Boolean Algebra

Dr Amber Habib
Mathematical Sciences Foundation
St. Stephen’s College
Delhi 110007
 Algebra of Sets 1

Fix a set X and consider the behaviour of its

subsets relative to the operations of union
(∪), intersection (∩). For every A, B, C ⊂ X,
we have:

• Idempotent Law: A ∪ A = A ∩ A = A.

• Commutative Law:

A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

• Associative Law:

A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

• Distributive Law:

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

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 Algebra of Sets 2

Moreover, there are two special subsets: ∅

and X. Relative to these, the operations
obey:

• A ∪ ∅ = A, A ∩ ∅ = ∅.

• A ∪ X = X, A ∩ X = A.

In particular ∅ serves as identity for ∪, while

X does the same for ∩.

Finally, we have the operation of complemen-

tation: Every A ⊂ X has a unique comple-
ment A0 (with respect to X), and

• A ∪ A0 = X, A ∩ A0 = ∅.

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 Algebra of Logic 1

Now we consider propositional calculus. We

let ∨ stand for ‘or’ and ∧ stand for ‘and’.
Then for all statements A, B, C, we have:

• Idempotent Law: A ∨ A = A ∧ A = A.

• Commutative Law:

A ∨ B = B ∨ A, A ∧ B = B ∧ A.

• Associative Law:

A ∨ (B ∨ C) = (A ∨ B) ∨ C
A ∧ (B ∧ C) = (A ∧ B) ∧ C

• Distributive Law:

A ∧ (B ∨ C) = (A ∧ B) ∨ (A ∧ C)
A ∨ (B ∧ C) = (A ∨ B) ∧ (A ∨ C)

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 Algebra of Logic 2

We write T for the statement which is neces-

sarily true and F for the one which is neces-
sarily false. Relative to these, the operations
obey:

• A ∨ F = A, A ∧ F = F .

• A ∨ T = T , A ∧ T = A.

In particular F serves as identity for ∨, while

T does the same for X.

Finally, we have the operation of negation:

Every statement A has a unique negation ¬A,
and

• A ∨ ¬A = T , A ∧ ¬A = F .

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 Boolean Algebras

An abstract Boolean Algebra is a set B with

• Two binary operations ∨ (“join”)and ∧

(“meet”),

• Two special elements denoted 0 (“zero”)

and 1 (“unity”),

• An operation 0 (“complement”),

such that for all a, b, c ∈ B we have:

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 Laws of Boolean Algebra

• Idempotent Law: a ∨ a = a ∧ a = a.

• Commutative Law:
a ∨ b = b ∨ a, a ∧ b = b ∧ a.

• Associative Law:
a ∨ (b ∨ c) = (a ∨ b) ∨ c
a ∧ (b ∧ c) = (a ∧ b) ∧ c

• Distributive Law:
a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)

• a ∨ 0 = a, a ∧ 0 = 0.

• a ∨ 1 = 1, a ∧ 1 = a.

• a ∨ a0 = 1, a ∧ a0 = 0.

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 The Simplest Example

Let B = {0, 1}. Define

• 0∧0=0∨0=

1∧1=1∨1=

• 0∧1=

0∨1=

• 00 =

10 =

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 The Simplest Example

Let B = {0, 1}. Define

• 0 ∧ 0 = 0 ∨ 0 = 0,

1 ∧ 1 = 1 ∨ 1 = 1.

• 0∧1=

0∨1=

• 00 =

10 =

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 The Simplest Example

Let B = {0, 1}. Define

• 0 ∧ 0 = 0 ∨ 0 = 0,

1 ∧ 1 = 1 ∨ 1 = 1.

• 0 ∧ 1 = 0,

0 ∨ 1 = 1.

• 00 =

10 =

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 The Simplest Example

Let B = {0, 1}. Define

• 0 ∧ 0 = 0 ∨ 0 = 0,

1 ∧ 1 = 1 ∨ 1 = 1.

• 0 ∧ 1 = 0,

0 ∨ 1 = 1.

• 00 = 1,

10 = 0.

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 The Simplest Example 2

The previous example could also be obtained

as follows: Let B consist of the subsets of a
singleton set X = {x}. Let ∨ = ∪, ∧ = ∩,
and 0 stand for complement. Define

• 0=∅

• 1=X

Then the rules for combining 0, 1 are exactly

as on the previous slide.

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 Absorption Law

Let B be a Boolean algebra. If a, b ∈ B, then

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a.

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 Absorption Law

Let B be a Boolean algebra. If a, b ∈ B, then

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a.
Proof. First, by Distributive Law,

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = (a ∧ a) ∨ (a ∧ b) = a ∨ (a ∧ b).

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 Absorption Law

Let B be a Boolean algebra. If a, b ∈ B, then

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a.
Proof. First, by Distributive Law,

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = (a ∧ a) ∨ (a ∧ b) = a ∨ (a ∧ b).
Then,

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = [a ∧ (a ∨ b)] ∨ [b ∧ b0]

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 Absorption Law

Let B be a Boolean algebra. If a, b ∈ B, then

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a.
Proof. First, by Distributive Law,

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = (a ∧ a) ∨ (a ∧ b) = a ∨ (a ∧ b).
Then,

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = [a ∧ (a ∨ b)] ∨ [b ∧ b0]
= (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ b0) ∧ (a ∨ b ∨ b)
∧(a ∨ b ∨ b0)

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 Absorption Law

Let B be a Boolean algebra. If a, b ∈ B, then

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a.
Proof. First, by Distributive Law,

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = (a ∧ a) ∨ (a ∧ b) = a ∨ (a ∧ b).
Then,

a ∧ (a ∨ b) = [a ∧ (a ∨ b)] ∨ [b ∧ b0]
= (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ b0) ∧ (a ∨ b ∨ b)
∧(a ∨ b ∨ b0)
= (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ b0) ∧ 1
= (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ b0)
= a ∨ (b ∧ b0)
= a ∨ 1 = a.

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 Cancellation Law

Let B be a Boolean algebra. Suppose there

are a, b, c ∈ B such that

a∨b = a∨c
a ∧ b = a ∧ c.
Then b = c.

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 Cancellation Law

Let B be a Boolean algebra. Suppose there

are a, b, c ∈ B such that

a∨b = a∨c
a ∧ b = a ∧ c.
Then b = c.

Proof. We repeatedly use the Absorption

Law:

b = b ∧ (a ∨ b)

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 Cancellation Law

Let B be a Boolean algebra. Suppose there

are a, b, c ∈ B such that

a∨b = a∨c
a ∧ b = a ∧ c.
Then b = c.

Proof. We repeatedly use the Absorption

Law:

b = b ∧ (a ∨ b)
= b ∧ (a ∨ c)
= (a ∧ b) ∨ (b ∧ c)
= (a ∧ c) ∨ (b ∧ c)
= c ∧ (a ∨ b)
= c ∧ (a ∨ c) = c.

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 Uniqueness of Complement

Let B be a Boolean algebra. Suppose a, b ∈ B

such that

a∨b = 1
a ∧ b = 0.
Then b = a0.

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 Uniqueness of Complement

Let B be a Boolean algebra. Suppose a, b ∈ B

such that

a∨b = 1
a ∧ b = 0.
Then b = a0.

Proof. We have

a ∨ b = a ∨ a0 = 1
a ∧ b = a ∧ a0 = 0.
Hence, by the Cancellation Law, b = a0.

Corollary: a00 = a.

Corollary: 00 = 1, 10 = 0.

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 De Morgan’s Laws

Let B be a Boolean algebra and a, b ∈ B.

Then

• (a ∨ b)0 = a0 ∧ b0.

• (a ∧ b)0 = a0 ∨ b0.

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 De Morgan’s Laws

Let B be a Boolean algebra and a, b ∈ B.

Then

• (a ∨ b)0 = a0 ∧ b0.

• (a ∧ b)0 = a0 ∨ b0.

Proof. Let c = (a ∨ b)0. Then

(a ∨ b) ∧ (a0 ∧ b0) = (a ∧ a0 ∧ b0) ∨ (b ∧ a0 ∧ b0)

= 0 ∨ 0 = 0,
(a ∨ b) ∨ (a0 ∧ b0) = (a ∨ b ∨ a0) ∧ (a ∨ b ∨ b0)
= 1 ∧ 1 = 1.

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 Switching Circuits 1

Our aim is to study circuits such as the fol-

lowing:
a b
| |
b0
|

a
|

a
• Each mark, such as | represents a
switch (in this case, named a).

• Each switch has two states, “on” and

“off” (or 1 and 0).

• If two switches always have the same state,

we consider them to be the same. In par-
ticular, they have the same name.

• If two switches always have opposite states,

we call one the complement of the other,
and denote it by a 0 (e.g. b and b0).

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 Switching Circuits 2

a b
| |
b0
|

a
|
The specific question is: How do the states
of the individual switches affect the state of
the entire circuit? Or, which combinations
of states of individual switches lead to the
entire circuit being “on” (current can pass
from one end to the other) or “off” (current
cannot pass).

In the above example, the circuit is on exactly

when a is on, and b is off. Hence we could
just as well use the simpler circuit

a b0
| |

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Series Connection

a b
| | a∧b

Parallel Connection

a
|

a∨b

b
|

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 Series Connection

a b
| | a∧b

Parallel Connection

a
|

a∨b

b
|

A Series-Parallel Circuit

a b
| |
b0
|

a
|

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 Series Connection

a b
| | a∧b

Parallel Connection

a
|

a∨b

b
|

A Series-Parallel Circuit

a b
| |
b0
|

a
|

((a ∧ b) ∨ a) ∧ b0

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 Series-Parallel Circuits

Not only switches, but circuits can be placed

in series or parallel connections. Suppose we
have circuits A and B, which we denote by:

A B

We can connect them in series:

A B A∧B

Or in parallel:

A
A∨B

B
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 The Algebra of Switching Circuits 1

Consider two circuits A and B made from

switches a, b, c, . . . . We consider them equal
if for any choice of states of a, b, c, . . . , A and
B have the same state.

We have defined two operations ∧ and ∨ on

the set of switching circuits. We have the
following identities for these operations:

• Idempotent Law: A ∨ A = A ∧ A = A.

A
A A = = A
A

• Commutative Law:
A ∨ B = B ∨ A, A ∧ B = B ∧ A.

• Associative Law:
A ∨ (B ∨ C) = (A ∨ B) ∨ C
A ∧ (B ∧ C) = (A ∧ B) ∧ C

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The Algebra of Switching Circuits 2
Distributive Law

• A ∧ (B ∨ C) = (A ∧ B) ∨ (A ∧ C)
B A B
| | |
A
| =
C A C
| | |

• A ∨ (B ∧ C) = (A ∨ B) ∧ (A ∨ C)
A A A
| | |
=
B C B C
| | | |

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 The Algebra of Switching Circuits 3
Zero, Unity, Complements

We introduce two special switches:

• The switch named 1 is always on.

• The switch named 0 is always off.

It is easy to see that for any circuit A,

• A ∨ 0 = A, A ∧ 0 = 0.

• A ∨ 1 = 1, A ∧ 1 = A.

Two circuits are termed complementary if

they are always in opposite states, and we
then name them A and A0. We have

• A ∨ A0 = 1

• A ∧ A0 = 0

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The Boolean Algebra of Switching Circuits

The previous few slides show that switching

circuits follow the rules of Boolean algebra.
This enables us to develop systematic meth-
ods for analyzing them, especially for replac-
ing circuits by smaller ones with the same
behaviour.

For instance, consider the equality

a b
| |
b0 a b0
| = | |

a
|
This can be derived by algebra:

((a ∧ b) ∨ a) ∧ b0 = a ∧ b0,
by the Absorption Law.

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 Switching Circuits and Truth-Tables

Recall that truth-tables are a useful way of

exploring the structure of logic. Since switch-
ing circuits have the same algebraic struc-
ture, we can expect a similar role for truth-
tables in this context. For instance, the cir-
cuit given by the expression a ∧ b0 has the
table:

a b a ∧ b0
ab 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 or 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1

Similarly, the circuit (a ∧ b) ∨ (a0 ∧ b0) has the

table:

a b a ∧ b0
ab 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 or 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0
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 Karnaugh Maps

Given a switching circuit, we can generate

its table in a mechanical way. Conversely,
given its table, we can generate the Boolean
expression corresponding to the circuit.

Karnaugh maps are a way of using the table

to generate a simple or efficient expression
for the circuit.

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 Karnaugh Maps For Two Switches

We start by looking at some possibilities for

a circuit involving two switches a and b:

a0 ∧ b0 a ∧ b0
ab 0 1 ab 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0

a b0
ab 0 1 ab 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 0

(a0 ∧ b0) ∨ (a ∧ b) a0 ∨ b0
ab 0 1 ab 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0

1 0
ab 0 1 ab 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
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 Karnaugh Maps For Two Switches 2

From the tables on the last slide, we can

conclude the following:

• Whenever 1’s occur in vertical or hori-

zontal pairs, the pair of boxes represents
a single switch (or its complement – so
one switch drops out).

• Whenever 1’s occur in a 2 × 2, square,

the square represents the constant 1 (two
switches drop out).

We illustrate the use of these observations

by an example:

1 1 ⇒ a0
ab 0 1
0 1 1
1
1 1 0 ⇒ b0
1

Hence the circuit is represented by a0 ∨ b0.

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 Karnaugh Maps For Three Switches

We use tables of the following format:

abc 00 01 11 10
0
1

Example 1:

abc 00 01 11 10
0 1 1 1
1 1

1
1 1 ⇒ a0 ∧ c ⇒ b0 ∧ c0
1

So the circuit is represented by

(a0 ∧ c) ∨ (b0 ∧ c0).

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