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Flow in pipes
o Sewer / Culverts ---> Open channel flow o Work- energy principle o Continuity Equation o Principles & Equation of fluid resistance
v dA vdA
3 A A
1 , = v
v dA vdA
2 A A
v dA
3 A
(1)
v dA
3 A
1 = 2 v
v dA v dA
3 A A A
v dA v dA
2 A A
p1 v2 p v2 + 1 1 = z2 + 2 + 2 2 + hL 2gn 2gn
1. Most engineering pipe flow problems atre turbulent --> is only slightly bigger than 1. 2. In laminar glow where is large, velocity head are usually negligible when compared to to other terms. 3. Velocity heads in most pipe flows are usually so small compared to other terms. 4. Engineering answers are not usually required to an accuracy which would justify the inclusion of . Including depens on: + an understanding of the factors which afect the head loss hL. + the methods available for calculating this quantity. 2
hL = f
l v2 (1) , f : friction factor (dimensionless) d 2gn f depends on roughness, velocity & diameter
friction velocity : v* =
f =v 8
Example: Obtain v*
Assumptions: Symetrical distribution of shear stress & velocity. Maximum velocity at the center of the pipe, no-slip condition on the pipe wall (v = 0 at the wall).
Linear
hL =
shear-stress
distribution
in
the
fluid
given
by:
h l A d r , Rh = = = = L r 2l Rh p 4 2
dv dy
r = R y dr = dy h dv dv = L r = = 2l dy dr
At the wall : r = R , y = 0
hL R h L = 0 2l 2l R dv 1 h 1 1 1 0 1 2 = L r = 0 r v = 0 r dr = r +C dr 2l R R R2
0 = 1 0 R2 R 2
at r = R, v = 0 C =
v=
0 (R 2 r 2 ) 2 R
at r = 0 v = v c =
0R 2 2 R
r 2 v = v c 1 2 R
(9.5)
v* = v=
= v v = * (R 2 r 2 ) v* 2 R v v* y 2 = y v* 2R
2 v* (R 2 r 2 ) 2 R 2
r 2 = (R y )
Velocity profile : v(y,v* ), distance from wall v* : characteristic "velocity", y : lamin ar profile y2 << y y << 2R or y << R 2R v v* y = velocity profile near the wall is essentially linear v*
5
when
Flow rate Q:
R
(Q = v A = v 2r dr)
R
Q=
v (2r dr) = 2R (R
0 R 2 2
r 2 )(2 r) dr
Q= 0 R
R 0 2 1 2 1 4 0 R 4 R 4 0 R 3 (R r )r dr = R R 2 r 4 r = R 2 4 = 4 0 0
0 =
hL R R 4 hL d 4 h L Q= = 2l 8 l 128 l R 2 hL d 2 hL = 8 l 32 l
Q = R 2v v =
Head Loss hL =
32 l d 2
(9.9)
In laminar flow, head loss varies with first power of the velocity:
Example 1:
Q = 400
v=
Re =
hL =
Q=
v=
Chaotic / iregular moving in time & space Diffusivity High Re 3D vorticity fluctuation Dissipation of KE of the turbulent by viscous shear stress Boundary layer Boundary layer: existence of a viscous sublayer near to the pipe walls
= ( + )
v x = Vx + v x v y = Vy + v y v z = Vz + v z
= v iv j , Re ynolds stress
2D : = v x v y dv : viscous stress, v x v y : turbulent stress dy
dv = v x v (9.11), dy
Re ~ 5104
Re ~ 5105
(N.A.C.A
:
National
Advisory
Commitee
for
Aeronautics
NASA:
Aeronautics
&
Space
Administration) + Most
of
flow,
turbulent
stress
dominates:
Maximum
stress
=
viscous
stress
at
the
wall
where
turbulent
stress
is
zero.
to
represent
Reynolds
stress,
Prandtl's
mixing
length
theory:
dv 2 = v iv j = l dy
2
(9.11)
+ Due to the fact that turbulent stress dominates in most of flow situations, Analytical treatment assuming that the viscous stress in Eq. (9.11) is negligible over most flows. The same as in laminar flow we have Linear shear stress:
h y = L r = 0 r = ...(r = R y)... = 0 ( R y ) = 0 1 (2) 2l R R R 2 y 2 dv 0 1 = l R dy
(9.12)
l =0
or
He measured the velocity profile in smooth pipes (5105 < Re < 3106), pipewall: uniform sand grain roughness
10
as eq (9.12) says :
2 y 2 dv 0 1 = l R dy
2
dv y = v* 1 dy R
dv 1 y ~ ) l y 1 dy y R
(near wall,
y 0 l = ky
0 dv 2 l dv v 02 2 = l 2 = l = * k y dy ky ky dy
if v = v c at v* v ln( R) + C C = v c * ln( R) k k
Integrating : v =
v* ln( y ) + C, k
y=R
vc =
y vc v = 2.5 ln , R v*
( proved !)
or :
(9.17)
Near to the smooth wall in the viscous sublayer, the laminar shear stress:
v v* y = v*
where y << R
(9.7)
Intersection of velocity profiles between viscous sublayer with turbulent profile at y':
v* y' v y' v y' = 5.75 log( * ) + 5.5 * = 11.6 v Sublayer thickness v = y' * v = 11.6 v = 11.6 v*
Flowrate Q in a turbulent pipe flow:
Q=
ln(x)dx = x ln(x) x, Q Q v= = 2 A R v*
x ln(x)dx = x
2
11
vc v R From Eq (9.17) at y = R, where v = v c : = 5.75 log( * ) + 5.5, v* v R v vc v and Eq (9.19) : = 5.75log * +1.75 = 3.75 v* v* vc as v* = v f 8 v c v = 3.75v f 8 = 3.75 f 8 +1 v v adjusting this expression : c = 4.07 f 8 +1 (9.20) v
v* = v
8,
Re =
vd 2vR = ,
adjusting
v* = v f 8 ,
this expression :
v = 11.6 v , *
(9.21)
v as Re ,
Re f =
(9.22)
(9.23)
For turbulent flow over smooth walls, the friction factor is a function only of the ratio
12
Example 1: d = 75mm
Smooth pipe Knowing that at 20 C = 998 Kg/m3, 0 = 3.68 N/m. Calculate: Thinkness of viscous sublayer v Mean velocity v frition factor f Flow rate Q Centerline velocity vc hL in 1000m
10 6 m 2 /s 3.68 N /m 2 4 =11.6 , v* = = 0.061 m /s v = 11.6 = 1.9 10 m v* 998 Kg /m 3 0.061m /s 1 32.8 0.8 = 7.42 = 2.0log v f d
f =
1 = 0.018 (7.42) 2
v R v d = 5.75log * +1.75 = 21.1 R = v = 21.1 v* = 21.1 0.061 = 1.29m /s v* 2 2 Q = v A = 1.29 (0.075) = 0.0057m 3 /s, 4 vc = 1+ 4.07 f 8 = 1.193 v c = 1.193 1.29 = 1.54m /s v v y 0.061 0.0125 v v = 5.75log * + 5.5 ( y = 37.5 25 = 12.5mm) = 5.75log + 5.5 = 22.1 v* v* 10 6 v = 22.1 0.061 = 1.35m /s Shear stress is linearly with radius : 25 2 2 2 l v2 1000 (1.29) 2 = , = 0 = 3.68 = 2.45N /m 2 Head loss : hL = f = 0.018 = 20.4m 37.5 3 3 3 d 2gn 0.075 2 9.81
Empirical work, representing the friction factor for 3.000 < Re < 100.000 13
f =
0.316 Re 0.25
Blasius (9.24)
l v2 d 2gn hL v1.75
f v* = 0 = v l 8
(9.25)
Blasius assumed that the turbulent velocity profile could be aproximated by a power
relationship:
Fig.
1 v= A
m v y = v c R
R m 2v c 2 v= = v , (m +1)( m + 2) ( m +1)(m + 2) y
m 1 R y v dA = R 2 v c R (2r)dr r = R y vR 2 = A 0
y m v c R 2 (R y )(dy ) 0
R
v = v c (m
7 4 1 7 3 2 1 + 7m 7m 0 = 0.0332 4 R 4 4 v 4 y 4 4 ( m +1)( m + 2)
However, wall shear stress could depend only on velocity and fluid properties, not on the
m=
1 7
v 49 = v c 60
1 4
v=
49 v 60 c
2 v c 2
14
Knowing that v = 1.29 m/s, d = 75mm and water at 20C. Calculate: Wall shear stress 0 frition factor f Centerline velocity vc
0.0125 = 0.0375
= 0.855
v 25 = 1.35 m /s
15
9.4
Turbulent-flow
Nikuradse:
y vc v = 2.5ln R v* for rough pipes :
Rough pipes
y v R v = 5.75log + 8.5 e : roughness height, Smooth pipe log * e v* R R Q Q and flowrate Q : Q = R 2v* 5.75log + 4.75 v = = 2 = v* 5.75log + 4.75 e e A R R v for rough pipes : = 5.75log + 4.75 e v* Substituting : v* = v f /8 R 1 = 2.0log +1.68 e f
Example:
d = 300 mm
v = 3 m/s
Knowing that Relative roughness, e /d = 0.002 ,and kinematic viscosity of the water,
= 9 10 7 m 2 /s . Calculate:
frition factor f , Centerline velocity vc, v at 50mm from pipewall (y=50mm) and hL 300m
16
f =
1 = 0.0234 6.54 2
v* = v f /8 = 3
0.0234 = 0.162m /s 8 R 1 v = 5.75log + 4.75 = 5.75log + 4.75 v* = 0.162m /s e 0.004 v* e = 0.002 e = 0.02 0.3 = 0.0006m d yc 0.150 = = 250 e 0.0006
y v = 5.75log + 8.5 e v*
Turbulent flows in smooth pipe : 1 32.8 0.8, friction factor depends on : Sublayer thickness ( ) and characteristic lenght = 2.0log v v f d Turbulent flows in rough pipe : In transition flow : d 1 = 2.0log +1.14, e f
f = f (e,d)
e must be significant parameter In laminar flow : v = R b c the viscous effects dominate the whole flow e 64 << & Experiments confirmed that effects of roughness in laminar flows are negligible f = Re R
17
In laminar sublayer :
v 32.8 = , d Re f
e ed e Re f = = , v v d d 32.8
e e Re f = 32.8 d v
(9.32)
e Re f d
d e 1 2.0 log = 2.0 log Re f 0.8 plot in Fig. e d f e Re f 10 d e 10 < Re f < 200 d 200 e Re f d
(9.7)
0.3 e <6 v
(See on top of
Fig. 9.7)
18
General conclusion: The effect of roughness is dependent on the size of the roughness relative to the thickness of the viscous sublayer. Unfortunately, Nikuradse's formula cannot be applied to engineering problems, b/c roughness patterns of commercial pipes are different to artificial roughneses. Colebrook (1939) suggested:
d 1 9.28 = 2log = 1.14 2log 1+ e f Re e d f
Another means of classifying roughness effects by using the velocity profile directly.
19
y vc v = 2.5ln R v*
R vc v = 5.75log v* y
R R v v = 5.75log + 8.5 Apply for v c : c = 5.75log + 8.5 e e v* v* R R y vc v = 5.75 log log = 5.75log , It shows this formula is valid for both smooth rough flow e v* e y y v e y y v vc = + 5.75log = c + 5.75log + 5.75log = A + 5.75log R v* R e e v* v*
(9.36)
Suggests that A = const. in the full rough flow, in fact A = 8.5 according experimental data.For smooth fl v y v y v = 5.5 + 5.75log * = 5.5 + 5.75log * v* v e where A = 5.5 + 5.75log * , and Fig. 9.8 plots A versus log( For smooth flow : For transition flow : For turbulent flow : v e y y e = 5.5 + 5.75log * + 5.75log = A + 5.75log e e e v*e = Roughness Reynolds Number
(9.37)
v*e ) for Nikuradse's sand roughness data This suggests : v*e e 3.5 0.3 v ve e 3.5 < * < 70 0.3 < <6 v ve e 70 * 6 v
20
Example: Check previous problems whether or not the flow is truly rough:
d = 300 mm
v = 3 m/s
v*e 70 e = 0.006m
= 9 10 7 m 2 /s
21
Friction factors of a number of pipes will be the same if their Re, roughness patterns and
Fig 9.9: logarithmic plot of friction factor versus Re. The Fig 9.9 flow Nikuradge's data plotted in BlasiusStanton format revealing the relationship between f , R, e/d. Foundamentals:
1. Physical difference between the laminar & turbulent flow regimes is indicated by
the change in the relationship of f to R near the critical Reynolds number of 2100. 2. Laminar regime is given by eq. f = 64 Re for all surface roughnesses. This confirm that head loss in laminar l v2 hL = f f v d 2gn
flow is independent of surface roughness:
l v 2 64 v d 2gn
22
5. 5000 < Re < 50.000 Many og Nikuradge's rough pipe test results coincide, Roughness is submerged in the viscous sublayer. Blasius: 3000 < Re < 100.000
0.316 f = 0.27
Re Smooth pipes, Darcy Weisbach hL = f l v2 hL v1.75 d 2g
6. The series of curves for rough pipes diverges from the smooth pipe curve as the
v 32.8 = . d R f
Example:
Water @ 30C flows in 75mm pipe @ Re=80.000. Pipe: uniform sand grain 0.15mm.
Obtain: hL in 300m and hL in 300m if the pipe is smooth . Relative roughness of the pipe:
f 0.021
l v2 Darcy Weisbach hL = f d 2g vd Re 0,8 10 6 80000 6 v = ? Re = = 0.85m /s (water @ 30 C = 0.8 10 ) v = d = 0.075 hL = 0.021 300 (0.85) = 3.09m 0.075 2 9.81
2
For the smooth pipe : since 3000 < Re = 80000 < 10 5 Blasius formula : f = 0.316 l v2 hL = f =? R 0.25 d 2g
23
Fig. 9.10: Relation of friction factor, Reynolds number, and roughness for commercial pipes.
24
In Fig. 9.10, Moody presented the equations of Colebrrok (9.34) in a graphycal form using te Blasius-Stanton format: Moody diagram.
25
It must be said the roughness of commercial pipe materials varies widely with the manufacturer, with year in service, and with the liquid conveyed. A difficult problem por the engineers is to predict these friction factors. Example:
Water
flows
at
30C
in
75mm
pipe,
Re
=
80000.
this
is
a
commercial
pipe
with
an
equivalent
sand
grain
roughness
of
0.15mm.
Obtain
hL
in
300m.
e 0.15 = = 0.02 (relative roughness) d 75 Using
Moody
diagram
from
Commercial
pipe
to
find
f
f = 0.026
2
Re 0.8 10 6 80000 l v 300 (0.85) = = 0.85 m s hL = f = 0.026 = 3.83m d 0.075 d 2g n 0.075 2 9.81
Commercial
pipes
have
higher
head
losses
v=
Example: Crude Oil at 20C flows in a riveted steel pipe. d = 1m, v=2 m/s. What is the range of hL in 1000 km of pipeline.
Crude
oil
@
20C : = 855.6
km/m3, = 71.8 10 4 Pa s v d 855.621 Re = = = 2.4 10 5 71.8 10 4 Look
at
Fig.
9.11
for
riveted
steel:
f [0.0009 ~ 0.009] upper : e = 0.009 d f = 0.0365, lower : e = 0.009 d f = 0.0205
Darcy Weisbach : l v2 1000 22 hL = f = 0.0365 = 7.4 m, d 2 gn 1 2 9.81 h : 4.2 ~ 7.4 ] m L [ hL = 0.0205 1000 22 = 4.2 m 1 2 9.81
26
9.7
Pipe
Friction
in
non-circular
pipes
Non-circular pipes:
d2 A Area d Rh = = , Circular pipe : Rh = 4 = P Wetted perimeter d 4
Hydraulic Radius :
d = 4 Rh
v ( 4Rh ) l v2 Darcy Weisbach hL = f Re = , d 2g hL can be used in Moody diagram (Fig. 9.10) in term of d = 4 Rh
Viscous sublayers, turbulence, roughness, shear stress, etc. for nonciurcular conduits may
be obtained as the same as circular pipes. However this method might be subject to certain limitations. Example:
( 4Rh ) v 1.225 4 0.09 3 = = 73950, using Moody Diagram (Fig. 9.10) for smooth pipe f 0.019 1.789 10 5
l v2 600 3 = 0.019 = 14.5m (of air) 4 Rh 2gn 4 0.09 2 9.81
hL = f
27
Empirical formulas
Rh : Hydaraulic radius
S : head loss per unit length = hL l Chw : roughness - coefficient associated with pipe material. (Table 1)
Darcy-Weisbach's formula can be applied to both laminar & turbulent flow over a wide range of fluid & temperatures. Hazen-Williams formula is restricted to turbulent flow of water at normal temp in a limited size range relatively smooth pipes. This formula can calculate V through a given head loss. In the same circumstances, D-W requires a trial solution an estimating Re to find a friction factor f . To find the corresponding relation between Hazen-Williams & Darcy-Weisbach:
28
d h h 1.85 Rh = and S = L v = (0.3545) C1.85 d1.17 L hw 4 l l 133 f = 1.85 0.15 Chw ( vd) d 0.02
Taking a nominal -value of 10-6 m2/s for water the equivalent f -value for Hazen
Williams formula: f =
Manning Equation:
1.85 hw
(SI units)
S=
1.49 2 3 1 2 v = n Rh S
(US units)
Rh is hydraulic radius,
hL , n is roughness coefficient l
23 12 1 d hL v = , n 4 l
v=
1 d 4 3 hL 6.35 n 2 l
124n 2 l v 2 hL = 1 3 , d d 2gn
+ n0 Reynolds number effect, the formula must be used only in the wholly rought flow zone
where its horizontal slope can accurately match D-W values. Fairly strong relative roughness effect, a larger pipe will have a smaller friction factor. Formula is valid only for rough pipes, the rougher the pipe, the more likely the Manny formula will apply.
29
Example: A pipeline flowrate 0.5 m3/s of water 2 reservoirs 8km appart and 60m differente elevation. Considering only pipe friction losses, use: Hazen-Williams, Manning and Darcy-Weisbach formulas to select a diameter of welded steel pipe that will meet this requirement.
Hazen Williams :
d 0.63 hL 1 0.63 60 2 2.63 Q = A v = d 0.849 Chw 0.5 = d 0.849 135 4 4 4 l 4 8000 0.5 d 2.63 = = 1.78 d = 1.25m 0.28 " f "= 1056 vd 0.411.25 1056 = = 5.16 10 5 = = 0.0167 0.15 0.02 = Re = 6 1.85 Re d 10 135 7.2 0.15 1.25 0.02
1.85 hw
Manning solution : Q = A v =
124 n 2 " f "= = 0.0162 d1/ 3 Darcy Weisbach formula : We
need
to
guess
Re
e d,
then
adjust
again
from
Fig.
9.11,
we
have
e = 0.045mm.
e 0.045 10 3 From
last
calculation,
we
guess
d 1.2m = = 3.75 10 5 d 1.2 v d Q d Q d 4Q 40.5 Re = = = = = = 5.3 10 5 2 d 10 6 1.2 A d 4 l v2 l Q2 1 l Q2 16 1 16 l Q2 From
Fig.
9.10,
we
have
f 0.0135 : hL = f
= f
2 = f
2 4 = 2 f 5 d 2g d A 2g d d 2g d 2g 16 l Q2 16 8000 (0.5) d5 = 2 f = 2 0.0135 = 0.0372 hL 2g 60 2 9.81
2
d = 0.52m
30
v2 Experiment: h L = K L 2gn
at high Re
K L : Loss coefficient
in which
KL = 1
31
Fig. 9.15 flows: 1 = 7: Optimal cone angle 2 = 60 => maximum KL better abrupt enlargement than = 60 (KL =1) => desing of connector of pipelines. Example:
300 mm
600mm
20
32
P300 v 2 P v2 + 300 = z600 + 600 + 600 + hL , 2gn 2gn Q Q 0.3 4 Q v 300 = = = v 600 = = 1.06m /s, 2 2 = 4.24 m /s d300 (0.3) A300 A600 4 0.6 2 A1 d2 600 From Fig. 9.15, = 20 and = = = 4, given K L 0.43 0.3 A2 d2 300 z300 + hL = K L
(v300 v600 )
2gn
= 0.43
(4.24 1.06) 2
2 9.81
= 0.2216
Taking the datum at the CL to eliminate z from the Eq : 140 10 3 (4.24) P600 (1.06) = + 0.2216 3 + 3 + 2 9.81 9.81 10 2 9.81
9.81 10
2 2
A2 = [0, 1], A1
Cc =
Ac A2
33
A2 =0 A1 See Table 2 : A2 =1 A1
(Fig.)
(Fig.)
K L 0.8
Hamilton:
34
r > 0.14d will prevent the formation of a vena contracta, and thus eliminate the head loss due to flow deceleration. KL 0.1, exact value depends on the detailed geomtry of the entrance & boundary layer. For short well-streamlined contraction: KL 0.04 For long contraction: KL > 0.04 Losses of head in smooth pipe bends due to effects of separation, wall friction & secondary flow. Head loss coefficients for smooth pipe bends are shown in Fig 9.20. KL (Shape of bend: R d )
R d = 0,
K L 1.1, miter bend usin g in large duct as wind & water tunnels
The losses of head caused by commercial pipe fittings occur because of their rough &
irregular shapes. Values of KL in the Engineering Date Book are given in Table 3.
35
Example: A pipeline lenght = 3 km, diameter = 75mm carries water at v = 70 cm/s, has a pipe friction loss of 25m, neglecting local losses. If the line contains a sharp-edged reservoir entrance, a wide-open, screwed global valued, and four 90 regual, screwed elbow, and exits directly into a reservoir. Calculate: local losses in the line & the percent error incurred by neglecting them
v2 hL = K L , Need K L = ? 2g n Sharp edged entrance : K L = 0.5 Wide open, screw globe value Table 3, given K L = 10 90 regular, screwed elbows Table 3, given K L = 1.5 Exit into reservoir K L = 1 v2 0.7 2 = (0.5 +10 +1.5 +1) = 0.325m 2gn 2 9.81 local Loss 0.325 percent error = 100% = 100% = 1.3% pipe friction Loss 25
Total local loss = K L
36
Head loss due to friction hL f , abrupt entrance hLe , and abrupt exit to another tank hLx :
l v 2 hLe + hL f + hLx = H 0.5 + f +1 =H d 2gn v2 neglected entirely, increasing l /d also decreases . 2gn l v2 EL HGL hL = f =H d 2gn
The effects of local losses in pipelines of common lengths is so small, which may often be
37
Example: A clean cast iron pipeline has d=0.3m, length = 300m connects two reservoirs having surface elevations of 60 & 75m. Calculate the flowrate through the line, assuming water at 10C and squared-edged entrance.
vd v0.3 = = 229.000V 1.306 10 6 from Fig. 9.11 for clean cast iron pipe, given e /d = 0.00083 water at 10 C,
= 1.306 10 6 m 2 /s Re =
From Fig 9.10, with e /d= 0.00083, Re = 458 10 3 given f 0.02, K Le = 0.5, K Lx = 1.
l v 2 p1 = p2 = 0, v1 = v 2 = 0, 75 + 0 + 0 = 60 + 0.5 + f +1 d 2gn
From Fig 9.10, with Re = 847250 & e /d= 0.00083 given f 0.0193 :
300 v 2 75 + 0 + 0 = 60 + 0.5 + 0.0193 +1 0.3 2gn
v = 3.76m /s Q = v A = 3.76
0.32 = 0.266 m 3 s 4
38
Example: A smooth PVC pipeline 60m long carries a flowrate 0.003 m3/s between 2 water tanks with a difference in water surface elevation of 1.5m. If there is a squared-edged entrance and water at 10C, calculate the diameter of the required pipe.
water at 10 C, = 1.306 10 6 m 2 /s vd Qd Qd 4Q 40.003 14700 Re = = = = = 2 = d d A d 1.036 10 6 d 4 4 l v 2 60 v 2 Work energy equation : 0.5 + f +1 = 1.5 0.5 + f +1 = 1.5 2gn d 2gn d
using Excel to find : d = 0.036m
EL HGL
39
2 2 p1 v12 p v2 l v1 v2 l v1 + = z2 + 2 + 2 + hL , hL = hLe + f = K Le 1 + f 2g 2g d1 2gn 2gn d1 2gn Setting the datum at the CL of pipe (nozzle) 2 v2 v 2 v2 l v1 H + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 2 + hL , H = 2 + K Le 1 + f 2g 2gn 2gn d1 2gn d 2 2 2 d1 2 d1 d2 l v 2 A1 v1 = A2 v 2 v1 = v 2 v 2 = v1 H = 1 + K Le + f 1 d 4 4 d1 2gn d2 2
z1 +
+ If we know the flowrate, we can solve this equation directly. + If we know H, this equation can be solved by trial- and error. desing: Sprinkler system, fire supression hoses,.... - Turbine, where the power in the jet is converted to electrical energy.
40
f l Q2 power = Q H 2 2 d1 gn A1 dP f l = 0 H 3Q2 = 0 2 dQ 2 d1 gn A1
p1 v12 p v2 + + E P = z2 + 2 + 2 + ET 2g 2g (US) Kilowatts of Machine = v2 ) 2g Q E P (US, 9.49a) 550 Q E P (SI, 9.49a) 1000 Q ( E P or E T ) 1000 (SI)
Q ( E P or E T ) 550
p v2 p v2 z1 + 1 + 1 + E P = z2 + 2 + 2 + hL 2gn 2gn
WHP =
WkW =
+ Usually, we have been working with gravity-flow, however a more common ocurrence is the pumped pipeline (water supply). + Where the pumps are located at the upcstream end of the pipeline: sourcer pupms, the draw liquid from wells, reservoirs, tanks, etc. + Where the pumps are located at some intermediate point in the pipeline: boosten pumps. Using formula (9.49), WHP (WkW) represent the power added to the fluid by the pump.
41
Most engineering liquids contain dissolved gases, they move with liquids as large bubbles, collected in high point of the pipeline, reducing the flow along a crosssection, and are sent to disrupt the flow. In practice, large negative pressures in pipes should be avoided if possible by design improvements. Where such negative pressures cannot be avoided they should be prevented from exceeding about 2/3 of the different barometric and vapor pressures. ( Example:
patm pv ).
(1330m, ridge-1313m (distance from upstream), 1230m, pipeline 20km long) There is concern that the ride is too high and will create an unacceptable low preassure in the pipeline. What is your recommendation as to the feasibility of proposed location of the pipeline? Neglecting of this falling.
local
losses
&
considering
EL HGL .
EL-HGL
is
falling
1330 m 1230 m = 100 m over 20 km. the ridge distance from upstream 4km is about 1/5
Elevation of EL-HGL of ridge = 1330 100 1/5 = 1310m . It means that the preasure head at ridge is -3m. The negative preasure head of water is approximately -10m, the preasure haed at ridge = -3m is about 1/3 of this limitation. p p 101Pa 2.3Pa 10m Note: 0 35 C 10m( at 20 C), he = atm v = 9.81
42
Example: Calculate the horse power that the pump must supply to the water at 10C in order to pump 0.07m3/s through a clean cust iron pipe from the lower reservoir to uuper reservoir. Neglecting local loses and velocity heads.
Q E p 1000 2 p v p v2 we need to find E p z1 + 1 + 1 + E p = z2 + 2 + 2 + hL 2gn 2gn Q 0.07 0.07 v = : v 0.2 = v 0.15 = = 3.96 m /s 2 = 2.22 m /s A (0.2) (0.15) 2 4 4 v d 2.22 0.2 v d 3.96 0.15 5 R0.2 = 0.2 = R0.15 = 0.15 = = 454800 6 = 3.4 10 1.306 10 1.306 10 6 water at 10 C,
= 1.306 10 6 m 2 /s WkW =
e Fig 9.10 = 0.012 Fig. 9.11 f = 0.021 d 0.2 e = 0.0018 Fig. 9.11 f = 0.024 d 0.2 Head losses l v2 300 (2.22) 600 ( 3.96) hL0.2 = f 0.2 = 0.021 = 7.91 m hL0.15 = 0.024 = 76.73 m d 2gn 0.2 2 9.81 0.15 2 9.81 hL = 7.91 m + 76.73 m = 84.64 m
2 p1 v1 p v2 + + E p = z2 + 2 + 2 + hL 15 + 0 + 0 + E p = 45 + 0 + 0 + 84.64 2gn 2gn QE p 0.07 9.8 116.64 WkW = = = 0.08kW WHP = 0.746 0.08 = 0.06hp 1000 1000
2 2
z1 +
E p = 116.64 m
43
44
The basic principles of analysis are the same although the techniques of analysis vary depending on the system complexity. Assumptions: - - Velocity heads & local lsses are neglected EL HGL Variation of the friction factor f with the Re are often neglected (unless handling by a computer program). One loop network:
+ Parallel laying is standard method: a) increasing capacity b) flexibility to repair. - The head loss through bouth the branches of the loop mush be the same, if ELEGL network above the pipes is to be continous throughout the system + Continuity equation: Q = QA + QB , hLA = hLB Darcy-Weisbach for head loss:
hL = f
l 16 Q2 16 f l l v2 2 = f = Q d 2gn 2gn d 2 d 4 2 2 gn d 5
n n k A QA = kB QB , Q = QA + QB
45
Solution of this equation system allows prediction of the division of a flowrate Q into QA & QB when the pipe characteristics are known. Example:
d = 300mm, l = 1500m, Q = 0.15 m3/s. This pipe is looped with 600m pipe of the same material & size parallel and connected to it. What % increase in maximum flowrate may be expected? Neglectic local losses and velocity head EL HGL
hL = 16 f l Q2 2 2 gn d 5 ( k
l) hL = k Q2 k1500 = hL 24 = 1067 (1500m
pipeline) 2 = Q (0.15) 2
600 1067 = 427 1500 900 For
the
unlooped
section : k 900 = 1067 = 640 1500 For
the
loop
section : k600 = For
the
original
pipe,
the
head
loss
in
the
looped
&
uplooped
portions :
2 2 hL = 24 = k 900 Q2 + k 600 QA = 640 Q2 + 427 QA 2 2 For
the
new
pipe : hL = 24 = k 900 Q2 + k 600 QB = 640 Q2 + 427 QB
Q = QA + QB
QA =
Q 2
Q 2 640 Q2 + 427 = 24 640 Q2 +106.75 Q2 = 24 Q = 0.18 m 3 s 2 0.18 0.15 percentage increasing = 100% = 20% 0.15
46
Scenarios: 1. Flow from reservoir A into reservoirs B & C 2. Flow from A to C without flow in & out from B 3. Flow from A to B into C Situation (1):
n n hA /C = k A QA + kC QC n n hA / B = kA QA + k B QB n n zA zB = kA QA + k B QB
n n zA k A QA = kC QC n n Set(1) zA k A QA = zB + k B QB QA = QB + QC
Situation (3):
n n zA kA QA = kC QC n n zB k B QB = kC QC n n Set(2) zA k A QA = zB k B QB QA + QB = QC
In view of physical flow only one of these sets of equations can be satisfied: 47
After identification of the set of equations, these may be solved (by trial) to yield the flowrates QA, QB and QC. Multiple pipe systems are complicated problems of distribution of low in pipe networks (e.g. city water supply system). + One Method is presented here to illustrate the bais principles: Network consisting of various sizes, geometry, hydraulic characteristics, pumps, valves, etc. Assumptions: o Flows are assumed positive in a clockwise direction around each loop. o The continuity principle states that the net flowrate into any pipe junction must be zero:
= 0.
o The work-energy principle requires that at any junction there is only one position of
EL-HGL, which means the net head loss around any single loop of the network must be zero.
48
Q = Q
A F
+ Q2 Q1 = 0
F
Q = Q + Q
1
Q3 = 0
Q = Q
E B
Q4 Q8 = 0
2
Q = Q
I
+ Q4 + Q5 + Q7 = 0
3 3 n = k1 Q13 + k 3 Q3 + k 4 Q4 + k 2 Q2 = 0
Assuming that: pipe sizes, lengths, hydraulic characteristics, Network in/out flows, pump
station & pump characteristics, and Network layout & elevations Qi solved.
i = 1, ...,10 will be
There are several ways to solve for those flowrates, the simplest and easiest one is Hardy Cross Method. Hardy Cross Method (Iteration Method): The essence of the method is to start with a best estimate of initial values, If the first estimates are reaonably accurate, Q0i, the first iteration:
Qi = Q0i i
(9.52)
Sign ( ) depends on the direction assumed for Q0, L , is the correction in a loop L.
(9.53)
The sign ( ) depends on the flow direction, Qi is the magnitude of the flowrate, for
example:
Loop I Loop II Loop III
n n n k1Q1n + k3Q3 + k 4 Q4 + k 2Q2 = 0 n n n n k8Q8 + k10Q10 + k 7Q7 k 4 Q4 = 0 n n n n k 5Q5 k 7Q7 + k 9Q9 + k8Q8 = 0
h
L
Li
= k i (Q0i L ) = 0
L
49
1
Expanding (using binomial theorem!)
1 1 1 3 2
1 1 3 1
h
L
Li
k i Qn Qn 1 L + ( L ) = 0 L = n 0i 0i
L
k Q
i L
n
0i
nk Q
i L
n 1
0i
This equation is used to calculate flowrate correction L for each loop of the nerwork. The
iteration equation:
(Lj +1) =
k (Q )
( j)
i
nki Q(i j )
L
( )
n 1
When a pump is added to a pipe in the network, an expression representing the head
curve. For example if the pump added to the line 8 in the loop II:
h = k Q ( a
Li 8 n 8 II
50
Example:
o Paralel commercial steel pipe o By accident a valve in time in line BC was open. What are the resulting flowrates in all the pipes, neglecting local losses, and assuming that the flows are wholly rough: Darcy-Weisbach:
pipe Nr. 1 2 3 4 5
ki =
16 f i li 2 2 gn di5
Diameter (m) 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 e/d 910-5 110-4 110-4 910-5 110-4 f 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.013 Ki 31.7 96.8 9.7 31.7 442.0
Length (m)
1000
1000 100 1000 1000
51
Initial Calculation Q1 = Q01 + I Loop I Q2 = Q02 + I Q3 = Q03 + I II Q3 = Q03 + II I Loop II Q2 = Q04 + II Q3 = Q05 + II
Take a look at problem 9.21
Subsequent Calculation Q1j +1 = Q1j + jI Q2j +1 = Q2j + jI Q3j +1 = Q3j + jI jII Q3j +1 = Q3j + jII jI Q4j +1 = Q4j + jII Q5j +1 = Q5j + jII
o In many cases, the analysis of unsteady flow recurrin in pipeline system is based on steady analysis flow recurring in pipeline system is base on steady analysis because its transient nature and change with a small magnitude. o We consider few cases, wherein significant changes in velocity cause large changes in pressure. o Unsteady flows in pipeline system are far too complex and too uncertain to permit accurate simulation by mathematical means. It requires considerable judgment to simplify the problem to one that can be analyzed. Two methods using to analyze unsteady flow in pipeline: 1. Rigid water column theory: treats the fluid as an inelastic substance obtain ODE equations and find a numerical solution. 2. Elastic or waterhammer theory, wherein the elasticity of both the fluid & the pipe walls is taken into account in the calculation. (Deforming)
52
Friction loss is neglected, velocity head is small: EL HGL . Water hammer will be introduced into de system by suddenly closing the valve. The activity will occur both upstream & downstream of the valve, we will observe only what occurs on the upstream of the valve. + Suddenly close the valve, velocity of the water at the valve is forced to be zero (B.E.) pressure head at the valve H, Pressure at the valve stretching of the pipe and increasing of the density of fluid. + Preassure increase propagates upstream at a wave speed a.
53
54
Rh =
d y
Rh =
A P
P =
4A , d
Shear stress = P s
F = m a
4A v z A s s = A s pA gnsA 4 = ... d t s d v 1 p z 4 1 v ... = A s = t s s d gn t pA ( p + p) A gnsAcos When
the
control
volume
diameter
is
expanded
to
the
size
of
the
pipe
diameter 1 p z 4 1 v = s s d gn t 1 p z f v2 1 v = s s 2 gn d gn t r r hL = 0 , 0 = , = r R R 2l
z is a function of only s partial derivative total derivative 1 p z f v2 1 v = (9.56) s s 2 gn d gn t This is unsteady equation can be used to solve a wide range of pipeline problem.
55
If the discharge in this pipeline is controlled by the value at the downstream end. The preassure in the pipe = H0 when the valve is closed. When the valve is suddenly opened the pressure at the valve drops instantly to zero and the fluid begins to accelerate. Integrating (9.56) with respect to s from point 1 to 2.
1 p ds s
dz ds ds
f v2 ds = 2g n d
g1
dv ds, dt
horizontal
dz = 0, ds
v = v(t) only
Assuming that the value of f in unsteady = f in steady flow, we obtain : P1 P2 f L 2 L dv P1 f L 2 L dv v = , = H 0 = const. and P2 = 0 at t > 0 H 0 v = 2g n d g n dt 2g n d g n dt Intregrating by separating variables :
dt = gL
n
dv f L 2 H 0 v 2g n d
t=
2g d H f L + v Ld n 0 ln 2g n f H 0 2g n d H 0 f L v
If the local losses are neglected, then 2g n d H 0 f L = v 0 ( steady flow velocity), then : t= v + v L v 0 n 0 2g n f H 0 v 0 v
As steady flow v v 0 t ; unacceptable. Lv We propose that when v = 0.99v 0 , we have essentially steady flow, and : t gg = 2.65 gn H 0
56
Assume a = const, change reference frame mving with speed a unsteady steady (important technique!) One dimensional impulse-momentum equation (Chapter 6)
57
F F
ext
(Qv) (Qv)
out
in
, Q = disch arge, density of the fluid, Fext sum of external forces m = Q = constant
ext
= m ( v out v in ),
(9.67),
using (9.67) consider rigid pipe and that F3 is neglected F1 F2 = m ( v v + a - v - a) = m ( v ) where m = Qp = ( v + a) Ap and v is reduction in velocity p A ( p + p) ( A + A) = ( v + a) Ap( v ) pA - pA p A = ( v + a) Ap( v ) p = H,
During dt :
(9.70)
Because the pressure has increased, the volume of liquid in the section will compress slightly to higher density. The hulk modulus of elasticity:
E=
dp dV V
(Chapter 1),
V p,
( E :
relatively
constant
over
a
wide
range
of
pressure
in
the
absence
of
free
or
entrainced
air) L A V p , V
is
change
in
volume
of
fluid
in
the
pipe
section
L E
Because when the pressure increases stretching the pipe, the result of this stretching gives (by evaluation):
58
1 2 p d p V = d 2 L E e , 4 p p
E p :Modulus of elasticity
M = ( p + p) ( A L + V ) A L
(9.73)
Combine (9.70) & (9.73)
and
substituting
(9.71) & (9.72)
we
got :
a= 1+
E E d 2 1 p E p ep
59