Basic Musical Notation

All music must be written before it can be read, understood, and played by musicians. To do this, a system of notation has been developed that gives musicians the information they need to play music as the composer intended it. Here is a list of topics discussed on this page:

The Staff Clefs The Grand Staff Measures Notes Notes Written on the Staff Ledger Lines Note Durations Dotted Notes Rests Accidentals Ties and Slurs Articulation Dynamics Repeats Time Signatures

The Staff
The staff is the basis of written music. It is what the notes are presented on. It consists of 5 lines with four spaces between them. A simple, unadorned staff is shown below.

Clefs

This is the treble staff. The treble clef (the large fancy symbol to the far left) shows the musician that the staff is treble. Since it curls around the G line, it is also called a G clef. The treble staff begins with the first line as E. Each successive space and line is the next letter in the musical alphabet. The staff ends with the last line as an F. Many mnemonic devices exist to help a person remember which line and space is which. One of the most common phrases to remember the names of the lines is: Every Good Boy Does Fine. (Also popular is Elvis' Guitar Broke Down Friday). To remember the spaces, just remember that they spell FACE starting from the bottom.

This is the bass (pronounced 'base' ) staff. The bass clef, also known as the F clef because it locates the line known as F, is on the far left. The bass clef uses the same musical alphabet as treble, but the letters start in different places. Instead of an E, the bottom line is a G, and the letters proceed logically from there. Again, simple mnemonics can be used to remember the names of the notes. The lines on the bass cleft, from bottom to top are: G, B, D, F, A (Good Boys Don't Fight Anyone), and the spaces are A,C,E,G (All Cows Eat Grass).

This is a C clef. The C clef can move on the staff, and the center of the symbol is always over C. Depending on where it is, it is given different names. The note beside each clef is C. These clefs are used very infrequently.

The Grand Staff

When the bass and treble clef are combined and connected by a brace (left) and lines, they become the grand staff. This greatly increases the range of pitches that can be noted, and is often used in piano music, due to the piano's wide range.

Measures

The vertical lines on the staff mark the measures. Measures are used to divide and organize music. The time signature

determines how many beats can be in a measure. The thick double bars mark the beginning and ends of a piece of music. Measures are sometimes marked with numbers to make navigating a piece easier. The first measure would be measure one, the second measure two and so on.

Notes
Different pitches are named by letters. The musical alphabet is, in ascending order by pitch, A, B, C, D, E, F and G. After G, the cycle repeats going back to A. Each line and space on the staff represents a different pitch. The lower on the staff, the lower the pitch of the note. Notes are represented by little ovals on the staff. Depending on the clef (discussed below), the position of each note on the staff corresponds to a letter name.

Notes Written on the Staff

Notes are centered on the lines or in the spaces between the lines. Stems on notes above the middle line trail down from the left of the note. Stems on notes below the middle line stick up on the right of the note. Stems on notes on the line usually go down except when adjacent notes have flags that go up. Note stems are usually one octave (eight successive lines and spaces) long. When two melodies occupy the same staff, the stems for the notes in one melody are written up and the stems for notes in the other are written down.

Ledger Lines

Ledger lines extend above and below the staff, allowing for higher or lower notes to be shown than would otherwise fit on the staff. These lines follow the same musical alphabet pattern as the staff does. Think of them as just extra lines and spaces on the end of the staff. The stems of notes on ledger lines extend either up or down towards the middle line.

Note Durations
All notes have length. However, the amount of beats they get depends on the time signature, so only relative note durations will be discussed here.

This graphic shows a heirarchy of note values. At the top is a whole note (1). A half note is half the duration of a whole note, so a whole note is equal to two half notes (2). Likewise, half notes are worth two quarter notes (3). Quarter notes are worth two eighth notes (4), and eighth notes are worth two sixteenth notes (5).

Sixteenth notes (right) and eighth notes (left) may also look like this. Single sixteenth and eighth notes have flags, many sixteenth and eighth notes combine flags into connecting bars.

Sixteenth notes and eighth notes may also combine together. the combination looks like this picture to the left.

Dotted Notes

A dot beside a note increases its duration by half its original value. For example, half notes, in 4/4 time, are worth 2 beats. When a dot is placed next to the half note, the duration is increased by one (one being half of the original duration of two) and the resulting duration is three beats. The curved line in the picture above is a tie. Ties connect notes that are the same pitch together to create a sustained note.

Rests

Rests are simply places where the musician does not play. Rests have equivalent values to corresponding notes of duration. Thus, there is a whole rest, half rest, quarter rest, etc., just like normal notes. Rests are always located in the same vertical position.

Accidentals
Accidentals modify the pitch of a note by increasing or decreasing it by one half step. Accidentals stay in effect for all notes of the same pitch for the rest of the measure. Accidentals in the very beginning of the music are key signatures.

Flats (left side of the picture) lower the pitch of the note by one half step. Sharps (right side of picture) raise the pitch of the note by one half step.

Naturals cancel out any previous sharps or flats. The pitch returns to normal.

Ties and Slurs

Ties and slurs connect two or more notes together. Ties connect notes of the same pitch, forming essentialy one longer note. Slurs smoothly connect notes of different pitch. This means to play the notes without breaks. The first set of notes above exhibit a tie. The second show a slur.

Articulation

Staccato - Means to play the note very short and detatched.

Accent - Means to hit the note harder and louder.

Marcato - Almost a combination of staccato and accent, provides a sharp sound.

Tenuto - Hold the note for its full value.

Sforzando - A sudden, strong accent.

Fermata - Hold the note longer, approximately twice its value, or until conducted to stop.

Dynamics

This symbol is pianissimo, it means play very softly.

This symbol is piano, it means play softly.

This symbol is mezzo piano, it means play moderately soft.

This symbol is mezzo forte, it means play moderately loud.

This symbol is forte, it means play loudly.

This symbol is fortissimo, it means play very loudly.

Also abbreviated Cresc. or written in as crescendo. This sign is the crescendo sign, it means gradually become louder.

Also abbreviated as Decresc. or written as decrescendo, dim., or diminuendo. This sign is decrescendo, it means gradually become softer.

Repeats

These are the begin and end repeat signs. When you reach the second, go back to the first and repeat the music. These are often accompanied by first, second and even third endings.

This is a directional marking. It means 'Del Signo'. When you see this in music, you must go to the sign (below). This marking may also be accompanied by 'al coda' or 'al fine'. These mean 'Go to the sign, from there go to the coda' and

'Go to the sign, from there go to the end' respectively. Essentially these are big repeat signs.

This is the sign. From here you play to the coda or the end or wherever the Del Signo directs you.

This is the coda sign. It marks when to go to the special ending, or coda. Usually you won't go to the coda until after a D.S. al coda.

Time Signatures
The time signatures (also called meter signatures) tell the musician how many beats per measure there are, and what kind of note gets the beat.

The top number determines how many beats there are per measure. The bottom number tells what kind of note gets the beat. In this example, 4/4 time, there are 4 beats per measure, and the quarter note (bottom 4) gets the beat. In 3/4 time, the quarter note would still get the beat, but there would only be 3 beats in a measure. In 6/8 time, the eigth note gets the beat, and there are 6 beats to a measure.

The pulse (or meter) is the driving beat in music that we march, feel, dance, clap and conduct to. First find the beat that seems the strongest, then try tapping along to it. Eventually you should be able to tap along with the music, and you will have found the pulse. Listen to the bass line and the rhythm section, as often they play with the pulse.

Intervals
Our Flash Keyboard can help your understanding of this area. An interval is the distance between pitches. Intervals have a number and a prefix. The number represents the number of pitch names (A,B,C,D,E,F,G) from the first to the second pitch. For example, the whole step F to G contains two pitch names, F and G. This interval is called a second. The interval from F to A contains F, G and A; three pitches. This interval is therefore called a third. The trend continues through to the interval containing eight pitch names. An interval containing eight pitch positions (from A to A or from G to G) is called an octave. An interval from one pitch to the exact same pitch is called a unison. The diagram below shows a C major scale. The intervals are marked.

The second part of an interval name is based on the quality of the interval. It is referred to as the prefix.

Perfect intervals include the unison and the octave. Perfect intervals also include fourths and fifths. Perfect intervals are labeled with a capital "P." The Major prefix is only used for seconds, thirds, sixths and sevenths. Major intervals are labeled with a large "M." Minor intervals occur when a major interval is made one half step smaller. This can be done by raising the bottom note or lowering the top note. Minor intervals are labeled with a small "m." Augmented intervals are when a major or perfect interval is made one half step larger, and the interval number does not change. Augmented intervals are labeled with an "A," the abbreviation "Aug.," or a "+." For example, above, if the P5 from C to G were changed to a C to G#, it would become an augmented fifth, or +5. Diminished intervals are created when a perfect or minor interval is made one half step smaller and the interval number is not changed. Diminished intervals are labeled with a "d," the abbreviations "dim" or "deg," or a "." For example, if the perfect fifth from C to G above were changed to a C to Gb, the interval would become a diminished fifth, or 5. Thus unisons, fourths, fifths, and octaves can be diminished, perfect, or augmented. Seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths can be diminished (only if the interval is decreased by two half steps, such as with a double flat), minor, major, or augmented. Here are some examples of how this system works:

P1- This is perfect unison.

M7- This is a major seventh. m2- This is a minor second. A6, Aug. 6, +6 - These are all augmented sixths. d3, deg.5, dim. 5, 5 - These are all diminished fifths.

Consonance and Dissonance

Consonant intervals are intervals that are stable. These intervals require no resolution. The consonant intervals are P1, m3, M3, P5, M6, and P8. All other intervals within the octave are said to be dissonant. Dissonant intervals are tense, and require resolution.

Enharmonic Intervals
Enharmonic intervals are intervals that sound the same but are "spelled" differently. These intervals result from the inclusion of enharmonic equivalents. The most common enharmonic intervals are the diminished fifth and the augmented fourth, shown below. These two intervals divide the octave into two equal parts. These intervals contain three whole steps, for this reason these intervals are referred to as the tritone.

Inverting Intervals
When an interval is inverted, the lower tone is raised one octave. The table below shows some intervals and their inversions.

Intervals and their inversions. The Interval When Inverted becomes Unisons Octaves 2nds 7ths 3rds 6ths 4ths 5ths 5ths 4ths 6ths 3rds 7ths 2nds Octaves Unisons Perfect Perfect Major Minor Minor Major Diminished Augmented Augmented Diminished

Compound Intervals
Compound intervals are intervals that span distances greater than an octave. These intervals are often labeled as their simple equivalents, as if an octave had been removed from the interval. The actual, or compound, interval name is only used if it is very important to stress the actual interval size.

Identifying Intervals
The easiest way to find an interval's name is to first, count all the pitch names present, including the notes themselves (ignore sharps and flats at this point). Then, find out (had it been missing a flat or sharp) what type of interval it would be, depending on whether it is perfect (a 1,4,5,8) or major (2,6,7). If there are no sharps or flats, you are done. If there are, figure out if the flat or sharp decreases or increases the distance between the two pitches. If it increases the distance, the interval is augmented. If it decreases the distance, and the interval would otherwise be perfect, it is

diminished. If it decreases the distance and the interval would otherwise be major, it is minor.

Ear Training
Go to the Big Ears interval ear training Java applet to help learn what different intervals sound like, and quiz your recognition of different intervals.

Scales and Key Signatures

Our Flash Keyboard can help your understanding of this area. Here is a list of all the topic on this page:

Scales Transposition Key Signatures Modes Solfeggio

Scales
A scale is a group of pitches (scale degrees) arranged in ascending order. These pitches span an octave. Diatonic scales are scales that include half and whole steps. The first and last note is the tonic. It is the most 'stable' note, or rather the easiest to find. Because of this, diatonic melodies often end on the diatonic note. The other notes in the scale also have names. The second note is the supertonic. The third is the mediant, halfway between the tonic and dominant. The fourth note is the subdominant. The fifth note is the dominant. The submediant is the sixth note. The subtonic is the seventh note in the natural minor scale. The seventh tone of the major, harmonic and melodic minor scales is called the leading tone if it is one half step lower than the tonic. The Major Scale The major scale consists of seven different pitches. There are half steps between the third and fourth and seventh and eighth scale degrees; whole steps exist between all other steps. Below is a the C major scale. The pattern of whole and half

steps is the same for all major scales. By changing the first note, then using the pattern as a guide, you can construct any major scale. Likewise, if you know the pattern for any other scale, you can create them, too.

The Natural Minor Scales These scales have seven different scale degrees. There are half steps between the second and third and the fifth and sixth degrees; whole steps exist between all other steps. Shown below is the A minor scale.

The Harmonic Minor Scale This scale is the same as the natural minor scale, except the seventh step is raised a half step. There is now an interval of one half step between the seventh and eighth notes, and one and a half steps between the sixth and seventh notes. This is a harmonic A minor.

The Melodic Minor Scale This is another minor scale variation. In this scale, the sixth and seventh notes are each raised one half step. All the patterns to this point have been the same as one climbs and descends the scales. The melodic minor scale, however, ascends with the modifications noted above, but descends in the natural minor scale. This is a melodic A minor.

Pentatonic Scales Pentatonic scales, as their name suggests, have only five notes. To get from one end of the scale to the other, they require gaps of more than a half step. Scales that do not follow the interval patterns of the diatonic or pentatonic scales are called nondiatonic scales. Many nondiatonic scales have no identifiable tonic. The chromatic scale is a nondiatonic scale that consists of half steps only. Because each pitch is equidistant, there is no tonic. A whole tone scale is comprised of whole steps. Like the chromatic scale, it too has no tonic. The blues scale is a chromatic variant of the major scale. This scale contains flat thirds and sevenths which alternate with normal thirds and sevenths. This alternating creates the blues inflection.

Transposition
Scale patterns can be duplicated at any pitch. Rewriting the same scale pattern at a different pitch is called transposition. Thus, if you used the major scale pattern, but started at G, you would just have to count up according to the major scale pattern to transpose it. All the notes of a piece can be modified in this way, by finding a note's counterpart in the modified scale.

Since some notes will always be sharp once transposed or in certain scales, it is sometimes helpful to place accidentals at the very beginning of a piece in order to modify all the notes of a certain pitch. Placing accidentals at the beginning of the music (as opposed to right beside a note) allows the accidentals to affect every note in the entire piece. So, placing a sharp on line F makes every F sharp. The arrangement of sharps and flats at the beginning of a piece of music is called a key signature.

Key Signatures
To help understand and remember key signatures, a chart called the circle of fifths can be used. On the outside are the major key names, separated by fifths. On the inside are the corresponding minor key names. In the middle is the number and position of the sharps or flats.

There is a little trick to figuring out a key signature's name. When confronted with a key signature that consists of flats, look at the flat second from the far right. This flat is on the line or space the key signature is named after. One flat is F, since you can't go to the next -to-last flat. To find the name of a key signature with sharps, look at the sharp farthest to the right. The key signature is the note a half step above that last sharp. Key signatures can specify major or minor keys. To determine the name of a minor key, find the name of the key in major and then count backwards three half steps. Remember that sharps and flats affect names.

Modes
In the middle ages, modes were used to organize the melodic and harmonic parts of music. From the 17th century until the 19th century, modes were not used as widely. Modes in this time were replaced by the major and minor scales. Modes, however, are still heard in contemporary music. Modes, created mainly by the churches, were the basis for most of western music. Curiously, in modes, the beginning tone is called the final, as opposed to the tonic as in other diatonic scales. Table of Modes Name Dorian Phrygian Lydian Range Final D to D D E to E E F to F F Half Steps Are Between 2-3, 6-7 1-2, 5-6 4-5, 7-8 3-4, 6-7 2-3, 5-6 3-4, 7-8 1-2, 4-5 Similar Scale Natural minor scale with raised sixth degree Natural minor scale with lowered second degree Major scale with raised fourth degree Major scale with lowered seventh degree Same as natural minor scale Same as major scale Natural minor with a lowered second

Mixolydian G to G G Aeolian Ionian Locrian A to A A C to C C B to B B

and fifth degree. Modes may begin on any tone as long as the arrangements of half and whole steps remain the same. The identity of a transposed mode can be quickly determined since the final of each mode lies in the same relationship to the tonic of the major with the same key signature. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The final of the Dorian mode is always the second degree of the major scale. The final of the Phrygian mode is always the third degree of a major scale. The final of the Lydian mode is always the fourth degree of a major scale. The final of the Mixolydian mode is always the fifth degree of a major scale. The final of the Aeolian mode is always the sixth degree of a major scale. The final of the Ionian mode is always the first degree of a major scale. Locrian modes are rarely used.

Solfeggio
Often, solfeggio is used to help with practicing. The solfeggio syllables are associated with the notes in a given scale. The syllable Do (pronounced dough, or doe), corresponds to the tonic. The next syllable (in ascending order) is Re (say 'ray'). Re corresponds to the supertonic. Mi (say 'me') is the next syllable. Mi corresponds to the mediant. Fa (long a) comes next, corresponding to the subdominant. Sol (say 'so') is the syllable that corresponds to the dominant. La (long a) is the syllable that corresponds to the submediant. Ti (say 'tea') corresponds to the leading tone.

This table shows the solfeggio syllables and corresponding hand signs in descending order. Do - a fist that is held straight. Ti is index finger pointing up and the thumb and middle ring finger and pinkie are all touching (the same as for sign language T). La is all four fingers and thumb facing the ground and the wrist is bent down as well. Sol is the thumb facing the ceiling the rest of the hand is out straight. Fa is a thumbs down. Mi is the hand held flat. Re is a flat hand help up straight out and then raised to about a 30 degree angle. Both Mi and Re have palm side down. Do is the fist sign again. The table above shows the hand signs that correspond to the solfeggio syllables. The hand signs start with the lower tonic at about waist level. Each successive hand sign is a little higher than the last. The second tonic ends a little above eye level.

Solfeggio is a good practice tool. Since it is fairly generic, it can be used with a variety of scales. Pentatonic scales consists of five tones, and therefore Fa and Ti aren't used. There are also solfeggio accidentals. These accidentals are shown and listed in the chart below.

Di is the accidental above Do. To make Di, make the fist for Do and lift the wrist up.

Ri is the accidental between Re and Mi. Ri looks just like Re, but the pointer finger in Ri is lifted away from the other fingers.

Fi is between Fa and Sol. Fi is a thumbs up.

Si is an open hand, palm towards the chest and the wrist tilted up. Si is between Sol and La

Ta is like Ti, but the finger is pointed down. Ta is between La and Ti.