type of feeder and the
length of feeder used. The feeder loss generally also takes into account any loss through
connectors, which, depending on the type of antenna configuration used, may vary from 5 to 9
connectors. The loss through connectors could be taken as a separate entity.Transmission Feeder
Loss Table, can be used to determine the values for feeder losses to be used in link budget
calculations. The connector losses have been included in the figures used for the feeder losses
[16]
3.7.2 SHADOW FADE MARGIN
The shadow fading margin of 9.7 dB ensures better than 95% probability of coverage averaged
across the entire area of the cell, given a standard deviation of fading of 9 dB. Shadow fading
margins for different values of standard deviation may be obtained from appendix B, which was
developed by integration across the cell area. The numbers are based on a sectorized
configuration, but figures for the Omni directional case will be similar. For the indoor case, a
median building penetration loss of 14 dB and standard deviation of fading of 12 dB have been
applied, resulting in an additional margin of 18.4 dB for indoor coverage. Suggested values of
fade margin as given by Mercury One-2-One for different environment types are given in the
table below [18]:
Dense-
suburb
Urban-
sec
Urban-
Omni
Suburb-
sec
Suburb-
Omni
Rural-
sec
Rural-
Omni
Units
Fade
Margin
8.39 9.47 5.97 13.56 10.06 14.20 10.70 dB
Table 3.0 Typical Values of Fade Margin for Different Environments
3.7.3 RADIO BASE STATION OUTPUT POWER
The maximum power output of the different types of RBSs varies according to the configuration
employed. The output power of a RBS 2000 with a CDU-A is 2.5 dB higher than a RBS 200. The
loss between the transmitter and the antenna connector on the RBS 2000 with a CDU-C is 5 dB.
The loss between the transmitter and the antenna connector on the RBS 200 is 5 dB. To balance
the link budget, the power settings of the different types of RBSs should be adjusted accordingly.
The table below provides some suggested power settings so that the power output is the same
after the combiner [17].
RBS 200 CDU-A CDU-C
Urban Areas 45 dBm 43 dBm 45 dBm
Rural Areas 47 dBm 45 dBm 47 dBm
Table 3.1 Radio Base Station Output Power
3.7.4 NOISE FLOOR
In specific situations, where the noise level exceeds the receive sensitivity, the link budget has to
be calculated with the noise level as the determining factor for allowable path loss instead of the
receive sensitivity [19]. The EIRP for the mobile or base station is calculated in Total (1). The
receive level, at the mobile and base station antennas, to ensure minimum receive sensitivity is
calculated in Total (2). The sum of the environmental losses is calculated in Total (3). This total
(3) takes into accounts factors such as body proximity loss, building penetration loss, fading
margin etc. besides path loss [17].
Max. Path Loss = Total (1) Total (2) +Total (3)
The calculated value for the maximum path loss can be used to determine the area of coverage for
each site/cell [19].The table on appendix C, summaries the allowable path loss and maximum cell
radii for each type of case study/environment. It is important to note that the cell radii are reduced
for indoor coverage (900 MHz) and for outdoor coverage at 1800 MHz as compared to outdoor
coverage at 900MHz. The allowable path loss in each case study is the lower of the allowable
uplink and downlink values as calculated in the case studies. The maximum cell radius is as
calculated by the Okumura Hata propagation model [17].
3.8 THE NETWORK DESIGN OBJECTIVES AND ANALYSIS
Radio link engineering begins by performing the link budget analysis. A given radio system has a
system gain that depends on the radio and the type of modulation used. The gains from the
antenna at both ends are added to this gain. The free space loss of the radio signal as it travels
over the air is subtracted from the system gain. These calculations results in a fade margin for the
link. Anything that affects the radio link signal within this margin will be overcome by the radio;
if the margin is exceeded, the link could go down. The next step is to analyze impediments that
could potentially affect the radio signal. The goal is to get availability and performance [4].
The objective is to design a communication network for Bui City which is suitable for both voice
and data communication. In particular, the design is to
Connect Bui City to the Tigo network through Banda Ahenkro .
Flexibility, allowing for future expansion without any major changes of the network to
other communities and locations.
Make possible the provision of service comparable in technical quality and availability
with that in areas of normal mobile density.
Allow the network to be operated at a minimum operating cost.
3.8.1 THE MICROWAVE NETWORK DESIGN STRATEGY
Point-to-point microwave communications systems operating on a line-of-sight (LOS) basis are
subjected to predictable propagation-related performance characteristics; they must neither cause
nor suffer objectionable RF interference with other systems using the same frequencies, and
requires an NCA license to be operated. Microwave network design follows some sequential steps
in its implementation, these steps includes:
Identification of Communications Requirements: What points need to be connected, with
what capacity, and with what level of performance? This is where the points of
communication and the required capacity between the transmitting and receiving ends are
identified. The factors that affect the capacity of the channel include; the population,
number of co-operate institutions like financial institutions, schools, service proposed, etc.
[5].
Selection of System Type: This step deals with the selection of a frequency band and type
of system. The distance between points of communication determines the usable
frequency bands, as propagation characteristics of different frequency bands (combined
with available technologies) effectively subject them to different maximum practical link
lengths. Capacity requirements also determines frequency band, as the channelization and
maximum bandwidths allowed in different bands effectively set maximum per-channel
and system capacity [5].
Site Selection and Route Design: The purpose of the site selection and route design is to
provide at least a preliminary network layout to start the engineering work. The important
data that are needed in this process are the points of communication, frequency band,
possible limitations on antenna heights placement, type of antenna lines, etc. The main
process is connecting the various nodes in the communication link in a manner so as to
minimise the necessary number of links. After the process, the site location, possible route
layout and the various limitations are the output of this process. The coordinates of the
points of communication are critical to the work that follows after this procedure [5].
Preliminary Path Profiling: The purpose of this step is to determine, at least on a
preliminary basis, whether the links between specified points are feasible, based on early
estimates of necessary antenna heights to achieve line-of-sight. It is also done to identify
critical points along the path that require on-site inspection to accurately determine the
existence and height of potential obstructions over which the path must pass. The data that
are used in this process are the portion of communication identified by the latitude and
latitude taken during the field survey and the frequency band selected. Within the process,
the path profile which is the vertical-plane graphical representation of each link to show
the height of the terrain and assumed natural obstructions along the path. The terrain
elevation data comes from digitized maps. The antenna heights are also set to provide
appropriate path clearance over those potential obstructions. The output of this step is the
preliminary antenna heights as well as the identification of critical locations on the path
where the path clearance needed to be set with the accurate information on obstruction
heights [5].
Field Path Surveys: In order to collect real world information on obstruction heights so
that the final antenna height can be set to provide appropriate path clearance, the field path
survey is carried out. The input data that are used during this procedure are the initial path
profile and a route layout showing all the end points noted along the path. Within the
process, the field crew examines the end points critically to confirm the coordinates as
well as other information about the sites and then drives along the path to collect data on
existence and heights of both natural and man-made obstructions, paying special attention
to critical points identified in the initial path profiling. Photographs are typically taken of
critical obstructions. Cautions must be taken since if the coordinates and other site
information are not entirely accurate, it means this procedure needs to be conducted again
[5].
Final Path Profiling: The purpose is to set the final antenna heights. The input data
required in this process are the preliminary path profile and the results of the field path
survey. The preliminary path profile is modified to incorporate real world obstruction
height data and the antenna centrelines are set to provide appropriate path clearance. The
final path profile and antenna centreline heights are the output to this procedure. One thing
to note is that field path surveys are the best way to a secure proper line of sight clearance
[5].
Path Propagation Performance Analysis: To determine whether performance of the
network will meet expectations or the path technical parameters should be modified or the
network necessarily is re-designed to meet the specified performance criterion, the path
propagation performance analysis is carried out. The input data to this step includes the
path length, frequency band and system technical data such as transmitter power, antenna
gain, antenna line loss, noise threshold etc. as well as specified link and network
performance criterion. Theses inputs are fed into standard formulas used to predict link
availability. If the specified per link performance criterion is not met, it is possible that the
combination of links still meet the overall network performance criterion. Antenna space
diversity or larger antennas may help meet the per link criterion. Frequency bands are
affected by the rainfall pattern and hence care should be taken to avoid link failure due to
rain attenuation [5].
RF Interference Analysis and Channel Selection: To determine whether interference free
(interference levels are within the acceptable limits) are available and sufficient number of
them to satisfy the capacity requirement is the purpose of this stage. During this stage, the
information necessary for the next step ,that is, NCA required prior coordination
notification are also gathered. The input data that are needed during this stage are the
station locations (lat/long), ground elevation, respective antenna types and antenna
centrelines, frequency band, transmitter power, receiver interference threshold which is
based on the channel capacity and equipment types. The above data are fed into
computerized interference analysis programs and the databases of system using the same
frequency band, interference levels are calculated and the comparisons made to standard
interference protection objectives. Possible changes in intended antennas to avoid
interference problems by using better radiation pattern and identification of interference
free channels are the outputs to this procedure [5].
Prior Frequency Coordination Notification and Response: Prior coordination notifications
(PCNs) must be distributed to the operators of all other systems that shares the same
frequency band within the coordination distance of up to about 250miles for microwave
systems. This is done to satisfy NCA requirement for frequency coordination and to obtain
assurance of non-interference with other systems in the area. NCA licensing cannot be
obtained if this step is not completed [5].
NCA Licensing: When the PCNs are received with positive response from other system
operators within the coordination area, the NCA issues authorization to operate the
system. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also surveys the station locations to
check on possible treat on human settlement before NCA can issue the license based on
their recommendations [5].
The process is designed to work smoothly and efficiently. Experience, however, shows that
occasionally one or more steps in the process result in a no go, and portions of the work have to
be repeated. That is actually a normal (and effective) part of the process, and indeed the sequence
of steps is designed to either smoothly go from start to finish successfully, or at least obtain a
legitimate no go result as cost-effectively as possible. In other words, if a plan is eventually
going to be determined to be infeasible, its better to find out as early as possible. First, if input
data is not accurate, work (and money) will be wasted; take the time to avoid the garbage in,
garbage-out syndrome. Second, if there are unnecessary rushes to judgment and the normal
sequence is not followed, the overall engineering costs will likely be much higher than they could
have been, as portions of the process are necessarily repeated. Remember that the process
sequence is designed to deliver critical information to each successive step. When the steps are
taken in order and no roadblocks are encountered, the time is well spent [5].
3.8.2 THE COMMUNICATION REQUIREMENTS
The Bui Municipality with a population of about 90,023 in 2009 and an estimated population of
about 120,713 in 2014 having about 12,627 households. In designing a microwave network for
such a community to serve ICT purposes such as connectivity both in mobile and internet
services, free to air television systems, by taking the capacity requirement, estimated subscriber-
base as well as future projections into account, we will require a PDH radio system with capacity
of about 16E1s which achieves high level of integration to provide cost, performance and
reliability and a performance level of about 99.999% where the level of network failure is very
small so as to solve the lower signal strength in the MTN network.
3.8.3 THE LAND TOPOLOGY SHOWING WESTERN PART OF BRONG AHAFO
Maps are the principal sources of basic data, both for office study which usually precedes the field
survey, and for the field survey itself. They show all information which will be necessary for
plotting of the path and also major aerial obstructions and large topographical feature such as
lakes and mountain ranges. If the terminal locations are plotted on an appropriate topo-map and
intermediate site are spliced in, an overall view of the possible route is obtain. As the map survey
proceeds, the preferred and ultimate sites arrived at by profiling. Other maps can be plotted using
the precise latitude and longitude [10].
The figure 3.3 shows the area map which was extracted from the digital microwave planning tool
kit. A visit to all sites selected for field survey, field strength test and determination of path profile
was conducted in all subsequent work in this project.
During the survey photographs were taken at some of the sites and along the route for smooth
planning and analysis.
Fig 3.6 A Map Showing The Western Part of Brong Ahafo
Fig 3.7 Pictures taken during the site survey.
3.8.4 THE VISIT TO ALL SITES
Microwave Radio surveys are carried out for planning of the microwave line of sight links
between point to point or point to multipoint due to the fact that there is no clear line of sight
between Banda Ahenkro and Bui Citya. This was noted when planning for the links using the
Topo-map and Microwave Planning Tool Kit, Aircom-Connet 7.0.
The entire coverage area of the network was critically surveyed using field maps. The study
involves topographical features of the area such as road networks, major organizations in the area
and various possibilities for the establishment of microwave routes and line-of-sight conditions
for all routes. The objective of microwave link radio survey is to;
Select the site for radio equipment and tower location.
Select operational frequency band
Development of path profiles to determine the height of the radio tower.
Analyzing the reflections, refraction and diffraction of the signals.
Calculation of the path loss.
Sites for antenna installation were selected to ensure best line-of sight, easy accessibility and
minimum cost of installation [13].
3.8.5 THE PATH PROFILE FOR THE SELECTED COMMUNITIES
The path profile is the graphical representation of the path travelled by the radio waves between
the two ends of a link. The path profile determines the locations and heights of the antenna at each
end of the link and it ensures that the link is free of obstructions such as hills and not subjected to
propagation losses from radio phenomena such as multipath reflections. Radio LOS requires more
clearance to accommodate the characteristics of microwave signals [19][1].
Using detailed map of the coverage of the network, path profile for all microwave hops in the
network was plotted.
The microwave path profiles for microwave last mile connectivity between to Bui Dam is given
below
Banda Ahenkro Distance/Km (18.05) Bui Dam
Fig 3.8 The Path Profile From Banda Ahenkro To Bui Dam
From the diagram, the property height from ground is 266m above sea level on the tower at
Banda Ahenkro and 250m above sea level at the tower at Bui Dam which is a 45m tower with the
microwave radio height at 45m and 75m at Banda ahenkro which is an 80m tower.
Table 3.2 Coordinates of the selected Communities
3.8.6 THE FRESNEL ZONE CALCULATION
An EM wave does not travel in straight line but spreads out as it propagates. The individual
waves do not also travel at the same velocity. Augustine Fresnel, determined the propagation of a
radio wave as a three dimensional elliptical path between the transmitter and the receiver. Fresnel
divided the path into several zones based on the phase and speed of the propagating waves. The
size of the Fresnel zone varies based on the frequency of the radio signal and the length of the
path. As frequency decrease, the size of the Fresnel zone increase. A Fresnel zone is greatest at
the midpoint of the path. Therefore the midpoint requires most clearance than any point in the
path [4][2].
Name Of Town Longitude /W Latitude/N Site Elevation/m
Bui Citya 002.414598 07.570300 320
Bui City 002.478456 07.35960 360
Fresnel zone
First Fresnels zone
Banda Ahenkro Distance/Km Bui Dam
Fig 3.11Fresnel Zone Determination
The first Fresnel zone is given by the formula;
R
1
=
17.3
1 2
( )
d d
f GHz D
Where R1 is the radius of the first Fresnel zone,
D
1
is the distance from Station A to the point of the higher altitude (obstacle)
D
2
is the distance from obstacle to Station B
D is distance between sites (distance between transmitter and receiver)
From Banda Ahenkro to Bui Dam which is 18.05Km apart, the distance from the tower at Banda
Ahenkro to the point of higher altitude which is a hilly area along the road is 2Km, this implies
that the first Fresnel zone is given as;
D1=2.0km / D2 =16.05km
A
B
Then the first Fresnel zone for the link between Banda Ahenkro and Bui City which is separated
by a distance of 18.05 Km and the point of highest altitude which is bunch of trees located in a
thick forest along the path is 2Km from Banda Ahenkro, Hence the first Fresnel zone is given as;
D1=2 Km, D2=16.05Km D=18.05Km
R
2
=
3.7.7 CALCULATING THE FREE SPACE LOSS (FSL)
Before determining whether a link will be feasible, the FSL should be calculated. The Free Space
Loss is the expected attenuation of a signal as it travels away from the transmitting device. As the
area covered by a spreading signal increases, the power density decreases, this weakens the radio
signal [4] [21]
Mathematically, FSL =32.44 20 log F+ 20 log D
FSL = 92.45 + 20log F+20 log D
Where; F= frequency in MHz/GHz, D= distance in Km.
Although the free space loss equation given above seems to indicate that the loss is frequency
dependent. The attenuation provided by the distance travelled in space is not dependent upon the
frequency. This is constant. The reason for the frequency dependence is that the equation contains
two effects:
The first results from the spreading out of the energy as the sphere over which the energy
is spread increases in area. This is described by the inverse square law.
The second effect results from the antenna aperture change. This affects the way in which
any antenna can pick up signals and this term is frequency dependent [4] [19].
FSL = 92.45 +20log (8) + 20log (18.05),
FSL1 = 139.3 dB,
Hence the FSL between Banda Ahenkro to Bui City is 3dB. and. This implies that from Banda
Ahenkro to Bui City which is 18.05Km apart, the path loss is 139.3dB, hence the output power
selected should be greater than these values.
3.9 THE ANTENNA CONSIDERATION FOR THE PROJECT
The purpose of a transmitting antenna is to radiate electromagnetic wave into free space. The
power of this is supplied by a feeder which is often a length of transmission cable and /or wave
guide having well defined characteristic impedance(s), One regard on antenna as a kind of
transducer to convert the generated electrical energy into radiating energy.
3.9.1 SPACE DIVERSITY ANTENNA
A space diversity antenna is physically two antennas that are space approx. 10m apart and
performs diversity operation. In diversity operation, the radio receives signals on both antennas
but responds on the antenna with the strongest received signal. Diversity operation helps improve
system performance when signal are being reflected and also different paths to the antenna.
Diversity antennas are available in 2.2dBi and 5.3dBi gain ratings [19] [21].
When selecting an antenna, the following needs to be considered.
Lighting protection
directionality required
gain required and cost of energy
Corrosion (Salty Condition )
Proximity to other radio services.
As general guide the following needs to be considered when installing an antenna [19] [21].
Polarization (vertical or Horizontal )
Clearance of near obstructions
Condensation drainage for antenna
Lighting avoidance
Weather proofing connections
Cable bending radius
Fig 3.12 A Picture Showing an Existing Hiperion PDH antenna [20]
Fig
Fig
From the diagram, a point to point antenna will be used at both ends of the microwwave radio
link. The maximum effective isotropic radiated power transmitted at both ends which is
dependant on Frequency of band selected and diameter of the microwave antenna is 62.30 dBm.
The selected antenna diameter is 1.20m at the 8GHz frequency.
3.9.3 THE ANTENNA HEIGHT DETERMINATION
In link consideration, if the best type of antenna are implemented in a radio network and there is
no clear line of - sight for radio wave propagation, the link will not be established, Thus
appropriate antenna and tower heights would have to be estimated to ensure connectivity between
two sites.
According to the international Telecommunication union Radio sector (ITU R)
recommendation 530 4, appropriate design of terrestrial line of sight microwave systems
requires that systems be designed with Clearance above terrain features [16].
The ITU R suggests the following rules for common use concerning required conditions about
clearance.
hc ho at k = 4/3 (temperate zone)
hc 0.3 ho at k = 2/3
hc 0.577 ho at k = 0.7 (only for freq of 7GH
z
and up)
Where;
ho is the 1
st
Fresnel Zone radius
hc is the clearance
Height asl/m
Banda Ahenkro Distance/Km Bui City
hl a =75m
h1 =341m
h1g = 266m
d1 =2km
D =18.05km
h2g =250m
h2a
hc
hs=280m
256m
d2 = 16.05km
24m
Fig 3.13 A Detailed Drawing Showing the Path between Banda Ahenkro and Bui City
Where;
d
1
= the distance from Banda Ahenkro to the point of the higher altitude
d
2
= the distance from point of higher altitude to Bui City
D = the distance between the two sites under consideration ie Banda Ahenkro to Bui City
h1a = the Banda Ahenkro antenna height above the ground
h1g = the ground height above sea level from Station A tower location
h1 = the Station A antenna height above sea level hla+h1g
h2a = the Station B antenna height above of the ground
h2g = the ground height above sea level for the Station B tower location
h2 = the Station B antenna height above sea level = h2a + h2g
hs = the height of the highest obstacle above sea level
hk = the height below sea level at the position of the level highest obstacle in relation to the
effective earth radius.
1 2
2
d d
hk
ka

Where;
k = the earth curvature constant
a = the radius of the earth.
3.9.4 THE REQUIRED CLEARANCE
Clearance (hc) is the distance between the optical line of sight and the nearest obstacle. A clear
line of sight exists when no physical objects exist when viewing one antenna from the other [19].
It is calculated as shown below
1 1 2 2 ( ) ( ) h d h d
hc hs hk
D
+

Therefore the antenna height can be found from
1 1 2 2 2 1 ( ) ( )
......( )
2
h d h d d d
ho hs hc ho
D ka
+
+
1 2
2
1
[( ) ] ( ) hs hk ho D h d
h
d
++

By Calculation
( ) ( ) 360 10.27 15.421 27.45 370 17.45
2
10
h
++ 1
]

2 413.07 h m
, but, h2=h2a +h2g
Hence, h2a= 413.07 360=53.07m.
A software Applet program was use to calculate the antenna height and hence, the antenna height
and the required clearance were found.
h
1
= 90m+320mh
1
= 410m
hc = 41.95m
10 17.45
4
2 6370
3
k h

_

,
= 0.01027km = 10.27m for hc ho.
hk= 10.27m hs=330 +30m hs= 360m
By using an antenna height calculation tool in the Pathloss4.0, the antenna height at Bui City was
which agrees with the calculations,
h
2
=413.07m ho =15.421m h2a=413.07m-360m h2a= 54m.
The required clearance (hc) was also found to be 41.95m which is greater than the 1
st
Fresnel Zone
radius (ho) which is 15.421m. This implies that the calculated antenna heights will have a feasible
line of sight
3.10 RADIO EQUIPMENTS SELECTION
A typical microwave radio transceiver consists of an indoor mounted base band shelf, an indoor
or outdoor mounted radio frequency (RF) transceiver and a parabolic antenna. Each terminal
transmits and receives information to and from the opposite terminal simultaneously providing
full duplex operation. The base band shelf provides the interfaces to other terminating equipment
such as switches, routers, BTS, etc. If the RF transceiver, is an outdoor unit it is mounted directly
behind the parabolic antenna separated by a short run of flexible waveguide.
Careful analyses were made into some radio equipment to ascertain their effectiveness if selected
for this project and the Hiperion SDH link Radio was selected.
Hiperion Digital Microwave Systems allows transmission links to be established rapidly and
easily to meet a variety of transmission needs, delivering cost savings and enabling rapid network
rollout, Hiperion SDH radio system is a full-featured 155Mbit/s transmission solution, covers the
full band of frequencies from 6 GHz to 23 GHz, and uses ASIC technology to achieve a high
level of integration to provide cost, performance, and reliability that is unmatchable in the
industry [20].
3.10.1 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF THE HIPERION SDH RADIO SYSTEM
[A] The key features in the Hiperion SDH link radio system are as follows [20];
Standard compliant system for 6-23GHz with 155Mbit/s capacity.
Adaptive Transmit Power Control (ATPC) and high receiver sensitivity for maximum link
reliability and stability
STM-1 interface available as either electrical or optical
Hot standby Tx protection switching with hitless Rx protection switching
Local management to facilitate commissioning.
Equipment configuration stored onto flash memory
NMS with integral routing and management of ODUs and remote IDUs
Built-in testing functions to facilitate commissioning and troubleshooting
Wide operating range on power supply
Compact and light weight for easy installation and reliable performance
Fig 3.15
A Picture Of The Hiperion PDH Link Radio Equipment [20]
[B] ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL SPECIFICATIONS AT 6GHz, 7GHz AND 8GHz
RESPECTIVELY OF THE HIPERION SDH LINK SYSTEM [20].
6 GHz 7 GHz 8 GHz
Frequency Range GHz 5.925-7. 110 7.10-7.90 7.90-8.50
Electrical characteristics
MHz
ITU-R RF Tx/Rx Spacing 252.04 (Lower)
350 (Upper)
154 or 161
119, 126 or
311.32
RF Channel Bandwidth MHz 28
Tx power at Antenna port
(2dB tolerance)
dBm 21
Tx Power Control Range
(1 dB step)
dBm 0 to +21
Receive Sensitivity @
BER = 1x10-6
(Guaranteed: +2dB)
dBm -68
Supported RF
Configurations


1+0, 1+1
Radio Protection Hot standby/ Space diversity / Frequency diversity
Power characteristics

Noise Figure
dB
= 5.5
Power Supply VDC -20 to -60V
Power Consumption (per
hop)
1+0 W = 105
1+1 = 210
IF Connection on ODU N-type connector, Belden 9913/RG-8, up to 300m
RSSI Connection on
ODU


BNC
Mechanical characteristics
Dimensions (H x W x D) mm 279 x 240 x92
Weight kg 4.2
Operating Temperature C -50 to +55
Operational Altitude
Above Mean Sea Level
(max)
m 4500
Operating Humidity % =95
Table 3.3 Radio Equipment Specification
CHAPTER FOUR- THE NETWORK DESIGN ANALYSIS
4.1 THE RECEIVED POWER LEVEL
N
O
TOWN D(km) PL (dB) Si (dBm)
1 Banda Ahenkro- Bui City 8.5km -65.50
2 Banda Ahenkro- Bui City 12.8km
3
Banda Ahenkro- Bui City 16km
4 Banda Ahenkro- Bui City 18km
Table 4.0 Received power levels at various locations
Thus, all the radio equipment having sensitivity within the measured power levels should be
possible to receive the signal at these various locations. Therefore, the Hiperion PDH radio
system that has been selected for the project will be able to receive the signals been transmitted
because it has a receiver sensitivity at BER 1
-6
to be -68 dBm.
4.2 THE CALCUALTION OF THE LINK BUDGET
Receiver sensitivity is the minimum signal power level required at the input receiver for
certain performance.
The antenna Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is the transmitted power which is equal to
the transmitted output power minus cable loss plus transmitting antenna gain [4].
Mathematically,
EIRP = P
out
C
t
+ G
t
eqn 4.0
S
i
= EIRP FSL+ G
r
- C
r
eqn 4.1
Where; C
t
= transmitter cable loss C
r
= receiver cable loss S
i
= received power at the receiver
input.
The received signal power should be above the sensitivity threshold. To determine if a link will be
feasible, the calculated received signal level is compared with the receiver sensitivity threshold,
the link is theoretically feasible if , which means that the signal will be strong enough to
successfully interpreted by the receiver [4]?
4.3 THE LINK BUDGET FOR BANDA AHENKRO TO BUI CITYA
Link Details
Link ID
Banda_Ahenkro -
Bui_Dam
1st Name
2nd Name
Link Type Default Microwave
Duplex Method FDD
Packet Size(bytes) 100
Packet Type IPv4
Synchronisation N/A
Delay(ms) N/A
Actual Latency(ms) N/A
Link Modified Date
2012-11-22
11:03:25
LOS Status Clear
Main Band 8G_14M_119 DS
Main Band Duplex Method FDD
Main Channel F3
Main Polarisation Vertical
Calculation Method ITU-R P. 530-12
dN1 (N-unit/km) -87.935566
Geoclimatic factor K 0.00004923
Terrain Type Forest
ITU Climate Region/Rate A
Current RainModel ITU_RAIN_MODEL
% Time Rainfall 0.0100
Capacity
BANDA_AHENK
RO Bui City
Main Ethernet Capacity(Kbps) 56000 56000
Main Total Capacity(Kbps) 56000 56000
Main Control Overhead(Kbps) 21280 21280
Capacity Status Sufficient Sufficient
Main Available Capacity(Kbps) 34720 34720
Main Centre Frequency (GHz) 8.321000 8.440000
Main Bandwidth (MHz) 14.00000 14.00000
Main Frequency Designation Low High
Property ID BANDA_AHENKRO BUI_DAM_NEW
Property Latitude 0809'46.01"N 0816'28.30"N
Property Longitude 00221'28.01"W 00214'18.06"W
Property Height (m) 266.00 250.00
Mast Name 80 m Tower 45 m Tower
Table 4.1 The link budget for Banda Ahenkro To Bui City.
It could be verified from the above that the received signal levels are all greater than the receiver
sensitivity and hence the receiver will be able to intercept the signals and correctly decode
without interference and that our network will be feasible.
4.4 PATH RELIABILITY AND AVAILABITY ANALYSIS
Usually, microwave links are designed to meet a specific reliability factor. Reliability is expressed
as a percentage. It represents the percentage of time the link is expected to operate without an
outage caused by propagation conditions. The Bell standard for short-haul propagation reliability
is 99.995% (minimum), while requirements for high-capacity, long-haul may be 99.9999% [21].
"Unavailability" or the probability of an outage because of propagation conditions is often
referred to and, if expressed in percentage, the value is determined by subtracting the availability
(expressed as a percentage) from 100 [21].
Availability and unavailability are referenced to a year. For the path between Banda Ahenkro to
Bui City where the availability is 99.9974650, then, the unavailability is 0.0025350, thus, the
outage per year is given as;
[365.25(days/yr)* 24(hr/day) * 60 (min/hr) * (0.001/100)]= 31535200.55 minutes of
unavailability (outage) per year [21].
4.5 THE NETWORK DESIGN AND COST ANALYSIS
The objective of the network design is to link up the some communities in the Jaman North
district of Brong Ahafo region to the Vodafone GH network from Banda Ahenkro which is the
nearest Vodafone GH Exchange where the microwave network can be reach. With the application
of fixed line and GSM for that matter coupled with other technological advantages, workers and
citizens can have access to telephone services, internet, fax, and not forgetting the opportunity to
access Vodafone GH mobile network in the Area as well as other ICT facilities.

4.7 COST ANALYSIS
Capital Costs
Cost
LinkID
Installatio
n
LinkTermE
quip
RadioEquipme
ntCost Antenna
Banda_Ahenkro -
Bui_Dam 20000 1500.00 5000 4000
TX
BX
M D
B T S
4.6 PROPOSED NETWORK DESIGN FOR THE JAMAN NORTH
Annual Operating
Costs
Cost
LinkID
Maintenan
ce Rental Total
Banda_Ahenkro -
Bui_Dam 10000 3000 13000
From the table, the capital cost of mainting a site a Bui City will cost USD ,.