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14.2
14.3
14.9
Street L~ghting
14 9.1 14.9 2 14.9 3 14.9.4 149 5 Need for Street L~ghtlng L~ght~ng Standards Arrangement of Llghts L~ght Poles Lamps
14.1
INTRODUCTION
As we have seen in earlier unit, road transport is emerging as the most dominant mode of transport in India. In many of the developed countries, it has already attained the level of primacy and is the key to economic prosperity. Though it has many desirable features, it has some serious disadvantages. One such disadvantage that is always a negative polnt for road transport is its poor record of road safety. A study of traffic safety is thus of vital importance to a highway engineer. The study should deal with various factors, which cause road accidents and how they can be prevented by various measures. The special problem of safety of vulnerable road users hke pedestrians, cyclists and riders of two-wheelers needs to be discussed. The provision of good street llghting and anti-skid road surfaces deserves a careful study. koad accidents are known to cause high economic losses to the society, apart from grief to the affected persons. The quantification of the cost of road accidents becomes useful in evaluating the costs and benefits of road improvement schemes.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand how road safety is a serious problem that needs attention by highway engineers, identify the causes that lead to road accidents,
Traffic Engineering
* understand the special needs of vulnerable road users like pedestrians, cyclists
and riders of two-wheelers, know about the problem of skidding on road surfaces and how it can be overcome, have a knowledge of street-lighting, and learn how road accident costs can be quantified into monetary terms.
14.2
Traffic Safety
Country
Figure 14.1: Road Fatality Rates
Traffic Engineering
14.3
Accidents, by the very meaning of the word, occur unpredictably. They are rare events governed by chance. But they can be attributed to certain factors, or an interplay of these factors. The factors can be grouped under: 1) Vehicle factors 2) Roadway factors 3) Road user factors 4) Environmental factors
afety in-built into it. The road features that are of relevance in safe traffickability are:
Traffic Safetj
1) 1) 1)
)
4)
t)
)
1)
0) ) 1)
2)
3) 4) 5)
horizontal alignment vertical alignment sight distance super-elevation carriageway width shoulders median with road signs road markings traffic signals junction layout pavement surface characteristics traffic safety aids narrow bridges and culverts horizontal and vertical clearances zontal alignment must contain curves, which are safe to negotiate at the design e design speeds for roads of different classes have been given in Unit 6. The urvature must permit vehicles to travel at the selected design speed. Circular ire transitional ends and pavement widening. Super-elevation can cause travelling at high speeds to go out of the carriageway.
The ertical profile should cuntdn summit and valley curves so that the required sight dista ce is avaiiable and vehicles can negotiate without discomfort. ate sight distance enables a driver to sight the danger ahead and take appropriate Safe stopping sight distance enables him to bring t h e vehicle to a stop well before truction. Safe overtaking sight distance enables him to overtake a vehicle with safety. Sight distance at obstructions (buiklings, compound walls, cut slopes) onal elements of a road determine how safely the expected volume of The design service volume for the Level of Service (Unit 6) governs the be provided. The w l d e r s accommodate disabled vehlcles and same level as the carriageway and preferably paved. Any difference in ment and the shoulder - a phenomenon most commonly seen in India h serious concern. The wider the median, the safer is the traffic. of width 10 m and above without raised kerbs are highly desirable. They avoid problem. But land availability may restrict the median width. On highways a 5 m is necessary with kerbs. In urban streets, this can be relaxed. and road markings add to the safety of a road. They must be of reflectorised visibility is ensured in the night. Their positioning and design must conform signals add to safety at junctions by segregating conflicting traffic *ams with resp t to time. They must be of proper design, and their Icxation must catch the driver's Tr eyes. ~ 6 a 'unctions d are common locations of accidents. Cqnflicting traffic streams can be safe1 accommodated by adequate junction design. The geometric features that need attent on are the turning curves, acceleration and deceleration lanes, lane width, separate right- urning pockets and adequate sight distance. Channelising islands enable the traffic to be uided along the desired paths safely. h pavement surfaces become slippery when wet leading to skidding. The subject with in detail in Section 14.4.
'
n a f f i c Engineerillg
The traffic safety aids that are commonly provided on roads are: 1) traffic safety barriers 2) pedestrian guard rails 3) delineators 4) red reflectors on islands 5) impact attenuators Typical designs of traffic safety devices are given below.
24"
Figure 14.2: Trafi3c Safety Barrier in Concrete
White Rectangular
arrow bridges and culverts are obvious locations where speeding drivers tend to losc ntsol of vehicles, especially when vehicles come in the oppositc direction. Good ctice is to have culverts and at least bridges upto 60 m length with a width that ches with the width of the approaching roadway. rizontal and vertical clearances at underpasses must conform to prescribed Any substandard clearance is sure to result in accidents.
30 cm side Red Border 3 cm wide Red Reflectors 3 cm dia White Background
'Traffic Safety
P destrians, particularly children, and cyclists are involved in a large number of a idents. Education measures can bring the accident rate down.
t9
I
14.4
SKIDDING
en the road surface is smooth and there is a film of water on it, conditions are ideal kidding. If a driver moving at a high speed applies brakes suddenly, friction is ilised between the tyre and the wet road surface. If this friction is greater than the elerating force, the vehicle comes to a halt safely within a certain distance. If the elerating force is more than the friction mobilised, skidding results. The wheels get due to braking and the driver loses control over the vehicle. The situation is vated if the tyres of the vehicle are bald and devoid of adequate tread depth. If e is a substantial film of water between the tyre and the road surface, the enon known as "Hydroplaning" or "Aquaplaning7' develops.
Traffic Engineering
14.5
PEDESTRIAN SAFETY
A large percentage of road accidents involve pedestrians. In particular, children and the old are vulnerable. Pedestrian safety can be enhanced through various measures. Zebra crossings at intersections are recognised by drivers who slow down in front of them. A typical design of a Zebra crossing is given in Figure 14.6.
PedestTian Cros
? '
Flashing Signal
/ Zebra Crossing
W
Figure 14.6: Zebra Crossing Across Two Way Street
a crossn
Pedeslrian subways and foot overbridges afford complete safety. In city streets, raised pedestrian footpaths on either side of the road enhance safety. Guard rails to prevent pedestrians coming to the carriageway at places other than zebra crossings are also desirable. Full pedestrianisation of busy shopping areas through pedestrian precincts and pedestrian plazas is helpful in completely protecting the pedestrians. . School children must be escorted by elders when crossing streets. On wide undivided carriageways, pedestrians find it extremely difficult to find a safe gap to cross. It will facilitate their safe crossing if the road is converted to a dual carriageway with a raised median so t!at pedestrians can cross in two stages, taking refuge in the central island after crossing one carriageway. At signalised intersections, with large pedestrian flows a separate phase for pedestrians is welcome. One-way streets, planned as traftic management measures, enhance pedestrian safety.
14.6
CYCLISTS
Gyclists ari another group of vulnerable road user from the point of road accidents. They are easily knocked down by vehicles and are totally unprotected. While planners talk of patronising bicycle traftic from the point of view of energy savings and elimination of pollution, the-safety of cyclists deserves good attention. Accidents involving bicycles are caused by:
a) cyclist making a wrong turn; h) cyclist moving anlidst vehicular traffic, instead of confining himself to the lefl edge of the carriageway or to the earmarked cycle track, c) double riding d) cyclist carrying heavy loads or long loads e) the bicycle having non-functioning brakes and no rear red reflector. Traffic regulations concerning cyclists should be framed for promoting safety. These should be: a) compulsory fitting of red reflectors at the rear of cycles: b) prohibiting double riding; c) prohibiting more than two cycles to ride abreast; d) insisting on the use of separate cycle tracks where provided; e) encouraging cyclists to confine themselves to the extreme left of a road; f) requiring cyclists intending to make a right turn to stop first and alight, iind a safe gap and cross the road.
Traffic Safety
14.7
TWO-WHEELERS
The number of two-wheelers is increasing at a rate of over 15 per cent per annuin. This is because of the freedom of travel a perscmalised and cheap vehicle like a two-wheelcr offers. Unfortunately, the rise in two-wheeler population is accompanied by major ill effects like pollution, congestion, noise and high risk of accidents.
A motorised two-wheeler offers no protection when a vehicle hits it. The rider loses balance and falls down. He is run over or he suffers head injury. The pillion rider is equally, if not more, exposed to risks.
Head injuries can be avoided by wearing crash helmets. This should be made compulsory for the rider and the pillion rider. The helmet should have a face shield to protect wind, dust and insects interfering viewing.
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Wearing loose garments like dhoti and sari can expose one to risks of entanglement of these to the wheels. Two-wheeler riders should keep a safe distance from vehicles and should not attempt dangerous overtaking manoeuvres.
SAQ 1
a) b) c) d) e)
f)
g) h)
i) j)
k) 1) m) n)
How many fatalities take place every year due to road accidents in India'? What is the rate of fatality in India? What is the rate of fatality in developed countries? What are the groups of factors that are responsible for road accidents'? What factors attributable to a vehicle cause road accidents'? What factors attributable to the road cause road accidents'? Give a sketch of a concrete safety barrier. Give a sketch of a concrete safety barrier in steel. Give a sketch of a roadway delineator. Give a sketch of a cluster of red reflectors. How can narrow bridges and culverts lead to accidents'? What are the various factors attributable to a road user that cause road accidents? What are the environmental factors responsible for road accidents? How is skidding caused?
9)
p) q) r) s) t)
What is acqua-planing or hydro-ptaning? Give a sketch of a zebra crossing. What are the measures that can be taken to improve pedestrian safety? What causes accidents involving cyclists? concerning cyclists can improve safety? What .~gulations How can safety of two-wheelers be enhanced?
14.8
PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS
Road accidents are preventable to a large extent. The developed countries, which have a high vehicle ownership rate, have managed to contain the problem. Only a concerted effort is needed. Various measures are possible. These can be grouped under: a) engineering measures b) education c) enforcement These are known as the three "E"s of road safety,
sections of highways, it is necessary to provide rest arcas and wayside thc drivers can refresh themselves and rccovcr from lravcl latigue. part of engineering measures Safety Audit of Highways is cmcrging as a powerful Safety Audit is a process by which safety measures are introtluccd in every slagc of construction and maintenance of highways.
Traffic S:rfefj
1q . 8 . 2 Education Measures
d safety cducation and propaganda are an ~nlegral pdrt ot road safety. The best way
dch 1s to "catch them young" and large( ttlc school children. School children arc the aable goup o f pedestrians who suffer from road accidents and 11will be rewarding calc Illem on safe practicc ol road crossing. They are a1 an irnpressionablc age. d, once ~nculcateci. lhcq cau be cxpectcd to he cxt-clul users of the road a11dthe veluclc len llrey become adults. Drlver tralmny and eclucation 1s another :ma that &,serves entlon. The traffic palm and other Noa-Govcrnnlcntal C)rga~lisations take up cat~onal nlcasures anti propaganda. The latrzr consisls ol shtwt tilnls on the TV. in the ~ n e r halls, ~ ~ aadvcrt~seinents In newspaper and radio talks.
l I
1
On major highways, Traffic A d Posts nranned by Police and para-medical staff are provided. The purpose of these is to rush immediate medical help to the accident victims and to recoverltow the accidentetl vehicles.
1(
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14.9
STREET LIGHTING
Traffic Engineering
Arraflgement
Figure 14.7: Basic Arrangements I n Public 1,igllting
All Dimensions in mm
Light poles can be made of steel, aluminium, timber or concrete. The height of the mounting is in the range of 6 to 10 metres. The spacing is in the range of 15 to 30 metres.
14.9.5 Lamps
The old incandescent lamps have been replaced by modern lamps such as fluorescent tube. sodium vapour lamp and mercury vapour lamps.
monetarily quantified as a percentage of the loss of future output and are also accounted for. The cost of a at 1990 prices has been estimated to be Rs. 1,72,000. e cost of a serious injury has been estimated to be Rs.30,000 on the basis of hospital and any loss of output suffered due to disability.
$e cost of a minor injury has been estimated t o be Rs. 1,100. -$xcost of damages to vehicles has been quantified as follows:
Traffic Safvty
Car Rs. 1,200 I wheeler Rs. 300 I e accident costs canTwobe used for determining whether the cost involved in accident
Bus
Rs;5,500
Truck
Rs. 6,100
measures is economically justified. What are the three Es of traffic safety'? What are the engineering measures that are possible for improving road safety? What is Safety Audit of roads? What are the education measures that can enhance road safety'? Who enforces traffic rules? Why is street lighting necessary'! What are the recommended standards for illumination of city streets'? What are the various arrangements possible for street light poles? Give a sketch of a typical light pole.. What are the various types of modern street lamps now available ? How can thc cost of a fatal accident be computed? How is the knowledge of accident cost useful? What are the costs of various types of road accidents?
In this Unit, you have been presented with the importance of road safety and various measures that are taken to ensure the road safety. You have been given an account of the nuinber of lives lost due to road accidents in India. The fatality rate is high in India when" compared to developed countries. You have been given an idea of the factors that cause road accidents. Some are attributable to the road, some to the vehicle, some to the road user and some to the environment. Pedestrians, cyclists and two-wheeler riders are vulnerable road users. Their safety can be improved by engineering Ineasures and enforcing suitable regulations. Measures for preventing accidents can be classified undcr the three E's: Engineering, Education and Enforcement.
You have also been given the details of street lighting that are conducive to safe driving.
)ou have bee11provided with the niclhod of calcularing lhc ~ o s 01 l mad aicltlcnr\ on thc bas~s 01 acc~dcnt statisl~cs. This U I Nhas ~ provided you with sultic~cnt knowledge ahoul traliiz sakdy and mcasurcs lo he takcn lo Improve lraflic safety.
SAQ 2
Figure 14.8. Refer section 14.9.5. Refer section 14.10. Refer section 14.10
T&c
Engineering
FURTHER READING
Pignataro, L.J., Traffic Engineering Theory and Prartice, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1973. Kadiyali, L.R., Trafic Engineering and Transport Planning, Khann,a Publishing, Delhi, 1987. Saxena, S.C., A course in TraSJicEngineering, Dhanpat Rai Publications (P) Ltd., New Delhi.
Code of Practice for Road Markings, IRC: 35-1997, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, 1997. Code of Practice for TrafJic Signs, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, 1978. Guidelines on designs and installations of Road Traffic Signals, IRC: 93-1985, lndian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 1985. Manual on Uniform TrafJic Control Devices, US Department of Transportation, Washington, 1977.