EE 2201MEASUREMENTS AND 2201MEASUREMENTS INSTRUMENTATION

Introduction to general instrument system, error, calibration etc. Emphasis is laid on analog and digital techniques used to measure voltage, current, energy and power etc.
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To have an adequate knowledge of comparison methods of measurement.

Elaborate discussion about storage & display devices. Exposure to various transducers and data acquisition system.

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1.INTRODUCTION
Functional elements of an instrument Static and dynamic characteristics Errors in measurement Statistical evaluation of measurement data Standards and calibration. 9

2. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS Principle and types of analog and digital voltmeters, ammeters, multimeters Single and three phase wattmeters and energy meters Magnetic measurements Determination of B-H curve and measurements of iron loss Instrument transformers Instruments for measurement of frequency and phase. 9 by V.BALAJI, M.Tech,(P h.D),
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3.

COMPARISON METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS 9

D.C & A.C potentiometers, D.C & A.C bridges, transformer ratio bridges, selfbalancing bridges. Interference & screening Multiple earth and earth loops Electrostatic and electromagnetic interference Grounding techniques.

4.

STORAGE AND DISPLAY DEVICES

Magnetic disk and tape Recorders, digital plotters and printers, CRT display, digital CRO, LED, LCD & dot matrix display- Data Loggers.
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TRANSDUCERS AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

Classification of transducers Selection of transducers Resistive, capacitive & inductive transducers Piezoelectric, optical and digital transducers Elements of data acquisition system A/D, D/A convertersSmart Sensors.

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INTRODUCTION

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FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM Three main functional elements are Primary sensing element Variable conversion element Data presentation element

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Data storage/ Playback Element

Measuring quantity (Measurand)

Primary sensing Element

Variable Conversion Element

Variable Manipulation Element

Data Transmission Element

Data Presentation Element

To Observer

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Static And Dynamic Characteristics

Static Characteristics : Static characteristics are those that must be considered when the system or instrument is used to condition not varying with time or vary only quite slowly. Main Static characteristics: i) Accuracy ii) Static error iii) Sensitivity iv) Dead zone V) Reproducibility vi) Drift vii) True value

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Accuracy: Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity being measured. Sensitivity: Sensitivity means the ability to feel or realize readily an accurately the slight changes in the input quantity. Sensitivity = change in output signal or measure change in output signal or measure Reproducibility: Reproducibility is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It may be specified in turns of units for a given period of time. Drift : Drift means that with given input the measured value do not vary with time. It is undesirable in instruments because it is rarely apparent by V.BALAJI, M.Tech,(P h.D), and cannot be easily compensated.AP/EEE ,DCE

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DRIFT CLASSSIFICATION

1.

Zero drift: If entire calibration shifts due to slippage permanent or due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits ,zero drift occurs as shown in fig 1.1.
Characteristics with zero drift

Output

Nominal characteristics

Input

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DRIFT CLASSSIFICATION

2.

Span (or) Sensitivity drift: If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drift is called span or sensitivity drift as shown in fig 1.
Characteristics with Span drift Nominal characteristics

Output

Input

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DRIFT CLASSSIFICATION

3.

Zonal drift: If the drift occurs only over a portion of span over a portion of instrument, it is called as zonal drift as shown in fig 1.3.
Characteristics with zero drift Repeatability

Output

Input

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Precision: Precision is measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e. given a fixed value of a quantity; it is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. True value: True value of a quantity to be measured is defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values when the average deviation to the various contributing factors tends to zero. Static error: Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and true value of the quantity. static error = Am Ar Am = Measured value of quantity A r = true value of quantity by V.BALAJI, M.Tech,(P h.D),
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Dead zone: Dead zone is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output for the system. Repeatability: Repeatability is defined as the variation of scale reading and is random in nature.

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Dynamic characteristics
Dynamic characteristics: The Dynamic characteristics of an instrument refers to performance of instrument when it is subjected to time varying input. The performance criteria based upon the dynamic relation constitute the dynamic characteristics. Some of Dynamic characteristics are Speed of response Measuring lag Fidelity Dynamic error

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1. Speed of response It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured quantity. 2. Measuring lag it refers to retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to a change in the input signal. The measurement lags are of two types i) Retardation type: In this type, the response of an instrument begins immediately after a change in measured quantity has occurred. ii)Time delay type: In this type response begins after a dead time, after the application of input. Dead time simply shift the response along the time scale and causes a corresponding dynamic error.

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3. Fidelity: Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of a system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input.

4. Dynamic error: Dynamic error is difference between the true value of the quantity changing with the time and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.

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Errors in measurement
Error: There is always some difference between the actual value and observed value is called error. Errors are mainly classified as Gross errors Systematic errors Random errors

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Errors
1.

Gross errors gross errors are largely due to human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and calculating measurement results. This error can be eliminated by 1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data. 2. Taking number of readings of same quantity and by number of observers.

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2. Systematic errors: They are classified as a. Instrumental errors b. Environmental errors c. Observational errors a. Instrumental errors: These errors are due to the following: i) Due to inherent short comings in instrument ii) Due to misuse of the instruments iii) due to loading effects
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INHERENT SHORT COMINGS IN INSRUMENT

These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure. They may due to: Construction Calibration or operation of instrument or measuring devices Example: If the spring used for producing controlling torque of permanent magnet instrument has become week, the instrument will read high. These errors are eliminated by careful planning and recalibration.
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Misuse of instruments These errors are due to the fault of the experimenter than that of the instrument. Example: An experimenter may fail to adjust the zero of instrument, poor initial adjustments.

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Due to loading effects

These errors are committed by beginners, is the improper use of instrument Example: A well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage when connected across a high resistance circuit. Same voltmeter when connected across a low resistance circuit may give a more dependable reading. hence the voltmeter is said to have loading effect.
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Environmental Errors Errors which are introduced due to using an instrument in different conditions than in which it was assembled and calibrated are called environmental errors. These may due to Temperature Pressure Humidity Dust Vibration
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ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS These can be eliminated by

Using instrument in controlled conditions of temperature and pressure If above condition is not possible then deviation in local condition must be determined and suitable correction to instrumental readings applied. Automatic compensation employing devices for such deviation is also possible. Although new calibration may be made in the new conditions.
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Observational Errors The errors which occur due to improper observation made by the observer are called observational errors. Example: The pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of parallax will be incurred unless the line vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize parallax errors , highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored by V.BALAJI, M.Tech,(P h.D), 27 AP/EEE ,DCE scales.

RANDOM OR RESIDUAL ERRORS Errors which occur due to the multitude of small factors which change or fluctuate from one measurement to another and are surely to change. The happenings or disturbances about which we unaware are lumped together and called random or residual. These are unpredictable errors.

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LIMITING ERRORS All components are guaranteed by the manufacturer have nominal value and a specified percentage of deviation (from the nominal value). the limiting of these deviations from the marked value are known as limiting errors. Fractional limiting error: The ratio of the error to the specified (nominal) magnitude of a quantity is called fractional error. It is expressed as,

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Statistical evaluation of measurement of data

This is necessary to obtain the probable true value of the measured quantity. Systematic way of specifying this uncertainty is the systematic method The most probable value of a measured value can be estimated by following different methods are: a) Arithmetic mean b) Median c) Mode d) deviation from the mean e) Average deviation f) Standard deviation g) Variance

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ARITHMETIC MEAN
Arithmetic mean is the average number of values taken. The best approximation will be made when the number of readings of the same quantity is very large. The Arithmetic mean is given by the following expression X= X1+X2+X3+.+Xn = X n n
Where X X1,X2,X3. n = = = Arithmetic mean Readings taken number of readings

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Median Median is also indicate the most probable value of the measured quantity when a set of readings taken. When the readings are arranged an ascending and descending order of magnitude , the middle value of the set of readings is taken as the median.

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MODE Mode is the value which occurs frequently in a set of observations and around which other readings of the set cluster densely.

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DEVIATION FROM THE MEAN Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings. If the deviation of first reading X1 is called d1 , and that of second reading X2 is called as d2 and so on , then the deviations from the mean can be expressed as, d1 = X1 X d2 = X2 X , etc. Deviation from the mean may be positive or negative. But sumV.BALAJI, M.Tech,(P h.D), of the deviation is zero. by
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Average Deviation Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of the deviation D= |d1| +|d2|+|d3|+|dn| n D = |d| n

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STANDARD DEVIATION

Standard deviation or root mean square deviation is a very valuable aid in statistical analysis of random errors. The standard deviation or root mean square deviation of an infinite number of data is the square root of the sum of all the individual deviation squared ,divided by number of readings. It is expressed as o = d12 + d22+d32+.+dn n
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Standard deviation for a finite number of data (less than 20) O = d12 + d22+d32+.+dn2 n -1 0 =

d2 n-1

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VARIANCE The variance is the mean of square deviation ,which is same as standard deviation, except that square root is not extracted . variance ,V = d12 + d22+d32+.+dn2 n =

d2 n d2 n-1
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When number of observation less than 20, V =

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STANDARDS
A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. The term standard is applied to a equipment having a known measure of physical quantity. They are used for the purposes of obtaining the values of the physical properties of other equipment by comparison methods. Standards of Measurement classified by their function and application in the following categories:
i. ii. iii. iv.

International standards Primary standards Secondary Standards Working Standards

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STATIC CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMETS

CALIBRATON: Calibration is defined as the comparison of an instrument with a primary or secondary standard of an instrument of known accuracy.

STATIC CALIBRATION : It is defined as the process by which all the static performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another. Calibration is used to find errors and accuracy.
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Calibration procedure may be classified as

Primary calibration: Instrument is calibrated against primary standards . Examples: standard resistor and standard cell After calibration, that instrument s called as secondary calibration.

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Secondary calibration
Secondary calibration instrument is used for further calibrating another instrument of lesser accuracy. Widely used in laboratory practice as well as in industry. Example: Standard cell may be used for calibrating a voltmeter or ammeter with a suitable circuit.
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Direct calibration with known input source

Same order of accuracy as primary calibration. Instruments which calibrated directly are used as secondary calibration instruments. Example: flow meter

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Indirect calibration
Equivalence of two different instruments used for measurement of certain physical quantity. Consider two flow meters having similarity Reynolds number i.e., D11V1 = D22V2 D11V1 D22V2 1 2
Where, D - diameter of the pipe density of the fluid V velocity of fluid stream
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ROUTINE CALIBRATION periodically checking the accuracy and proper functioning of the instrument with standards. Usual steps of calibration: Visual inspection of the instrument for the obvious physical defeats. Checking the instrument for proper installation in accordance with the manufacturer specifications.
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1.

2.

3.

Zero setting of all the indicators. Leveling of instruments which needs this precaution. Recommended operation tests to detect to major defects.

4.

5.

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LIMITING ERRORS
Limiting of these deviations from the marked values are known as limiting errors or guarantee errors Fractional or relative limiting error: The ratio of the error to the specified (nominal) magnitude of a quantity is called fractional error. r = A = Aa As (or) A = r As As As

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Actual value of the quantity , Aa =As + A = As + r As = As (1 + r ) Percentage limiting error % r = r x 100 Where Aa = Actual error As = specified value A = limiting error

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Problem 1
Two resistors having the following ratings: R1= 36 + 5% and R2 =75 + 5%. Calculate the limiting error when the resistors are connected in series and connected in parallel. Solution: R1= 36 + 5%
Rl = 36+1.8 (max) and Rl = 36-1.8 (min) 36Limits of R1 are 37.8 and 34.2 Limits of R2 are 78.75 and 71.25

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Series connection:
R = R1 + R2 = 37.8 +78.75 = 116.55(max) or R = R1 + R2 = 34.2+71.25 =105.45(min) Rated value =36 +75=111 Limiting error = 116.55-111 116.55= 105.45

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Parallel connection

R = R1R2 / (R1 + R2) = 78.75 x 37.8 /(78.75 + 37.8) = 25.54 Rated value of parallel resistors = 75x36 /(75+36) = 24.32 Limiting error = 25.54 -24.32 = 1.22

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Problem no:2
A 0 10 A ammeter has guaranteed accuracy of 1.5% of full scale reading. The current measured by the instrument is 2.5 A. calculate the limiting values of current and the percentage limiting error. Solution: Given: Full scale reading = 10A limiting error r = 1.5% of full scale reading specified value As = 2.5 A

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Magnitude of limiting error of ammeter is A=1.5x10/100 =0.15A Relative error, er = A = 0.15 = 0.06 As 2.5 Limiting value of current = As (1 + r ) = 2.5(1 + 0.06) = 2.5+0.15A Percentage limiting error % r = r x 100 =0.06x100 =6%
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