Composites: Composites are engineered products made from two or more different materials.

A composite product provides a designed solution that surpasses the performance of the starting materials. While there are many variations of composites, the most common engineered composite materials are fiber reinforced plastics (FRP). Types of Composites Some of the major types of composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer composites (FRPC) Fiber reinforced thermoplastics Fiber reinforced thermo set plastics (like polyester, vinlyester, epoxy, BMI/Polyimide, phenol, etc.) Glass matrix composites Natural Fiber Composites What are the Advantages of FRP Composites? The benefits of using composite materials include: High Strength Light Weight Corrosion Resistance Dimensional Stability Design Flexibility Durability Constituents of composites: The term composite can describe many types of engineered materials, but the most common engineered composite materials are fiber reinforced plastics (FRP). FRP is often comprised of a reinforcing fiber in a polymer matrix. The reinforcing fiber is commonly glass fiber, although high strength aramids, plant based fibers and carbon fibers are used in some applications. The polymer matrix is typically a thermosetting binder resin. Polyester, vinyl ester, and epoxy chemistries are the most predominately utilized binders. Polymer selection is driven by end use application characteristics, such as corrosion considerations, cosmetic requirements, operating temperatures, and fabrication requirements. Pigment, filler and granule materials can also be used to modify cost, performance and appearance characteristics of the composite part. Formation of composites: To form a composite part, the liquid polymer binder resin is combined with the fiber and filler materials. The polymer is then converted from a liquid to a solid during a heat and chemistry driven molding process, encapsulating the fibers and fillers into a specific shape. There are many processes available for fabricating composite parts. The fabrication methods range from very simple and low cost direct molding operations to complex processes and

equipment operations. The process selected to fabricate the composite part is dependent upon factors such as the quantity of parts to be produced, the design requirements, part complexity and surface appearance. 2010-2012, Ashland http://compositebuild.com/inform/what-are-composites/ Advantagesand Disadvantagesof Composites Composite parts have both advantages and disadvantages when compared to the metal parts they are being used to replace. Advantages of Composites 1. A higher performance for a given weight leads to fuel savings. Excellent strength-toweight and stiffness-to-weight ratios can be achieved by composite materials. This is usually expressed as strength divided by density and stiffness (modulus) divided by density. These are so-called "specific" strength and "specific" modulus characteristics. Laminate patterns and ply buildup in a part can be tailored to give the required mechanical properties in various directions. It is easier to achieve smooth aerodynamic profiles for drag reduction. Complex double-curvature parts with a smooth surface finish can be made in one manufacturing operation. 4. Part count is reduced. 5. Pn)(luction cost is reduced. Composites may be made by a wide range of processes. \Composites offer excellent resistance to corrosion, chemical attack, and outdoor weathering;however,somechemicalsaredamagingto composites(e.g.,paint stripper),and new types of paint and stripper are being developed to deal with this. Some thermoplastics are not very fesist~t to some solvents. Check ~e data sheets for each type. Disadvantages ofComposites 1. Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily damaged. Cast metals also tend to be brittle. 2. Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons: Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited shelf lives. . Hot curing is necessary in many cases, requiring special equipment. Curing either hot or cold takes time. The job is not finished when the last rivet has been installed. 3. If rivets have been used and must be removed, this presents problems of removal without causing further damage. 4. Repair at the original cure temperature requires tooling and pressure. Composites must be thoroughly cleaned of all contamination before repair. 6. Composites must be dried before repair because all resin matrices and some fibers absorbmoisture. Natural Fibers Composites:

Natural fibers such as flax, hemp, jute, and kenaf, have received considerable attention as an environmentally friendly alternative to glass fibers in engineering composites. In addition, they exhibit excellent mechanical properties, especially when considering their low density (1.4 g/cc vs. 2.5 g/cc of glass)". Although natural fibers have a number of ecological advantages over glass fibers they also possess disadvantages, such as lower impact strength, higher moisture absorption which brings about dimensional changes thus leading to microcracking, debonding at the fiber and matrix interfaces as well as Fabric Manufacturing Department Final Year Thesis 2011 [14] poor thermal stability, which may also lead to thermal degradation during processing.[3,4,5,6 ] Natural fiber composites are made of Cotton, Flax, Jute, Sisal, Hemp and non conventional fiber such as Coir & different EFBs (empty fruit bunches) and Wood fibers. Wood fiber thermoplastic composites are attractive, insect- and rot-resistant, paintable and can be made to have the look of wood. In addition, they are stiffer, cheaper than plastic products, with more life-cycle coseo, Vegetable fiber thermoplastic composites are attractive to the automotive industry because of their low density and ecological advantages over conventional composites.[ 7,8,9 ]

Advantages of natural fibers over synthetic fibers: The plant fibers have a number of techno-ecological advantages over traditional glass fibers since they are renewable, can be incinerated, leading to energy recovery, are less harmful in terms of safety and health (e.g., skin irritation) and cause less abrasive wear to processing equipment, such as extruders and moulds. Natural fiber cultivation depends mainly on solar energy and fiber production and extraction use small quantities of fossil fuel energy". Glass fiber production is energy intensive processes depending mainly on fossil fuels. Nonrenewable energy requirements for Glass fiber matt production is 54.7 MJ/kg compare to only 9.55 MJ/kg for flax fiber matt. Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites typically will have a higher fiber volume fraction compared to Glass Fiber Reinforced Composites for equivalent strength and stiffness performance, because glass fibers have better mechanical properties than natural fibers. This higher fiber volume fraction reduces the volume and weight fraction of the base polymer matrix used in the composite. This higher volume fraction of lower density natural fibers in NFR composites also reduces the weight of the final component. Unlike glass fibers, natural fibers can be incinerated after the NFR component has served its useful life. The energy credit associated with incinerating china reed fibers is estimated to be 14 MJ/kg while incineration of natural fibers theoretically results in no net addition to CO, emissions, because plants,from which natural fibers are obtained, sequester Fabric Manufacturing Department Final Year Thesis 2011 [15] atmospheric CO, during their growth, which is released during the combustion of natural fibers. Basic Principles of Manufacturing of Textile Composites: [ 10 ] 1.3. Tailoring Composites Composites are hybrid materials made of a polymer resin reinforced by fibers. The short and discontinuous fiber composites and continuous fiber reinforced polymers are used in composites. By changing the direction of the fibers in the resin, the material properties can be tailored to the external loads. To optimise the construction multiple adjusted layers (laminae) can be used to form a laminate. Typical fibers Glass, Carbon, Aramid & Natural fibers or their hybrids with suitable resin like Epoxy, Polyester & Polypropylene or some biodegradable resin are used in the preparation of composites. To make a composite part, the four major items needed are: 1. Raw material 2. Tooling/mold 3. Heat 4. Pressure Depending on the manufacturing process selected, a suitable raw material is chosen and laid on the tool/mould. Then, heat and pressure according to requirements are applied to transform the raw material into the desired shape. Solid materials such as metals or

thermoplastics require a large amount of heat to melt the material for processing, whereas thermosets require less heat. Fabric Manufacturing Department Final Year Thesis 2011 [16] 1.4. Components of Composites: Matrix and reinforcements are the two constituents of a composite material. These constituents are of several types and depend upon the end uses.Reinforcement or fibers in case of FRPC provide the strength that makes the composites what it is. They also serve certain additional purposes like heat resistance or conduction, rigidity etc. The strength of reinforcement must be greater than the matrix and be stiffer. Hence the reinforcement is responsible for mechanical properties of composite material. 1.4.1. Matrix: Polymer or resin as matrix material make is ideal as it can be processed easily; posses light weight and offer desirable mechanical properties. Resin as matrix has a very critical role in FRPC. Fibers in such a state are when subjected to stress; the failure (breaking) of a single fiber eliminates a load carrier and shifts its part of load to the remaining fibers. Also load in such condition has more localized action on the fibers and is not distributed to the whole structure, rendering the remaining length of fiber in load carrying as useless. Similarly bundles of fibers are of little function in condition of shear and compression other than rope which distributes the load across the fiber bundle. Without matrix there is no load distribution mechanism in the fibers and fracture of fiber results in making it ineffective. When the fibers are glued by a binder that is resin, the fibers carry the load and resin distributes the external load to all fibers. It also prevents fibers from buckling under compressive force. The structural potential of fibers can only be harnessed when they have structural integrity and that integrity is provided by resin. Unlike parallel fiber bundle having a fractured fiber dose not bear any load when subject to stress, resin bound fibers bundle having fractured fiber has mechanical function and can carry external load as it is intact in the whole structure which carries the load. Apart from load distribution and structural integrity, resin has other roles also which are:

Fabric Manufacturing Department Final Year Thesis 2011 [17] The fiber should be free of any type of coating so as to ensure that resin sticks perfectly to the fiber thereby ensuring smooth load transportation. If there is some other material or chemical in between this interface, this can lead to cracking and delamination. Another important point is that Composites cannot be made from constituents

possessing very divergent linear expansion characteristics as this may lead to delamination, bending and other problems. So the compatibility of fibers and resin is very critical in design of a composite. 1.5. Types of resin

1.5.1. Thermoplastic Resins: A thermoplastic, also known as thermo softening plastic, is a polymer that turns to a liquid when heated and freezes to a very glassy state when cooled sufficiently. Thermoplastic resin although are not widely used due to certain shortcomings, research is going on to use them because of some of their advantages over thermoset resins.[ 10,11 ] 1.5.1.1. Advantages of thermoplastic resins: as very less time is available for its shaping and molding. fect by simply melting them. On the other hand their disadvantages are many like poor temperature resistance due to which they soften at elevated temperatures, high viscosity in molten condition and poor solvent resistance. They need to be molded at elevated temperature that is above their melting point which is sometimes a big problem for large structures. Different types of thermoplastic resins are polyaryl ethers, thermoplastic polyimides, polyarylene sulphide, polypropylene, polyethylene etc. Fabric Manufacturing Department Final Year Thesis 2011 [18] 1.5.2. Difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers:[ 12 ] Thermoplastic polymers Thermosetting polymers (1) These soften and melt on heating. These do not soften on heating but rather become hard in case prolonged heating is done these start burning. (2) These can be remoulded recast and reshaped. These can not be remoulded or reshaped. (3) These are less brittle and soluble in some organic solvents. These are more brittle and insoluble in organic solvents. (4) These are formed by addition polymerisation. These are formed by condensation

polymerisation. (5) These have usually linear structures. Ex. Polyethylene, PVC, teflon. These have three dimensional cross linked structures. Ex. Bakelite, urea, formaldehyde, resin. 1.5.3. Thermoset resins: Thermoset or thermoset polymers cure irreversibly. Curing takes place by heating or by chemical reaction initiating cross linking. They decompose rather than melting when heated after cure. Thermoset resins are stronger than thermoplastics as they form a three dimensional network by bonding after curing. They have high temperature resistance hence suitable for high temperature application to the point of decomposition. They can be cured in partially cured condition for a prolonged period of time. In this state Fabric Manufacturing Department Final Year Thesis 2011 [19] thermoset resins are flexible called pre-preg that needs to be stored in refrigerator at low temperature to inhibit any chemical reaction. In pre-preg state the composite is in flexible state and after little heating it can be formed to any desired shape and finally cured. Being chemically inert, temperature resistant and having good mechanical properties, thermoset resins are most widely used. There use range from low level applications to very specialized application like aero space. Thermoset resins are available for different uses and requirements like thermally stable for high temperature application e.g. rotor air bus propeller, chemical resistant, fire resistant and weather resistant. Common types of Thermoplastic Resins Polyamide (PA or Nylon), Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) ,Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) ,Polycarbonate (PC) ,Polyethylene (PE) ,Polypropylene (PP) ,Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Most widely used thermoset resins are polyester and epoxy resin. 1.6. TYPES OF RESIN FAMILIES:[ 13 ] 1.6.1. Polyesters Unsaturated polyester resins are the simplest, most economical resin systems that are easiest to prepare and show good performance. Generally, polyesters exhibit somewhat limited thermal stability, chemical resistance, and processability characteristics. Applications include transportation markets (large body parts for automobiles, trucks, trailers, buses), marine (small and large boat hulls and other marine equipment), building (panels, bathtub and shower shells), appliances etc. 1.6.2. Epoxy Epoxy resin systems show extremely high three dimensional crosslink density which results to the best mechanical performance characteristics of all the resins. The most demanding strength/weight applications use epoxy almost exclusively. It has excellent

strength and hardness, very good chemical heat and electrical resistance. Disadvantages include higher cost, processing difficulty (quantities of resin and hardener need to be Fabric Manufacturing Department Final Year Thesis 2011 [20] measured precisely. Also, often heat curing is required.) Epoxy systems are used in applications like aerospace, defense, marine, sports equipment, adhesives, sealants, coatings, architectural, flooring and many others. 1.6.3. Vinylester:[14] Even further improved polyester; it is bisphenol chlorinated, or a combination of polyester and epoxy. Its curing, handling and processing characteristics are those of polyester, and it exhibits higher test results in corrosion temperature resistance and strength and has higher cost. Modifications of the molecule have produced even higher properties. 1.7. MAJOR MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES OF COMPOSITE PRODUCTS:[ 15,16 ] In order to meet the market need, researchers and industries are developing a great number of manufacturing techniques. The costs of production, as a considerable part of total costs, usually determine which will be followed for a product. Different processes usually take either low capital investment with high labor, or high capital investment with low labor. The most common techniques are: 1.7.1. Hand lay-up on open mold:[ 18,19] Most widely used, it is a simple but effective process which takes relatively low capital investment but high labor cost. Open molds are tools that reproduce (or duplicate) only one side of a product, or a component. For the other side another mold has to be used, and another component has to be fabricated. The two components are glued back to back and the outcome is a product with two finished faces (and a seem between them). Lay-up is performed in the following steps: Pigmented gel coat is first applied by brush or spray. Other layers Fabric Manufacturing Department Final Year Thesis 2011 [21] (usually chopped strand mat) follow, until the desired thickness and strength are achieved. 1.7.2. Filament-Winding:[ 20,21 ] It is a capital-intensive process used mainly to manufacture small and large diameter tubing and pressure tanks in medium to high production volume. As the name implies, it involves the winding of continuous, pre-saturated reinforcing filaments around a rotating mandrel, until the

whole surface is covered at the desired depth. 1.7.3. Pultrusion: It is a sophisticated, continuous, high capital and material intensive process for the manufacture of composite profile. Unlike filament winding which mounts reinforcement in the transverse (or circumferential) direction of the mandrel, Pultrusion places the primary reinforcement in the longitudinal direction. It is performed by pulling continuous filaments together with chopped strand mat tapes through a resin bath to a heated metal die cavity of the desired cross section and shape. 1.7.4. Spray-up:[ 22 ] This relatively low capital investment process is developed for high volume production. Chopped fiber reinforcement together with resin (usually polyester) in the form of a spray is deposited simultaneously on to the released and gel coated open-mould surface. The resulting outcome closely resembles that of chopped strand mat. Quality is poor, mainly because the component incorporates a high resin ratio, but it is a very economic way of manufacturing low priced parts. Fabric Manufacturing Department Final Year Thesis 2011 [22] 1.7.5. Hot press molding: Like RTM, two matching metal molds are heated. Instead of dry reinforcement, prepreg or pre-impregnated preforms are used. Prepreg are fabrics that are pre-impregnated with resin (sometimes resin and fillers) and treated with temperature in such ways that are partially cured (the so called B stage of cure.) When reheated in hot press molding, the resin becomes liquid again, and finally cures.