PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE

USE Habitual/repeated actions EXAMPLE

I go to work every day.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

USE Action taking place at the moment of speaking(the action has duration and it is not complete) Action that extends over a longer period of time, not necessarily the moment of speaking Temporary action/behavior Frequently repeated action which annoys the speaker Immediate plans for the near future EXAMPLE
I am speaking English now.

Permanent situations

A baker bakes bread.

He is working on his term paper.

General truths Non-durative actions completed almost at the same time they are performed. Future events(official timetables) - Verbs of motion

The Earth moves round the Sun. I now pronounce you husband and wife!

He is drafting the contract today. You are being rude today! You are always talking without being asked!

I am travelling to London tomorrow.

The train arrives in Ploiesti at 2pm.

- Verbs expressing scheduled events Temporal clauses If clause type I Narratives Recipes Sports commentaries

School begins on 15th September. When I come home, I will prepare the dinner. If I have time, I will call the manager.

Transition from one state to another Temporal clauses Narratives Recipes Sports commentaries

It is getting dark. I am watching the news while mother is cooking.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE TENSE

USE Resultative perfect EXAMPLE
They have polluted the water. The auditor has just arrived.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

USE Action in progress throughout a period of tme Repeated actions EXAMPLE
I have been teaching English for 10years. He has been trying to speak to the manager every day for the past week. Your eyes are red. You have been crying.

Recent perfect

Continuative perfect Perfect of experience

Temporal clauses

I have lived here since 1978. I have never been to Japan. I have always liked chocolate. He will tell us the result as soon as the audit has finished. She won`t draft the contract until I have got all the technical details.

Drawing conclusions

PAST SIMPLE TENSE

USE
Action completed at a definite time in the past Action extending over a longer period of time before it was completed Habitual/repetitive actions in the past Reported speech

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

USE
Action in progress at a particular time in the past Action extending over a longer period of time in the past Transition from one state to another A frequenly repeated action in the past which annoyed the speaker Temporal clauses Two actions happenning at the same time in the past Action in progress in the past interrupted by another past action Reported speech

EXAMPLE
He went to Wien last week. For a long time he worked on a special machine in the attic. He often stood by the window and looked at the sea. He said:` I go to work every day` He said that he went to work every day. Once there lived a man in the USA. He invented the phone.

EXAMPLE
He was writing the minutes of meeting this time yesterday. I was visiting my cousin in NY last summer.

It was getting dark.

You were alwasy playing on the PC instead of studying!

Characteristic actions in the past

He was talking on the phone hile she was typing the letter. I was reading the newspaper when the manager called. He said:`I am trying to write a letter of confort` He said that he was trying to write a letter of confort.

If clause type II

If I learnt English, I would get a better job.

Narratives Reports of methods TV commentaries

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE TENSE

USE
Resultative perfect(why/because relationship) Recent perfect Continuative perfect Perfect of experience Reported speech

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

USE
Action in progress throughout a period

EXAMPLE
He decided to visit the Wax Museum in L, iondon because he had seen an interesting documentary about it. The manager had just arrived at the office. He had lived here all his life. He had never been to Wien. He said:`I wrote the report yesterday` He said that he had written the report the day before. The manager started to speak after the audience had taken their seats. If I had learnt English, I would have got a better job. Hardly had I arrived home when the phone rang.

EXAMPLE
He had been talking on the phone for hours.

Repeated actions Drawing conclusions

He had been trying to reach the manager since morning. Her eyes were red. She had been crying

Temporal clause If clause type III Inversion

FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE

USE A neutral future event EXAMPLE
I will go to the seaside next summer.

NEAR FUTURE TENSE

USE A neutral future event (in colloquial English) An event taking place in the near/immeiate future The subject`s present intention to perform a future action A future action which appears due to present actions Emphasis on the subject`s intention (in temporal clauses) EXAMPLE
I am going to write the report tomorrow. I am going to make coffee in a moment. I am going to visit my aunt this weekend.

Opinions/assumptions I hope you will phone me later. about future Habitual actions that are likely to take place in the future On-the-spot decision
In December I will go skiing in the Alps.

I will call at the restaurant to book a table for two. I will phone the manager as soon as I have finished the report. If I have money, I will buy another car.

Look at the clouds. It is going to rain. As soon as I graduate, I am going to set up a company.

Temporal clauses

If clause type I Narratives

FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

USE Action in progress at a particular time in the future Action extending over alonger period of time in the future Previously arranged future action EXAMPLE
I will be travelling to Wien this time tomorrow. I will be working on my project next month.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

USE Future action completed before a particular time in the future Future action completed before another future action occurs EXAMPLE
By tomorrow morning, I will have translated this document. By the time you get home, I will have cleaned the house.

I will be passing to the market on my way home, so I will get you everything you need.

MODAL VERBS
DEONTIC
Concrete nature/the root sense EXAMPLE USE You may sit down. The perfective and

EPISTEMIC
Abstract nature/the epistemic sense EXAMPLE USE It may happen. Co-occur both with the It might have perfective and the happened progressive aspect

progressive aspect are excluded The subject must be [+ANIMATE] They have past tense forms

Mary may sit down.

Do not impose any restriction on the subject

Mary asked if she might sit down.

ABILITY

CAN He can speak English

MIGHT/COULD/WOULD forms function as subjunctives in counterfactual sentences, but not as past tenses MAY / CAN POSSIBILITY

Mary may arrive soon. The apple may fall from the tree. I wish the parcel might have arrived earlier.

PERMISSION

OBLIGATION

MAY/CAN You may leave now. You can take my book now. MUST/SHOULD You must cross the street on the zebra You shuld go to the doctor WILL He will do his duty.

PROBABILITY

The boss may call any time. He can visit us whenever he likes. SHOULD He should be here by now. MUST He must be in Wien this week.

CERTAINTY

VOLITION

PREDICTION

WILL The weather will be sunny tomorrow.

CAN / COULD
USE Ability in the present/past Physical ability Mental ability Possibility Objective possibility EXAMPLE
I can swim. I could swim when I was younger.

MAY / MIGHT
USE External ability EXAMPLE
The procedure may be found in the technical construction book.

Impossibility

Don`t light your cigarette in here, it can cause an explosion. It can`t be Mike. He has just left.

Possibility in the present/past/future

The manager may be in his office. The manager might be in the conference room. The employees might have read their job descriptions. May I open the window, please? Candidates may not bring food or drinks into the examination room.

Permission

Can I use your computer, please? You can take my seat if you like.

Permission Request permission in a formal way

SPEECH ACTS Request Invitation Casual command Offer Suggestion Advice Doubt / uncertainty Impulse / desire
Can I have a glass of water, please? Can you have lunch with us? You can turn off the computer now. Can I help you? You can talk to your boss first. You can go to the doctor. Can he write that? I could cry for joy.

Grant/refuse formal permission SPEECH ACTS You might tell me the Persuasive request Reproach Casual command Offer

truth You might have informed me about this issue. You might post this letter for me, please. May I offer you some coffee?

MUST
USE Obligation Imposed by the speaker Deriving from rules/regulations Logical necessity / deduction In the present In the past EXAMPLE
You must be back by 9pm. You must cross the lines by the footbridge.

HAVE TO
USE Obligation Habitual / arises from external sources EXAMPLE
I always have to go to bed early.

There must be a misunderstanding. I must have left the book in the car.

SPEECH ACTS Reproach Casual invitation Emphatic advice

Must you talk so loudly? You must visit us some day. You must read this. It is very interesting.

SPEECH ACTS

WILL / WOULD
USE Predictability About a future state of affairs About a present state of affairs About a charcteristic behavoiur(habitual state of affairs) Volition Weak volition(willingness) Intermediary volition(intention) Strong volition(insistence) EXAMPLE
It will rain during the afternoon. A: The doorbell is ringing B: That will be Mike! Children will be children. I will marry her tomorrow if she will have me. A:The doorbell is ringing B: I will get it! He will talk to the manager and nothing shall stop him.

SHALL / SHOULD
USE Should + present infinitive = when you expect sth to happen Should + perfect infinitive = when you expected sth that did not occur Volition Weak volition(willingness) Intermediary volition(intention) Strong volition(insistence) EXAMPLE
It `s cold and cloudy. It should rain soon.

I wonder why he didn`t call. I should have heard from him by now. You shall stay with us as long as you like. We shall celebrate your success tonight. You shall obey my orders.

SPEECH ACTS Request Offer Invitation Order / command Request for permission Modest wish
Will you show me the way, pleae? Would you like a cup of coffee? Would you come to the conference with me? You will stay here until I come back. Would you mind if I left? I would like to buy this car.

SPEECH ACTS What shall I do now? Request for opinion Offer Suggestion Advice / recommendation Reproach / disapproval Surprise / disbelief
Shall I help you? Shall we go to the conference? You should stop smoking. You should have been here on time. Who should come in but his boss!

OUGHT TO
USE Used as an alternative to SHOULD: To express obligation To express logical necessity EXAMPLE

NEED
USE It i used whenever there is an element of strong doubt / when the speaker expects a negative answer EXAMPLE
I wonder if you need to be there at 9pm. Need you rehearse the piano every evening?

Expresses the subject`s obligation, but not necessarily fulfilled

He ought to pay for the damage(but he probably won`t) They should have arrived at the meeting by now(but they may have had a break down) I ought to go to bed, but I`m going to read some more about Social Accountability.

Absence of obligation / necessity

A: I will explain to you one more time. B: You needn`t. I unerstood.

SPEECH ACTS Advice / recommendation

You ought to stop smoking

BE TO
Obligation Imposed by an authority(order / command) Future action determined by a present arrangement
No one is to leave the room until the examination ends The conference is to take place in Wien.

Reproach / disapproval

You ought to have arrived at the meeting on time

DARE
Expresses courage and impudence I dare say = perhaps / it is probable Daren`t have = used to express past time
How dare you speak to me like that? You are tired, I dare say. I daren`t have done it then, but I dare now.

ANALYTIC SUBJUNCTIVE
USE EXAMPLE
ANALYTIC I (PAST SUBJUNCTIVE) = used to express counterfactual meaning and it appears only in subordinate clauses I wish I had told you WISH ( to express regret the truth. about a past action)

SYNTHETIC SUBJUNCTIVE
USE EXAMPLE
SYNTHETIC I (BARE INFINITIVE) = it is the old form of the BE subjunctive; it is restricted to imperatives and legal and formal language So be it! God bless you! Be it a it may! Come what may! Conventions be damned! Expenses be hanged! Suffice it to say... Far be it from me... It is necessary that BARE INFINITIVE he ome in time. SHOULD + BARE It is necessary that INFINITIVE he should come in time. It is necessary for FOR +TO him to come in time. INFINITIVE Concessive clauses Comparative clauses Be he who he may, he has no right here. It is more important that you should tell me the truth than that I be kept in ignorance.

AS IF / AS THOUGH EVEN IF / EVEN THOUGH

He looked at me as if he had seen a ghost. I came even though you hadn`t called me.

If I had found the book, I would have read more. ANALYTIC II (SHOULD + BARE INFINITIVE) IF CLAUSE TYPE III IT IS NECESSARY ADVISABLE BETTER ESSENTIAL NATURAL IMPORTANT RIGHT VITAL FAIR IT IS STRANGE ODD AMAZING RIDICULOUS SURPRISING ABSURD ANNOYING = to comment upon an idea rather than on a fact Verb in the main clause is: SUGGEST PROPOSE DEMAND RECOMMEND INSIST = to make suggestion about solving a problem Nouns such as: INTENTION IDEA WISH DESIRE It is necessary that they should study English. It is essential that you should know everything on this subject.

It is strange that he should know your secret.

Concessiveconditional clauses

So long as you keep reading, I am not troubled as to your exam fail.

The manager suggested that the employees should read the standard for Social Accountability. The auditors insisted that we should update our douments. It is my suggestion that we should go to the conference.

Subject-THAT clauses

It is a pity that he should miss the conference.

Object THAT clauses

They suggested that he should come earlier to the interview.

 PROPOSAL AGREEMENT SUGGESTION ARRANGEMENT LEST / IN CASE = in expressions of fear

IF clause = instead of present tense when the action is unlikely to occur Negative purpose clauses as an alternative to WOULD/COULD

He never took his son near the river lest he should fall in. I put the ring in my pocket in case I should lose it. If it should rain, take your umbrella. Should it rain, take your umbrella. He wore a mask so that nobody should recognize him.

Final clauses - In order that - Lest - For fear that

I won`t let Mary go lest she lose her way back home.

ANALYTIC with MAY/MIGHT Wishes Order / request / desire May you have a long and happy life! He requested that the little boy might be left into his care. I`m afraid that he may misunderstand my statement. She gave me the key so that I might enter the house. However hard may he try, he will never get the scholarship.

Expressions of fear

SYNTHETIC II (PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE) (PAST TENSE) = used to express an action which opposes to another action in the present It is high time you IT IS (HIGH)TIME went to the IT IS ABOUT TIME conference. It is about time you went to bed. I wish I knew WISH German. If only he told me the IF ONLY truth! If I had a watch, I IF CLAUSE TYPE II would tell you the time. IN CASE / UNLESS

Purpose clauses as an alternative to CAN/COULD/WILL/WOULD Concession clauses(whatever / however)

SUPPOSE

EVEN IF / EVEN THOUGH AS IF / AS THOUGH WOULD RATHER =when the person expressing preference is not the subject of the action which follows

Suppose you had money, what country would you visit? Even if they were here, I wouldn`t change my mind. He looks at me as if I were a ghost. I would rather you stayed here.

EMPHASIS
USE Passive voice Inversion Fronting EXAMPLE
All the roads to north have been blocked by now. Up in the air went the balloon! Where the money came from, we don`t know. It was Mary who wrote the report.

INVERSION
USE Here/there Down / up/back/off Adverbials of place Never / rarely / seldom / little / on no account So+adj+that Such+that Should = used in business letters EXAMPLE
Here comes the bus.

Cleft / pseudo-cleft sentences = introduced by IT IS/IT WAS/WHAT Adding words for emphasis OWN VERY / INDEED

Down came the rain Up went the balloon! At the top of the hill stood the little chapel. Never have I seen such a beautiful valley. Little did he know about environment protection. So sudden was the attack that we had no time to escape. Such was his strength that he could bend iron bars. Should you be interested in our offer, please contact us. Should you not wish our agent to call, please let us know. Were it not for your help, I would be stll unhappy. Were the government to cut VAT, prices would fall. Had it not been for your help, I wouldn`t have succeeded. How on earth did you find out my phone number?

It`s my own idea.

It was very cold indeed.

NEGATIVES

There were no tickets left whatoever.

Were / were to

THE QUESTION WORDS ENDING IN -ever DO ADVERBS / ADJECTIVES Other means TIME PHRASES REPETITION OF THE MAIN VERB

You aren`t the Elisabeth Taylor, are you? Whatever are you dong? I do believe in the progress of mankind. I actually went inside one of the pyramids. He reads the same book over and over again. I tried and tried, but it was no use.

Had Questions

OMISSION OF `IF`
USE EXAMPLE
ZERO CONDITIONAL = used to emphasize that one event comes after another When water freezes, it IF=WHEN IF=IN CASE IF=PROVIDED THAT/AS LONG AS IF....NOT=UNLESS IF=SUPPOSE / SUPPOSING IF=SAY
turns into ice. Take your umbrella in case it rains. You will pass the exam provided that you study. He won`t tell me the truth unless I ask him. Suppose we miss the bus, what shall we do? Say he gets home before usand he can`t get in?What would you do?

FUNCTIONS OF `IT`
USE
ANAPHORIC CATAPHORIC ANTICIPATORY EMPHATIC IMPERSONAL EMPTY OBJECT

EXAMPLE
I have read the book and found it interesting. It is beautiful this view of the sea. It took five men to lift the piano. It was Paul who wrote the notice. It is raining now. That`s it. I`m too old to rough it.

IMPLIED CONDITIONALS TYPE I With luck, we`ll be there WITH LUCK

by tomorrow.

GIVEN TIME

Given time, they`ll probably agree. To hear him talk, you would think he was Prime Minister. Without your help, he wouldn`t have managed to organize the conference.

TYPE II To hear him talk But for TYPE III Without your help In different circumstances