Introduction 1.

If a swimming pool is rectangular with a flat bottom, then from its length, width, and depth we can easily determine the volume of water it can contain (to fill it), the area of its surface (to cover it), and the length of its edge (to rope it). But if it is oval with a rounded bottom, all of these quantities call for integrals. Practical approximations may suffice for such trivial examples, but precision engineering (of any discipline) requires exact and rigorous values for these elements. Therefore, Integration is the process of measuring the area under a function plotted on a graph. Why would we want to integrate a function? Among the most common examples are finding the velocity of a body from an acceleration function, and displacement of a body from a velocity function. Throughout many engineering fields, there are (what sometimes seems like) countless applications for integral calculus. Definition 2. Integration is an important concept in mathematics and, together with its inverse, differentiation, is one of the two main operations in calculus. Integration is the operation of calculating the area between the curve of a function and the x-axis. 3. Indefinite integration, in calculus, the process of calculating antiderivativesthe opposites of derivatives (a.k.a. "antidifferentiation"). History 4. Integration can be traced as far back as ancient Egypt ca. 1800 BC, with the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus demonstrating knowledge of a formula for the volume of a pyramidal frustum. The first documented systematic technique capable of determining integrals is the method of exhaustion of the ancient Greek astronomer Eudoxus (ca. 370 BC), which sought to find areas and volumes by breaking them up into an infinite number of shapes for which the area or volume was known. This method was further developed and employed by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC and used to calculate areas for parabolas and an approximation to the area of a circle. Similar methods were independently developed in China around the 3rd century AD by Liu Hui, who used it to find the area of the circle. This method was later used in the 5th century by Chinese father-and-son mathematicians Zu Chongzhi and Zu Geng to find the volume of a sphere. 4. The next major step in integral calculus came from the Abbasid Caliphate when the 11th century mathematician Ibn al-Haytham (known as Alhazen in Europe) devised what is now known as "Alhazen's problem", which leads to an equation of the fourth degree, in his Book of Optics. While solving this problem, he applied mathematical induction to find the formula for sums of fourth powers, by a method that can be generalized to sums of arbitrary natural powers; then he used this formula to find the volume of a paraboloid (in modern terminology, he

integrated a polynomial of degree 4). Some ideas of integral calculus are also found in the Siddhanta Shiromani, a 12th century astronomy text by Indian mathematician Bhskara II 5. The next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin to appear until the 16th century. At this time the work of Cavalieri with his method of indivisibles, and work by Fermat, began to lay the foundations of modern calculus, with Cavalieri computing the integrals of xn up to degree n = 9 in Cavalieri's quadrature formula. Further steps were made in the early 17th century by Barrow and Torricelli, who provided the first hints of a connection between integration and differentiation. Barrow provided the first proof of the fundamental theorem of calculus. Wallis generalized Cavalieri's method, computing integrals of x to a general power, including negative powers and fractional powers. 6. At around the same time, there was also a great deal of work being done by Japanese mathematicians, particularly by Seki Kwa. He made a number of contributions, namely in methods of determining areas of figures using integrals, extending the method of exhaustion. Newton and Leibniz 7. The major advance in integration came in the 17th century with the independent discovery of the fundamental theorem of calculus by Newton and Leibniz. The theorem demonstrates a connection between integration and differentiation. This connection, combined with the comparative ease of differentiation, can be exploited to calculate integrals. In particular, the fundamental theorem of calculus allows one to solve a much broader class of problems. Equal in importance is the comprehensive mathematical framework that both Newton and Leibniz developed. Given the name infinitesimal calculus, it allowed for precise analysis of functions within continuous domains. This framework eventually became modern calculus, whose notation for integrals is drawn directly from the work of Leibniz. Formalizing Integrals 8. While Newton and Leibniz provided a systematic approach to integration, their work lacked a degree of rigour. Bishop Berkeley memorably attacked the vanishing increments used by Newton, calling them "ghosts of departed quantities". Calculus acquired a firmer footing with the development of limits. Integration was first rigorously formalized, using limits, by Riemann. Although all bounded piecewise continuous functions are Riemann integrable on a bounded interval, subsequently more general functions were considered particularly in the context of Fourier analysis to which Riemann's definition does not apply, and Lebesgue formulated a different definition of integral, founded in measure theory (a subfield of real analysis). Other definitions of integral, extending Riemann's and Lebesgue's approaches, were proposed. These approaches based on the real number system are the ones most common today, but alternative approaches exist, such as a definition of integral as the standard part of an infinite Riemann sum, based on the hyperreal number system.

Terminology and Notation 9. Isaac Newton used a small vertical bar above a variable to indicate integration, or placed the variable inside a box. The vertical bar was easily confused with or , which Newton used to indicate differentiation, and the box notation was difficult for printers to reproduce, so these notations were not widely adopted. 10. The modern notation for the indefinite integral was introduced by Gottfried Leibniz in 1675 (Burton 1988, p. 359; Leibniz 1899, p. 154). He adapted the integral symbol, , from the letter (long s), standing for summa (written as umma; Latin for "sum" or "total"). The modern notation for the definite integral, with limits above and below the integral sign, was first used by Joseph Fourier in Mmoires of the French Academy around 181920, reprinted in his book of 1822 (Cajori 1929, pp. 249250; Fourier 1822, 231). 11. If a function has an integral, it is said to be integrable. The function for which the integral is calculated is called the integrand. The region over which a function is being integrated is called the domain of integration. Usually this domain will be an interval, in which case it is enough to give the limits of that interval, which are called the limits of integration. If the integral does not have a domain of integration, it is considered indefinite (one with a domain is considered definite). In general, the integrand may be a function of more than one variable, and the domain of integration may be an area, volume, a higher dimensional region, or even an abstract space that does not have a geometric structure in any usual sense (such as a sample space in probability theory). 12. The simplest case, the integral of a real-valued function f of one real variable x on the interval [a, b], is denoted by

The sign represents integration; a and b are the lower limit and upper limit, respectively, of integration, defining the domain of integration; f is the integrand, to be evaluated as x varies over the interval [a,b]; and dx is the variable of integration. In correct mathematical typography, the dx is separated from the integrand by a space (as shown). Some authors use an upright d (that is, dx instead of dx). 13. The variable of integration dx has different interpretations depending on the theory being used. For example, it can be seen as strictly a notation indicating that x is a dummy variable of integration, as a reflection of the weights in the Riemann sum, a measure (in Lebesgue integration and its extensions), an infinitesimal (in non-standard analysis) or as an independent mathematical quantity: a differential form. More complicated cases may vary the notation slightly.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 14. The fundamental theorem of calculus is the statement that differentiation and integration are inverse operations: if a continuous function is first integrated and then differentiated, the original function is retrieved. An important consequence, sometimes called the second fundamental theorem of calculus, allows one to compute integrals by using an antiderivative of the function to be integrated. Definite and Indefinite Integral 15. The definite integral is defined informally to be the area of the region in the xy-plane bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b, such that areas above the axis add to the total, and the area below the x axis subtract from the total.

16. The term integral may also refer to the notion of antiderivative, a function F whose derivative is the given function f. In this case, it is called an indefinite integral and is written:

Proper and Improper Integral 17. A "proper" Riemann integral assumes the integrand is defined and finite on a closed and bounded interval, bracketed by the limits of integration. An improper integral occurs when one or more of these conditions is not satisfied. In some cases such integrals may be defined by considering the limit of a sequence of proper Riemann integrals on progressively larger intervals. If the interval is unbounded, for instance at its upper end, then the improper integral is the limit as that endpoint goes to infinity.

If the integrand is only defined or finite on a half-open interval, for instance (a,b], then again a limit may provide a finite result.

That is, the improper integral is the limit of proper integrals as one endpoint of the interval of integration approaches either a specified real number, or , or . In more complicated cases, limits are required at both endpoints, or at interior points.

Multiple Integration 18. Double integral as volume under a surface. Integrals can be taken over regions other than intervals. In general, an integral over a set E of a function f is written:

Here x need not be a real number, but can be another suitable quantity. In other words, the integral can be calculated by integrating one coordinate at a time. Just as the definite integral of a positive function of one variable represents the area of the region between the graph of the function and the x-axis, the double integral of a positive function of two variables represents the volume of the region between the surface defined by the function and the plane which contains its domain. Line Integrals 19. A line integral sums together elements along a curve. The concept of an integral can be extended to more general domains of integration, such as curved lines and surfaces. Such integrals are known as line integrals and surface integrals respectively. These have important applications in physics, as when dealing with vector fields. 20. A line integral (sometimes called a path integral) is an integral where the function to be integrated is evaluated along a curve. Various different line integrals are in use. In the case of a closed curve it is also called a contour integral. 21. The function to be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field. The value of the line integral is the sum of values of the field at all points on the curve, weighted by some scalar function on the curve (commonly arc length or, for a vector field, the scalar product of the vector field with a differential vector in the curve). This weighting distinguishes the line integral from simpler integrals defined on intervals. Many simple formulas in physics have natural continuous analogs in terms of line integrals; for example, the fact that work is equal to force, F, multiplied by displacement, s, may be expressed (in terms of vector quantities) as:

For an object moving along a path in a vector field such as an electric field or gravitational field, the total work done by the field on the object is obtained by summing up the differential work done in moving from to . This gives the line integral

Surface integrals 22. The definition of surface integral relies on splitting the surface into small surface elements. A surface integral is a definite integral taken over a surface (which may be a curved set in space); it can be thought of as the double integral analog of the line integral. The function to be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field. The value of the surface integral is the sum of the field at all points on the surface. This can be achieved by splitting the surface into surface elements, which provide the partitioning for Riemann sums. 23. For an example of applications of surface integrals, consider a vector field v on a surface S; that is, for each point x in S, v(x) is a vector. Imagine that we have a fluid flowing through S, such that v(x) determines the velocity of the fluid at x. The flux is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing through S in unit amount of time. To find the flux, we need to take the dot product of v with the unit surface normal to S at each point, which will give us a scalar field, which we integrate over the surface:

The fluid flux in this example may be from a physical fluid such as water or air, or from electrical or magnetic flux. Thus surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly with the classical theory of electromagnetism. Integrals of Differential Forms 24. A differential form is a mathematical concept in the fields of multivariable calculus, differential topology and tensors. The modern notation for the differential form, as well as the idea of the differential forms as being the wedge products of exterior derivatives forming an exterior algebra, was introduced by lie Cartan. We initially work in an open set in Rn. A 0-form is defined to be a smooth function f. When we integrate a function f over an m-dimensional subspace S of Rn, we write it as

Methods of Computing Integrals 25. The most basic technique for computing definite integrals of one real variable is based on the fundamental theorem of calculus. Let f(x) be the function of x to be integrated over a given

interval [a, b]. Then, find an antiderivative of f; that is, a function F such that F' = f on the interval. Provided the integrand and integral have no singularities on the path of integration, by the fundamental theorem of calculus,

The integral is not actually the antiderivative, but the fundamental theorem provides a way to use antiderivatives to evaluate definite integrals. 26. The most difficult step is usually to find the antiderivative of f. It is rarely possible to glance at a function and write down its antiderivative. More often, it is necessary to use one of the many techniques that have been developed to evaluate integrals. Most of these techniques rewrite one integral as a different one which is hopefully more tractable. Techniques include:

Integration by substitution Integration by parts Changing the order of integration Integration by trigonometric substitution Integration by partial fractions Integration by reduction formulae Integration using parametric derivatives Integration using Euler's formula Differentiation under the integral sign Contour integration

27. Alternate methods exist to compute more complex integrals. Many nonelementary integrals can be expanded in a Taylor series and integrated term by term. Occasionally, the resulting infinite series can be summed analytically. The method of convolution using Meijer Gfunctions can also be used, assuming that the integrand can be written as a product of Meijer Gfunctions. There are also many less common ways of calculating definite integrals; for instance, Parseval's identity can be used to transform an integral over a rectangular region into an infinite sum. Occasionally, an integral can be evaluated by a trick; for an example of this, Gaussian integral. 28. Computations of volumes of solids of revolution can usually be done with disk integration or shell integration. Specific results which have been worked out by various techniques are collected in the list of integrals.

Applications of Integration 29. We can calculate the area of a region by dividing it into pieces, the area of each of which can be well approximated, and then adding up the areas of the pieces. To put it another way, we calculate area by adding piece by piece as we move through the region in a particular direction. Once we have obtained a formula for the differential increment in the area such as d A =L(x)d(x) we find the area by integration. This process can be used to calculate values of any accumulative concept, such as volume, arc length and work. 30. In general, we can calculate the volume of a solid by integration if we can see a way of sweeping out the solid by a family of surfaces, and we can calculate, or already know the area of those surfaces. Then we calculate the volume by integrating the area along the direction of sweep. In the above example we swept out the sphere by moving along the x-axis, and associating to each point x the area of the disc which is the perpendicular cross-section of the sphere at x. (a) Volume:The way to find the volume of a solid is this. Sketch the region under consideration. Choose a direction in which to accumulate the volume. Write down the expression for the differential increment in volume: d V= A(x)dx where dx is an infinitesimal increment in the direction of accumulation, and A(x) is the area of the section of the solid at the point x. Of course, if the solid is highly irregular, finding A(x) may still be a problem. (b) Arc Length:- We have seen that a curve in the plane can be described explicitly as the graph of a function y =f(x) implicitly, as a relation F(x,y)=C between the variable x and y. A third way a curve can be described is parametrically in the form x = x(t) y = y(t)

as the parameter t ranges over an interval (a,b). For example, a particle may be moving on the plane, and its position at time t is {x(t),y(t)}. (c) Work:Work is the product of force and distance. The weight (at the surface of the earth) of an object is a measure of its gravitational force, and is equal to mg, where m is the mass of the object and g is the acceleration of gravity. In the metric system, the gram and the kilogram are measures of mass, so to find the weight (in joules) we must multiply the mass (in kilograms) by g = 9.8 m/sec2. Now, suppose that the force is not constant, but varies over the distance traversed. For example, when we put a rocket in orbit, we must calculate the energy (work) required. Now the force on the rocket (its effective weight) decreases as it leaves the surface of the earth. So, suppose we have a force acting along a line; denote the value of the force at the

point x as F(x). If F(x) is positive, it works in the direction of increasing x, and if negative, it works opposite to that direction. That is, if the force is positive, it does work as we progress, and if negative, it causes work as we progress. Work is accumulative: If we break the interval up into pieces, the total work done is the sum of the work done over each piece. We set up a work calculation by integration, once we know the differential relation. Let W(x) be the work done to get from a to x. If we move a small distance dx further, we may assume the force to be constant, and equal to F(x) over this interval. Then the increment in work is d W = F(x)dx. We now find the total work by integrating: W= F(x)d(x) (d) Springs:Consider a spring hanging vertically. If the spring is extended or compressed, a force will be exerted, called the restoring force, directed toward the initial rest position. If a weight is carefully attached to the spring, it will extend to a new rest position, at which the weight exactly balances the restoring force. This is the equilibrium position for that weight. According to Hookes Law, the magnitude of the restoring force and the displacement from rest are proportional. That is, if we let x represent the displacement from the equilibrium position, and F(x) the force in the spring, then we have F(x)= kx for some constant k, called the spring constant. The negative sign indicates that the force acts in the direction opposite to the displacement. (e) Mass:Mass is another concept which is accumulative, and so can be calculated by integration. An object is said to be homogeneous if its composition is everywhere the same. In this case, mass is proportional to volume, where the constant of proportionality is denoted d , the density. Thus, for example, the density of water is 1 g/cc, or 62.5 lbs/cu.ft. If the object is inhomogeneous, then its density will vary as we move around the object. For x a point on the object, we let d(x) be its density at that point - in the sense that dM = d(x) dV at the point: the ratio of the mass to volume of a small cube centered at x is approximately d(x). (f) Moments:- Suppose that we have two small objects situated on a plane, and L is a line which runs between the objects. Archimedes observed that the objects are balanced around the line L if the product of the mass and the distance to the line is the same for the two objects. By balance we mean this: if the line L were a rod in space which is free to rotate, and the objects were attached to this rod by arms perpendicular to the rod (as in the figure), then the rod will not rotate if this condition is met. This product we call the moment of the object about the line L : MomL=(mass)(distance). (g) Centroids:- Let R be a region in the plane and L a line in the plane. If R lies to the right of the line, then the moment of R about L, MomLR, is positive, and if R is to the left of L, then MomLR is negative. So, if we look at all lines with a given slope, as we move from one side of R to the other, the moment about that line changes sign. Thus, there is a particular line with a given slope for which the moment of R is zero. The region R is balanced about this line: if R were to walk a tightrope in this direction, it would have the tightrope directly below this line. If we change the slope, we get another line of balance in the new direction. These two lines intersect in a point. It turns out that the line

of balance of any slope goes through this point, called the centroid, or center of mass of the region R.

Conclusion 17. Integration has given us the solutions to many problems even in our daily life. As we have seen that it is of great utilization in the field of engineering. When we are designing a particular aircraft we need certain data for the aerodynamics of the aircraft , like its shape, weight to thrust ratio, distance it needs to cover, it configuration of weapon delivery etc , integration comes to our rescue for the problem solving and helps us in finding the answers to our questions.

References Apostol, Tom M. (1967), Calculus, Vol. 1: One-Variable Calculus with an Introduction to Linear Algebra (2nd ed.), Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-00005-1 Bourbaki, Nicolas (2004), Integration I, Springer Verlag, ISBN 3-540-41129-1. In particular chapters III and IV. Burton, David M. (2005), The History of Mathematics: An Introduction (6th ed.), McGraw-Hill, p. 359, ISBN 978-0-07-305189-5 Cajori, Florian (1929), A History Of Mathematical Notations Volume II, Open Court Publishing, pp. 247252, ISBN 978-0-486-67766-8, http://www.archive.org/details/historyofmathema027671mbp Dahlquist, Germund; Bjrck, ke (2008), "Chapter 5: Numerical Integration", Numerical Methods in Scientific Computing, Volume I, Philadelphia: SIAM, http://www.mai.liu.se/~akbjo/NMbook.html Folland, Gerald B. (1984), Real Analysis: Modern Techniques and Their Applications (1st ed.), John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-80958-6 Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph (1822), Thorie analytique de la chaleur, Chez Firmin Didot, pre et fils, p. 231, http://books.google.com/books?id=TDQJAAAAIAAJ Available in translation as Fourier, Joseph (1878), The analytical theory of heat, Freeman, Alexander (trans.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 200201, http://www.archive.org/details/analyticaltheory00fourrich Heath, T. L., ed. (2002), The Works of Archimedes, Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-42084-4, http://www.archive.org/details/worksofarchimede029517mbp (Originally published by Cambridge University Press, 1897, based on J. L. Heiberg's Greek version.) Hildebrandt, T. H. (1953), "Integration in abstract spaces", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 59 (2): 111139, ISSN 0273-0979, http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.bams/1183517761 Kahaner, David; Moler, Cleve; Nash, Stephen (1989), "Chapter 5: Numerical Quadrature", Numerical Methods and Software, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-627258-8 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1899), Gerhardt, Karl Immanuel, ed., Der Briefwechsel von Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz mit Mathematikern. Erster Band, Berlin: Mayer & Mller, http://name.umdl.umich.edu/AAX2762.0001.001 Miller, Jeff, Earliest Uses of Symbols of Calculus, http://jeff560.tripod.com/calculus.html, retrieved 2009-11-22 OConnor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (1996), A history of the calculus, http://wwwhistory.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus.html, retrieved 2007-0709 Rudin, Walter (1987), "Chapter 1: Abstract Integration", Real and Complex Analysis (International ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-100276-9 Saks, Stanisaw (1964), Theory of the integral (English translation by L. C. Young. With two additional notes by Stefan Banach. Second revised ed.), New York: Dover, http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/kstresc.php?tom=7&wyd=10&jez= Stoer, Josef; Bulirsch, Roland (2002), "Chapter 3: Topics in Integration", Introduction to Numerical Analysis (3rd ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-95452-3. W3C (2006), Arabic mathematical notation