Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

A sandwich material is a composite material. A Sandwich structure usually consists of two thin, stiff, strong sheets of composite material or metallic material separated by a relatively soft core. Faces and core are then bonded together to form an efficient load carrying assembly. Lightweight sandwich constructions are used to increase the specific stiffness, which formulate the strengthening of structures for functional and economical reasons. The face carries tensile and compressive stresses, whereas the core carries transverse forces as well as shear stresses. The principle of sandwich construction is well established in the fields of shipbuilding and aerospace technology. Nowadays, sandwich panels can be found in many other technological fields such as in high-speed ferries, high-speed passenger trains, marine industry, building industry or automotive applications. Especially in the naval industry, there is a strong trend to use sandwich shells in the construction of ship hulls. Other innovative examples include civil engineering structures, such as highway bridge decks. The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a common and most effective tool for structural analysis and can be used for the analysis of sandwich construction. In the frame work of this project, modelling, simulation and experimental verification of foam core sandwich with Epoxy resin glass fibre composite facing for static loading conditions will be considered.

Chapter 2
Sandwich Structures 2.1 Introduction
A Sandwich structure comprises a combination of alternating dissimilar, homogeneous or composite materials that are intimately fixed in relation to each other so as to use the properties of each to specific advantage for the whole assembly. This construction can be viewed as a special form of a laminated composite. Face sheets that are thin, strong and hard are laminated over a core that is relatively thick, soft, lightweight, and weak. This construction results in a laminate that is lightweight and much stronger and stiffer than the simple sum of the properties of the individual elements. The primary advantage of sandwich construction is the possibility of stressing each material in the laminate to its practical limit, resulting in an efficient structural design. An analogy can be drawn between structural sandwich composite design and a structural I-beam. The I-beam gains its efficiency by having a large proportion of its total material placed in the flanges, which are situated far from the centre of bedding or the neutral axis (Figure 1). The material in the connecting web of the beam must be sufficient to allow the flanges to retain their relative positions and to resist the shear load. A structural sandwich works on the same principle. The face sheets are equivalent to the flanges of the I - beam, and the core material takes the place of the web.

Figure 1

Chapter 2

It should be emphasized from the outset that sandwich construction possesses an advantage over solid construction against bending loads and compression loads, which are critical in buckling. Direct tensile loads are carried by the face sheets only. The core material generally has negligible strength in tension compared to the face sheet material. Other advantages of sandwich construction include improved acoustic fatigue and simplicity of manufacture compared to ribbed structures.

In addition to the shear loads, the core also gives continuous support to the facing sheets and stabilizes them against wrinkling and buckling. Therefore, the core must be strong and stiff enough to resist the transverse tension and compression loads applied by the face sheets. In direct compression, the same resisting force is required to provide lateral restraint against buckling. Finally, the bond between the core and face sheets must be strong enough to transmit the tensile and shear stresses between the face sheets and the core.

By using thin, stiff facings over a lightweight core, the stiffness of a given amount of facing material can be increased at a much greater rate than the resulting increase in weight.

A major advantage of structural sandwich construction is the ability to choose from a wide variety of face sheet, core materials, and combinations. Face sheet material is evaluated for its strength and stiffness. The most common materials are laminated plastics, metals (such as aluminium and titanium), and composites. The core material must be lightweight and relatively inexpensive compared to the facing material. Honeycomb formed from various materials (such as paper, aluminium, or cellular plastics), and syntactic films are widely used. Each combination of facing and core material possesses unique advantages and disadvantages.

Generally, sandwich type construction has the following advantages over solid or rib reinforced construction: higher strength- to-weight ratios, smoother surfaces, greater structural stability, higher load carrying capacity, increased fatigue life, and better sonic fatigue endurance. The basic principle of spacing face sheets was formulated over 150 years ago, and practical structures were built during World War II.

Chapter 2

2.2 Principles of Sandwich Construction

The structure of sandwich panels always follows the same basic pattern. Two facings, which are relatively thin and of high strength, enclose a core which is relatively thick and light and which has adequate stiffness in a direction normal to the faces of the panel. A great many alternative forms of sandwich construction may be obtained by combining different facing and core materials. The facings may be steel, aluminium, wood, fibre-reinforced plastic or even concrete. The core may be made of cork, balsa wood, rubber, solid plastic material (polyethylene), rigid foam material (polyurethane, polystyrene, phenolic foam), mineral wool slabs or from honeycombs of metal or even paper. Figure 2 shows three examples of structural sandwich elements, namely:

panel with a polyurethane or polystyrene core panel with a metal or paper honeycomb core panel with a mineral wool core

Figure 2 Examples of structural sandwich elements. In each case, the faces may be colour coated steel, or aluminium, or they may be non-metallic, such as plywood particle board or glass reinforced plastic.

Chapter 2
This possibility of combining materials to form composite panels enables optimum designs to be produced for particular applications. In composite panels, the positive properties of the individual materials can be combined and the negative properties eliminated. For example, the good thermal insulating properties of plastic foam materials or mineral wool may only be used if they are protected against moisture by rain tight and diffusion-proof facings; whereas the strength and stiffness of thin-walled metal cladding can only be fully utilised if it is stiffened against buckling under compressive force by the presence of the core material. 2.3 Methods of manufacture A variety of production methods are available for the manufacture of sandwich panels. The most economical procedure is influenced by the following factors:

the geometric design of the panel bearing in mind: o the shape of the facing material (flat, slightly or deeply profiled) o whether formed edges are required on all four edges or only on the two longitudinal edges o accommodation of additional non-metallic edge members o the dimensions of the panels

the basic materials: o whether the facing material is available in sheets or coils o Whether the core material is in the form of pre-formed slabs or foamed in situ.

the quantity to be produced and the number of product variations: o the number of panels required and when o the number of rearrangements of the production line necessary to produce product variations o The number of alternative core thicknesses.

Furthermore, it must be borne in mind that the technology of sandwich panels and their manufacture is relatively young. Research and development are continuing and new

Chapter 2

materials, which could require new production techniques, may be anticipated. Research concerned with the improvement of the performance of rigid foams in fire will continue for some time and further development of reinforced or multi-layer cores must be expected. In principle, the production process for the manufacture of sandwich panels may be considered in two parts, namely, (a) the manufacture of the facings, and (b) the manufacture of the core together with its bond with the facings.

2.3.1 Manufacture of facings

Metallic facings for sandwich panels may be manufactured by the usual methods for cold-formed sections. If forming of the longitudinal edges only is required, folding, pressbraking or roll-forming may be used. Facings formed on four sides may be made by deep drawing or folding. Deep drawing usually requires the use of high quality material with large ductility.

2.3.2 Panels with bonded cores

The core lamina is formed either from pre-formed slabs of insulation that are bonded to the faces using a suitable adhesive or by foaming rigid plastic material directly into the cavity formed by the facings and the edge details. In the former case, the core material usually consists of either polystyrene or mineral fibre. The adhesive is chosen bearing in mind the composition of the materials to be bonded and the production process.

Two different types of adhesive are in use. The first type are solvent based and are applied to both surfaces to be joined by means of sprayers and smoothers. After a short drying time the surfaces are pressed together. Suitable adhesives possess a good initial bonding capacity and the hardening time may be further shortened by applying slight pressure and temperature. These adhesives offer the advantage of easy handling. Their disadvantage lies in the fact that the position of the bonded layers cannot be corrected. Furthermore, precautions have to be taken to collect and neutralise the evaporating solvents if large quantities are used. The second group of adhesives are two-component types based on epoxy resin or polyurethane. The two components are mixed at site. After a predetermined

Chapter 2

time they suddenly react and harden quickly. The advantage of these adhesives lies in the possibility of correcting the position of the individual layers. The disadvantage is that they must be held in position under pressure for a certain time.

2.3.3 Foamed cores The recent massive increase in the use of sandwich panels is due almost entirely to the foamed core. Both the thermal insulation and the bond with the facings originate from the foaming process. The basic material used is polyurethane.

This type of foam is obtained by mixing two liquid components together with certain activators and motive fluids. During mixing, a chemical reaction occurs causing the mixture to foam and finally harden. During the foaming phase, the mixture is very bonding active and adheres strongly to surfaces with which it comes into contact.

The proportions of the various components and additives determine the foam's density, rigidity and other mechanical properties as well as the time required for the various phases of the reaction. There are numerous alternative recipes, some known only to the producers, which have been developed as a result of experience. There are also a number of different processing techniques, often linked to specific machinery. Nowadays, high-pressure foaming units are widely used for large-scale industrial production.

In mould forming, the panel is made in a closed mould whose dimensions are those of the finished panel. The lower facing is laid on the bottom of the mould and the upper facing placed in position supported on spacers. Simple foaming moulds usually have a solid bottom frame and a lid which is clamped to the frame. They must be of robust construction as significant pressures arise during foaming.

Prior to foaming, any required edge profiles are positioned in the mould. The exact quantity of foam is then sprayed into the cavity through a nozzle introduced through the side of the mould, an operation which takes only a few seconds. After foaming, the panel is left in

Chapter 2

the mould for up to 40 minutes, after which it may be removed and the mould prepared for the next panel. The advantage of this method is that panels with complicated shapes can be produced. The disadvantage is that the process is relatively slow, although various techniques for batch processing in which a team of operatives work cyclically on several moulds have been developed. For mass-production, continuous automatic foaming lines are used. The principles are shown in Fig. 3 Two metal strips which form the faces are run-off coils and pass through roll formers where the surface profile and edge details are formed. They are then heated to the required temperature, which is a pre-requisite for an optimal chemical reaction. The twocomponent foam mixture is then introduced before the strips enter a double conveyor, which is a type of travelling mould that resists the foaming pressure and keeps the faces at the required distance apart. The sides of the panel are likewise formed by lateral formers that are similar to small chain belts. This section of the line may be as much as 30m long. When the continuous panel emerges, the foam has hardened and it may be cut to the required lengths by a flying saw.

Figure 3- Continuous foaming line

2.4 General design criteria

Structural sandwich design may be considered to consist of determining the thickness of facing sheets and core required to resist the movement, shear and axial stresses induced by

Chapter 2

the loads applied to the structure. As previously stated, the axial tensile and compressive stresses caused by axial and flexural loads are carried almost entirely by the sandwich face sheets. The core resists the shear loads and provides support to the face sheets to increase their critical buckling stresses under bending or axial compression.

The basic design principles for sandwich construction can be summarized in the following conditions, which are illustrated in (Figure 1.4).

2.4.1 Tension and Compression:

The sandwich facings must be thick enough to resist the design tensile and compression loads without exceeding the allowable face sheet stress. The core must be thick enough to remain below the allowable core shear stress (Figure 4A).

2.4.2 Deflection:

The combination of face sheet and core thicknesses must be sufficient to prevent excessive deflection (Figure 4 B).

2.4.3. General Buckling and Shear Crimping:

The core must be thick enough and have sufficient shear modulus and strength such that overall buckling of the structure (Figure 4 C) or shear crimping (Figure 4 D) does not occur.

2.4.4 Face Sheet Wrinkling:

The core must have a high enough elastic modulus, and the sandwich a large enough flat wise tensile and compressive strength such that wrinkling of the face sheets does not occur (Figure 4 E).

Chapter 2

2.4.5 Face Sheet Dimpling:

If the core is of cellular (honeycomb) construction or made of corrugated material, the cell size must be small enough so that dimpling of the face sheets does not occur (Figure 4 F).

Localized loads are frequently the source of honeycomb sandwich panel failure. The structure must be able to sustain local concentrated loads, reactions, attachments, and other discontinuities. The effects of several localized normal loads are shown in (Figure 5). The honeycomb sandwich must be reinforced in these areas by thickening the face sheets or using solid inserts to prevent core failure or local facing failure. The effects of such localized loads are difficult to calculate accurately, and their evaluation by tests may be required.

Figure 4 Design properties of sandwich structures

Chapter 2

Figure 5 Effects of Localized Normal Loads

2.5 Structural design of sandwich structures As an introduction to the structural behaviour of sandwich panels, consider the simply supported panel with flat faces shown in Fig. 1.6(a). The panel is subject to a distributed load, shown downwards of the diagram.

The shear force and bending moment diagrams arising from this load are shown in Figs 1.6(b) and 1.6(c) respectively. For the purposes of this discussion, it is sufficient to assume that all of the shear force is resisted by a uniform shear stress in the core and that the bending moment is resisted by axial stresses in the faces as indicated in Fig. 1.6(a). Thus the behaviour is rather like that of an I-beam in which the metal faces correspond to the flanges and the core behaves as the web. The adhesive bond between the faces and the core will carry a shear stress equal to the shear stress in the core.

An essential function of the core material and its adhesive bond is to prevent the upper face slipping relative to the lower face. Figure 1.6(d) shows, in an exaggerated form, the slippage caused by using an adhesive with too low a shear strength, while Fig. 1.6(e) illustrates the consequences of using a core material with insufficient shear strength or

Chapter 2

stiffness. Prevention of this undesirable behaviour requires a core with a sufficiently high shear modulus as well as adequate shear strength and these two quantities feature prominently in the structural design of sandwich panels.

As the upper face of the panel is in compression, another important function of the core material and its adhesive bond is to restrain the upper face so that it does not suffer local buckling in compression, a phenomenon generally termed `wrinkling'. This behaviour is illustrated in Fig. 6(f). The stress at which wrinkling failure takes place is dependent mainly on the stiffness properties of the core and this is another reason why the mechanical properties of the core play a critical role in the structural design. The final mode of failure, which is shown in Fig. 6(g), is tensile yielding of the lower face. This is generally the least likely of the alternative modes shown in Fig. 6.

For the structural design of a sandwich panel, it is necessary to consider all of these potential failure modes. Furthermore, the situation becomes more complicated when the

sandwich panel is continuous over one or more internal supports or when one or both of the faces are fully profiled.

Fig.6

Structural

behaviour of a simply supported panel. sandwich

Chapter 3 Introduction to Composites

3.1. Introduction
This chapter provides the background information for the study, which involves and investigates composite materials. In order to create a base of information about composite materials and their applications, the topic will begin from scratch and expend to important aspects about composites.

3.2. Basic Concepts of Composite Materials

Composite materials are basically hybrid materials formed of multiple materials in order to utilize their individual structural advantages in a single structural material. Various scientific definitions for composite materials can be expresses as follows; - The word composite means made up of two or more parts. A composite material is one made of two other materials. The composite material then has the properties of the two materials that have been combined. - The word composite in the term composite material signifies that two or more materials are combined on a macroscopic scale to form a useful third material. The key is the macroscopic examination of a material wherein the components can be identified by the naked eye. Different materials can be combined on a microscopic scale, such as in alloying of metals, but the resulting material is, for all practical purposes, macroscopically homogeneous, i.e, the components cannot be distinguished by the naked eye and essentially act together. (Jones, R.M; 1998; 2) - Composites, which consist of two or more separate materials combined in macroscopic structural unit, are made from various combinations of the other tree materials. (Gibson R.F; 1994; 1) - A composite is a structural material which consists of combining two or more constituents. The constituents are combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other. (Kaw A.K; 1997; 2) The key is the macroscopic examination of a material wherein the components can be identified by the naked eye. Different materials can be combined on a microscopic scale, such

Chapter 3

as in alloying of metals, but the resulting material is, for all practical purposes, macroscopically homogeneous, i.e. the components cannot be distinguished by the naked eye and essentially acts together. The advantage of composite materials is that, if well designed, they usually exhibit the best qualities of their components or constituents and often some qualities that neither

constituent possesses. Some of the properties that can be improved by forming a composite material are - Strength -Stiffness - Corrosion resistance -Wear resistance -Attractiveness -weight Naturally, not all of these properties are improved at the same time nor is there usually any requirement to do so. In fact, some of the properties are in conflict with one another, e.g., thermal insulation versus thermal conductivity. The objective is merely to create a material that has only the characteristics needed to perform the design task. Composite materials have a long history of usage. Their precise beginnings are unknown, but all recorded history contains references to some form of composite material. For example, straw was used by the Israelites to strengthen mud bricks, the use of straw in clay as a construction material by the Egyptians. (Swanson S.R; 1997; 1) Medieval swords and armour were constructed with layers of different metals. More recently, fiber-reinforced, resin-matrix composite materials that have high strength to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios have become important in weight sensitive applications such as aircraft and space vehicles. ( Jones. R.M; 1998; 2) Modern composites using fiber-reinforced matrices of various types have created a revolution in high-performance structures in recent years. Advanced composite materials -fatigue life -temperature-dependent behaviour -thermal insulation -thermal conductivity -acoustical insulation

Chapter 3

offer significant advantages in strength and stiffness coupled with light weight, relative to conventional metallic materials. Along with this structural performance comes the freedom to select the orientation of the fibers for optimum performance. Modern composites have been described as being revolutionary in the sense that the material can be designed as well as the structure. (Swanson S.R; 1997; 1) There are two building blocks that constitute to the structure of composite materials. One constituent is called the reinforcing phase and the one in which it is embedded is called the matrix. The reinforcing phase material may be in the form of fibers, particulates, flakes. The matrix phase materials are generally continuous. Examples of composite systems include concrete reinforced with steel, epoxy reinforced with graphite fibers, etc. (Kaw A.K; 1997; 1) 3.2.1. Fibers Fibers are the principal constituent in a fiber-reinforced composite material. They occupy the largest volume fraction in a composite laminate and share the major portion of the load acting on a composite structure. Proper selection of the type, amount and orientation of fibers is very important, because it influences the following characteristics of a composite laminate. - Specific gravity - Tensile strength and modulus - Compressive strength and modulus - Fatigue strength and fatigue failure mechanisms - Electric and thermal conductivities - Cost In a composite matrix the fibers are surrounded by a thin layer of matrix material that holds the fibers permanently in the desired orientation and distributes an applied load among all the fibers. The matrix also plays a strong role in determining the environmental stability of the composite article as well as mechanical factors such as toughness and shear strength.

Chapter 3

Because the reinforcing fibers can be oriented during fabrication of item, composites can be tailored to meet increased load demands in specific directions. The combined fiber-matrix system is an engineered material designed to maximize mechanical and environmental performance. There is an important, but not generally well understood difference between the development time for traditional materials compared to that for high performance fibers. Because a composite material is a complex system of two components coupled at an interface, the time required to develop and optimize new high performance fibers for a particular application is much longer than that needed for the development of traditional materials. For composite applications it normally takes 5-10 years to develop a new high performance reinforcing fiber. By dispersing fibers or particles of one material in a matrix of another material, todays designer can obtain structural properties that neither material exhibits on its own. For example, a metal alloy selected for its resistance to high temperature but having low resistance to creep at use temperature can be reinforced with fibrous inorganic oxide fibers to provide enhanced creep resistance and still be stable at high temperature. A ceramic matrix, brittle and sensitive to impact or fracture induced by thermal stress, may be reinforced with ceramic fibers to increase its resistance to crack propagation, providing greater toughness and protecting against catastrophic failure. The addition of reinforcing fibers to provide equal mechanical properties at a greatly reduced weight is often an important reason for choosing composites over traditional structural materials. Another vital consideration is the substitution of readily available materials for critical elements in short supply or those available only from foreign sources. Composite materials made from abundant, domestically available materials such as carbon, polymers, ceramics and common metals often outperform these imported strategic materials. Reinforcing fibers that provide the means of creating composite materials of high strength and stiffness, combined with low density, it is worthwhile examining in a little more detail the nature of these fibers and their origins. (Harris. B; 1999; 7)

Chapter 3

Figure 7 Specific modulus and specific strength for various engineering materials and fibers (Swanson S.R; 1997; 3) The various types of fibers currently in use are discussed in what follows. (Swanson S.R; 1997; 3) -Glass Fibers -Carbon Fibers -Aramid Fibers -Boron Fibers

-Silicon Carbide Fibers

Chapter 3
3.2.1.1. Glass Fibers Glass fibers with polymeric matrices have been widely used in various commercial products such as piping, tanks, boats and sporting goods. Glass is by far the most widely used fiber, because of the combination of low cost, corrosion resistance, and in many cases efficient manufacturing potential. It has relatively low stiffness, high elongation, and moderate strength and weight, and generally lower cost relative to other composites. It has been used extensively where corrosion resistance is important, such as in piping for the chemical industry and in marine applications. It is used as a continuous fiber in textile forms such as cloth and as a chopped fiber in less critical applications. (Swanson S.R; 1997; 3) Glass fibers are strong as any of the newer inorganic fibers but they lack rigidity of on account of their molecular structure. The properties of glasses can be modified toa limited extent by changing the chemical composition of the glass, but the only glass used to any great extent in composite materials is ordinary borosilicate glass, known as E-glass. (Harris. B; 1999; 7) E glass is available as continuous filament, chopped stable and random fiber mats suitable for most methods of resin impregnation and composite fabrication. S glass, originally developed for aircraft components and missile casings, has the highest tensile strenght of all fibers in use. However, the compositional difference and higher manufacturing cost make it more expensive than E-glass. A lower cost version of S-glass, called S-2 glass, has been made available in recent years. Although S-2 glass is manufactured with less stringent non-military specifications, its tensile strength and modulus are similar to those of S-glass. S-glass is primarily available as rovings and yarn and with a limited range of surface treatments. S-glass fibers are being used in hybrid reinforcement systems in combination with graphite fibers and aramid fibers. R-glass is a similar high-strength, high modulus fiber developed in France.

Glass fibers are also available in woven form, such as woven roving and woving cloth. Woven roving is coarse, drapable fabric in which continuous rovings are woven in two mutually perpendicular directions.

Chapter 3
3.2.1.2. Carbon Fibers Carbon fibers, more than all other fibrous reinforcements, have provided the basis for the development of PMCs as advanced structural engineering materials. Carbon fibers are commercially available with a variety of tensile moduli ranging from 207Gpa on the low side to 1035Gpa on the high side. In general, low modulus fibers have lower specific gravities, lower cost, higher tensile and compressive strengths and higher tensile strain to failure than high modulus fibers. Among the advantages of carbon fibers are their exceptionally high tensile strength to weight ratios and tensile modulus to weight ratios, very low CTEs (which provide dimensional stability in such applications as space antennas) and high fatigue strengths. The disadvantages are their low impact resistance and high electric conductivity, which may cause shorting in unprotected electrical machinery. Their high cost has so far excluded them from widespread commercial application. Carbon fibers are widely used in aerospace and some applications of sporting goods, taking advantages of the relatively high stiffness to weight and high strength to weight ratios of these fibers. (Swanson S.R; 1997; 4) The structure and properties of carbon fibers are dependent on the raw material used the process conditions of manufacture. The manufacturing process involves the oxidation, textile precursors and pitch precursors. The most common textile precursor is PAN. Depending on processing conditions, a wide range of mechanical properties (controlled by structural variation) can be obtained, and fibers can therefore be chosen from this range so as to give the desired composite properties. (Harris. B; 1999; 7)

Carbon fibers are commercially available in three basic forms, namely, long, continuous tow, chopped (6-50mm long) and milled (30-3000m long). The long, continuous tow, which is simply a bundle of 1000-160.000 parallel filaments, is used to for high performance applications. Typical mechanical properties of some commercially available carbon fibers are indicated the following table.

Chapter 3
Table 1 Mechanical properties of typical fibers (Swanson S.R; 1997; 5)

3.2.1.3. Aramid Fibers An aramid fiber is an aromatic organic compound made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. (Kaw, Autar K; 1997; 20) . Aramid polymer fibers produced primarily by E.I. duPont de Nemours & Company under the trade name Kevlar were originally developed for use in radial tires. Kevlar 29 is still used for this purpose, but a higher modulus version, Kevlar 49 is used more extensively in structural composites. The density of Kevlar is about half that of glass and its specific strength is among the highest of currently available fibers. (Gibson R.F;

1994; 9) Aramid fibers offer higher strength and stiffness relative to glass coupled with light weight, high tensile strength, but lower compressive strength both glass-fiber and aramid-fiber composites show good toughness in impact environmental. Aramid tends to respond under impact in a ductile manner, as opposed to carbon fibre, which tends to fail in a more brittle manner. Aramid fiber is used as a higher performance replacement for glass fiber in industrial applications and sporting goods, and in protective clothing. (Swanson S.R; 1997; 3) 3.2.1.5. Silicon Carbide Fibers Silicon Carbide (Sic) fibers are used primarily in high-temperature metal and ceramic matrix composites because of their excellent oxidation resistance and high-temperature

Chapter 3
strength retention. At room temperature the strength and stiffness of Sic fibers are about the same as those of boron. Sic whisker reinforced metals are also receiving considerable attention as alternative to unreinforced metals and continuous fiber-reinforced metals. Sic whiskers are very small, typically 8-20 in (20-51nm) in diameter and about 0.0012 in( 0.03mm) long, so that standard metal-forming process such as extrusion, rolling and forging can be easily used. (Gibson R.F; 1994; 10) 3.2.2. Matrices The composite matrix is required to fulfil several functions, most of which are vital to the performance of the material. Bundles of fibers are, in themselves, of little value to an engineer, and it is only the presence of a matrix or binder that enables us to make us of them. Although matrices by themselves generally have low mechanical properties as compared to fibers, the matrix influences many mechanical properties of the composite.( Kaw, Autar K; 1997; 13), The roles of the matrix in the fiber-reinforced and particulate composites are quite different. The binder for a particulate aggregate simply reserves to retain the composite mass in a solid form, but the matrix in a fiber composite performs a variety of other functions which must be appreciated if we are to understand the true composite action which determines the mechanical behaviour of a reinforced material. We shall therefore consider these functions in some detail. The matrix binds the fibers together, holding them aligned in the important stressed directions. The matrix must also isolate the fibers from each other so that they can act as separate entities. The matrix should protect the reinforcing filaments from mechanical damage (e.g. abrasion) and from environmental attack. A ductile matrix will provide a means of slowing down or stopping cracks that might have originated at broken fibers; conversely, a brittle matrix may depend upon the fibers to act as matrix crack stoppers. Through the quality of its grip on the fibers (the interfacial bond strength), the matrix can also be an important means of increasing the toughness of the composite. By comparison with the common reinforcing filaments most matrix materials are weak and flexible and their strengths and moduli are often neglected in calculating composite properties.

The potential for reinforcing any given material will depend to some extent on its ability to carry out some or all of these matrix functions, but there are often other considerations. (Harris, Bryan; 1999; 12).

Chapter 3

3.2.3.Conventional Materials and Their Limitations It is difficult to draw up a table of materials characteristics in order to assess the relative strengths and weaknesses of metals, plastics and ceramics because of each these terms covers whole families of materials within which the range of properties is often as broad as the differences between the tree classes. A comparison in general terms, however, can identify some of the more obvious advantages and disadvantages of the different types of material. At a simplistic level, then; Plastics are of low density. They have good short-term chemical resistance but they lack thermal stability and have only moderate resistance to environmental degradation (especially that caused by the photochemical effects of sunlight). They have poor mechanical properties, but are easily fabricated and joined. Ceramics may be of low density (although some are very dense). They have great thermal stability and are resistant to kst forms of attack (abrasion, wear, corrosion).Although intrinsically very rigid and strong because of their chemical bonding, they are all brittle and can be formed and shaped only with difficulty. Metals are mostly of medium to high density- only magnesium, aluminium and beryllium can compete with plastics in this respect. Many have good thermal stabilityand may be made corrosion-resistant by alloying. They have useful mechanical properties and high toughness, and tjhey are modely easy to shape and join. It is largely a consequence of their ductility and resistance to cracking that metals, as a class, became (and remain) the preferred engineering materials.

On the basis of even so superficial a comparison it can be seen that each class has certain intrinsic advantages and weaknesses, although metals pose fewer problems for the designer than either plastics or ceramics. (Harris. B; 1999; 3).

Chapter 3
A distinctive chart which expresses the relative importance of metals, ceramics, polymers and composites in human life throughout the history of mankind is given in

Figure 8 The relative importance of metals, polymers, composites and ceramics as a function of time. (Gibson. R.F; 1994; 2)

3.3. Classification of Composite Materials There are four commonly accepted types of composite materials. These types are listed as follows; - Fibrous composite materials that consist of fibers in a matrix - Laminated composite materials that consist of layers of various materials - Particulate composite materials that are composed of particles in a matrix - Combinations of some or all of the first three types

Chapter 3

3.3.1. Fibrous Composite Materials Long fibers in various forms are inherently much stiffer and stronger than the same material in bulk form. For example, ordinary plate glass fractures at stresses of only a few thousand pounds per square inch (Ib/in or psi) (20 MPa), yet glass fibers have strengths of 400,000 to 700,000 psi (2800 to 4800 MPa) in commercially available forms and about 1,000,000 psi (7000 MPa) in laboratory-prepared forms (Jones. R.M; 1998; 3).Fibrous reinforcement is so effective because many materials are much stronger than they are in bulk form. It is believed that this phenomenon was first demonstrated scientifically in 1920 by Griffith, who measured the tensile strengths of glass rods and glass fibers of different diameters. Griffith found that as the rods and fibers got thinner, they got stronger. Apparently because the smaller the diameter, the smaller the likelihood that failure-inducing surface cracks would be generated during fabrication and handling. By extrapolating these results, Griffith found that for very small diameters the fiber strength approached the theoretical cohesive strength between adjacent layers of atoms, whereas for large diameters the fiber strength dropped to near the strength of bulk glass.

There can be no doubt that fibers allow us to obtain the maximum tensile strength and stiffness of a material, but there are obvious disadvantages of using a material in fiber form. Fibers alone cannot support longitudinal compressive loads and their transverse mechanical properties are generally not so good as the corresponding longitudinal properties. Thus, fibers are generally useless as structural materials unless they are held together in a structural unit with a binder or matrix material and unless some transverse reinforcement is provided. Fortunately, the geometrical configuration of fibers also turns out to be very efficient from the point of view of interaction with the binder or matrix. As shown in Figure 1-2, the ratio of surface area to volume for a cylindrical particle is greatest when the particle is in either platelet or fiber form. Thus, the fiber/matrix interfacial area available for stress transfer per unit volume of fiber increases with increasing fiber length-to diameter ratio. Transverse reinforcement is generally provided by orienting fibers at various angles according to the stress field in the component of interest. (Gibson. R.F; 1994; 4)

Chapter 3
3.3.1.1. Whiskers A whisker has essentially the same near-crystal-sized diameter as a fiber, but generally is very short and stubby, although the length-to diameter ratio can be in the hundreds. Thus, a whisker is an even more obvious example of the crystal-bulk material- property-difference paradox. That is, a whisker is even more perfect than a fiber and therefore exhibits even higher properties. Indeed, whiskers are currently the strongest reinforcing materials available. (Gibson. R.F; 1994; 3) Naturally, fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take the form of a structural element that can carry loads. (Jones, R.M; 1998; 4) 3.3.2. Laminated Composite Materials

Laminated composite materials consist of layers of at least two different materials that are bonded together. Lamination is used to combine the best aspects of the constituent layers and bonding material in order to achieve a more useful material. The properties that can be emphasized by lamination are strength, stiffness, low weight, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, beauty or attractiveness, thermal insulation, acoustical insulation, etc. Bimetals, clad metals, laminated glass, plastic-based laminates, and laminated fibrous composite materials are available but only laminated 3.3.2.1. Fibrous composite materials will be explained The fibers are long and continuous as opposed to whiskers. The basic terminology of fiber-reinforced composite laminates will be introduced in the following paragraphs. For a lamina, the configurations and functions of the constituent materials, fibers and matrix, were introduced in the former parts. Finally, a laminate is defined to round out this introduction to the characteristics of fiber-reinforced composite laminates. 3.3.2.1.1 Laminae The basic building block of composite structure is the lamina, which usually consists of one of the fiber/matrix configurations shown in Figure 9. (Gibson. R.F; 1994; 4). The main constituent of a laminate is a lamina which is a flat sometimes curved as in a shell) arrangement of unidirectional fibers or woven fibers in a matrix. Two typical flat laminae along with their principal material axes that are parallel and perpendicular to the fiber

Chapter 3
Direction are shown in Fig 10. The fibers are the principal reinforcing or load-carrying agent and are typically strong and stiff. The matrix can be organic, metallic, ceramic, or carbon. Fibers generally exhibit linear elastic behaviour, although reinforcing steel bars in concrete are more nearly elastic-perfectly plastic. Aluminium, as well as many polymers, and some composite materials exhibit elastic-plastic behaviour that is really nonlinear elastic behavior if there is no unloading. Commonly, resinous matrix materials are viscoelastic if not viscoplastic i.e, have strain-rate dependence and linear or nonlinear stress-strain behaviour. The

various stress-strain relations are sometimes referred to as constitutive relations because they describe the mechanical constitution of the material. Fiber-reinforced composite materials such as boron-epoxy and graphite-epoxy are usually treated as linear elastic materials because the essentially linear elastic fibers provide the majority of the strength and stiffness. Refinement of that approximation requires consideration of some form of plasticity, viscoelasticity, or both (viscoplasticity). Very little work has been done to implement those models or idealizations of composite material behaviour in structural applications. 3.3.2.1.2. Laminates

Figure 9 - Un bonded view of laminate construction (Jones, R.M; 1998; 17)

Chapter 3
A laminate is a bonded stack of laminae with various orientations of principal material directions in the laminae as in Figure 9. Note that the fiber orientation of the layers in Figure 2-3 is not symmetric about the middle surface of the laminate. The layers of a laminate are usually bonded together by the same matrix material that is used in the individual laminae. That is, some

of the matrix material in a lamina coats the surfaces of a lamina and is used to bond the lamina to its adjacent laminae without the addition of more matrix material. Laminates can be composed of plates of different materials or, in the the present context, layers of fiber-reinforced laminae. A laminated circular cylindrical shell can be constructed by winding resin-coated fibers on a removable core structure called a mandrel first with one orientation to the shell axis, then another, and soon until the desired thickness is achieved. A major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element. Laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. For example, six layers of a ten-layer laminate could be oriented in one direction and the other four at 90 to that direction; the resulting laminate then has a strength and extensional stiffness roughly 50% higher in one direction than the other. The ratio of the extensional stiffnesses in the two directions is approximately 6:4, but the ratio of bending stiffnesses is unclear because the order of lamination is not specified in the example. Moreover, if the laminae are not arranged symmetrically about the middle surface of the laminate, the result is stiffnesses that represent coupling between bending and extension. (Jones, Robert M; 1998; 15)

Fig 10. Types of composites

Chapter 3

Various composite types that are listed according to fiber displacements is explained as following. The need for fiber placement in different directions according to the particular application has led to various types of composites, as shown in Figure In the continuous fiber composite laminate Figure 10 (a) individual continuous fiber/matrix laminae are oriented in the required directions and bonded together to form a laminate. Although the continuous fiber laminate is used extensively, the potential for delaminating, or separation of the laminae, is still a major problem because the inter laminar strength is matrix-dominated. Woven fiber composites Figure 10 (b) do not have distinct laminae and are not susceptible to delamination, but strength and stiffness are sacrificed due to the fact that the fibers are not so straight as in the continuous fiber laminate. Chopped fiber composites may have short fibers randomly dispersed in the matrix, as shown in Figure 10 (c) Chopped fiber composites are used extensively in high volume applications due to low manufacturing cost, but their mechanical properties are considerably poorer than those of .continuous fiber composites. Finally, hybrid composites may consist of mixed chopped and continuous fibers, as shown in Figure 10 (d) or mixed fiber types such as glass/graphite.

Figure -11 Composite sandwich structure (Gibson. R.F; 1994; 6)

Chapter 3

Another common composite configuration, the sandwich structure consists of high strength composite facing sheets (which could be any of the composites shown in Figure 11) bonded to a lightweight foam or honeycomb core. Sandwich structures have extremely high flexural stiffness-to-weight ratios and are widely used in aerospace structures. The design flexibility offered by these and other composite configurations is obviously quite attractive .to designers, and the potential now exists to design not only the structure, but also the structural material itself. (Gibson. R.F; 1994; 4) 3.3.3. Particulate Composite Materials Particulate composite materials consist of particles of one or more materials suspended in a matrix of another material. They are usually isotropic since the particles are added randomly. Particulate composites have advantages such as improved strength, increased operating temperature and oxidation resistance, etc. (Kaw, Autar K; 1997; 12). The particles can be either metallic or non-metallic as can the matrix. 3.3.4. Combinations of Composite Materials Numerous multiphase composite materials exhibit more than one characteristic of the various classes, fibrous, laminated, or particulate composite materials, just discussed. For example, reinforced concrete is both particulate (because the concrete is composed of gravel in a cement-paste binder) and fibrous (because of the steel reinforcement).Also laminated fiberreinforced composite materials are obviously both laminated and fibrous composite materials. Laminated fiber-reinforced composite materials are a hybrid class of composite materials involving both fibrous composite materials and lamination techniques. Here, layers of fiber reinforced material are bonded together with the fiber directions of each layer typically oriented in different direction to give different strengths and stiffnesses of the laminate in various directions. Thus, the strengths and stiffnesses of the laminated fiber-reinforced composite

material can be tailored to the specific design requirements of the structural element being built. Examples, of laminated fiber reinforced composite materials include rocket motor cases, boat hulls, aircraft wing panels and body sections, tennis rackets, golf club shafts, etc. (Jones, Robert M; 1998; 8)

Chapter 3
3.4. Major Composite Classes The major composite classes of structural composite materials are available and these classes will be categorized as following; Polymer-Matrix Composites Metal- Matrix Composites Ceramic- Matrix Composites Carbon- Carbon Composites Hybrid Composites

3.4.1. Polymer-Matrix Composite Polymer-Matrix Composites are the most developed class of composite materials in that they have found widespread application, can be fabricated into large, complex shapes, and have been accepted in a variety of aerospace and commercial applications. They are constructed of components such as carbon, boron, graphite, aramid fibres bound together by an organic polymer matrix such as epoxy, polyester, urethane. (Kaw, Autar K; 1997; 16) These reinforced plastics are a synergistic combination of high-performance fibers and matrices. The fiber provides the high strength and modulus, whereas the matrix spreads the load as well as offering resistance to weathering and corrosion. For example, graphite/epoxy composites are approximately five times stronger than steel on a weight- for weight basis. The reasons of being the most common composites include their low cost, high strength and simple manufacturing principles. The main drawbacks of Polymer-Matrix Composites include low operating temperatures, high coefficients of thermal and moisture expansion, and low elastic properties in certain directions.(Kaw, Autar K; 1997; 16)

Continuous-fiber thermoset composites are produced by quite different methods. Cylindrically symmetric structures such as pressure vessels, tanks, rocket-motor casings, centrifuge cylinders, and a variety of pipes, can be made by winding fibers or tapes soaked with pre-catalysed resin onto expendable or removable mandrels.(Harris. B; 1999; 24) Composite strenght is almost directly proportinal to the basic fiber strenght and can be improved at the expense of stiffness. High modulus organic fibers have been made with simple polimers by arranging the molecules during processing, which results in straightened