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 Table of Contents

I. James Rachels: Egoism and Moral Scepticism

II. John Arthur: Religion, Morality,, and Conscience
III. Friedrick Nietzsche: Master and Slave Morality
IV. Mary Midgley: Trying Out One's New Sword
V. John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism
VI. James Rachels: The Debate over Utilitarianism
VII. Immanuel Kant: The Categorical Imperative
VIII. Aristotle: Happiness and Virtue
IX. Joel Feinberg: The Nature and Value of Rights
X. Ronald Dworkin: Taking Rights Seriously
XI. John Rawls: A Theory of Justice
XII. Annette Baier: The Need for More Than Justice

3
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Egoism and Moral Skepticism by James Rachels

People can become considerate of others and that we are not truly selfish. But psychological
egoism suggests that all men are selfish and that men based their motivation on things that will only
benefit themselves. Even though men act for the benefit of oothers,
thers, in a way, they believe that it will also
be for their advantage. Ethical egoism states that men are supposed to prioritize their selves that is why
they should base their decisions on their advantage.

Though psychological egoism seems to be about selfishness just like the ethical egoism, it can
also show goodness. An example would be by helping a friend, if a person chose to help someone
instead of doing something more fun and entertaining for as long as he wanted to really help his friend
then he is still selfish because he chose to do what he wants. Selfishness in this case can still fall into two
cases. Selfishness depends on what the object of the wants is. If the action will only benefit oneself,
then that is selfishness, but if it is for the ggood
ood of others, then it is safe to say that it is an unselfish act.

The second argument for the psychological egoism is more on the feelings of a person, if the
action that is to be performed will cause satisfaction for the part of the doer, then that is a form of
selfishness. There is a problem with this argument; it does not mean that a person is selfish if he gets
satisfaction from helping another person, but instead, it makes him a better person because he Is
thinking of the welfare of others. On the o
other
ther hand, being selfish or egoistic is more on self satisfaction.

Review Questions:

1. Explain the legend Gyges. What questions about morality are raised by the story?

- The question about morality in this legend is on how can men do ignore the temptation of
having special powers. In this case, a crime had been committed just to be able to have the
ring.

2. Distinguish between psychological and ethical egoism.

- Psychological egoism suggests that men are making actions that are beneficial only to one’s
self. Ethical egoism on the other hand, implies that men must choose decisions that will
make him happy.

4
 3. Rachels discusses two arguments for psychological egoism. What are these arguments and how
does he reply to them?

- The first argument is that; if a person did did something for another person, it becomes
selfishness because of the self fulfillment that he can get from helping others. The second
argument tells us that, it is not wrong to help others because it is not selfish; selfishness is
only possible if e person
pers does not think of the welfare of others.

4. What three commonplace confusions does Rachels detect in the thesis of psychological egoism?

- The first is the confusion between self

self- interest and selfishness. The second confusion is the
assumption that every action is done either from self-interest
interest or from other regarding
motives. The last kind of confusion is the common but false assumption that a concern for
one’s interest means that no one is capable of caring for the welfare of other people.

5. State the argument

ument for saying that ethical egoism is inconsistent. Why doesn’t Rachels accept
this argument?

- Ethical egoism does not mean that egoist are purely selfish because man are really caring
and there is no reason for us to hurt others or do actions that will hurt other people without
any acceptable reason.

6. According to Rachels, why shouldn’t we hurt others, and why should we help others? How can
the egoist reply?

- We shouldn’t hurt other people because we should care for the well being of other people
as well.
ll. It is not only beneficial to them but to us as well. When we treat other people right,
then we can expect them to be good to us and we can create a world wherein people care
for each other.

Discussion Questions:

1. Has Rachels answered the question raised by Glaucon, namely, “Why be moral?” If so, what
exactly is he’s answer?

- We need to need to be moral because our actions can greatly affect other people and our
community.
-
2. Are genuine egoists rare, as Rachels claims?
claims? Is it a fact that most people care about others, even
people they don’t know?

5
 - Because most people are really caring and genuinely good to others. We are all really
concern for the welfare of others

3. Suppose we define ethical altruism as the view that that one should always act for the benefit of
others and never in one’s self
self- interest. Is such a view immoral or not?

- No. What is immoral is when people forget and act hastily without thinking of the effects and if
their actions will hurt others.

6
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Learning Expectation:

To learn the differences among religion, morality and conscience and learn the connections or
similarities that they have to have a better understanding on how these three concepts can affect the
problems in the society.

Religion, Morality and Conscience by John Arthur

A society that does not have a moral code, it is obvious that it will result into a community
wherein people do not care of what others will feel. People will not feel resentment or guilt to their
negative actions. But, if a society does not have morals, is it possible to have religion?

According to Arthur, it is possible that a society does not have morals but has religion. People
can simply believe in a divine being and follow their duties as believers and perform their duties but
their actions can be the opposite of what Is supposed to be moral. That is why the practices of morality
and religion are different.

Though there is a difference in practices, religion can become the motivation for the people to
do good things. First; because of the consequences that they will suffer. Second; the probability that
their god will punish them. In another view, religion must be the motivation but in reality there are a lot
of reasons where we base our moral values and decisions. As for me, I believe that morality and religion
are two different concepts. Though I agree that religion can become a motivation for men to follow
what is moral.

I think it is very common that there are those people who are very devote to their religion even
though they are the ones who commit mistakes and the ones who harm other people.

Integrative Questions:

1. What are the differences between morality and religion?

2. Is it possible
sible that both aspects are not connected?
3. What is conscience?
4. What will happen if a society does not have a moral code?

7
 5. If a society doesn’t have morality, is it possible to have religion?

Lesson Learned:

I have learned that it is possible that in a society, morality does not exist even though most
people are believers of certain religion. Religion is not necessary to be motivated morally. It is a matter
of development and it is the society that brings ideas to its people on what is moral and not.

8
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Quote:

“Exploitation does not belong to a depraved, or imperfect and primitive society: it belongs to the nature of
the living being as a primary organic function; it is a consequence of the intrinsic Will to Power, which is
precisely the Will of Life.”

Learning Expectation:

I want to learn how we can become slaves and masters in morality: what are the ways and
means that we become such.

Master and Slave by Friedrich Nietzsche

There will always be two sides in every aspect: the rich and the poor, the good and the bad, the
light and heavy and the master and the slave. There is always the label or distinction for people. IT
separates everybody with a wall that tells the di
differences
fferences that both parties have.

A master and slave relationship emphasizes that there can be inappropriate treatments to the
lower class of person in terms of social status. Those who are wealthy has the right to practice and
exercise their powers towards
ds to those inferior to them.

Those people who are in the inferior side will never succeed because of the fact that they are
weak and that they cannot do anything to win over those in power. Those people who have mastered
their morality have the ability tto
o win in the society because they have strength, power and freedom
against others who remained weak.

Lesson Learned:

I have learned that the master and slavery relationship is still very much visible in our society in
these modern times. And I believe that that even in or government, it shows us that those people who are
poor and less fortunate will remain that way. Those who are weak will only have the ability succeed if
they will be able to exercise their rights and when they have power and liberty already
already.

9
Integrative Questions:

1. When does one become slave, or master?

2. What is master morality?
3. What is a healthy society?
4. Is it possible to attain a healthy society?
5. What is corruption?

10
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Quote:

“A samurai sword had to tried out because, if it was to work properly, it had to slice through someone at
a single blow, from the shoulder to the opposite flank. Otherwise, the warrior bungled his stroke”

Learning Expectation:

I am expecting to learn what the new sword means and the connection
nnection of the new sword in the
morality issues of the society today.

Trying Out One’s New Sword by Mary Midgley

It is known to us that there are several varying cultures everywhere around the world and that
we all cannot learn and understand everything and differences. Because of the differences, we believe
that we do not have the right to judge other people’s culture or beliefs because we respect them. We
call this as moral isolationism.

Moral isolationism hinders persons to make judgments because we feel that we have no right
into what the other people are practicing, doing, and believes in. We respect what we think is moral to
them, but according to Midgley, we cannot respect entirely the things or beliefs that we don’t have any
idea.

Moral judgmentnt is a necessity. It helps us reason to know what is right and wrong and because
of that we already know we can make aims and goals. We can aim for what is good or bad. Moral
judgment includes judging other cultures. Though this might look wrong for others,
other it is still acceptable
because we are just practicing moral judgment.

Lesson Learned:

I have learned that it is alright if we make judgments regarding the culture of other people. We
are just basically applying our ability to think what is right and wrong.
w

11
Integrative Questions:

1. What is the new sword?

2. What is moral isolationism?
3. How can moral isolationism affects our judgment?
4. Is it possible to give judgment to other beliefs?
5. What is an outsider?

12
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Quote:

“The utilitarian doctrine is that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end, all other
things being desirable as means to the end.”

John Stuart Mill 1861

Learning Expectation:

I expect to learn the opposite ideas or views regarding utilitarianism. And since utilitarianism
states that happiness the important thing, then why is it there debate regarding it. I want to learn of
utilitarianism is wrong.

The Debate over Utilitarianism by James Rachels

Utilitarianism states that happiness is the most important thing that a person should focus on
and not the actions. An individual can do anything for as long as the result will bring him happiness. It is
our actions that determine whether we are going to be happy or not. So we can say that happiness is
dependent on our actions.

But is happiness the most important thing for a human? Perhaps it is the ultimate goal of every
person but it not the most important thing for us. The most significant matter for us is when we do good
and the things that are generally
ally good. These good things bring us pleasure and in the long run,
happiness.

There are two kinds of Utilitarian: the act utilitarian and the rule utilitarian. Act utilitarian
believes that it is acceptable that they make false confessions against other people if the consequences
will benefit them. On the other hand, rule utilitarian is the opposite. Rule utilitarian cares for the
welfare of other people. He thinks of the others and for as long as he does this, then it brings him
contentment and happiness.

Lesson Learned:

I have learned that happiness is not just based on the consequences or happiness is just about
benefitting oneself but rather, happiness is best achieved when we care and think of the welfare of
others.

13
Integrative Questions:

1. Is happiness the only thing that matters?

2. How can utilitarianism become correct?
3. What is hedonism?
4. What is the connection of hedonism to utilitarianism?
5. Is utilitarianism generally wrong?

14
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Quote:

“ No human being would consent to be a fool.”

Learning Expectation:

I expect to learn what is utilitarianism and its moral values or ideas that can help the society in
improving. I am also expecting to learn the advantages and disadvantages of utilitarianism in the moral
views of the people.

Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill

Every people aim to be happy in their lives as much as possible. We work hard, study, and do
our duties hoping that our actions will bring happiness to us. Happiness seems to be the goal of every
human being existing
sting in this world, but is it right or wrong?

The absence of happiness brings us pain. And among many circumstances, we avoid that
scenario. Contentment and happiness can go together. If a person does not feel bad when he realized
the things that are missing
sing in his life, then he is contented and so he is already happy with the current
situation of his life. On the other hand, once a person realizes what lacks his life, then it can cause
dissatisfaction on his part.

There can be two distinctions for pleas

pleasure,
ure, it can be higher or lower forms. It is said that once
you have known what the highest point of pleasure is, then most probably, you will choose it instead of
the lower form because the person already has an idea on what gives him more satisfaction.

Lesson Learned:

I have learned that no matter what our goal is, we are all doing our actions for the sake of
happiness, even if the reason is for virtue. And as we do these actions every day, we derive pleasure
from it even without knowing it or having the
the purpose of achieving that kind of feeling.

15
Integrative Questions:

1. What is utilitarianism?
2. What is pleasure?
3. How can we say that the absence of happiness brings pain?
4. How can we become aware of the imperfections?
5. What is the effect of the environment to
t the happiness of a person?

16
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Quote:

“The The moral worth of an action does not depend on the result expected from it, and so too does not
depend on any principle action that needs to borrow its motive from this expected results.”

Learning Expectation:

I expect to learn the meaning of categorical imperative and the ideas that Immanuel Kant
presented in this article.

The Categorical Imperative by Immanuel Kant

The first part of this article explains good will. Good will, according to the article, good will is not
good because of what it affects or accomplishes but it is good because of the will itself. Good will is
about performing one’s duty with no expectation
expectationss and the purpose is to help and to bring benefits for
all.

Categorical imperative implies that we should only act based on our maxims. Meaning our
actions should justify our beliefs. Our actions should be based on what we believe is right and wrong.
Humanan beings are not means. We must derive laws based on our own principles. And this becomes the
universal law wherein every person should know. Once we know what these universal laws are, we are
expected to follow these laws even though we believe the otherwise
otherwise because it is the acceptable actions
in the society.

Lesson Learned:

I have learned that `good will is always good not because of the consequences it brings but it is
the intention to do well and to perform a duty that makes it good.

17
Integrative Questions:

1. What is good will and duty?

2. What are the results of good will?
3. What is Categorical Imperative
Imperative?
4. What is the motive of a duty?
5. What is a hypothetical imperative?

18
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Quote:

“For men are good in but one way, but bad in many.”

Learning Expectation:

I want to learn the relation between happiness and virtue.

Happiness and Virtue by Aristotle

Human beings seek happiness. But happiness, unlike what most people are thinking and knows,
is not about pleasure, material things or honor, but happiness is an activity of the soul in relation to
virtue. Meaning, if we perform what we believe is right; therefore
erefore we can achieve happiness from our
actions.

There are two kinds of virtue: moral and intellectual virtue. The moral virtue, according to the
book, explains that virtue comes from constant actions or habits. If we are used to doing certain actions,
then these actions becomes our virtue. Intellectual virtue on the other hand means it is what we think
of, like rational judgment and correct thinking, that becomes our virtue.

Lesson Learned:

I have learned that there happiness is not about the material things that we have, it should be
about the actions that we do. Our actions should bring us happiness. Virtue is something that can be
learned due to habit or through our way of thinking.

Integrative Questions:

• What is happiness?
• What is virtue?
• What is wrong with pleasure?
• Is a philosopher happy?
• What is the relation of happiness and virtue?

19
Review Questions:

1.) What is happiness, according to Aristotle? How is it related to virtue? How is it related to
pleasure?

According to Aristotle happine

happiness
ss is not pleasure, honor, or wealth but is an
activity of the soul in accordance with perfect virtue. Pleasure is a state of soul.

2.) How does Aristotle explain moral virtue? Give some examples.

According to Aristotle moral virtue comes from training and habit, and generally
is a state of character that is a mean between the vices of excess and deficiency.

3.) Is it possible for everyone in our society to be happy, as Aristotle explains it? If not, who
cannot be happy?

I think it is possible for everyone in our society to be happy in their own way. As
Aristotle said, happiness is not pleasure, honor, or wealth. Maybe, a person can
be happy in their different own way, we have different definitions of happiness
and you can only tell if you are happy or not.

Discussion Questions:

1.) Aristotle characterizes a life of pleasure as suitable for beasts. But what, if anything is
wrong with a life of pleasure?

Maybe Aristotle thinks that a life with pleasure makes the person ccrave for
more than enough and become too selfish about it. I think that is wrong with a
life of pleasure.

2.) Aristotle claims that the philosopher will be happier than anyone else. Why is this? Do you
agree or not?

I do not agree with what Aristotle claims

claims because we are all human beings and
also we are all equal yet we have different ways on how to interpret happiness.

20
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Quote:

“For men are good in but one way, but bad in many.”

Learning Expectation:

• What is the meaning of rights.

• How important are rights.

The Nature and Value of Rights by Joel Feinberg

The rights of every person should be exercised because if not, persons do not have the right to
demand fair treatment whenever they are treated unjustly. This is the moral right. Many philosophers
believe that there is no such thing and the only right that every person can practice is the right from the
laws.

The are different types of rights, on of the most common example is the right of speech. Each
one of us is given the freedom to say and to express our thoughts. It is a right that cannot be removed
from a person.

In a different view, when we know that people have the right to do something, we think that we
do not have the right to interfere with his actions.
actions. Though in a way, we have the right to make sure that
these actions should not harm others and that it should maintain morality.

Lesson Learned:

I have learned that moral rights should be practiced to ensure the just treatment for every
individual.

21
Integrative Questions:

• What are rights?

• Is it possible to be just without practicing the rights of others
others?
• What is a personal desert
desert?
• What are claim-rights
rights?
• How important are rights
rights?

22
Book Title: Contemporary Moral Problems

Book Author: James E. White

Library Reference: N/A

Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-James-White/dp/0534517242

http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary White/dp/0534517242

Quote:

“Our social situation is just if it is such that by this sequence of hypothetical agreements we would have
contracted into the general systems of rules which defines it,”

Learning Expectation:

• What is the meaning of justice?

• How justice is implemented.

Theory of Justice by John Rawls

Lesson Learned:

Integrative Questions:

• What is justice?
• How can we say that a person or action is just or not
not?
• What is the first principle of justice?
justice
• What is an example of an equal right?
right
• What is an equal right?
right

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