Paulraj, A.J.

Diversity
Mobile Communications Handbook
Ed. Suthan S. Suthersan
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
Diversity
Arogyaswami J. Paulraj
Stanford University
12.1 Introduction
12.2 DiversitySchemes
Space Diversity

Polarization Diversity

Angle Diversity

FrequencyDiversity

PathDiversity

TimeDiversity

Trans-
formedDiversity
12.3 DiversityCombiningTechniques
Selection Combining

Maximal Ratio Combining

Equal
GainCombining

Lossof DiversityGainDuetoBranchCor-
relationandUnequal BranchPowers
12.4 Effect of DiversityCombiningonBit Error Rate
12.5 ConcludingRemarks
DeningTerms
References
12.1 Introduction
Diversityisacommonlyusedtechniqueinmobileradiosystemstocombat signal fading. Thebasic
principleof diversityisasfollows. If several replicasof thesameinformation-carryingsignal are
receivedover multiplechannelswithcomparablestrengths, whichexhibit independent fading, then
thereisagoodlikelihoodthatatleastoneor moreof thesereceivedsignalswill notbeinafadeatany
giveninstant intime, thusmakingit possibletodeliver adequatesignal level tothereceiver. Without
diversitytechniques, innoiselimitedconditions, thetransmitter wouldhavetodeliver amuchhigher
power level to protect thelink duringtheshort intervals when thechannel is severely faded. In
mobileradio, thepower availableon thereverselink isseverelylimited bythebatterycapacityof
hand-heldsubscriber units. Diversitymethodsplayacrucial roleinreducingtransmit power needs.
Also, cellular communicationnetworksaremostlyinterferencelimitedand, onceagain, mitigationof
channel fadingthroughuseofdiversitycantranslateintoreducedvariabilityofcarrier-to-interference
ratio(C/I), whichinturnmeanslower C/I marginandhencebetter reusefactorsandhigher system
capacity.
Thebasicprinciplesof diversityhavebeenknownsince1927whentherst experimentsinspace
diversitywerereported. Therearemanytechniquesfor obtainingindependentlyfadingbranches,
andthesecan besubdividedinto two main classes. Therst areexplicit techniqueswhereexplicit
redundant signal transmission is used to exploit diversity channels. Useof dual polarized signal
transmissionandreceptioninmanypoint-to-pointradiosisanexampleof explicitdiversity. Clearly
suchredundant signal transmissioninvolvesapenaltyinfrequencyspectrumor additional power.
In thesecond class areimplicit diversity techniques: thesignal is transmitted only once, but the
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
decorrelatingeffectsinthepropagationmediumsuchasmultipathsareexploitedtoreceivesignals
over multiplediversitychannels. Agoodexampleof implicit diversityistheRAKEreceiverincode
divisionmultipleaccess(CDMA) systems, whichusesindependent fadingof resolvablemultipaths
toachievediversitygain. Figure12.1illustratestheprincipleof diversitywheretwoindependently
fadingsignalsareshownalongwiththeselectiondiversityoutput signal whichselectsthestronger
signal. Thefadesin theresultingsignal havebeen substantiallysmoothed out whilealso yielding
higher averagepower.
FIGURE 12.1: Exampleof diversity combining. Two independently fadingsignals 1and 2. The
signal 3istheresult of selectingthestrongest signal.
If antennas areused in transmit, they can beexploited for diversity. If thetransmit channel
isknown, theantennascan bedriven with complex conjugatechannel weightingto co-phasethe
signals at thereceiveantenna. If theforward channel is not known, wehaveseveral methods to
convert spaceselectivefadingat thetransmit antennastoother formsof diversityexploitableinthe
receiver.
Exploitingdiversityneedscareful designof thecommunicationlink. Inexplicitdiversity, multiple
copiesof thesamesignal aretransmittedinchannelsusingeither afrequency, time, or polarization
dimension. Atthereceiver endweneedarrangementstoreceivethedifferentdiversitybranches(this
istruefor bothexplicit andimplicit diversity). Thedifferent diversitybranchesarethencombined
toreducesignal outageprobabilityor bit error rate.
In practice, thesignalsin thediversitybranchesmaynot showcompletelyindependent fading.
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Theenvelopecrosscorrelation betweenthesesignalsisameasureof their independence.
=
E [[r
1
r
1
] [r
2
r
2
]]
_
E |r
1
r
1
|
2
E |r
2
r
2
|
2
wherer
1
and r
2
represent theinstantaneous envelopelevels of thenormalized signals at thetwo
receiversand r
1
and r
2
aretheir respectivemeans. Ithasbeenshownthatacrosscorrelationof 0.7[3]
between signal envelopesissufcient to provideareasonabledegreeof diversitygain. Depending
onthetypeof diversityemployed, thesediversitychannelsmust besufcientlyseparatedalongthe
appropriatediversitydimension. Forspatial diversity, theantennasshouldbeseparatedbymorethan
thecoherencedistancetoensureacrosscorrelationof lessthan0.7. Likewiseinfrequencydiversity,
thefrequency separation must belarger than thecoherencebandwidth, and in timediversity the
separationbetweenchannel reuseintimeshouldbelonger thanthecoherencetime. Thesecoherence
factorsinturndependonthechannel characteristics. Thecoherencedistance, coherencebandwidth
andcoherencetimevaryinverselyastheanglespread, delayspread, andDoppler spread, respectively.
If thereceiver hasanumber of diversitybranches, it hastocombinethesebranchestomaximize
thesignal level. Several techniqueshavebeenstudiedfor diversitycombining. Wewill describethree
maintechniques: selectioncombining, equal gaincombining, andmaximal ratiocombining.
Finally, weshouldnotethat diversityisprimarilyusedtocombat fadingandif thesignal doesnot
showsignicantfadingintherstplace, for examplewhenthereisadirectpathcomponent, diversity
combiningmaynot providesignicant diversitygain. In thecaseof antennadiversity, arraygain
proportional tothenumber of antennaswill still beavailable.
12.2 DiversitySchemes
Thereareseveral techniques for obtainingdiversity branches, sometimes also known as diversity
dimensions. Themost important of thesearediscussedinthefollowingsections.
12.2.1 SpaceDiversity
Thishashistoricallybeen themost common formof diversityin mobileradio basestations. It is
easytoimplement anddoesnot requireadditional frequencyspectrumresources. Spacediversityis
exploitedon thereverselink at thebasestation receiver byspacingantennasapart so asto obtain
sufcient decorrelation. Thekeyfor obtainingminimumuncorrelatedfadingof antennaoutputsis
adequatespacingof theantennas. Therequiredspacingdependsonthedegreeof multipathangle
spread. For exampleif themultipathsignalsarrivefromall directionsintheazimuth, asisusually
thecaseat themobile, antennaspacing(coherencedistance) of theorder of 0.5 to 0.8 isquite
adequate[5]. Ontheother handif themultipathanglespreadissmall, asinthecaseof basestations,
thecoherencedistanceismuchlarger. Alsoempirical measurementsshowastrongcouplingbetween
antennaheight and spatial correlation. Larger antennaheights imply larger coherencedistances.
Typically10 to20 separationisadequatetoachieve = 0.7 at basestationsinsuburbansettings
when thesignalsarrivefromthebroadsidedirection. Thecoherencedistancecan be3to 4times
larger for endrearrivals. Theendreproblemisavertedinbasestationswithtrisectoredantennas
aseachsector needstohandleonlysignalsarriving60

off thebroadside. Thecoherencedistance

dependsstronglyon theterrain. Largemultipath anglespreadmeanssmaller coherencedistance.
Basestationsnormallyusespacediversityin thehorizontal planeonly. Separation in thevertical
planecanalsobeused, andthenecessaryspacingdependsuponvertical multipathanglespread. This
canbesmall for distant mobilesmakingvertical planediversitylessattractiveinmost applications.
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
Spacediversityisalso exploitableat thetransmitter. If theforward channel isknown, it works
much likereceivespacediversity. If it is not known, then spacediversity can betransformed to
another formof diversityexploitableat thereceiver. (SeeSection12.2.7below).
Ifantennasareusedattransmitandreceive,theMtransmitandN receiveantennasbothcontribute
to diversity. It can beshown that if simpleweighting is used without additional bandwidth or
time/memoryprocessing, then maximumdiversitygain isobtainedif thetransmitter andreceiver
usetheleft and right singular vectors of theM N channel matrix, respectively. However, to
approachthemaximumM N order diversityorder will requiretheuseof additional bandwidth
or time/memory-basedmethods.
12.2.2 PolarizationDiversity
In mobileradio environments, signals transmitted on orthogonal polarizations exhibit lowfade
correlation, and therefore, offer potential for diversity combining. Polarization diversity can be
obtained either byexplicit or implicit techniques. Notethat with polarization onlytwo diversity
branchesareavailableasagainstspacediversitywhereseveral branchescanbeobtainedusingmultiple
antennas. Inexplicit polarizationdiversity, thesignal istransmittedandreceivedintwoorthogonal
polarizations. For axedtotal transmit power, thepower in each branch will be3dBlower than
if singlepolarization is used. In theimplicit polarization technique, thesignal is launched in a
singlepolarization, but isreceivedwithcross-polarizedantennas. Thepropagationmediumcouples
someenergyintothecross-polarizationplane. Theobservedcross-polarizationcouplingfactor lies
between8to12dBinmobileradio[8, 1]. Thecross-polarizationenvelopedecorrelationhasbeen
foundtobeadequate. However, thelargebranchimbalancereducestheavailablediversitygain.
Withhand-heldphones, thehandsetcanbeheldatrandomorientationsduringacall. Thisresults
inenergybeinglaunchedwithvaryingpolarizationanglesrangingfromvertical tohorizontal. This
further increasestheadvantageof cross-polarizedantennasatthebasestationsincethetwoantennas
canbecombinedtomatchthereceivedsignal polarization. Thismakespolarizationdiversityeven
moreattractive. Recentwork[4] hasshownthatwithvariablelaunchpolarization, across-polarized
antennacangivecomparableoverall (matchingplusdiversity) performancetoaverticallypolarized
spacediversityantenna.
Finally, we should note that cross-polarized antennas can be deployed in a compact antenna
assemblyanddo not needlargephysical separation neededin spacediversityantennas. Thisisan
important advantageinthePCSbasestationswherelowproleantennasareneeded.
12.2.3 AngleDiversity
In situationswheretheanglespread isveryhigh, such asindoorsor at themobileunit in urban
locations, signals collected frommultiplenonoverlappingbeams offer lowfadecorrelation with
balanced power in thediversity branches. Clearly, sincedirectional beams imply useof antenna
aperture, anglediversity is closely related to spacediversity. Anglediversity has been utilized in
indoor wirelessLANs, whereitsuseallowssubstantial increaseinLANthroughputs[2].
12.2.4 FrequencyDiversity
Another techniqueto obtain decorrelated diversity branches is to transmit thesamesignal over
differentfrequencies. Thefrequencyseparationbetweencarriersshouldbelarger thanthecoherence
bandwidth. Thecoherencebandwidth, of course, depends on themultipath delay spread of the
channel. Thelarger thedelay spread, thesmaller thecoherencebandwidth and themoreclosely
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
wecan spacethefrequencydiversitychannels. Clearly, frequencydiversityisan explicit diversity
techniqueandneedsadditional frequencyspectrum.
Acommonformoffrequencydiversityismulticarrier(alsoknownasmultitone) modulation. This
techniqueinvolvessendingredundant dataover anumber of closelyspacedcarrierstobenet from
frequencydiversity, whichisthenexploitedbyapplyinginterleavingandchannel coding/forward
error correctionacrossthecarriers. Another techniqueisto usefrequencyhoppingwherein the
interleaved and channel coded datastreamistransmitted with widelyseparated frequenciesfrom
burst toburst. Thewidefrequencyseparationischosentoguaranteeindependent fadingfromburst
toburst.
12.2.5 PathDiversity
Thisimplicit diversityisavailableif thesignal bandwidthismuchlarger thanthechannel coherence
bandwidth. Thebasis for this method is that when themultipath arrivals can beresolved in the
receiver andsincethepathsfadeindependently, diversitygaincanbeobtained. InCDMA systems,
themultipath arrivals must beseparated by morethan one chip period and theRAKE receiver
providesthediversity[9]. InTDMAsystems, themultipatharrivalsmust beseparatedbymorethan
onesymbol periodandtheMLSEreceiver providesthediversity.
12.2.6 TimeDiversity
Inmobilecommunicationschannels, themobilemotiontogetherwithscatteringinthevicinityofthe
mobilecausestimeselectivefadingof thesignal withRayleighfadingstatisticsfor thesignal envelope.
Signal fadelevelsseparatedbythecoherencetimeshowlowcorrelationandcanbeusedasdiversity
branchesif thesamesignal canbetransmittedat multipleinstantsseparatedbythecoherencetime.
ThecoherencetimedependsontheDoppler spreadof thesignal, whichinturnisafunctionof the
mobilespeedandthecarrier frequency.
Timediversityisusuallyexploitedviainterleaving, forward-error correction (FEC) coding, and
automaticrequestforrepeat(ARQ). Thesearesophisticatedtechniquestoexploit channel coding
andtimediversity. Onefundamental drawbackwithtimediversityapproachesisthedelayneededto
collect therepeatedor interleavedtransmissions. If thecoherencetimeislarge, asfor examplewhen
thevehicleisslowmoving, therequireddelaybecomestoolargetobeacceptablefor interactivevoice
conversation.
Thestatistical propertiesof fadingsignalsdependontheeldcomponentusedbytheantenna, the
vehicular speed, andthecarrier frequency. For anidealizedcaseof amobilesurroundedbyscatterers
inall directions, theautocorrelationfunctionof thereceivedsignal x(t ) (notethisisnottheenvelope
r(t )) canbeshowntobe
E [x(t )x(t +)] = J
0
(2v/)
whereJ
0
isaBessel functionof the0thorder andv isthemobilevelocity.
12.2.7 TransformedDiversity
Intransformeddiversity, thespacediversitybranchesat thetransmitter aretransformedintoother
formsof diversitybranchesexploitableat thereceiver. Thisisusedwhentheforwardchannel isnot
known andshiftstheresponsibilityof diversitycombiningto thereceiver whichhasthenecessary
channel knowledge.
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
SpacetoFrequency
Antenna-delay. Herethesignal istransmittedfromtwoor moreantennaswithdelaysof
theorder of achip or symbol period in CDMA or TDMA, respectively. Thedifferent
transmissionssimulateresolved path arrivalsthat can beused asdiversitybranchesby
theRAKEor MLSEequalizer.
Multicarrier modulation. Thedatastreamafter interleavingandcodingismodulatedasa
multicarrier output usinganinverseDFT. Thecarriersarethenmappedtothedifferent
antennas. Thespaceselectivefadingat theantennasisnowtransformed to frequency
selectivefadinganddiversityisobtainedduringdecoding.
SpacetoTime
Antennahopping/phaserolling. In thismethod thedatastreamafter codingand inter-
leavingisswitchedrandomlyfromantennatoantenna. Thespaceselectivefadingat the
transmitter is converted into atimeselectivefadingat thereceiver. This is aformof
activefading.
Space-timecoding. Theapproachinspace-timecodingistosplit theencodeddatainto
multipledatastreamseachof whichismodulatedandsimultaneouslytransmittedfrom
different antennas. Thereceived signal is asuperposition of themultipletransmitted
signals. Channel decodingcanbeusedtorecover thedatasequence. Sincetheencoded
dataarriveover uncorrelatedfadebranches, diversitygaincanberealized.
12.3 DiversityCombiningTechniques
Several diversity combiningmethods areknown. Wedescribethreemain techniques: selection,
maximal ratio, andequal gain. Theycanbeusedwitheachof thediversityschemesdiscussedabove.
12.3.1 SelectionCombining
This is thesimplest and perhaps themost frequently used formof diversity combining. In this
technique,oneofthetwodiversitybrancheswiththehighestcarrier-to-noiseratio(C/N) isconnected
totheoutput. SeeFig. 12.2(a).
Theperformanceimprovement duetoselectiondiversitycanbeseenasfollows. Let thesignal in
eachbranchexhibit Rayleighfadingwithmeanpower
2
. Thedensityfunctionof theenvelopeis
givenby
p (r
i
) =
r
i

2
e
r
2
i
2
2
(12.1)
wherer
i
isthesignal envelopeineachbranch. If wedenetwonewvariables

i
=
Instantaneoussignal power ineachbranch
Meannoisepower
=
Meansignal power ineachbranch
Meannoisepower
thentheprobabilitythat theC/Nislessthanor equal tosomespeciedvalue
s
is
Prob
_

i

s
_
= 1 e

s
/
(12.2)
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
FIGURE12.2: Diversitycombiningmethodsfor twodiversitybranches.
Theprobabilitythat
i
inall brancheswithindependent fadingwill besimultaneouslylessthan
or equal to
s
isthen
Prob
_

1
,
2
, . . .
M

s
_
=
_
1 e

s
/
_
M
(12.3)
Thisisthedistribution of thebest signal envelopefromthetwo diversitybranches. Figure12.3
showsthedistributionofthecombineroutputC/NforM =1,2,3,and4branches. Theimprovement
insignal qualityissignicant. For exampleat 99%reliabilitylevel, theimprovement inC/Nis10dB
for twobranchesand16dBfor four branches.
Selection combiningalso increasesthemean C/N of thecombiner output andcan beshown to
be[3]
Mean(
s
) =
M

k=1
1
k
(12.4)
Thisindicatesthatwith4branches, for example, themeanC/Nof theselectedbranchis2.08better
thanthemeanC/Ninanyonebranch.
12.3.2 Maximal RatioCombining
InthistechniquetheM diversitybranchesarerst co-phasedandthenweightedproportionallyto
their signal level beforesumming. SeeFig. 12.2(b). Thedistributionof themaximal ratiocombiner
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
FIGURE12.3: Probabilitydistributionof signal envelopefor selectioncombining.
hasbeenshowntobe[5]
Prob
_

m
_
= 1 e
(
m
/ )
M

k=1
(
m
/ )
k1
(k 1)!
(12.5)
Thedistribution of output of amaximal ratio combiner is shown in Fig. 12.4. Maximal ratio
combiningisknowntobeoptimal inthesensethat it yieldsthebest statistical reductionof fadingof
anylinear diversitycombiner. Incomparisontotheselectioncombiner, at 99%reliabilitylevel, the
maximal ratiocombiner providesa11.5dBgainfor twobranchesanda19dBgainfor four branches,
animprovement of 1.5and3dB, respectively, over theselectiondiversitycombiner.
ThemeanC/Nof thecombinedsignal maybeeasilyshowntobe
Mean(
m
) = M (12.6)
Therefore, combiner output meanvarieslinearlywithM. Thisconrmstheintuitiveresult that
theoutput C/N averaged over fadesshould providegain proportional to thenumber of diversity
branches. Thisisasituationsimilar toconventional beamforming.
12.3.3 Equal GainCombining
Insomeapplications, it maybedifcult toestimatetheamplitudeaccurately, thecombininggains
mayall besettounity, andthediversitybranchesmerelysummedafterco-phasing. [SeeFig.12.2(c)].
Thedistributionof equal gaincombiner doesnot haveaneat expressionandhasbeencomputed
bynumerical evaluation. Itsperformancehasbeen shown to beverycloseto within adecibel to
c 1999byCRCPressLLC
FIGURE12.4: Probabilitydistributionfor signal envelopefor maximal ratiocombining.
maximal ratiocombining. ThemeanC/Ncanbeshowntobe[3]
Mean(
e
) =
_
1 +

4
(M 1)
_
(12.7)
Likemaximal ratiocombining, themeanC/Nfor equal gaincombininggrowsalmostlinearlywith
M andisapproximatelyonlyonedecibel poorer thanmaximal ratiocombiner evenwithaninnite
number of branches.
12.3.4 LossofDiversityGainDuetoBranchCorrelationandUnequal Branch
Powers
Theaboveanalysisassumedthatthefadingsignalsinthediversitybrancheswereall uncorrelatedand
of equal power. Inpractice, thismaybedifcult toachieveandaswesawearlier, thebranchcross-
correlationcoefcient = 0.7 isconsideredtobeacceptable. Also, equal meanpowersindiversity
branchesarerarelyavailable. Insuchcaseswecanexpect acertainlossof diversitygain. However,
sincemost of thedamagein fadingisdueto deepfades, andalso sincethechanceof coincidental
deepfadesissmall evenfor moderatebranchcorrelation, onecanexpect areasonabletoleranceto
branchcorrelation.
Thedistributionoftheoutputsignal envelopeofmaximal ratiocombinerhasbeenshowntobe[6]:
Prob
_

m
_
=
M

n=1
A
n
2
n
e

m
/2
n
(12.8)
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where
n
aretheeigenvaluesof theM M branchenvelopecovariancematrixwhoseelementsare
denedby
R
ij
= E
_
r
i
r

j
_
(12.9)
andA
n
isdenedby
A
n
=
M

k = 1
k = n
1
1
k
/
n
(12.10)
12.4 Effect of DiversityCombiningonBit Error Rate
SofarwehavestudiedthedistributionoftheinstantaneousenvelopeorC/Nafterdiversitycombining.
Wewill nowbrieysurveyhowdiversitycombiningaffectsBERperformanceindigital radiolinks;
weassumemaximal ratiocombining.
To begin let us rst examinetheeffect of Rayleigh fadingon theBER performanceof digital
transmissionlinks. Thishasbeenstudiedbyseveral authorsandissummarizedin[7]. Table12.1
gives theBER expressions in thelargeE
b
/N
0
casefor coherent binary PSK and coherent binary
orthogonal FSK for unfaded and Rayleigh faded AWGN (additivewhiteGaussian noisechannels)
channels.

E
b
/N
0
representstheaverageE
b
/N
0
for thefadingchannel.
TABLE12.1 Comparisonof BER
Performancefor UnfadedandRayleighFaded
Signals
Modulaton UnfadedBER FadedBER
CohBPSK
1
2
erfc
__
E
b
/N
0
_
1
4
_

E
b
/N
0
_
CohFSK
1
2
erfc
_
_
1
2
E
b
/N
0
_
1
2
_

E
b
/N
0
_
Observethat error ratesdecreaseonlyinverselywithSNRasagainst exponential decreasesfor the
unfadedchannel. Alsonotethatforfadingchannels,coherentbinaryPSKis3dBbetterthancoherent
binaryFSK, exactlythesameadvantageasinunfadedcase. Evenfor modest target BERof 10
2
that
isusuallyneededinmobilecommunications, thelossduetofadingcanbeveryhigh17.2dB.
ToobtaintheBERwithmaximal ratiodiversitycombiningwehavetoaveragetheBERexpression
for theunfadedBERwiththedistributionobtainedfor themaximal ratiocombiner givenin(12.5).
Analytical expressionshavebeenderivedfor thesein[7]. For abranchSNRgreater than10dB, the
BERafter maximal ratiodiversitycombiningisgiveninTable12.2.
Weobservethattheprobabilityof error variesas1/

E
b
/N
0
raisedtotheLthpower. Thus, diversity
reducestheerror rateexponentiallyasthenumber of independent branchesincreases.
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TABLE12.2 BERPerformancefor
Coherent BPSK andFSK withDiversity
Modulaton Post DiversityBER
Coherent BPSK
_
1
4

E
b
/N
0
_
L
_
2L 1
L
_
Coherent FSK
_
1
2

E
b
/N
0
_
L
_
2L 1
L
_
12.5 ConcludingRemarks
Diversityprovidesapowerful techniquefor combatingfadingin mobilecommunication systems.
Diversitytechniquesseektogenerateandexploit multiplebranchesover whichthesignal showslow
fadecorrelation. Toobtainthebest diversityperformance, themultipleaccess, modulation, coding
andantennadesignof thewirelesslinkmustall becarefullychosensoastoprovidearichandreliable
level of well-balanced, low-correlation diversity branches in thetarget propagation environment.
Successful diversity exploitation can impact a mobile network in several ways. Reduced power
requirementscanresult inincreasedcoverageor improvedbatterylife. Lowsignal outageimproves
voicequalityand handoff performance. Finally, reduced fademarginsdirectlytranslateto better
reusefactorsand, hence, increasedsystemcapacity.
DeningTerms
Automaticrequestforrepeat: Anerrorcontrol mechanisminwhichreceivedpacketsthatcan-
not becorrectedareretransmitted.
Channel coding/Forwarderrorcorrection: A technique that inserts redundant bits during
transmissiontohelpdetect andcorrect bit errorsduringreception.
Fading: Fluctuationinthesignal level duetoshadowingandmultipatheffects.
Frequencyhopping: Atechniquewherethesignal burstsaretransmittedat different frequen-
ciesseparatedbyrandomspacingthat aremultiplesof signal bandwidth.
Interleaving: Aformof datascramblingthatspreadsburstof biterrorsevenlyover thereceived
dataallowingefcient forwarderror correction.
Outageprobability: Theprobabilitythatthesignal level fallsbelowaspeciedminimumlevel.
PCS: Personal CommunicationsServices.
RAKEreceiver: A receiver usedindirect sequencespreadspectrumsignals. Thereceiver ex-
tractsenergyineachpathandthenaddsthemtogether withappropriateweightingand
delay.
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c 1999byCRCPressLLC