Organism- complex, living being composed of interdependent structures Cells- group together to form tissues Tissues- work together

to form organs Organs- work together to form systems Cells (CYT/O) - three main cell parts: - plasma membrane: is the outer boundary of the cell made up of proteins and lipids. ` - nucleus: is in charge of everything that goes on in the cell. Contains nucleoplasm, a nucleolus, and ribosomes. KARY/O - cytoplasm: is the material that firms cells. Contains organelles and the endoplasmic reticulum that connects the parts of the cell and functions in transportation and storage. - a womans eggs and a mans sperm cells undergo a type of cell division called meiosis. These cells are called gametes. An egg and sperm combine to form a cell called the zygote. - all other cells go through cell division in the form of mitosis. - five phases to the process of mitosis: - interphase: is the resting stage. Activities include making an exact copy of the DNA molecules (replication) and making a copy of centrioles. - prophase: the centrioles separate and move to opposite ends. Cytoplasm forms. Nuclear membrane starts to dissolve and the nucleolus disappears. Chromosomes (made up of two strands, each called chromatid) become very tightly coiled. - metaphase: nuclear membrane dissolves completely and the chromatids line up. - anaphase: shortest phase. Chromatids separate and move to opposite ends. - telophase: chromosomes arrive at each end and new nuclear membranes form around them. Cytoplasm forms around each one. - main processes through which the cell regulates passage of particles are: - diffusion: movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. - osmosis: the process by which cells becomes isotonic (equal). Only water or particles dissolved in water can undergo osmosis. Occurs across a membrane. If solution is hypertonic (has more salt), cells push out water to weaken the concentration. If solution is hypotonic (less salt), cells absorb more water. - filtration: occurs across a semipermeable membrane. Force of gravity pulls water molecules and small particles through the filtering membrane. - passive transport: is the processes of diffusion, osmosis, and filtration because they dont require input of energy. - adenosine triphosphate (ATP): the energy used in active transport, which is supplied by cell metabolism. - pinocytosis (cell drinking): cell takes in liquid outside the cell by making a small crater in the cell membrane. The liquid rushes in and the cell membrane closes over and releases the fluid inside the cell. Requires energy. - phagocytosis (cell eating): similar to pinocytosis but instead of liquid, the cell engulfs a large particle. - -CYTE can be applied to types of cells. Myocyte is a muscle cell. Hepatocyte is a liver cell.

- tumor and neoplasm indicate the abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells. Can be benign or malignant. - a mutation during cell division causes cells to become abnormal and develop into cancer. Some cancers send forth cells into distant sites of the body in a process called metastasis. Tissues and Membranes - tissues may contain nonliving substances produced by cells. They make up the extracellular matrix which is a complex network of proteins, fluid, and various molecules that support the cells. - four different tissue types: - epithelial tissue: covers the inner and outer surface of the body. Also covers organs, lines body cavities, and forms portions of some ducts and glands. Functions to protect the body and to absorb, secrete, and excrete substances. Squamous epithelial cells form the outer layer of skin. Form a tough barrier to protect against invasion from bacteria and other infectious organisms. The lining of the digestive tract, stomach, intestines, ducts, glands, and parts of the respiratory tract consists of columnar epithelial cells. Cuboidal epithelial cells protects the kidney tubules and covers the ovaries and certain glands. Endocrine gland cells form a kind of epithelial tissue that secretes its products directly into the bloodstream (thyroid gland). Exocrine gland cells secrete outside of the bloodstream (sweat glands). - connective tissue: connects or supports other body structures. Ex. Fat, cartilage, bone, blood, and scars. Fascia forms a membrane to invest or surround muscles or organs to separate and support them. Cartilage lines the surfaces of joints. Adipose tissue can provide energy in the form of lipid molecules. Blood transports nutrients and wastes to and from cells. Lymph is intestinal fluid that has been filtered by lymph vessels. - nerve tissue: carries messages to and from the brain. Organized in the form of brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neurons conduct signals from one end of the cell to another. - three types of muscle tissues: - skeletal muscles are composed of voluntary (or striated, meaning streaked or scratched) muscle tissue. Under voluntary control, you initiate, continue, and stop these movements. - involuntary ( or smooth) muscle tissue: is controlled automatically by the nervous system. Ex. Intestines propel food along by way of smooth muscle cells inside the intestinal wall. - cardiac muscle tissue: is involuntary muscle tissue in the heart and looks more like striated muscle than smooth. - a scar is a dense mat of fibrous material. - cells and components of the immune system are responsible for the process of wound healing. - factors that affect wound healing: - poor circulation to the wound area means inadequate oxygen for the process of healing. - infection will prevent the cells of the immune system from functioning normally. - drugs can interfere with the immune system. - lack of sufficient protein or vitamins in the diet - membranes are formed when two layers of tissue join together. Made up of epithelial and connective tissue. - two types of epithelial membranes: - mucous membranes: include those in the digestive tract, respiratory passages, and the genitourinary tract (inner linings of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, and vagina).

- three types of serous membranes: - pleural membranes: create a pleural cavity that surround the lungs. Produce pleural fluid to lubricate the expansion and contraction of the lungs. The parietal pleural membrane lines the inside of the rib cage. The visceral pleural membrane lines the outside of the lungs. Inflammation of the pleura is called pleuritis. - pericardial membrane: encases the heart. Produce a small amount of pericardial fluid to allow the heart to beat freely with minimal friction. Inflammation of the pericardial membranes is called pericarditis. - peritoneal membrane: lines the peritoneal (abdominal) cavity. The parietal peritoneal membranes line the inner surface of the peritoneal cavity. The visceral peritoneal membrane line the outer surface of the stomach and intestines. Inflammation of the peritoneal cavity is called peritonitis. - parietal means relating to the walls of a cavity. Visceral means relating to an organ. - two layers of connective tissue form to create connective membranes. Two types of connective membranes: - synovial membranes: line the cavities of joints that move freely (shoulders, elbows, knees, fingers). Synovial fluid allows the cartilage to move smoothly. Inflammation of the synovial membrane is called synovitis, characterized by swelling of the joints cause by excessive fluid production. Seen with arthritis, lupus and gout. - meninges (meninx): the coverings on the brain and spinal cord and provide protection. Fluid secreted is cerebrospinal fluid. Inflammation results in a condition called meningitis.