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Frederick Turner
This essay proposes a countertheory to the generally accepted analysis of ethics and aesthetics
originating from Immanuel Kant. That analysis was based on the idea of disinterestednessthat
is, what distinguishes an ethical action from one which is unethical or ethically neutral, is that the
act is performed without expectation of reward or payoff, and what distinguishes an artistic act
from a merely practical one is a supererogatory playfulness, unmotivated by the hope of gain.
These ideas are not without merit in themselves, and their best featuresthe ones that ring true to
our intuitionneed to be preserved in any replacement. Kant's argument is much more
sophisticated than my brief description of it, but it is the cultural assumptions that flowed from
Kant, and our own approach to art and ethics, that concern this essay; and those assumption are
more easily summarizable.
Kant's position had at the time a very convincing basisthe philosophical crisis that had been
provoked by the apparent discovery by enlightenment science that the universe operated in an
entirely deterministic way. It was a clockwork in which every event was uniquely caused by its
predecessors. A "Laplace Calculator," given the positions and momenta of all particles in the
universe, would be able to predict all future events. If human beings were subject to the same
laws, then moral action, which depends on the principles of free choice and assignable ethical
responsibility, would be meaningless; and so too would art, since the originality of a work of art
would be undermined by its least detail having been stored up in a chain of prior causes for all of
time. Thus humans could not be wholly subject to those lawsand thus the world of knowledge
would have to be carved up into two incommensurable areas: Naturwissenschaft (natural science)
and Geisteswissenschaft (the arts and humanities). The ruling principles of the latter were
freedom and originality, specifically the ways in which human spiritual activities escaped the
ananke or fated inevitability of the material universe. Humans, clearly, were influenced by the
physical world, and could so imbrute themselves that they became predictable like any material
object or instinctuallydriven animal; but our special nobility was to be able to transcend those
motives. The hold that nature had over us needed to be broken by art and religion if we were to
possess a spiritual identity: and that hold on us made itself felt through our selfinterest. Thus if
we are interested in the outcome of an action or event, and stand to gain from it in some material
way, to choose the path of reward would be to have been bribed, so to speak, by physicality; our
actions could not be free and original, and would fall into the province of natural science rather
than the humanities.
One implication of this analysis was that the world of economic profit cannot be ethical or moral,
and thus political institutions need to be created and staffed by truly moral and disinterested
persons, which can coerce or reimburse the marketcoercion and profit being all it understands
into ethical and socially beneficial behavior. The very word "interest"which also means the
profit on a loansuggests that those who live by finance and banking are like animals, which
need to be controlled by the disinterested and the noble, or even, if they threaten human freedom,
violently put down. The characters of Alberich and Hagen in Wagner's Ring cycle, who in their
obsession with gold become the murderous enemies of the noble disinterested hero, are symbols
of this danger; and tragically the stereotype of the bestial and bloodsucking moneylender has led
to much misguided slaughter in the last century. Another implication was that artists must make a
point of being impractical, poor salesmen, whose integrity can only be proved by starving in
garrets. Yet another implication of the Kantian analysis was that the word "beauty", with all its
corrupting implications of pleasure and emotional reward, must be replaced by Kant's coinage,
"aesthetic", which connotes a forbidding and difficult encounter with all that contradicts physical
wellbeing and mortal happiness.
I believe that the rift between the sciences and the humanities is profoundly dangerous both
intellectually and culturally, leading to deep errors of understanding and unwitting crimes.
Certainly at the time it seemed the only defense against what looked like a brutal pragmatism in
personal relationships and a ruthless historicism in international realpolitik, where the victors in
both cases would write history. But the apparent curethe cordon sanitaire between science and
the humanitieshad side effects perhaps worse still. Let us look briefly at the history of those
key humanistic ideas: freedom in moral action and originality in art.
To be free one must have free will. Will became the core concept of nineteenth century moral
philosophy. It was will or intentionality that set us apart from brute nature. But what was the
direction of will? It could only be the extension of its own field of action, since any focussing
down on a specific object in the world would enslave it to the deterministic motivations of
physicality. "Extension of the field of action" is nicely glossed by the word "power": so "Will"
now became "the Will to Power". Thus power eventually became the key idea of the Humanities,
as it remains today in its Foucauldian, Feminist, Postcolonialist, Lacanian, and Neomarxist
versions. Strangely, our original enterprise, which was to delineate an alternative humanistic
world to the deterministic realm of physical forces, has logically morphed itself into the very
enemy it was designed to escape. Power, whether expressed in oppressive violence by a
reactionary elite, revolutionary acts by the disenfranchised, or legal sanctions by an enlightened
ruling group, is the same thing as physical force: politically it means that you can send men with
guns to make people do what you want. If beauty has been culturally relativized out of existence
(which is indeed the result of avantgarde theory) and if logical reasoning is, as part of the
regnant regime of power and knowledge, no more than the linguistic property of the oppressor,
the only way to persuade people is through force. Force is the more perfect, the fewer side
effects and unintended consequences it entails, the less it needs to consult its victims, the fewer
reasons it needs to give, and the less it needs to disguise itself. Force, after all, is a deterministic
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phenomenonF=mamost perfectly expressed in oneway cause and effect. However, physics
teaches us that power of this kind is absolutely and universally subject to the second law of
thermodynamics, that is, it tends over time to waste itself and turn into useless heat and thermal
disorder. Thus the humanities, when cut off from nature, ended up not only looking exactly like
the brutal world they hoped to transcend, but also trapped in the gradual entropic heatdeath of
the physical universe. And history confirmed this gloomy picture: the bestintentioned will and
powerbased state in the world, the Soviet Union, turned into a nightmare of coercion and finally
after seventy years blew away as if by some inexorable physical law of decay. As Lysenko found
out, nature had its revenge on will.
Originality in art went through the same sort of tragic devolution once it had cut itself off from
nature. Beauty became a dirty word. Originality meant the "gratuitous act", as the Existentialists
put it, unbribed by pleasure, custom, or interest. Every move must be sui generis, a radical
novelty; novelty could only be guaged by the shock it administered to its audience; habituation
and fatigue constantly raised the threshold of shock; artists found themselves lashing about like
huge starving carnivorous fishes in a diminishing pool of state economic support. A new lease of
life was provided by the technique of deconstructionthe whole history of past art lay open and
available for parody and exciting defacementbut one can only burn something to ashes once.
Soon the reserves of fossil fuelsthe old artistic traditions, techniques, and valueswere
exhausted. In the visual art field, something even more ironic happened. Pop artists turned to
the marketplace as a source of ideas to demolish. The marketplace found these parodies
amusing, and coopted them almost at once, and art became a roaringly profitable investment.
Industrial methods of production were introduced, and many contemporary artists of the Jeff
Koons variety became almost indistinguishable from chic fauxkitsch interior designers.
But during the same period natural science has, paradoxically, undergone a profound revolution.
The theory of evolution proved how astonishingly original nature could be. Chaos and
complexity theory showed that no Laplace calculator could keep pace with the world's own
unpredictable selforganization. The feedback inherent in all dynamical systems rendered the
idea of power largely obsolete in complex ecological systems, where the topdown balancing
influence of the whole system could dominate local chains of deterministic cause. The predator's
power over its prey is part of a system in which the prey species also determines the numbers of
the predators and relies on predation to keep its own gene pool healthy. The rigid reductive
xenophobia of our immune systems serves a larger organism that is free to explore all kinds of
different worlds. The selfish gene becomes the microstructure of the altruism of a social species,
and is in turn selected for or against by the resulting adaptability of the species as a whole and
the emergent features of the ecosystem it inhabits. Though indeed the determinisms of classical
dynamicsand its statistical and timedependent version, thermodynamicsstill hold in isolated
locations, they are now seen as idealizations only partly fulfilled in a real universe that is
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fundamentally unpredictable and free. Cause is now only one of a number of types of connection
between events, including quantum coherence and statistical wave harmonics, farfrom
equilibrium thermodynamic catastrophes, nonlinear bifurcation, evolutionary emergence, self
organization within strange attractors, and the desires and values of animals and humans. The
world according to scientists is no longer one of deterministic oneway power, in which A forces
B to become C at the thermodynamic cost of D units of loss to friction and E units of entropic
decay. It is becoming one much more like the realm of the traditional arts, of creative growth and
emergence, of organically shifting frames of reference, of evolutionary development, mutual
influence, and continuous retrospectively intelligible but prospectively surprising change.
But it is too late now to be drawing morals, and who are we to judge the grand humanistic
savants of the nineteenth century? The task now before us is to rescue what we can from over a
century of largely misguided theoryand thus partly tainted researchin the humanities, and put
the field on a sound footing; so that we can bequeath to the future public an institution in better
shape than we found it. The sciences, technology and the market now more than ever need
guidance from the arts and humanities, which are the custodians of our best human traditions of
truth, beauty and goodness. If those activities are exempted from the purview of the humanities,
they are being given a licence to be ugly and unethical; science to allow its necessary reductive
method to infect its conclusions, technology to be socially and ecologically destructive, and the
market to choose shortterm exploitation and cheating rather than the more profitable but more
demanding path of longterm mutual interest.
I propose, then, a view of the nature and relationship of moral goodness and beauty that will
avoid the pitfalls of the existing theory, that will reunite Geisteswissenschaft and
Naturwissenschaft, and that will be in harmony with our new view of nature rather than in
defiant reaction against the old view.
An initial trio of definitions, which partly explain each other: goodness is love; beauty is what is
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properly loved; love is identification. The ambiguity of the word "identification" is entirely
intentional. The word has three main meanings that are relevant to this discussion: first,
"knowledge", in the sense that to identify something is to know it, to recognize it individually.
The second is related to the firstthe establishment and validation of the name and human
standing of a person. The third is essential, since it transforms intimate knowledge and personal
recognition into an emotion: "identification" in the sense that when we identify with a character
in a story or a person undergoing some trial, we put ourselves in that person's place, we
empathize, we count ourselves as part of something larger than both of us, a vine or mystical
body that we share in, and thus our natural care of ourselves is extended to the person or thing we
have identified and identified with. Kantians will see that this definition is not far from Kant's
"kingdom of ends" and Buber's consequent notion of the IThou relationship. But the dynamic is
different. It is not the denial of self in submission to the maxim, but the extension of the selfan
enlarged selfishness, to put it crudelythat includes the other, or rather no longer conceives the
other as other, and at the same time submits itself to the other as one part of a body submits itself
to another part, without any sense of sacrifice or rancor. Thus the word "identification" holds
within itself a tension, between the recognition of the autonomy and selfvalidation of the
beloved on one hand, and on the other the opening of the self to a larger unity than both self and
beloved, to which both are in service, and to which one submits one's own will, so becoming one
with it.
Working backward to the second definition, we may now infer that the beautiful is that which can
have such a nature that we can identify it and identify with it. That is, it must share with us at
least some of the characteristics that make us humanour autonomy, our capacity for growth and
creativity, our participation in the continued reproduction of the universe, our complex
interdependence of parts, our capacity for emergent selforganization if only on the chemical
level, our continuity as selfsustaining physical entities in space and time, or at least our having at
some point existed, that is, been engaged in some reciprocal exchange of information with the
rest of the universe. Thus there are many ways in which we can feel an appropriate empathy with
something, and thus many kinds of beauty, ranging from the purely mathematical elegance of an
electron through the richer and more complex organizations of inanimate matter, plants, and
animals, to the full range of empathetically sharable characteristics such as we possess in
common with another person.
A further implication is that there may be even more inclusive and beautiful systems whose
emergent properties transcend our human ones (while potentially including them)systems
which command our even greater love. Consider the love of a poet for the language, of whose
vast neural community his own conversations are but a single synapse (or for another language
than his own, of whose community he could one day be a member). Or consider the love of a
biologist for an entire ecosystem, including human beings; or the love we bear toward a culture or
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nation or those unified collectivities that we call divine beings. Note that according to this logic,
we can love another beinglegitimately find it or her or him beautifulonly by being able to
conceive of a larger unity which includes both of us and with which we can submissively
identify, thus including the other in the familial warmth of our selfishness. Note also that though
the beautiful is distributed among all kinds of entities in the universe, it is also much more
intense and richly realized in the more complex and inclusive emergent systems; and thus we
have a definition of the ugly, which is the overwhelming of a greater beauty by a less.
Not that this definition of the beautiful is all relaxed harmony and oceanic acceptance. Quite the
reverse. The universe is a place of violent transformation as well as mutual influenceindeed,
mutual influence, whether through the forces of physics, the trophic relations of an ecosystem, or
the dialectics of zealous knowledgeseekers, is the very trigger of change and catastrophic
emergence. What we should properly love in other things and people is at least partly their
capacity, which we share, of irrevocably changing the world and each other.
Buried in this definition of beauty is a futher definition, then: beauty is the deepest trend or
tendency of the universe, which is in one sense the process of mutual feedback itself, in another
sense its potential for evolution and emergence, and in a third sense its capacity to recruit larger
and larger concatenations of mutual influence and thus identification. One of the things that
people laugh at in poets is their tendency to talk to trees and writes odes to inanimate things like
autumn, roses, melancholy or nightingales. That sense of kinshipEinfühlung, I think Goethe
called itwhich the poet experiences with objects or systems, is the very core of beauty. It is not
disinterestedit is deeply, deeply interested in every sense of the word. I feel the sickness of the
rose, the trembling of the hare as it limps through the frozen grass, because I and the rose and the
hare are part of one body, her sickness is mine, his chilled ache is in my body too. I have in one
sense transcended selfishness and interest, but through a larger selfishness, an expanded sense of
profit and loss. Art now may be seen as the making of larger communities of beingtying
together, by literal construction or by meaning, vaster and vaster systems that can constitute a
home for an "I". And art in which a greater beauty is overwhelmed by, or "deconstructed" by, a
lesser, is ugly and perhaps evil. The term "jouissance", by which some postmodern critics have
glossed the newly fashionable and disinfected term "beauty", means precisely the frisson of such
deconstruction.
Working backwards now to the first definition, we may now understand goodness as the
appropriate response of love to what is beautiful. Since we have now identified love as a sort of
higher selfishness, it is essential that there always be a higher shared unity to which one submits
in order to love a being of a like or lower order to oneself. As St. Francis of Assisi put it, we are
brothers and sisters of the ass and the olive tree and the sun and the moon, that is, we share a
common ancestry which makes us members of a larger community. We may now see that this
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definition of love is quite consistent with the sociobiological concept of altruism as the result of
"inclusive fitness": whether in its narrow genetic sense that we act altruistically because we share
genes with our companion, or in its larger economic sense, that we have evolved signal systems
that enable us to collude against the Prisoner's Dilemmma and avoid the mutual loss attendant
upon the zerosum game. The gene pool, the integrated rulegoverned and emotionpoliced
signal system, or in Francis' sense the common Fatherhood of Godor in Jesus' sense, the vine of
which we are all branchesact as the larger entity of which we stipulate ourselves to be a part and
which now commands our egocentric allegiance. Part of the reason, perhaps, why my cat and I
are fond of each other is that some tens of millions of years ago there was a small furry ratlike
and affectionate animalnot too brightone of whose suckling babies was my ancestor, and one
was hers: our mama.
In the Hindu Upanishads this whole idea is summed up in the sublime words "Tat Tvam Asi".
Translation is hard. A first approximation is "You are that"; better would be "That thou art". Its
meanings include the idea that youthat is, the human being reading the bookare the divine
being that is the subject of the holy book. Properly considered, that is, all that you really are is of
the divine substanceanything that isn't, doesn't really exist and is an illusion, and anything that
has real beingone's atman or soulis but a holographic fragment of Brahman, that of which all
creation is but a single thought. The phrase also can be turned aroundThou, that is, God, art
thatwhatever one sees or considers, whatever "that" one attends to. But the writer is also
addressing the reader human to human, and thus declaring that the reader is part of Brahman as
he himself is, and so the phrase is a declaration of love for a fellow human being. That is, the
supreme goodness is the recognition of all beings including oneself as part of the divine; and so
the phrase can also be translated as the JudeoChristian couplet, to love the Lord one's God with
one's whole being and one's neighbor as oneself. But we can now see that the two halves of the
phrase are really logically entwinedone's neighbor and oneself are united in a higher
selfishness, which is God.
Thus the progress of ethical goodness in the world is not to be found in an attempt to get people
to be unselfish, but rather in the wider and wider expansion of what we consider ourselves to be.
The most primitive level of morality for us humans would be for a part of usa damaged gene or
cancerous cell or group of cells, or an urge to gorge on food or expend ourselves in
indiscriminate copulationto assert its independence of the rest of our body and seek to gratify
its selfish motives. Even this would be a kind of morality, for atoms and molecules would have
committed themselves to a higher selfishness to be effective at this level. More advanced would
be the rational selfinterest of that larger community of all the cells and subsystems of the body
the morality of the virtuous egoist. The etymology of the word "sin" sunderedness, sundering
now has a powerful context. The next level would be our willingness to sacrifice ourselves for
our blood kinfamily valuesa kind of moral value system, with its institutions of tribal
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genocide and bloodfeud, that is hundreds of millions of years old. Next would be our allegiance
to our city or patriotism to our nation, with its darker side of war. Higher yet would be a sense of
Usthe extended Ias including the whole human race in an embracing humanisman ethic that
does not necessarily embrace a care for the biosphere. Next would be an identification with the
ecosystem of the planet; but that ecosystem would have to include the human race with all its
warts and transformative violenceit would have to be loyal to the "household" of the world
economy as well as the world ecology, and see the two as indissoluble, or such an ethic would
risk falling back to a level more primitive than mere humanism. Higher still our empathy would
be with the whole universe, and would be religious in its scope. At each stage the common roots
of our mutual ancestry would extend further back in time and would have a longerrange
intentionality into the future.
It might be objected that this valuesystem of larger and larger spheres of communion would
militate against the virtues of individuality, exception, nonconformity, difference, uniqueness.
Far from it. These values have in fact increased in the universe in precise step with the
enlargement and densification of integrated feedback systems. The relatively isolated photon in
space is symmetrical in almost all dimensions, devoid of an inside and outside and a shape, and
identical with all other photons except in wavelength. Atoms, with their inner nuclei and outer
electron shells, are more asymmetrical and individuated, and they exist in ecologies of other
atoms and forms of energy. Molecules show distinct asymmetries of external shape, and
organize themselves in crystalline or amorphous communities. Living organisms show even
more individualityat first globular and symmetrical in shape and reproducing by cloning, later
organized with a top and bottom, a spinal axis, a head and tail, and the odd upright, skullforward
stance of the human beingand reproducing sexually, so as to produce genetic uniqueness in each
individual. The higher the organism, the more likely it is to engage in social behavior and
display altruism, to extend its sphere of interest across different biomes, and develop sensory
systems that provide the universe with ways of seeing itself at largebut also the greater its scope
for difference and nonconformity. Individuality and expanded communities of interest go hand in
hand.
One implication of this view would be that the factvalue distinction would no longer hold; ethics
and esthetics would be naturalized, and the stipulation that each requires freedom and originality
would be satisfied by the new conception of the universe as free and creative all the way down.
Facts would simply be fossilized values, so to speak, and values would be enlivened facts. A
dramatic new opening in scholarship and education would appear, as the sciences would be
reintegrated with the arts and humanities; and this intellectual change would reverberate in terms
of a transcendence of irony in the humanities, an unembarrassed reverence in the sciences, and a
recovery of both technical virtuosity and moral seriousness in the arts.
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We would need, however, to abandon some dearly held prejudices. One would be the
existentialist pose of the human thinker alone in an unfeeling and meaningless universe.
However, the replacement of the idea of humans at war with nature by an ethic of solidarity with
it might be timely indeed. Another obsolete prejudice would be the expectation that art be
sensational, an instant orgasm of shock and jouissance, the esthetic equivalent of the movie car
chase. We would have to put in the time and attention to works that do their magic more slowly
and in terms of long traditionslike Chinese landscape paintingwithout an irritable grasping
after novelty.
Most painful of all to many, perhaps, would be the need to abandon our prejudice against the
market. For "interest" would now no longer be the bane of art and ethics, but its core dynamic.
The market is, in fact, a very nice model of a large nonlinear feedback system that enlistsin the
practical sense of buying and sellingthe larger identification of its participants and the higher
selfishness of our concern with the health of the national and world economy. The chief problem
with the market is not that it is too pervasive, but that it is not pervasive enoughit does not yet
sufficiently include social and ecological "externalities", and a large part of the world's
population is excluded from it by lack of access to legal property rights. If we revised our theory
of ethics and esthetics as I have suggested, an ethic of mutual profit would replace that of non
profitthough profit itself would be revised to include higher and higher kinds of goods. The
market would be welcomed in to the sphere of esthetics and ethics; but it would at the same time
be held responsible to them. We would include among our ethical heroes not only the other
worldly vagabonds who opted for higher profit at the expense of the lower, but also the
magnanimous and worldly ethical pioneers who out of their wealth at all levels increased the
moral wealth of all of us without loss to themselves. Our artistic pantheon would have room for
not only the Van Goghs who starved unrecognized in garrets, but also the great artists who
enriched themselves while enriching othersthe Shakespeares, the Verdis, the Rubenses, the
Austens, the Bachs, the Murasakis, the Virgils, the da Vincis.