AirLoads

AirfoilGeometry
Camberline

linejoiningthemidpointsbetweenupperandlowersurfaces.
Chordline

straightlinejoiningendpointsofcamberline(length=c)
Camber

max.distanceofcamberlinefromchordline(expressedas%c;

usuallylessthan5%c)
Zu

=(Zc

+Zt

)Z
l

=(Zc

Zt

)
z thickness
camber
Lowersurface
C
h
o
r
d
lin
e
TE
TE

thickness
Zt
Zc
Zl
Zu
LEcircle

(radius)
AE212 Jha Loads-1
Uppersurface
ForcesandMoments
Angleof attack o =

V
Arbitraryref.pt.
(generallyc/4orcg)
S V R M f F
N
2
). , , ( o =
Forairfoil,
Liftcoefficient
Dragcoefficient
Pitchingmomentcoefficient
1( ) S c unitspan =
cos
sin
l lift F
d drag F
m pitchingmoment
o
o
= =
= =
=
l
d
F
1
2
l
l l
C
qc
V c
2
= =
d
d
C
qc
=
2
m
m
C
qc
=
AE212 Jha Loads-2
m
o
o
WingPlanform

Aerodynamiccharacteristics

generally

basedongrosswingarea(assumed

extendeduptofuselagecenterline)

Exposedwing(onlyoutsidefuselage)

areausedforskinfrictiondrag
LE
C(y)
Ct
TE
s=b/2
b

chordline
Cr
y
LE
A
/ 4 c
A
0
2
/ 2
( ) 2 ( ) (1 )
2 2
,
, /
r t r
wing
t r
b
wing
b b
S c c c ydy c
b
Wingaspectratio A
S
Wingtaper ratio c c

}
= + = = +
=
=
AE212 Jha Loads-3
MeanAerodynamicChord(MAC),
Wingtwistalongspan
+

y/s=1.0
Washin
tip
Washout
tip
Root
u +
u
u
MeanAerodynamicChord
/2
2
/2
2
0
/2
0
0
2
1
1
( )
2 2
( )
3 ( )
b
b
b
r
c y dy
c c y dy c
S c y dy

| |
+ +
|
+ \ .
}
}
}
= = =
/2
0
2 1 2
( ) ( )
6 1
( (1/ 4) )
b
mac
b
y c y ydy
S
Aerodynamiccenter at c for subsonicM

}
+
= =
+
Root
AE212 Jha Loads-4
TheVnDiagram(FlightEnvelope)
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
2.5
5.0
A
150 300 450
Vs,

1g
V4
V*
V5
+7.5
3.0
B
C
D
E
Max.speed

boundary.

M=0.85

approx.
Ve

(knots)
Stall

area
CLmaxboundary
Negativelimitloadfactor
CLmaxboundary
Positivelimitloadfactor
Maxq
Vn(velocity-load factor) diagramforatypicalJet

Trainer(1knot=1.15mph)
Vcruise
3
2
1
o
AE212 Jha Loads-5
o +
Stall

area
VnDiagram

Limitloadisthesafelimituptowhichthereisnopermanentdeformation

Ultimateloadfactor

Structuralfailureoccurswhenn>nultimate

Vn(velocityloadfactor)diagramincludesbothaerodynamicand

structurallimitationsandestablishesmaneuverboundaries.

CurveAB:aerodynamiclimitonloadfactor,imposedby(CL

)max
2
max
max
max max
max max
max 4
( ) 1
2 /
1 ,
2 ,
3
, ( )
L
L L
L L
C
n V
W S
Pt C C n n
Pt C C n n
Pt Outside flight envelope
AsVincreases n possiblealsoincreases V
=
< <
= =
AE212 Jha Loads-6
VnDiagram

HorizontallineBC:Positivelimitloadfactorofthestructure

LineCD:highspeedlimitsetbymaximumdynamicpressure(designdive

speed,VCD

)
Athigherspeeds,undesirableinstabilities(likeflutter,aileronreversal,

divergence,buffetingetc.)mayoccur.
VCD

=1.5xVmax,cruise

(max.cruisevelocity)(FARpart25airplanes)
Forsupersonicaircraft,(Vmax

/a
sL

)=Max.Machno.inlevelflight+0.2
(a=speedofsound)
1/2
max
max
max
2
*, * ,
L L
L
n W
AtV V whereV C C
C S
(
> = <
(

AE212 Jha Loads-7
VnDiagram

Maneuverpt.B:CL

andnaresimultaneouslyattheirhighestpossible

values.HighestInstantaneousTurnRate(V*=cornervelocity)

CurveAE:NegativeCLmax

limit(flowseparationfrombottomsurface)

LineED:Negativelimitloadfactor(Whydifferentfromthepositivenmax

?

skinthickness)
2
2
2
1
2
1
V V
e SL
=
; ( )
; ( )
SL e
Sealevel density V Equivalentair speed EAS
densityat flightaltitude V Trueair speed TAS

= =
= =
AE212 Jha Loads-8
AirLoadDistributiononLiftingSurfaces

Usehigh(CLmax)limitandmaxq

limitpointsforload

calculationsonwings.

Spanwise

liftdistributionisproportionaltothecirculationateachspan

station.Foranellipticalplanform,liftdistributioniselliptical.Fornon

ellipticalwings,useSchrenks

approximation(semiempirical)toestimate

liftdistribution(Loaddistributiononawingistheaverageofactual

planform

shapeandanellipticshapeofthesamespanandarea.)

Schrenks

methodisnotapplicabletohighlysweptwings(suchasdelta

wings)duetovortexflow
o
elliptic
Rectangularplanform
average
2
2
: ( ) 1 (1 )
4 2
: ( ) 1
r
y
Trapezoidal c y C
b
S y
Elliptical c y
b b

t
(
=
(

| |
=
|
\ .
Wingplanform
AE212 Jha Loads-9
ShearForcesandBendingMoments
Supportshear

reaction
shear
Support

moment

reaction
Tension
Compression
moment
Ultimate Load on each wing, ) 2 / 5 . 1 * * ( n W L
w
=
Beam (wing) with distributed load
AE212 Jha Loads-10
0 0.15c 1.0c
actual
Approx.

Foranyspanstation,theshearforceissimplythesumofthevertical

loadsoutboardofthatstation(or,theintegralofdistributedload)

Bendingmomentatanystationequalsthesumofproductofloadateach

outboardstationanditsdistancefromthestation

ForapositiveBendingMoment(asshowninthefigure),theinternal

forcesproducecompressiononupperpartandtensiononlowerpart

Wingweightisproportionalto.Halving(t/c)increaseswingweight

by41%.Wingweightistypically15%oftotalemptyweightofaircraft

Addfuelweighttoemptywingweighttoobtaingrosswingweight

Chordwise

liftdistributionmaybeapproximatedasshownbelow
ShearForcesandBendingMoments
AE212 Jha Loads-11
1
/ t c
(1)PickloadcasesfromVndiagram(maxAoA,maxdynamic
pressure,max.negativeAoA

,etc.)
(2)Calculatetotalliftforce(approx.normalforce);
Loadoneachwing,
(3)Approx.wingasstrips

fromcenterlinetotip(e.g.,10stripsof
of

10%semispaneach)
(4)DistributeliftforceoneachstripusingSchrenks

approximation
(6)Estimateshearforceandbendingmoment
(7)Usewingcenterofpressureat25%chord(subsonicspeeds)
(8)Usingsamestripsasin(3),calculatetorqueaboutfrontspar
location(say,15%chord).Thensumtorquevaluesfromtiptoroot
SF, BM, Torsion Calculation
) 2 / 5 . 1 * * ( n W L
w
=
AE212 Jha Loads-12
Rectangularwing:chord=0.5m,span=4m,TOGW=5,000N,nmax

=4
Wingarea=2sqm,AR=b/c

=8
Calculatetotalliftforce(approx.normalforce)oneachwing:
=15,000N(Ultimateloadoneachwing)
DistributeLw

alongwingspanusingstripsofequalwidth
Use3stripsforthisexampleproblem
Chordforellipticalwing
Example - SF, BM, Torsion Calculation
) 2 / 5 . 1 * * ( n W L
w
=
AE212 Jha Loads-13
y-station Wing chord, c Elliptical c(y) Average chord
0 0.5 0.637 0.569
0.66 0.5 0.601 0.550
1.33 0.5 0.475 0.488
2 0.5 0 0.250

2 2 2
4 2 4(2) 2
( ) 1 1 0.637 1
(4) 4 2
S y y y
c y
b b t t
| | | | | |
= = =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
DistributeliftforceoneachstripusingSchrenks

approximation
Calculatestriparea=(Averageofgeometricandellipticalchord)*width
=Averagechord*0.667
Calculatefactor

forliftdistribution:Lw

=(factor)*(sumofstripareas)
15,000N=(factor)*(0.965sqm)
factor=15,544N/sqm
AE212 Jha Loads-14
Example - SF, BM, Torsion Calculation
Strip Strip area Lift on each strip
1 0.373 5798 N
2 0.346 5378 N
3 0.246 3824 N

Estimateshearforceandbendingmoment
SFatanyystation=sumofliftforceoutboardofystation
BMatanyystation=sumof(liftforce*distance)outboardofystation
Forcalculatingdistance,assumeliftactingthroughthecenterofstripwidth
Calculatetorqueabout15%cusingwingcenterofpressureat25%c(good
approximationatsubsonicspeeds);sumtorquevaluesfromtipto

root
AE212 Jha Loads-15
Example - SF, BM, Torsion Calculation
y-station Shear Force, N Bending Moment, N-m
0 15000 13676 (6361+5381+1934)
0.667 9202 5620 (3826+1794)
1.33 3824 1275
2 0 0

Strip Torque, N-m
1 750 (460.1+289)
2 460.1 (191.2+268.9)
3 191.2