SOCIO ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF INDIA

PRESENTED BY:- DHIRAJ KUMAR BBA(H)-008, SEC-A REG NO-09121458 WBUT ROLL NO- O9149050105

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Acknowledgement
I would like to convey my special thanks to Mrs. Babita das paul, for her support and dedication. She shared enough knowledge with me which helped me a lot in completion of my project. - ( Dhiraj kumar)

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CONTENTS1. Introduction4-5 2. Objectives...5 3. Types...5-16 4. Some Psychological Intervention For Enhancing Group Behavior.16-17 5. Gender Discrimination...17-20 6. Gender Development, Womens Movement..20-23 7. Women and Political Participation.23-24 8. Gender Issues in India.24-25 9. Gender Bias in Health Concerns in India...25-26 10. Reproductive Health Status of Women In India.26-29 11. Conclusion.29-30

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SOCIO ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF INDIA

Introduction Population explosion, Unemployment, beggary, Child labour, Prostitution, Social malfunctions like child and women trafficking,suicides of farmers and unemployed youth, Dowry problems faced by poor indian women, negligence of old age people, illegal mafia activities all are inter related with socio economic problems of our indian society. One of the most obvious problems in India has to be the unrestrained birth rate. This issue of overpopulation affects everything else that ails India -too many mouths to feed too many people viewing for a limited amount of jobs educational opportunities for children lacking due to too many kids and inadequate resources overcrowding in communities and villages sickness and

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epidemics that cannot be managed effectively due to the ever-burgeoning birth rate, and so on. Objectives Conprehend literacy situation in India Understand population explosion and its problems Explain corruption as an evil and `Proverty & Causes

TYPESSince Indias Independence in 1947, country has faced several social and economic issues: 1.Religious violence 2.Illiteracy 3. Terrorism 4. Naxalism 5. Caste related violence 6. Overpopulation 7. Economic issues 8. Poverty 9. Corruption 10.Sanitation 11.Social tensions

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Religious violence Constitutionally India is a secular state, but large-scale violence have periodically occurred in India since independence. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent. Although India is generally known for religious pluralism, the Hindutva ideology propagates that India belongs to the Hindus, and the Christians and the Muslims are aliens, and many proponents of this ideology portray violence against Muslims and Christians as a form of self-defence against invaders. The Hindutva ideology is at the core of Sangh Parivar politics and its expression in violence against religious minority. Throughout the history of post-Independence India, both Muslim and Christian communities have faced repeated attacks from Hindu activists. As the Hindutva ideology has grown more powerful over the years, many Hindutva activists have partaken in riots against minority communities. Over the last decade, religious violence in India has increasingly become what academics believe to be organized pogroms to eliminate minority communities. Some state governments in India have been accused of not effectively prosecuting those who attack religious minorities. Major religious violent incidents include Ayodhya debate, Bombay Riots, 1993 Bombay bombings, 2002 Gujarat violence. Although related, Hinduism and Hindutva are different. Hinduism is a religion while Hindutva is a political ideology. The Hindutva movement is not supported by majority of Hindus. Some tolerant or secular Hindus use the term Hindu Taliban to describe the supporters of the Hindutva movement. Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize-winning Indian sociologist and cultural and political criticAshis Nandy argued Hindutva will be the end of Hinduism.

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In Jammu and Kashmir, Since March 1990, estimates of between 250,000 to 300,000 pandits have migrated outside Kashmir due to persecution by Islamic fundamentalists in the largest case of ethnic cleansing since the partition of India. The proportion of Kashmiri Pandits in the Kashmir valley has declined from about 15% in 1947 to, by some estimates, less than 0.1% since the insurgency in Kashmir took on a religious and sectarian flavor. Many Kashmiri Pandits have been killed by Islamist terrorists in incidents such as the Wandhama massacre and the 2000 Amarnath pilgrimage massacre. In recent years, there has been a sharp increase in violent attacks on Christians in India, often perpetrated by Hindu Nationalists.The acts of violence include arson of churches, re-conversion of Christians to Hinduism, distribution of threatening literature, burning of Bibles, raping of nuns, murder of Christian priests and destruction of Christian schools, colleges, and cemeteries. The Sangh Parivar and related organisations have stated that the violence is an expression of spontaneous anger of vanvasis against forcible conversion activities undertaken by missionaries, a claim described as absurd and rejected by scholars. Between 1964 and 1996, thirty-eight incidents of violence against Christians were reported. In 1997, twenty-four such incidents were reported. In 2007 and 2008 there was a further flare up of tensions in Orissa, the first following the Christians putting up a Pandhal in land traditionally used by Hindus and the second after the unprovoked murder of a Hindu Guru and four of his disciples while observing Janmashtami puja. This was followed by an attack on a 150-year-old church in Madhya Pradesh, and more attacks in Karnataka.

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ILLITERACY Illiteracy is another major problem before the society. Its a sad state of affairs that a country which had higher level of literacy (than British) at a time when British came two centuries ago is now facing the challenge of a huge number of people who are illiterate and cannot read or write. The lack of these skills renders them deprived of the opportunities for upward social mobility. Such people have to depend on others for various things are exploited in various ways. For example the poor rural people are asked to put their thumb impression of various legal documents and are subjected to exploitations and legal hassles. Keeping these negative consequences in view the government is trying to universalize primary education. The lack of reading and writing skills makes a person incapable of availing the various opportunities to help themselves. Each and every educated person, therefore, is expected to contribute to the literacy mission and making it success. Terrorism The regions with long term terrorist activities today are Jammu and Kashmir, Central India (Naxalism) and Seven Sister States (independence and autonomy movements). In the past, the Punjab insurgency led to militant activities in the Indian state of Punjab as well as the national capital Delhi (Delhi serial blasts, antiSikh riots). As of 2006, at least 232 of the countrys 608 districts were afflicted, at differing intensities, by various insurgent and terrorist movements. Terrorism in India has often been alleged to be sponsored by Pakistan. After most acts of terrorism in India, many journalists and politicians accuse Pakistans intelligence agency, the Inter-Services Intelligence of playing a role. Recently, both the US and Afghanistan have accused Pakistan of carrying out terrorist acts in Afghanistan. Naxalism Naxalism is an informal name given to communist groups that were born out of the
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Sino-Soviet split in the Indian communist movement. Ideologically they belong to various trends of Maoism. Initially the movement had its centre in West Bengal. In recent years, they have spread into less developed areas of rural central and eastern India, such as Chattisgarh and Andhra Pradeshthrough the activities of underground groups like the Communist Party of India (Maoist).The CPI (Maoist) and some other Naxal factions are considered terrorists by the Government of Indiaand various state Caste-relatedviolence Caste-related violence and hate crimes in India have occurred despite the gradual reduction of casteism in the country. Independent India has witnessed considerable amount of violence andhate crimes motivated by caste. Ranvir Sena, a castesupremacist fringe paramilitary group based in Bihar, has committed violent acts against Dalits and other members of the scheduled caste community. Phoolan Devi, who belonged to Mallah lower-caste, was mistreated and raped by upper-caste Thakurs at a young age. She then became a bandit and carried out violent robberies against upper-caste people. In 1981, her gang massacred twentytwo Thakurs, most of whom were not involved in her kidnapping or rape. Phoolan Devi went on to become a politician and Member of Parliament.

Over the years, various incidents of violence against Dalits, such as Kherlanji Massacre have been reported from many parts of India. At the same time, many violent protests by Dalits, such as the 2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra ,have been reported as well. The Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to identify the socially or educationally backward, and to consider the question of seat reservations and quotas for people to redress caste discrimination.

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In 1980, the commissions report affirmed the affirmative action practice under Indian law whereby members of lower castes were given exclusive access to a certain portion of government jobs and slots in public universities. When V. P. Singh Government tried to implement the recommendations of Mandal Commission in 1989, massive protests were held in the country. Many alleged that the politicians were trying to cash in on caste-based reservations for purely pragmatic electoral purposes.In 1990s, many parties Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), the Samajwadi Party and the Janata Dal started claiming that they are representing the backward castes. Many such parties, relying primarily on Backward Classes support, often in alliance with Dalits and Muslims, rose to power in Indian states At the same time, many Dalit leaders and intellectuals started realizing that the main Dalit oppressors were so-called Other Backward Classes and formed their own parties, such as the Indian Justice Party. The Congress (I) in Maharashtra long relied on OBCs backing for its political success. .Bharatiya Janata Party has also showcased its Dalit and OBC leaders to prove that it is not an upper-caste party. Bangaru Laxman, the former BJP president (20012002) was a former Dalit. Sanyasin Uma Bharati, former CM of Madhya Pradesh , who belongs to OBC caste, was a former BJP leader. In 2006 Arjun Singh cabinet minister for MHRD of the UPA government was accused of playing caste politics when he introduced reservations for OBCs in educational institutions all around. Overpopulation India suffers from the problem of overpopulation. Though India ranks second in population, it ranks 33 in terms of population density below countries such as The Netherlands, South Korea and Japan. To cure this problem, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, had implemented a forced sterilization programme in the early
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1970s but failed. Officially, men with two children or more had to submit to sterilization, but many unmarried young men, political opponents and ignorant, poor men were also believed to have been sterilized. This program is still remembered and criticized in India, and is blamed for creating a wrong public aversion to family planning, which hampered Government programmes for decades. Poverty One-third of Indias population (roughly equivalent to the entire population of the United States) lives below the poverty line and India is home to one-third of the worlds poor people. Though the middle class has gained from recent positive economic developments, India suffers from substantial poverty. According to 2010 ACS, 46.2 million people or about 15.3 percent of the U.S. population had income below their respective poverty threshold during the year. Compared with the 2009 ACS estimates, the number of people in poverty increased by 3.3 million and the poverty rate increased by 1.0 percentage point. One of the 8 Millennium Development Goals is to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger by 2015. According to a report of the Committee constituted by the government of India to estimate poverty, nearly 38% of Indias population is poor, based on indicators for health, education, sanitation, nutrition and income to estimate the extent of poverty. Since 1972 poverty has been defined on basis of the money required to buy food worth 2100 calories in urban areas and 2400 calories in rural areas. It indicates a condition in which a person fails to maintain a living standard adequate for his physical and mental efficiency. It is sad that even after more than 60 years of Independence India still has the worlds largest number of poor people in a single country. Of its nearly 1 billion inhabitants, an estimated 260.3 million are below the poverty line, of which 193.2 million are in the rural
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areas and 67.1 million are in urban areas. Poverty affects the woman most in as much as the female members in the family are denied education, healthcare, nutritious food, and good sanitation because of poverty. Corruption Corruption is widespread in India. India is ranked 95 out of a 179 countries in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index, although its score has improved consistently from 2.7 in 2002 to 3.1 in 2011. Corruption has taken the role of a pervasive aspect of Indian politics and bureaucracy. In India, corruption takes the form etc. A of bribes, 2005 evasion study done of tax and exchange by Transparency

controls, embezzlement,

International (TI) India found that more than 50% had firsthand experience of paying bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office. The chief economic consequences of corruption are the loss to the exchequer, an unhealthy climate for investment and an increase in the cost of government-subsidised services. The TI India study estimates the monetary value of petty corruption in 11 basic services provided by the government, like education, healthcare, judiciary, police, etc., to be around Rs.21,068 crores. India still ranks in the bottom quartile of developing nations in terms of the ease of doing business, and compared to China and other lower developed Asian nations, the average time taken to secure the clearances for a startup or to invoke bankruptcy is much greater. Sanitation Lack of proper sanitation is a major concern for India. Statistics conducted by UNICEF have shown that only 31% of Indias population is using improved sanitation facilities as of 2008. It is estimated that one in every ten deaths in India is linked to poor sanitation and hygiene. Diarrhoea is the single largest killer and
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accounts for one in every twenty deaths. Around 450,000 deaths were linked to diarrhoea alone in 2006, of which 88% were deaths of children below five.Studies by UNICEF have also shown that diseases resulting from poor sanitation affects children in their cognitive development. Without proper sanitation facilities in India, people defecate in the open or rivers. One gram of faeces could potentially contain 10 million viruses, one million bacteria, 1000 parasite cysts and 100 worm eggs. The Ganges river in India has a stunning 1.1 million litres of raw sewage being disposed into it every minute. The high level of contamination of the river by human waste allow diseases like cholera to spread easily, resulting in many deaths, especially among children who are more susceptible to such viruses. A lack of adequate sanitation also leads to significant economic losses for the country. A Water and sanitation Program (WSP) study The Economic Impacts of Inadequate Sanitation in India (2010) showed that inadequate sanitation caused India considerable economic losses, equivalent to 6.4 per cent of Indias GDP in 2006 at US$53.8 billion (Rs.2.4 trillion).In addition, the poorest 20% of households living in urban areas bore the highest per capita economic impacts of inadequate sanitation. Recognising the importance of proper sanitation, the Government of India started the Central Rural Sanitation Program (CRSP) in 1986, in hope of improving the basic sanitation amenities of rural areas. This program was later reviewed and, in 1999, the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) was launched. Programs such as Individual Household Latrines (IHHL), School Sanitation and Hygiene Education (SSHE), Community Sanitary Complex, Anganwadi toilets were implemented under the TSC. Through the TSC, the Indian Government hopes to stimulate the demand for sanitation facilities, rather than to continually provide these amenities
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to its population. This is a two-pronged strategy, where the people involved in this program take ownership and better maintain their sanitation facilities, and at the same time, reduces the liabilities and costs on the Indian Government. This would allow the government to reallocate their resources to other aspects of development. Thus, the government set the objective of granting access to toilets to all by 2017. To meet this objective, incentives are given out to encourage participation from the rural population to construct their own sanitation amenities. In addition, the government has set out to educate its people on the importance and benefits of proper sanitation through mass communication and interpersonal communication techniques. This is done through mass and print media to reach out to a larger audience and through group discussions and games to better engage and interact with the individual. Social Tension The Indian society consists of people from different religious, linguistic and ethnic backgrounds. Since long there has been cultural give and take between the people from India and other countries. Since 1947 when India gained political independence the country has been engaged in the gigantic task of nation building. Efforts have been made to put nation on the path of socio-economic development. The transformation of nation as a self sufficient and cohesive political entity has proved to be a difficult challenge. The colonial past, socio-economic disparities in the society and raised aspirations have culminated in a complex situation. Traditionally the Indian society was hierarchically arranged and the different communities and caste groups showed a pattern of social distance in which low caste, tribals and minority groups were discriminated against and looked down upon. Many of the communities were considered as untouchables. The Indian
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constitution prohibits against such discrimination and has abolished untouchability. However, it is still practiced in certain ways. All these condition have created a situation in which various kinds of social tensions have become very frequent events are as follows : 1. If we look at the historical trends we notice that the partition of India led to considerable degree of violence and the harmonious relations between Hindus and Muslims were disturbed. As a result suspicion and mistrust has developed between Muslims and Hindus. This has led to a number of clashes and conflicts which have been violent and have generated hatred. 2. Various parts of the country are experiencing separatist movements. You must have read about political movements in North East part of India (Assam, Nagaland, Tripura) where demands for separate political identities have been raised from time to time. The Kashmir region is experiencing the negative impact of cross border terrorism and people are suffering. The Nuxalite movement in certain parts (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh) is also creating political instability and problems of governance. 3. Caste-related prejudice and discrimination has also been on rise in certain parts of the country. In the course of socialization people acquire negative attitudes and stereotypes. Many times these are not founded in our real life experiences. Instead, they are based on false information, personal impressions and hearsay. However, they are very powerful and shape our behaviour in important ways. Thus if we have prejudice against some one it may lead to aggression, hostility and harm doing towards the target groups. In recent years inter group conflicts related to caste have moved from the social to the political arena of life. In fact caste based alliances, groups and organization are growing fast. They utilize caste-related identity for political gains. Today caste-affiliations are not so important in social or
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religious matters as they are in political matters. In this context the rise of low caste groups who often call themselves Dalits is becoming a prominent feature of modern India. The presence of this group has changed the complexion of Indian political scene. On the whole the Indian society is currently experiencing social tensions of various kinds. They are related to the pattern of social change. In particular the rise of middle class migration of people from villages to cities, increase in the degree of economic inequality, spread of education and media are playing key role. The tensions in the lives of people at individual, family and community level is clearly visible. Most of the conflicts and tensions revolve around the issue of identity. Assertion of separate identity and promoting the same with different tactics is becoming a central problem. People use identities in an emotionally charged way to create a group structure for promoting certain goals. Thus associations, committees and organizations are created to serve these purposes. The creation of identity involves strategies which enhance similarity within the group and difference between the groups. In this way a diversion of in group or own group and out group or other group is created. This kind of differentiation is present in almost all societies. This also implies that the differences across groups cannot be totally eliminated. Some psychological intervention for enhancing group behaviour Since groups are inevitable and constitute an important part of our social reality what we need is to recognize the essence and value of pluralism. All groups are important and play distinct role. We need to appreciate this diversity in our social life in a positive manner. The approach should be to evolve a strategy in which diverse groups and communities are able to live distinct patterns of life the way
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they want. The various groups or communities should compliment each other and help in achieving their goals. Super ordinate goals may be created that may be shared by all the groups. To this end the following steps may prove very helpful. 1. Increasing dialogue amongst the diverse groups existing in the society. 2. Building an atmosphere of mutual trust and harmony. 3. Equity and equality of opportunity for different groups needs to be ensured. 4. Greater opportunities for mutual care, respect and complementarity need to be created. Gender Discrimination Women and men are equally important for the growth and development of individual and social lives. The women play the important role as mother and the same makes it unique. However, careful analysis of Indian society indicates that the situation is not good for women folk. The sex ratio of male and female in the India population has been changing and becoming unfavourable towards women. In the Indian society women are considered major contributors to family and society. We have gods and goddesses both and one of the incarnation of lord Shiva is Ardhanareeshwar, which is made of half male and half female in its constitution. Unfortunately this equality and prominence tells an incomplete fact. The women are also subjected to discrimination in learning, dowry deaths and exploitations of various kinds which are very common. In fact the women are becoming targets of atrocities of many types. The same is manifested in discrimination against them from very early period. The incident of infanticide, early marriage, emphasis on domestic activities and lessor emphasis on education and career have made womens lives full of problems. They are discriminated against from early childhood. The Indian dependence on others (e.g. parents, husbands) becomes fate of the majority of the women folk. The pattern of discrimination against women
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varies across rural, urban and tribal areas. They are assigned diverse responsibilities and treated as relatively weaker and less competent. This image is still prevailing in various sections of the society. It is reflected in the discriminatory practices in the family such as distribution of work, food and social activities. The girl child is usually burdened with responsibilities that are beyond her capacity. Such exploitations function as obstacles in the process of development and growth of the girl child. When a girl child matures and becomes an adult she is often found to be physically weak and mentally constrained. They are neither able to realize their potentials nor able to contribute to the mainstream of society. Their contributions are often limited to family and that too are ignored. However, some Indian women have been able to overcome the barriers in their path and became successful in many walks of life. In this connection one can mention the names of Pandita Rama Bai, Sarojini Naidu, Indira Gandhi who emerged as leaders at national level. The provision for education, legal provisions about the age of marriage and reservation for women in various walks of life has contributed to change in their situation. Today the presence of women in various occupations and public offices is much more prominent than what it used to be during earlier periods. However, the Indian society has still to go a long way as for as gender equality is concerned. India is a multifaceted society where no generalization could apply to the nations various regional, religious, social and economic groups. Nevertheless certain broad circumstances in which Indian women live affect the way they participate in the economy. A common denominator in their lives is that they are generally confined to home, with restricted mobility, and in seclusion. Other, unwritten, hierarchical practices place further constraints on women. Throughout history, women have generally been restricted to the role of a home-maker; that of a mother and wife.
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Despite major changes that have occurred in the status of women in some parts of the world in recent decades, norms that restrict women to the home are still powerful in India, defining activities that are deemed appropriate for women. They are, by and large, excluded from political life, which by its very nature takes place in a public forum. In spite of Indias reputation for respecting women, including treating her as a Goddess, history tells us that women were also ill-treated. There was no equality between men and women. This is true of ancient, medieval and early modern times barring some revolutionary movements such as that of Basaweshwara, the 12 th century philosopher in Karnataka, who advocated equality, casteless society, status for women, and betterment of the downtrodden. Reform movements in the 19th and 20th centuries led by great social reformers provided boost to womens legal status in India. Independence of India heralded the introduction of laws relating to women. The Constitution provided equality to men and women and also gave special protection to women to realise their interests effectively. Special laws were enacted to prevent indecent representation of women in the media and sexual harassment in workplaces. The law also gives women equal rights in the matter of adoption, maternity benefits, equal pay, good working conditions etc. At the international level, the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) sought to guarantee better legal status to women. However, certain contentious issues like the Jammu and Kashmir Permanent Resident (Disqualification) Bill 2004 (which deprived a woman of the status of permanent residency of the State if she married an outsider) and the Supreme Court judgment in Christian Community Welfare Council of India (in an appeal over the Judgment of the High Court, Mumbai). The
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latter has permitted, under certain circumstances, the arrest of a woman even in the absence of lady police and at any time in the day or night. These instances have once again brought to the forefront the traditional male domination. GENDER, DEVELOPMENT, WOMENS MOVEMENT The above situation is especially visible in the world of development, and finds its clearest expression in proliferating references to gender in local, national and international forums, and activists. One repeatedly hears of gender bias, gender sensitization, gender planning and gender training, to mention just some of the more common examples of its contemporary use. To begin with, discussions were limited to only women, rather than about systemic relations of inequality, involving the relations between both men and women. The task in India then, as everyone seeks to take account of 60years of independence from two centuries of British colonial rule, is to try and face up to this recent slice of history; a history we would like to claim as our very own. What would an assessment of half a century of development thinking and planning look like from the perspective of women? In the 1991 World Bank Report on Gender and Poverty in India, Lynn Bennett announces: Now, researchers, womens activities, and government departments are reaching a new consensus: women must be seen as economic actors actors with a particularly important role to play in efforts to reduce poverty. But, the Shramshakti report on self-employed women and women in the informal sector published in 1988 deplored womens extremely vulnerable working conditions across diverse occupations under high levels of discrimination, as well as the range of health hazards women are exposed to on an everyday basis.

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If the World Bank report concluded that poor women are clearly more efficient economic actors, with greater managerial and entrepreneurial skills than men, the Shramshakti report recommended that women require greater access to resources, especially credit and social services. Wider disparities exist among various womens groups culturally and socially. As a result one can perceive as difference in the cognitive, connotative, and consumption patterns of women residing in various spheres of social and economic layers. The victims of exploitation and oppression have been largely women of the third world countries in general and lower sections among them in particular. WIDOW IMMOLATION OR SATI The first serious challenge for the reformers was the problem of widow immolation or Sati, where Hindu widows climbed the funeral pyres of their husbands; an ancient tradition, prevalent in Bengal, Rajasthan and the South Indian kingdom of Vijayanagar. Sati was never a religious obligation, but it was believed that by burning herself on the funeral pyre, a widow sanctified her ancestors and removed the sins of her husband. She was believed to ascend to the heaven on committing Sati. Strong social pressures on the widow and the status of widows among the Hindus were also factors which helped the growth of this custom. Sati was first abolished in Calcutta in 1798; a territory that fell under the British jurisdiction. Raja Ram Mohan Roy fought bravely for abolition of sati and with assistance from Lord William Bentinck, and a ban on sati was imposed in 1829 in the British territories in India. WIDOW REMARRIAGE The status of widows in India was deplorable in that they were not allowed participate in any religious and social functions. Their lives were worse than
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death; one of the reasons as to why many widows opted for Sati. The upper caste widows were most affected by the then prevailing customs. Prohibition against remarriage of widows was strictly observed only amongst upper caste Hindus. Attempts to make laws to facilitate remarriage of widows by the British were vehemently opposed by the conservative Hindus, who held that remarriage of widows involved guilt and disgrace on earth and exclusion from heaven. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, who wrote Marriage of Hindu Widows relying heavily on the Shastras, fought for widow remarriage. Reformers like Mahadev Govind Ranade and Dayananda Saraswati also actively participated in the reform movement, resulting in the enactment of the Hindu Widows Remarriage Act XV of 1856. The major drawback of the Act was that it was only applicable to the Hindus. Also, people showed little enthusiasm to implement the provisions of the Act. In Maharashtra, social reformers like Pandit Vishnu Shastri, Sir R.G. Bhandarkar, Agarkar and D.K. Karve have made significant contributions in this regard. CHILD MARRIAGE Another serious problem that women faced was that of child marriage. Small kids and in some cases even infants in the cradle were married off. Early marriage affected the growth and development of the children. Fixing the minimum age of marriage of men and women by law was voiced as early as the mid-19th century by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Keshab Chandra Sen. Vidyasagar argued that early marriage was detrimental to the health of women, their efforts, coupled with that of Mahatma Gandhi, resulted in the passing of the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929. FEMALE INFANTICIDE
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A girl is considered a burden by parents. Since a girl child would be going to her husbands place upon marriage, the parents did not want to waste their resources on her upbringing. Again the demand for large dowry and the huge wedding expenses caused a lot of hardship to the parents. So, the parents preferred a male child as they would be able to bring in large dowry. These considerations led to the practice of killing the girl child once she was born. The practice of female infanticide was common among certain castes and tribes in India, especially in the north and north-western states. The custom of infanticide was particularly prominent among communities which found it difficult to find suitable husbands for their daughters and an unmarried daughter was considered a disgrace to the family. The difficulty was exacerbated by the extravagant expenditure which conventions demanded on the occasion of a daughters marriage. The earliest efforts to stop female infanticide were made in Kathiawar and Kutch. In 1795, infanticide was declared to be murder by Bengal Regulation XXI. The evil of female infanticide was ended by propaganda and the forceful action on the part of the British Government. Marriage Act of 1872 was passed, which abolished early marriages, made polygamy an offence, sanctioned widow remarriages and inter-caste marriages. In 1901, the Government of Baroda passed the Infant Marriage Prevention Act. This Act fixed the minimum age for marriage for girls at 12 and for boys at 16. In 1930 the Sarda Act was passed, to prevent the solemnization of marriages between boys under the age of 18 years and girls under the age 14 years. However, even today, the Act remains merely on paper on account of several factors. WOMEN AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

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Indians wanted a nation state after independence in which women had a right to vote. Unlike the British and American women, Indian women did not face great difficulty in securing franchise. Gandhiji stressed on the need for active participation of masses during the freedom movement, including women. He encouraged total participation of women resulting in the emergence of a large number of women freedom fighters. The Swadeshi movement, the nonCooperation (1920-22) movement, the Civil Disobedience movement (1930-34) and the Quit India (1942) movement drew large number of women. Such participation helped women to voice the need for womens participation in the legislation process. Annie Besant, Madame Cama and Sarojini Naidu formed the Womens Indian Association. But, women still constitute a mere 10% of the legislators in the Parliament and State Assemblies. According to the 1955 International Parliamentary Union Survey, women hold just 11.7% of all seats in Parliament around the world. Success at the Panchayat level based on reservations for women convinced womens organizations that it is the correct time to extend these reservations to the higher levels. It is a different matter that even at the Panchayat level women members face lot of opposition in as much as the male members of the Panchayat do not consider them as equals. Women face opposition from the family members, often resulting in their resigning their membership. Karnataka and West Bengal are good examples where women have exceeded the reserved 33% with 42% and 39% respectively. These examples show that given a chance women can excel in any field. Women just need the necessary support and encouragement. GENDER ISSUES IN INDIA Sociologically the word gender refers to the socio-cultural definition of man and woman, the way societies distinguish men and women and assign them social
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roles. The distinction between sex and gender was introduced to deal with the general tendency to attribute womens subordination to their anatomy. For ages it was believed that the different characteristics, roles and status accorded to women and men in the society are determined by sex, that they are natural and therefore not changeable. As soon as a child is born families and society begin the process of gendering. The birth of a son is celebrated, the birth of a daughter is filled with pain; sons are showered with love, respect, better food and proper health care. Boys are encouraged to be tough and outgoing; and girls to be homebound and shy. All these differences are gender differences and they are created by the society. Gender inequality is therefore a form of inequality which is distinct from other forms of economic and social inequalities and stems from pre-existing gendered social norms and social perceptions. Gender inequity has adverse impact on development goals as reduces economic growth. It hampers the overall wellbeing because blocking women from participation in social, political and economic activities can adversely affect the whole society. Many developing countries including India have displayed gender inequality in education, employment and health. It is common to find girls and women suffering from high mortality rates and vast differences in education level. India has witnessed gender inequality from its early history due to its socio-economic and religious practices resulting in a wide disparity between the position of men and women in the society. GENDER BIAS IN HEALTH CONCERNS IN INDIA Government of Indias National Rural Health Mission aims at correcting rural inequities in the matter of health. It seeks to integrate health with sanitation, hygiene, safe drinking water and nutrition. Like most of the schemes and
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programmes initiated by Government, even the NRHM also has failed to achieve the goals at the implementation level, with the primary health centres and subcentres crumbling. Women from infant stage to their old age women get an unfair deal in the matter of health. Their health concerns receive a low priority resulting in women bearing pain and discomfort in silence for long periods of time without seeking relief. The sex ratio in India speaks volumes about the neglect. It is not just the poor who for want of resources and with the inherent preference for a boy are guilty of bias. Even in well-to-do families parents tend to spend more on the health-care of boys than on girls.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA Reports show that Indias maternal mortality ratio (MMR) is highest in South Asia. An estimated 1, 36,000 women die in India every year due to pregnancy related setbacks. However the measures taken by the government have not proved

effective despite the fact that high fatalities occur among women every year due to poor reproductive health practices. One of the reasons why women succumb to reproduction related complications is the absence of timely transportation to the nearest hospital. Experts estimate that 70% of the maternal-related deaths are preventable. Good sanitation and nutrition and avoiding overwork and stress will improve the health of Indian women. The need is to shift focus from the medical to the social, beginning with healthy antenatal care. But cultural, social and economic barriers delay or prevent women from seeking reproductive health care at any state-antenatal, delivery or post nature. India still ranks first among the 12 countries that account for 2/3 of under-five and maternal deaths in the world. One of the major problems is the shortage of trained healthcare personnel. In India there is an estimated shortfall of 74,000 ASHA (Accredited Social Health Activists)
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workers and 21,066 ANMs. The health of a woman is closely linked to her educational and socio-economic status. Despite maternal mortality rates showing a decline in India, thousands of women continue to die every year due to lack of access to basic healthcare facilities; and where they are available they are of poor quality aggravating the situation.

INFANT MORTALITY According to a recent report by Save the Children, an international NGO, onefifths of the worlds new born deaths occur in India. According to the report, over four lakh new-borns die within the first 24 hours every year in India. India also has the highest under-five mortality with over 2 million children dying before their fifth birthday. About 90% of these deaths are preventable. One-third of all malnourished children live in India and 46% of children under-3 years are underweight. A childs chances of survival vary in different states-the infant mortality rate in Orissa is 96 per 1000 live births in Kerala it is only 14 per 1000. India ranks 171 out of 175 countries in public health spending. In Delhi, the national capital, the child sex ratio is an alarming 868. While the reason for this varies from higher female mortality at a younger age as a result of neglect, to infanticide and foeticide. This dismal pictures a telling comment on the educated society that refuses to rid itself of its male bias. The Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques Regulations and Prevention of Misuse Act came into force in 1994 to curb selective sex determination. The Act was amended in 2003 in order to make it more comprehensive. Central Supervisory Board and state-level supervisory committees have been set up to monitor the implementation of the Act. But, sex determination continues to be practices. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS
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In spite of certain outstanding examples of individual achievements, and a definite improvement in their general condition over the years, it remains true that Indian women still constitute a large body of under - privileged citizens. Women of course do not form a homogenous group in class or caste terms. Nevertheless, they face distinctive problems that call for special attention. The Backward Classes Commission set up by the Government of India in 1953 classified women of India as a backward group requiring special attention. The Ministry of Education clubs girls with Scheduled Castes and Tribes as the three most backward groups in education. The educational, economic, political and social backwardness of women makes them the largest group hindering the process of social change. It is inevitable that when this backward group has the major responsibility of bringing up future generations the advancement of society cannot be rapid or take any significant form of development. In the report of the committee appointed by the National Council for Womens Education it was emphatically stated that what was needed to convert the equality of women from de jure to de facto status was widespread education for girls and women and a reeducation of men and women to accept new and scientific attitudes towards each other and to themselves. A changing society and a developing economy cannot make any headway if education, which is one of the important agents affecting the norms of morality and culture, remains in the hands of traditionalists who subscribe to a fragmented view of the countrys and the worlds heritage. The differences between the positions of men and women in the society will not lessen leave alone disappear, as long as there are differences between the education levels of men and women. Inadequate education or no education is the most important factor contributing to the backwardness of our masses, especially women. The low literacy among women brings down the national literacy. This gap which exists
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between the literacy rates of the two sexes also exists between the enrolment of girls and boys at all levels of education. Right from the primary school to the university, we find that the number of girl students is considerably lower than boys. According to Article 45 of the Constitution, universal compulsory and free education until the age of 14 was to be achieved by the year 1960. Looking at the present condition of primary education in villages, it is doubtful whether we can achieve 100% enrolment of girls. It is unfortunately true of our society that children are sent to school not according to their intelligence or aptitude but according to their sex. The reasons for not sending girls to school are both economic and social. In rural areas, girls are required to help in household work. The resources of the rural poor are so limited that they do not have anything to spare for childrens education. If resources are available, it is the boy who is sent to school first. Parents also do not see the value of educating especially a daughter who would get married and remain a housewife. Since they cannot see any direct relationship between education and economic betterment, they have very little motivation to send their children to school. It is still not being realized that there is definite connection between education, good motherhood and efficient house management. The management of millions of households and the upbringing of millions of children is thus in the hands of illiterate women. It is here that a change is required if our democratic and socialistic intensions are not to remain a mere pretence. People can be motivated to have their children educated only if educational system is directly linked with economic and social development.

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Along with the development of the earth is a series of social events need to be addressed, such as population growth, food shortages and water shortages in many parts of the world. Specifically, people in Australia are facing with the threat of water shortage in the future. This problem has created an economic problem and urged the Australian government to find the solutions for this problem. This essay will explain the economic problem and answer the question how do markets attempt to solve the problem of water scarcity in Australia, focusing on the economic problem, water scarcity in Australia, the role of markets and water market in Australia.The economic problem can be known as the competition between unlimited wants and scarce resources. Unlimited wants are goods and services that people want to have are unlimited. But, scarce resources, things to make products, are limited.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
WWW.GOOGLE.COM WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM WWW.SCRIBD.COM BOOKS-

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