Extract Five - Exploring “Hinduism” (Literature and Religious Systems)

5.1 A Partial Overview of Hinduism

Hinduism is one of the major religions of the world and its roots can be traceable to the country
India. The graph1 below is a summary of population estimates for different religions of the world
during mid 2005. These figures indicate that Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world.
According to more recent statistics2, the estimated world population for the year 2007 was
6,671,226,000. The estimated followers of Hinduism were in the region of 970 million, which
represented approximately 15% of the estimated world population. Of the total Hindu population in
the world, approximately, 900 million were living in India, which represented 93% of the estimated
total world Hindu population.

Fig 5.1 – Estimates for Religions of the World

Although Hindi is the national language of India and mother tongue of most people, there are other
official languages recognised in the different Indian States such as Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil,
Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Sanskrit. In
addition to the above mentioned languages, there are various home languages spoken in many Indian
States, although these languages are not officially recognised by any State. Like most other countries,
English has emerged as the most important medium of language used for national, political, business,
trade, and legal purposes. Although there is worldwide prominence given to the Vedic literature, an
extensive compilation of Sanskrit works, a huge variety of spiritual, religious, and other literature was
compiled in the different Indian languages throughout the history of India. The Hindu scriptures (as
it is known or has become grouped today), are accepted as one of the oldest in the world and comprises
of that vast and diverse body of literature. This body of literature deals with a wide range of topics
and philosophy such as the Supreme Lord, knowledge about His Abode & His activities, devotional
1
Source:wikipedia/en/6/60/Worldwide_percentage_of_Adherents_by_Religion.png
2
Based on information published on the Wikipedi Website “Hinduism by Country”
service, religious & moral principles, leadership, governance, science, mathematics, architecture,
astrology, creation, the planetary systems, war, farming, writing, poetry, art, music and dance. In the
academic circles, Hinduism is often categorised into two divisions, namely Traditional Hinduism and
Neo-Hinduism. Traditional Hinduism incorporates the majority of believers and consists of observing
ancient beliefs, rituals, ceremonies which have great appeal or value to the masses. Neo-Hinduism
appears to be developed through (i) reform in Hinduism, (ii) western influence, (iii) and through the
standardisation or globalisation of the fundamental and universal aspects of Hinduism for mass
preaching purposes. The two major branches of Hinduism are Saivism (followers of Lord Siva) and
Vaisnavism (followers of Lord Visnu). Some of the other branches are Shaktism (the worshipers or
followers of the Goddess), Jainism, and Sikhism. However, the reader must take note that both Jainism
and Sikhism are generally considered to be like Buddhism - distinct and separate religions from
Hinduism, also having their roots in India. Although, there is this diverse literature or religious
systems grouped under the banner of Hinduism, a common aspect in all of the above Hindu literature
is the principles or concepts of “Karma” and “Reincarnation”. There is also an indication of a higher
truth and a divine purpose of human life, which needs to be achieved with different and common or
similar recommended proposals given to go back to the “Kingdom of God”. The roots or teachings of
Saivism and Vaisnavism can be traced to South Indian Literature and North Indian Literature
groupings respectively. Both, Saivism and Vaisnavism, literature appear to be based on “parallel
schools of philosophy”, although not in every respect. The main differences are the identity of the
Supreme God, and details of recorded histories and stories in their respective scared books.

Due to the amount of research conducted and the preaching efforts of individuals and organisations,
many of the original Hindu scriptures are available at “grass root level” in different local languages.
One universal principle, truth, or fact that applies is that there is a distinct hierarchy amongst the
literature, religious and philosophical systems grouped under Hinduism, which is not the subject
matter of this book. In the Sanskrit language, the two main technical divisions or ways of classifying
knowledge3 are (i) Para Vidya (transcendental or spiritual knowledge) (ii) everything else is referred
to as Apara Vidya (material knowledge). Any knowledge belonging to the Para Vidya section is
knowledge that can lead to self-realization. It will spiritually elevate a person by purifying their heart
and soul, and it can develop or increase one’s “Love & Devotion to God”. Some of the key or primary
indicators “of the divine effect it can have on a person” are to observe their Humility, their degree of
Compassion, Tolerance, Self-control, and to see if there is a loss or a decline in material desires or an
increase in love and devotion to the Lord. Ultimately, one has to observe their Character – their
“Attitude, Mood, and Behavior”. Beside the “indicators” listed above, these persons have a very
positive spiritual influence on everyone else through their interactions with others and their divine
association. For the purposes of the presentation in this book, the Hindu scriptures are classified into
the following groups (i) North Indian literature, (ii South Indian literature, (iii) Post Vedic
Scriptures, and (iv) other literature. The focus of this book is on the four main groups of Hindu
communities based in South Africa, namely those who speak Tamil, Hindi, Gujerati, and Telugu.
South Indian culture4 refers to the culture of the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, and Kerala. The main South Indian literature comprises of Tamil literature, Telugu
literature, Kannada literature, and Malayalam literature. North India5 consists of six Indian states:
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi. North India is the
birthplace of (i) Sikhism and (ii) the Vedic culture and civilization. The Vedic culture is older and its

3
About Technical divisions of knowledge - see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad. For further information,
refer to the Bhagavada Gita As It Is and the Srimad Bhagavatam (refer bibliography section).
4
South Indian culture: see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Indian_culture
5
Refer to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_India and see http://www.north-india.in/religion/hinduism.htm

2
roots can be traceable to the Indus Valley Civilization. The Vedic literature6 was compiled in written
form (in Sanskrit) during this period, also known as the “Golden Age”. Afterwards, North India
became renowned as a major center of discovery and learning. The Post Vedic literature was compiled
by a combination of South and North Indian Saints. “Other literature” refers to the later religious
literature and systems, having its roots based in India.

Fig 5.2 Examples of the different ways of Grouping Hinduism

Most Hindu or spiritual organization’s philosophies are based on the teachings of the Vedas or other
Hindu scriptures. Many organizations advocate that there exist several paths of Yoga (the process of
linking to God) and one can choose any path depending on his/her individual nature. A number of

6
Note, although the references to various websites and books are cited, all final references and quotations used in this
presentation on the Vedic Scriptures is mainly from the Works of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami
Prabhupada, the Founder Acarya of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), his disciples and
followers. (Refer to Bibliography section for a detailed list). All Srila Prabhupada’s work is the property and copyright,
of the Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International. Also, see: http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy.

3
Hindu or spiritual organizations exist, each of which follows a particular Philosophy or a particular
God or a particular Saint or a particular Caste or a particular Community or a particular Faith or a
particular Tradition. Although the finer details of the Hindu scriptures or philosophy may not be so
accessible, well known or understood, for nearly all of these millions of people; Hinduism is not, a
school or philosophy, it is life itself. They simply follow and practise the traditions and customs of
their ancestors, family, or community. They worship Deities in the Temples or at home, they go on
pilgrimages, perform daily prayers or rituals, practise meditations and yogic disciplines. They sing
(especially in organised groups), share stories from scriptures, and recite scriptural verses on a daily
basis. Their religious practices may reflect regional, ethnic, language, individual and opposing or
differences in philosophical interpretations. Although they may conform to similar patterns, their
practices may not be identical, and their ritualistic procedures may differ from place to place,
organization to organisation, community to community, home to home, or from individual to
individual. Hindus are also well known and applauded for trying to maintain their “extended family
support system”, which is a not just a tradition, but an integral part of their value system, culture and
civilisation.

5.2 Hinduism in Relation to other Religions, Science & Education

The CONCISE OXFORD DICTIONARY7 defines the following:-

GOD (in many religions) is defined as (i) a superhuman being or spirit worshipped as having power over
nature, human fortunes, etc; (ii) an image, idol, animal, or other object worshipped as divine or
symbolizing a god, (iii) the creator and ruler of the universe, the supreme being, (iv) an adored, admired,
or influential person.

EDUCATE is defined as “to give intellectual, moral and social instruction”.

EDUCATION is defined as “(i) the act or process of educating or being educated; systematic instruction;
(ii) a particular kind of or stage of education; (iii-a) development of character or mental powers, (iii-b) s
stage or aspect of this”.

PHILOSOPHY is defined as “(i) the use of reason and agreement in seeking truth and knowledge of
reality, esp. of the causes and nature of things and of the principles governing existence, the material
universe, perception of physical phenomena and human behaviour; (ii-a) particular system or set of beliefs
reached by this, (ii-b) a personal rule of life; (iii) advanced learning in general”.

RELIGION is defined as “(i) the belief in a superhuman controlling power, esp. in a personal God or
gods entitled to worship; (ii) the expression of this worship; (iii) a particular system of faith and
worship”;

HINDUISM is defined in the following way, “the main religious and social system of India, including
belief in reincarnation, the worship of several Gods, and a caste system as the basis of society”.

Comparative religion is a field of religious study that analyzes the similarities and differences of
themes, myths, rituals and concepts among the world's religions. In the field of comparative religion,
the world’s main religions are generally classified as Abrahamic, Indian or Taoic and religion is

7
Concise Oxford Dictionary, Clarendon Press, 1995, USA

4
defined as "Human beings relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, spiritual, or divine"8. In
terms of a Technical or Philosophical perspective, a religious or spiritual system is based in relation to
the principle that there is a God, referred to as Theism. The following tables list a summary of
Religious categorisations9 and a summary of some important definitions of “religious technical
terms”10 classifying the various philosophical schools or religious systems of the world. Some of these
religious technical terms may apply to religious systems grouped under the banner of Hinduism.

Description Remarks
Abrahamic religions A group of monotheistic traditions sometimes grouped with one
another for comparative purposes, because all refer to a patriarch
named Abraham.
Indian religions Mostly religions that originated in Greater India that share a
number of key concepts, namely Dharma and Karma and religions
and traditions related to, and descended from, them
Iranic religions Religions originating in Greater Iran
Taoic/Far Eastern/East Asian Religions originating in East Asia
religions
African diasporic religions Religions originating but not entirely located in Africa
"Pagan" religions (Historical Traditionally, these faiths have all been classified "Pagan" due to
Polytheism, Indigenous common elements of animism, shamanism and polytheism.
Traditional However, in recent times, scholars have begun to dispute this,
preferring the terms "indigenous/primal/folk/ethnic religions",
"historical polytheism" and "Neo-Paganism". The number of Pagan
adherents is difficult to account for, as many followers worship in
solitude. Paganism traditionally encompasses all Polytheistic belief
systems as well as those spiritual practices that do not have any
particular deities.
Non-sectarian and trans- Their beliefs and practices maybe similar or may vary among
sectarian religious or groups though they share certain beliefs.
spiritual movements
Other categorisations (1) Religion in Africa, (2) Religion in North America, (3) Religion
in South America, (4) Religion in Asia, (5) Religion in Australia, (6)
Religion in Europe, (7) Oceania / Pacific, (8) Religion by country
Table 5.1 Summary of the Worlds Religious Categorisations

8
Comparative religion, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_religion#cite_note-0
9
Information from the Wikipedia Website, “Religions_of_the_world”
10
Information sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion)

5
 Name Religious “Technical Terms”
Religion - a set of tenets and practices, often centered upon specific supernatural and moral
claims about reality, the cosmos, and human nature, and often codified as prayer,
ritual, or religious law. Religion also encompasses ancestral or cultural traditions,
writings, history, and mythology, as well as personal faith and religious
experience.
Theism - The belief in the existence of one or more divinities or deities.
Pantheism - The belief that God is both immanent and transcendent; God is one and all is
God.
Deism - The belief that God does exist, but does not interfere with human life and the
laws of the universe.
Agnosticism - The belief that the existence or non-existence of deities is currently unknown or
unknowable, or that the existence of a God or of gods cannot be proven.
Atheism - The rejection of belief, or absence of belief, in deities.
Monotheism - is the view that only one God exists
Polytheism - is its belief in more than one god (goddess)
Natural - providing proofs or arguments for the existence of God.
Theology
Table 5.2 World Religious Systems and Philosophies, a Partial Summary

Name of School Remarks

Pashupata Saivism: The Pashupatas were ascetics or great poets.
Kashmir Saivism (a monistic Referred to as the monistic school (known as Pratyabhijna
school) Darshana) and explains the creation of soul and world as God
Siva's shining forth in His dynamic first impulse. As the Self of all,
Siva is imminent and transcendent, a real but abstract creator-
preserver-destroyer.
Saiva Siddhanta (Monistic Siva is material and efficient cause, immanent and transcendent.
theism) The soul, created by Siva, is destined to merge in Him.
Siddha Siddhanta: (monistic Also known as bhedabheda, embracing both theories of the
theism) transcendent Siva Being and immanent Siva Becoming. Siva is
efficient and material cause. The creation and final return of soul
and cosmos to Siva are compared to the bubbles arising and
returning to water.
Lingatatism: (qualified Accepts both difference and nondifference between soul and God,
nondualism) or Shakti like rays are to the sun. Siva and the cosmic force are one, yet Siva
Vishistadvaita is beyond His creation, which is real, not illusory. God is efficient
and material cause.
Siva Advaita: (monistic theism) The soul does not ultimately become perfectly one with Brahman,
also called Siva Vishistavaita. but shares with the Supreme all excellent qualities.
Table 5.3 - A Partial Summary of some of the major schools of Saivism

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 Name of School Remarks
Advaita Kevaladvaita The jivatma (living entities or spirit souls) and Paramatma (Brahman or the Supreme
(monism) spirit soul) are one and the same. The goal of life is for the Jiva’s (living entities) to
realise this truth.
Visistadvaita-vada All living entities are spirit souls, a minute spark of the Supreme Personality of
(specific monism) Godhead; He is the Supreme Soul in both the material and spiritual worlds.
Dvaitadvaita-vada The categories of existence are three, i.e., 'cit', 'acit', and 'Isvara'. Cit and acit are
(monism and different from the Supreme Personality of Godhead (Isvara), in the sense that they
dualism) have attributes and capacities, which are different from those of Isvara. Isvara is
independent and exists by Himself, while cit and acit have existence dependent upon
Him. At the same time cit and acit are not different from Isvara, because they cannot
exist independently of Him.
suddha-dvaita-vada the Supreme Independent Person possesses all adequate and unrestricted energies in
(purified dualism) regard to the cit and acit and He is unlimitedly cognizant. By His own will, He is the
Supreme controller of both cit and acit, who are of a different nature from His.
Visuddhadvaita-vada The soul (living entities) is part of Brahman (the Supreme Spirit) like spiritual
(purified monism) sparks, real, eternal, atomic and dependent. Creation has no motive, it is like a
cosmic game and it directly emanates from Brahman. The cause of bondage is one's
attachment to karma
Acintya- Philosophical truth of simultaneous / inconceivable oneness and difference - the
bhedabheda-tattva Supreme Lord, being the cause and effect of everything, is inconceivably,
simultaneously one with His manifestations of energy and different from them (the
living entities or spirit souls).
Table 5.4 Religious Schools or Perspectives under Vaisnavism

In order to explore Hinduism as it is currently known or grouped; one needs to take into account the
early histories (background issues and social factors) of India that affected people’s religious lifestyle,
values, practices, traditions, faith, and beliefs. Some examples are that at one point in time there were
major divisions created in society due to the exploitation of the “caste system”. After the “Golden
Age”, the principles of religion declined whilst irreligious practises increased, there was large-scale
animal sacrifice practised on the apparent strength of religion. Finally, throughout India’s history,
foreigners (both from within the same continent and from overseas) invaded the land, which led to
various wars and the destruction of their successful “Monarch System of Rule”. This later led to the
development of other faiths and religions in India. Perhaps the greatest injustice that has been
inflicted or induced by the academic world (or whoever) was to group so many different religious
systems under the banner of Hinduism. The grouping of diverse religious systems and literature has
made Hinduism to be apparently (i) complicating to understand, (ii) “confusing” for many people,
(iii) subject to severe criticism by others, and (iv) some organisations or communities do not want to
be associated as “Hindu”. It also led to people changing their religious faith or to become “vulnerable
to conversion”. This applies to both the Hindus and those who are interested in Hinduism. The
variance in philosophies, customs, traditions, practices and worship of different personalities as
“God” has given the Hindu religion an identity as “the religion of many Gods”. It has also led to a
common philosophy or famous belief by many faithful Hindus that the worship of different Hindu
Gods is “One and the Same”, or as some people are sometimes known to say, “All is one”. Within
Hinduism, the following are the main or distinct and opposing branches or schools of philosophy that
has emerged:

(i) A school proclaiming that the worship of the different Hindu Gods is “One and the Same”.

7
(ii) A school that proclaims that the Lord is formless, known as the Pure-Monistic school.
Monism11 philosophy can be traceable to Nasadiya Sukta section of the Rig-Veda and in
sections of the various Upanisads. The theory is that the Absolute is formless, ineffable and
Divine referred to as Brahman. This school, in a summary, states; “Brahman (God) is the only
truth, the world is unreal, and there is ultimately no difference between Brahman and individual
self. The soul is entirely non-different from God (but has yet to realise/develop his Godhood)”12.
The recommendation is that spiritual life means to cultivate enlightenment by philosophical
study, austerity, and renunciation. These help to dismantle the false ego and to sever the knot
of material attachment within the heart, so that at the time of death one can leave the material
world and finally merge into God’s existence. The pure-monism school is a very prominent
school within various Hindu literature, especially in most of the academic or reference works
used, although the matter remains in dispute.
(iii) A school that proclaims the Lord has a “form”. This school is based on the principles of
“Personalism”13, of which, some key principles are:
(a) The Lord is the Supreme Person, who is eternal and has various person-like qualities, He
knows, He enjoys, and He has power, potencies, or energies to cause things to happen. He is
the cause of all causes and “is not caused” by anything else. He has the capacity to know
everything
(b) There are innumerable living entities/beings (called jivas in Sanskrit) which are qualitatively
the same as the Lord but quantitatively different. They can know and enjoy and can make
choices that influence the course of events in their lives
(c) The living entities (jivas) have an eternal relationship with the Lord.
(iv) A school that focuses worship upon Shakti or Devi – the Hindu Divine Mother – as the
absolute, ultimate Godhead. She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all creation,
as well as its embodiment and the energy that governs and controls it. This school is known as
Shaktism14.

In the Saivite schools, there are many doctrines and these literature deal with worshiping the
Supreme as formless or symbol or through many forms. In Vaisnavism, there are similar philosophies
and some that gives a detailed account of reality in terms of a Personal God, individual souls, time,
matter, and their relationships to each other. In summarising all of the above-mentioned points, these
schools have been technically analyzed and categorised as (i) non-dualist schools (abheda), (i) dualist
schools (bheda) and (iii) schools based on non-dual-with-dualism (bhedābheda) perspectives. The
following section was prepared in response to the previously cited dictionary definition of Hinduism,
and Religion in terms of a Hindu perspective based on the authority of the Vedic philosophy culture
and civilisation or from a “North Indian Literature” perspective. To be more specific, the presentation
is based on the philosophy and authority of Gaudiya Vaisnavism15.

11
Monism: http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta#Salient_features_of_Advaita_Vedanta, and see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartha & also see http://www.shankaracharya.org/
12
Brahman: see monism & http://www.indiadivine.org/articles/91/1/What-is-Mayavada/Page1.html
13
Refer to “A Report on the Gaudiya Vaishnava Vedenta form of Ontology”, page 7.
14
Shaktism, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaktism
15
An important point for the reader to note is that, although I have accepted or adopted a certain faith or lifestyle and
belong to a particular organisation, the contents and presentation of this section does not necessarily represent the
views of any particular individual, any particular organization, nor members of the Hindu or the Indian community of
South Africa.

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5.2.1 Vedic Culture, Philosophy and Civilisation

One may wonder - how comparable or compatible are the Vedic literature to all other scriptures or all
other religious and educational systems? The authoritative source of knowledge upon which human
progress is based or developed is called “science”. The English translation of the Sanskrit word
"Veda" is "knowledge". Sanskrit was the original language of Vedic culture or civilization and Vedic
knowledge is called apauruseya, which means it is not knowledge developed by human beings. Vedic
knowledge appeared at the dawn of the creation of this universe, within the heart of the first created
living being, Lord Brahma, also known as the creator of this universe16. Like all other spiritual or
religious literature, the main message of the Vedas is that there is a God whose abode is the Spiritual
World or Kingdom of God, which is our eternal home. It is a place of bliss where one is situated in
full knowledge and is free from the suffering or miseries one experiences in the material world. In
Vedic times, the primary focus of science was the eternal, not the temporary. Human progress meant
elevation or the advancement of spiritual awareness yielding the soul's release from the entrapment of
this material world. In the Vedic standard or educational system, any inquiry was not restricted to the
world as perceived by modern science. Human progress or advancement was not judged by
industrialisation, massive technological advancement, or the exploitation of the planets resources or
the environment. The economy of a community or country was based on a natural and simple way of
life, with the optimization of “organic and renewable energy sources such as vegetation, wood, water,
and wind”. Good leadership meant to provide shelter or protection for all those under the leader’s
care, which included the people, animals, trees, vegetation and the land. In the village or rural
communities, the land was held in high esteem and it was used in ways that were not very destructive
to the environment or communities. Pastures, forests, and water resources were held in common, and
its use was regulated by the village officials or elders 17. The agricultural system was directed toward
local self-sufficiency and a leader would facilitate or promote this lifestyle.

5.2.2 The Vedic Perspective, based on the authority of Gaudiya Vaisnavism

In terms of a technical perspective, the Vedic scriptures describe the developmental phases of one’s
life as (i) bodily platform, (ii) mental platform, (iii) intellectual platform, and (iv) spiritual platform.
The three aspects of spiritual life are philosophy, culture and civilization. The Vedic philosophy
teaches one about the science and method on making spiritual advancement to achieve the perfection
of life, through the practice of a process known as Yoga (linking to God). Vedic philosophy is based on
the principles of (i) “Reincarnation” (repeated birth and death), (ii) “Natures Law of Karma” (the law
of action and reaction), and (iii) “Sanathan Dharma” (love and service to God). The modern day
education system (science) propagates that “you are this body made up of different chemical elements”.
However, according to the teachings of the Vedic literature, “you are not this body, but a spirit soul
within a material body”. The spirit soul is eternal, it is full of knowledge and bliss; whilst the material
body is temporary, and it is full of ignorance and suffering. In order for one to achieve a higher
spiritual position or to go back to the Kingdom of God, it is based on one’s endeavour, one’s
qualifications (state of consciousness & activities), the mercy of the Lord and His bonafide
representatives. It is not something automatic nor can one progress independently from a bonafide
spiritual authority. It is a scientific process starting with awareness, then developing an
understanding, thereafter valuing, respecting, accepting, surrendering, following and serving under a
bonafide spiritual authority coming through a spiritual disciplic succession.

16
Readers are advised to consult the Brahma Samitha (refer bibliography section)
17
Adapted from a presentation in the book “Environmental Nature”, (refer bibliography section)

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The Vedas describe three paths of elevation (i) pitryana (the path of ancestors), (ii) devayana (the
path of gods), and (iii) Yoga (the path of suitable practice or spiritual endeavor under strict rules and
regulations). The devayana path is very popular, whilst the pitryana path is a ritualistic or customary
practice and not a very prominent tradition. There are different Yoga paths and many yoga
practitioners’ accept that the ultimate path for spiritual elevation is referred to as Bhakti Yoga18 (the
path of transcendence or pure devotional service), which is a path they cite as destined and
guaranteed to eternally free one from all problems or miseries of this material world. There are twenty
kinds of dharma-çästras or scriptures dealing with religious, moral and other principles. According to
careful analysis of the Vedic philosophy, various other authorized scriptural paths or processes to link
with the Lord are accepted. The understanding is that there is a common goal of all these religions,
which is to develop one’s love and service to the Supreme Lord. The main point to note is that the
message or teachings of the Lord were revealed or presented in a particular way at different times to a
different audience according to the time, place, and the prevailing circumstances. The essence of all
teachings is still the same - love and service to the Lord. To understand why there are the various
authorized paths/scriptures, take a dictionary for example - there are pocket versions and huge
unabridged versions. The basic knowledge is the same; however the unabridged version has more
detail, explaining every nuance of any given word. The Vedic literature can be regarded as
“postgraduate religious or spiritual literature” due to the level of detail it contains on all subject matters
and the solutions if offers to all problems. According to the Vedic literature, the entire creation
consists of different planetary systems called Svargalokas, or the higher planetary system,
Martyalokas, or the intermediary planetary system, and Patalalokas, or the lower planetary system.
There are innumerable universes and this earth planet is situated in a universe, which forms part of
the Martyalokas. The Vedic literature describes the activities and the pastimes of the Supreme
Personality of Godhead, in relation to sthity (maintenance), udbhava (creation) and anta
(dissolution). This material manifestation takes place in a repeated cycle of creation, manifestation
and dissolution. Human life is respected as a “rare gift” and the human body is accepted as the “tool”
to practise yoga and for cultivating spiritual knowledge or self-realisation. The scriptures were given
to assist or guide (actually give instructions) about this process. The Vedas are accepted as perfect,
since it provided a home, a solution and a shelter for everyone, irrespective of cast, creed or any other
social background. In this way there was perfect harmony in society. Some key aspects to note about
the teachings from the Vedic literature are:

• “A person has freedom of choice” and has to accept accountability for the choices they make.
There is no question of invoking “fear” to induce someone to following religious or spiritual life.
This is confirmed in the Bhagavada Gita, where Lord Krishna, after explaining and instructing Ar-
juna about the essence of all Vedic Teachings, said: “Thus I have explained to you knowledge still
more confidential. Deliberate on this fully, and then do what you wish to do”. The Vedic injunction or
advice for people regarding how to practise their spiritual life is also found in the Bhagavada Gita,
“It is better to engage in one’s own occupation, even though one may perform it imperfectly, than to ac-
cept another’s occupation and perform it perfectly. Duties prescribed according to one’s nature are nev-
er affected by sinful reactions”;
• In the Vedic tradition or system, it is more important to hear than to see someone. Therefore it is
described that God is to be “seen through your ears”.
• Just like the “check and balanced” system of the science of Accountancy (every debit entry has to
have a credit entry), similarly according to Vedic tradition and injunctions, there is a “check and
balance system” or a principle to verify and interpret the message of the Vedic philosophy, culture
18
Bhakti Yoga, refer Bhagavada Gita, Chapter 6, Text 46

10
 and civilisation. This is referred to as the “Guru, Sastra and Sadhu principle”. In order words there
has to be consensus in the teachings of the Guru and Sadhu (Saintly Persons) with the Scriptures.
• The Vedic teachings emphasise that Service to God is Service to Man, unlike the modern educa-
tion system, which propagates that “Service to Man is Service to God”. The understanding is that
one has to put God in the centre of one’s life and activities. All living entities are parts and parcel
of God. By making God the central focus area, one would naturally be benefitting or satisfying His
Parts and Parcels through their activities or actions;
• The Vedic Literatures are in full agreement with the commandment “Thou shall not kill”. Accord-
ing to Vedic injunction, this applies to all species of life, not just human beings. Formerly the ve-
getarian way of life was a natural aspect of the Vedic culture & civilisation. Those who desired to
eat meat were allowed to do so under restrictions, such as, a Brahmana was required to officiate at
the sacrifice and perform the necessary rituals before the animal’s life was taken. Any person who
could not be a vegetarian was advised not to eat Cows meat (beef), as the cow is respected as a
mother and is even worshipped by the Hindu community. Gradually this value system has de-
clined.
• The Vedic scriptures mention that when elders, brahmanas, cows, women, and children are not
protected, not only does the individual who does not protect them suffer, but the entire com-
munity suffers.
• According to the teachings of the Vedic literature, a learned man shall respect all women other
that his own wife and sister as a mother.
• The Vedic literature describes that there are “Seven limbs of a kingdom”, the king and his minis-
ter, his capital, his realm, his treasury, his army, and his ally are the seven constituent parts (of a
kingdom); (hence) a kingdom is said to have seven limbs (anga), also described as the king, min-
isters, treasury, army, allies, brahmanas & sacrifices, needs of the subjects19.
• In the modern day context, one may argue through logic that one’s sins and virtues are obtained
by our deeds and cannot be freed through rituals or other processes. According to the Vedic con-
ception, there are authorized processes and rituals which have to be performed by the Brahmanas
(priests) in terms of the authorized scriptures.
• Just as the most important requirement for a child destined to inherit the fathers’ wealth is to
“stay alive”, similarly to attain the perfection of life, one has to “stay alive spiritually”.

5.2.3 Karma and Reincarnation

Based on the teachings of the Vedic scriptures, the understanding regarding our existence and life’s
experience is that it is the reactions arising out of one’s own actions or activities, influenced by one’s
own qualities and desires that binds one to this material world. These qualities are described as Käma
(lust), krodha (anger), lobha (greed), moha (illusion), mada (pride) and mätsarya (envy). This
material nature compromises of three modes, known as sattvam (goodness), rajaù (passion) and
tamaù (ignorance) and there are three kinds of distresses namely (i) adhyätmika or distresses due to
this mind and body, (ii) adhibhautika or distresses due to the other living entities, and (iii)
adhidaivika or distresses which is beyond our power or caused by nature. The Bhagavada Gita states
that from the mode of goodness, real knowledge develops; from the mode of passion, greed develops;
and from the mode of ignorance develops foolishness, madness and illusion. When the mode of
passion is prominent, the modes of goodness and ignorance are defeated. When the mode of
goodness is prominent, passion and ignorance are defeated. When the mode of ignorance is
prominent, passion and goodness are defeated. The prominence of a particular mode of nature is
manifested in one’s thoughts, one’s actions (dealings, or activities), and in one’s eating. These are
19
Seven limbs of a kingdom, see http://www.veda.krishna.com/encyclopedia/general.htm#34

11
influenced by one’s previous karma and through one’s association. It is sometimes said, “A person is a
product of their environment and their association”. The symptom of ignorance is laziness and the
symptom of passion means being active and goodness means being sober minded. There are four
different divisions of species (i) living entities which sprout from the earth, (ii) living entities born of
fermentation or germination, (iii) living entities which come from eggs and (iv) living entities which
come from the embryo. These four divisions of living entities are expanded in 8,400,000 species of
life. The Vedic teachings describes a lifecycle as (i) the body is born, (ii) it grows, (iii) it stays, (iv) it
produces by-products, (v) then it begins to decay, and (vi) at the last stage, it vanishes. However, the
soul is eternal and moves into a new body. This is known as the reincarnation process or the cycle of
repeated birth and death.

Some verses from the Vedic scriptures that summaries this science in a very concise way:
• “Covered by the mode of ignorance in material nature, the living entity is sometimes a male, sometimes
a female, sometimes a eunuch, sometimes a human being, sometimes a demigod, sometimes a bird, an
animal, and so on. In this way, he is wandering within the material world. His acceptance of different
types of bodies is brought about by his activities under the influence of the modes of nature”20.
• “As the embodied soul passes from childhood to youth to old age, similarly at the time of death, the soul
transmigrates into another body. A sober minded person is not bewildered by such a change”21
• “Those situated in the mode of goodness gradually go upward to the higher planets; those in the mode
of passion live on the earthly planets; and those in the abominable mode of ignorance go down to the
hellish worlds"22.
• “There are 900,000 species of aquatic life; 2,000,000 species of plants and trees; 1,100,000 species of
insects; 1,000,000 species of bird life; 3,000,000 species of beasts, and 400,000 species of human life”23.
• “One attains the human form of life after transmigrating through 8,400,000 species of life by the pro-
cess of gradual evolution. That human form of life is spoiled for those conceited fools who do not take
shelter of the lotus feet of the Lord”. “The meaning of species understood by biologists is different from
the meaning implied in Vedic literature. The meaning used by biologists applies to the gross physical
appearance or the gross morphological feature of the living material bodies. The Vedic meaning,
however, which is derived after thorough and careful analysis, is based on the level of consciousness of
the living being. For example, biologists say that all human beings belong to one species, whereas the
Vedic literature list 400,000 species of human beings on different levels of consciousness. The living en-
tity changes bodies due to, what is referred to in the Vedic literature, as Karma”24.

The Vedic philosophy describes that the goal of the human form of life is for transformation (to
transcend these three modes of material nature through developing or cultivating spiritual life and serving
the Lord) or to purify oneself through a process called Yoga (linking to God) and to eventually
transcend the reincarnation (cycle of birth and death) process. It is an internal process, sometimes
referred to as “Self Realization”. It is described that the real problems of life are (i) birth, (ii) disease,
(iii) old age and (iv) death. All fears that one may experience is coming from material existence,
which is centered on the principle or cycle of birth and death. Death is described to be the worst of
one’s fear. Many refer to the goal of life as to attain Mokña or “liberation” (freedom from suffering, birth
& death), whilst other schools declare that “liberation” is the beginning stage to practicing genuine
spiritual life. Their point is that there is more to life than freedom of suffering, birth and death. One

20
Srimad Bhagavatam, Canto 4.29.28
21
Bhagavada Gita, 2.13
22
Bhagavada Gita, 14.18
23
From the Viñëu Puräëa, cited in Caitanya Cairitamrta, Madya 19.38, Purport by Srila Prabhupada.
24
From the Srimad Bhagavatam, Purport by Srila Prabhupada

12
has to attain an eternal platform, a stage where one becomes situated in full knowledge and bliss. As
soon as one reaches this stage, one is freed from the real problems of life and one can resume one’s
eternal lifestyle, which is referred to as “Sanathan Dharma” (love and service to God). Some yoga
processes or systems proclaim that this will take lifetimes whilst others propagate that this can be
done in one lifetime through practicing a bonafide yoga process under the direction of a qualified
teacher (bonafide spiritual master / guru) in terms of the guidelines of the authorized Sastras. In
Physical Science, one draws from the works of the great scientist Sir Isaac Newton, especially his
famous theories and laws of physics. Newton Law Three states “for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction”. If one does something good, one would enjoy the fruits of his good deeds and if
one is sinful then one has to suffer the results of the sin. There are no exceptions from the law of
karma for neither one’s innocence nor one’s ignorance. If a child, an adult, or a drunken man places
their hand in a fire, the fire shall burn without any exception. In the bible, it is also stated, “As you
sow, sow shall you reap”. This is a summary of the law of karma and principles of reincarnation.

5.2.4 The Varnasrama System

Vedic culture was centred on a natural system which appears in all societies over the world, known,
in Vedic terminology, as the Varnasrama system. This is a system of four social divisions and four
social orders of life. The four social divisions of life are (i) Brahmanas, who are accepted as the
teachers and priests; (ii) the Kshatriyas, who are accepted as warriors, nobles, or kings; (iii) the
Vaishyas, who are accepted as farmers, merchants, or business persons; and (iv) the Sudras, who are
regarded as the servants and laborers. The four Social Orders are (i) Brahamacaya (celibate student
life); (ii) Grhasthas (married); (iii) Vanaprastha (retired); and (iv) Sanyasi (renounced, ascetic life
(monk). It is described that such divisions existed in the best interest of human society, otherwise no
social institution can grow in a healthy state in each and every one of the divisions and social orders
of life as listed above. However, in the Vedic culture and civilisation this system apparently failed due
to human interference or manipulations and the adoption of a democratic way of lifestyle. The
administrators or members of the “higher order of social life” who were responsible for this “adjusted
varnasrama system” are noted for the exploitation of the innocent or masses in what has become
known as the famous “Caste System”, a subject matter which is a not part of the presentation or
discussions of this book.

5.2.5 Conclusions

Formerly the Vedic culture, flourished all over the world with India in the centre. Not only are the
Vedas the most ancient literary works on Earth, it also contains a very diverse and wide scope of
knowledge, covering both material and spiritual matters. The Vedic literature, especially the Vedas,
had an even more profound importance than science has ever had for their followers,
Past/Present/Future. In the dictionary, God was defined as a “superhuman being or spirit worshipped as
having power over nature, human fortunes, etc; (ii) an image, idol, animal, or other object worshipped as
divine or symbolizing a god, (iii) the creator and ruler of the universe, the supreme being, (iv) an adored,
admired, or influential person”. However, according to the Vedic scriptures, Parasara Muni, the great
sage, speaker of the Visnu Purana, and the father of Srila Vyäsadeva, gave the following definition of
God. “The Supreme Personality is known as Bhagavän, the proprietor of all riches, the one who is full in
six opulence’s, (second to none) - who has full strength, fame, wealth, knowledge, beauty, and
renunciation25”. The reader should take note that no other scriptures nor science nor any other
educational system has provided such a clear and concise definition of God.
25
This definition appears in the Vishnu Purana and is cited form the book “Science of Self Realisation”.

13
5.3 Responses to Western Exploration and Perception of the Asian Scriptures

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Western or European scholars and scientists began to
come into closer and deeper contact with the culture of India. Many were impressed by the antiquity
of India’s civilization and the in-depth spiritual and material knowledge contained in its’ literature;
whilst other European intellectuals were dismayed by these developments. During the period, 1879
and 1910 the Oxford University Press published a monumental 50-volume set of English translations
of Asian religious writings, titled Sacred Books of the East. The team was led by Friedrich Max
Müller, a German philologist and Orientalist. Max Müller was one of the founders of Indian studies,
and he is highly respected for his contribution in the discipline of comparative religion. Müller wrote
both scholarly and popular works on this subject to the British reading public, and edited the Sacred
Books of the East26, which stands as an enduring monument to Victorian scholarship. The following is
an extract from The Sacred Books of the East (the Preface):-

“We must realize, as well as we can, the thoughts of the ancient Rishis, before we can hope to translate
them. It is not enough simply to read the half-religious, half-philosophical utterances, which we find in the
Sacred Books of the East, and to say that they are strange, or obscure, or mystic. Plato is strange, until we
know him; Berkeley is mystic, until for a time we have identified ourselves with him. So it is with these
ancient sages, who have become the founders of the great religions of antiquity. They can never be judged
from without, they must be judged from within. We need not become Brahmans or Buddhists or Taosze
altogether, but we must for a time, if we wish to understand, and still more, if we are bold enough to
undertake to translate their doctrines. If some of those who read and mark these translations learn how to
discover some such precious grains in the sacred books of other nations our labour will not have been in
vain, for there is no lesson which at the present time seems more important than to learn that in every
religion there are such precious grains; that we must draw in every religion a broad distinction between
what is essential and what is not, between the eternal and the temporary, between the divine and the
human; and that though the non-essential may fill many volumes, the essential can often be comprehended
in a few words, but words on which 'hang all the law and the prophets”.

The reader should take note that the Hindu community did not accept this work or publication as a
true reflection of their philosophy, culture, and civilisation. Coincidently, it was during this time,
India was ruled by the British Empire. The traditional, spiritual, religious and cultural practises began
to decline and there appeared to be some deviations creeping into society on the basis of religion.
There were many persons who responded to the prevailing situation of those times, mainly the
priestly and intellectual class; details of some historical personalities and organisations are mentioned
herein. One famous ambassador of India was His Holiness Swami Vivekananda, who even had
personal interactions with Max Müller. In 1893, the city of Chicago hosted the World Columbian
Exposition, which was attended by people from all parts of the world. Many smaller conferences,
called Congresses and Parliaments, were scheduled to take advantage of the gathering at the World
Columbian Exposition in Chicago. One of these was the World’s Parliament of Religions27, which
marked the first formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions.
Apparently, Swami Vivekananda was encouraged by a Professor J.H. Wright from Harvard University
to represent Hinduism at the 1893 World Parliament of Religions. His speech is believed to mark the
beginning of Western interest and belief that Hindu philosophy, culture and civilisation had
important lessons to teach the rest of the world. The Chicago’s event has since become recognized as

26
Sacred Books of the East, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Books_of_the_East.
27
World’s Parliament of Religions , see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda

14
the occasion of the birth of worldwide formal interreligious dialogues. Swami Vivekananda
introduced yoga and Vedanta philosophy to the West and lectured around America on various related
topics. Later, he established the Ramakrishna Movement, which is now based in all parts of the world
and offering a wide range of services for the social, religious and cultural upliftment of society. The
great spiritualist, theologian, and devotional scholar, Srila Bhaktivinoda Öhäkura 28, was one of the
many persons who responded to the foreign interests to unlock the treasures of the Vedic heritage. In
1899, he compiled a thirty-two page English letter written to the Tract Society of Calcutta.
Apparently in their periodical they had published an article entitled “Prof. Max Muller on Durgä”, in
which Kälé, Durgä and Çiva were slandered from the Christian viewpoint. So Bhaktivinoda wrote this
exhaustive response, quoting from the Vedas and Puranas on the true identity of the personalities in
question. He concluded by assuming the proper Christian attitude of universal love, which is devoid
of sectarian dogmatism, and humbly begged the reverend gentlemen of the Tract Society to give up
their philosophical inconsistencies29. Throughout his life, he compiled various works, including
literature in the English language, to clarify any misrepresentations of the Vedic philosophy, culture,
and religion by the foreign scholars or so called local spiritual authorities. Srila Bhaktivinoda Öhäkura
was a descendant of the Gaudiya Viasnava tradition and compiled the Baula-saìgéta in 1893. He saw
that the Indian society at that time had become overrun with many different types of pretentious so-
called viañëavas. One group, known as “Baula”, or transcendental madmen, used to wander all
around the countryside singing bogus songs and begging alms. Recognising the value attached to
music, especially the practise of singing “folk songs” in Indian culture, he strategically wrote twelve
songs. This collection, known as the Baula-saìgéta targeted the masses, where he described the
various forms of cheating Baulas, exposing their deceptive hypocrisy, and finally proposed the correct
behaviour for the Viasnava according to the authorized scriptures. For the English speaking world, he
composed the Saragrahi Viasnava30, a conclusive summary of the entire Vedic philosophy, culture and
civilisation; compiled in esoterically styled or classical poetry. Srila Bhaktivinoda Öhäkura was the
pioneer architect and engineer of the Hare Krishna Movement, whose Founder Äcärya started a
spiritual revolution outside India in more recent times to fulfil scriptural predications, (i) that the
chanting of “Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare; Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama
Rama Hare Hare” will be spread to every town and village throughout the world, (ii) westerners will
congregate at a place in India called Navadwip Dham to collectively sing/chant this Mantra and (iii)
they would establish a Temple there. In 1875, His Holiness Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded
another giant organisation, the Araya Samaj, which quickly developed into a prominent worldwide
movement. He is regarded as a scholar of the Vedas, who believed in its infallible authority. The Arya
Samaj was initiated with the vision that the followers of Vedic Dharma could share and promote their
great message for the upliftment of society, irrespective of ethnic or social background. The mission
of the Araya Samaj was to unite people and to foster a missionary spirit within the Hindu community.
A study of the history of Hinduism in South Africa is incomplete without acknowledging the role of
the Araya Samaj, especially (i) for their vision and role to establish the umbrella body for the Hindus,
the South African Hindu Maha Sabha; (ii) their youth development programs; (iii) their
empowerment and development programs for women31; (iv) their role in establishing facilities to care
for “old aged” persons. Another prominent and long standing or serving organisation based in South
Africa is the Divine Life Society32, originally founded in India by His Holiness Sivananda Swami and
established in South Africa by His Holiness Swami Sahajananda. Formerly a student at the Medical
28
Srila Bhaktivinoda Öhäkura, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhaktivinoda_Thakura
29
The literary works of Sréla Thäkura Bhaktivinoda 1838-1914, was compiled by Daçaratha-suta däsa and published in
the Bhaktivedanta Vedabase
30
This Poem was composed in 1871as Säragrähé Vaiñëava (The Devotee Who Grasps the Essence)
31
Readers are recommended to read, “Women in Arya Samaj”
32
Readers are recommended to read, “Divine Life Society of South Africa, Projects 1974 – 2006”

15
Institute, Swami Sivananda boldly declared, “Book knowledge will not take us far. I studied anatomy, I
dissected the human body, but I could not find the Atman within” 33. The founders of all the above-
mentioned organisations had the following in common (i) they grew up in a Hindu/Islam diverse
society and were well versed in both the Hindu and Islam scriptures or their respective cultural
aspects; (ii) they were raised during British rule and received “British Education”; (iii) they were
experts in their own right or “Victorian Scholars” of other religions, such as Jainism, Sikhism,
Christianity; (iv) they accepted Islam & Christianity as Bonafide religions and were able to influence
millions of Hindus to respectfully do so, and (vii) they belonged to a traditional disciplic succession 34.
In more recent times, the Sri Sathya Sai Baba Organisation, with its roots based in India emerged into
one of the fastest growing worldwide movements, to embrace all religions with love. Sai Baba states,
“I have come to light the lamp of Love in your hearts, to see that it shines day by day with added luster. I
have not come on behalf of any exclusive religion. I have not come on a mission of publicity for a sect or
creed or cause, nor have I come to collect followers for a doctrine. I have no plan to attract disciples or
devotees into my fold or any fold. I have come to tell you of this unitary faith, this spiritual principle, this
path of Love, this virtue of Love, this duty of Love, this obligation of Love”35.

5.4 A Partial Summary of some “Key Scriptures” grouped under Hinduism

5.4.1 South Indian Literature36

SECTION REMARKS
TAMIL LITERATURE The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature
Silappatikaram Poetic rendition with details of Tamil culture - its varied religions; its town plans
and city types; the mingling of Greek, Arab & Tamil people; and the arts of dance
& music
Manimekalai A masterpiece of Tamil literature, a continuation of Silappatikaram and is
considered Buddhist by religion.
Civaka Cintamani It belongs to the Sangam tradition of Tamil literature, a Jain religious epic,
authored by the Jain saint Tirutakkatevar.
Valayaapathi Known by fragments and mainly through “oral” tradition.
Kundalakesi Known by fragments and mainly through “oral” tradition.
TAMIL LITERATURE Its History and Development
Sangam Age The “Golden Age” of Tamil Culture and Civilisation
Post-Sangam period Didactic age, Hindu devotional period, Narrative epics, Medieval literature,
Vijayanagar, Nayak period, Modern era
TELUGU LITERATURE The Main Literature or Reference Scriptures
Early Literature Not well preserved. It is believed to be known by fragments and through the
literary tradition (oral tradition).
Andhra Mahabharatamu by a Telugu retelling of the Mahabharata, completed by Nannaya, Tikanna and
Nannayya Bhattaraka Yerrapragada, known as the Kavitraya or the three great Telugu poets.
Other Translations Marana’s (Markandeya Puranam), Ketana’s (Dasakumara Charita), Yerrapragada’s

33
Refer to the book “From Man to God-Man”, page 11.
34
Although “traditional disciplic successions” is not the main subject matter of this book, brief details are provided later
in this presentation
35
Quotation of 4 July 1968, cited in the website http://www.sathyasai.org
36
South Indian literature: see Tamil literature, Telugu literature, Kannada literature, and Malayalam literature

16
 (Harivamsam), and some other scientific works like Ganitasarasangrahamu by
Pavuluri Mallana and Prakirnaganitamu by Eluganti Peddana
TELUGU LITERATURE Its History and Development
Sri Krishnadevaraya A Poet and a King of Vijayanagara empire. Considered a hero of the people of
Kannada and Telugu descent and one of the great kings of India.
Great Poets and their Works Srinathudu’s Sringara Naishadham, Potana’s Dasamaskandham, Jakkana’s
Vikramarka Charitra and Talapaka Timmakka’s Subhadra Kalyanam.
KANNADA LITERATURE Its History and Development
Religious / Spiritual Affiliation Jain, Veerashaiva (followers of lord Siva) and Vaishnava (followers of lord Vishnu)
Kavirajamarga "Royal Path for Poets" and was used as a guidebook for poets and scholars
(Kavishiksha).
Shabdamanidarpana Comprehensive & authoritative work on grammar
MALAYALAM Its History and Development
LITERATURE
Bhashakautiliyam First Malayalam Prose Work
Lilathilakam First Malayalam grammar/literary treatise
Krishna Gatha Cherusseri’s Works
Ramayan & Mahabharata By Thunchath Ezhuthachan
Table 5.4 – A Partial Summary of South Indian Literature / Tree of Knowledge

5.4.1.1 Tamil literature

Tamil literature37 has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than two thousand years. In
terms of its history and development there are two periods: (1) Sangum Age and (2) the Post-Sangam
period - compromising of (a) Didactic age, (b) Hindu devotional period, (c) Narrative epics, (d)
Medieval literature, (e) Vijayanagar, (f) Nayak period, and (g) Modern era. The Sangam age is
considered as “the golden era” in which various literature was complied in the Tamil language. Since
I am not an expert or familiar with Tamil Literature, I have extracted a section from a conference
paper (the introduction section) by Professor Mu.Varadarajan38 on the Ettuthokai (Sangam literature) to
provide some useful information to the reader.

“The eight anthologies called Ettuthokai form part of early Tamil literature known as Sangam literature
written eighteen centuries ago. They consist of two thousand three hundred and seventy-one poems varying
from small stanzas of three lines in Ainkurunuru to stanzas of forty lines in Purananuru. There are four
hundred and seventy poets known either by their proper names or by causal names called from their
works. The authors are unidentified in the case of a hundred stanzas. The poets belonged to different parts
of Tamilnad and to different professions. Some of them were very popular like Kapilar, Nakkirar and
Auvaiyar and some others are rarely remembered by their names. Yet a general harmony prevails
throughout these eight anthologies. The tone and temper of the age is reflected in all their poems with a
singular likeness. They were moulded according to certain literary conventions or traditions that prevailed
in the Sangam age. Yet they reveal the individual genius of the poets who sang them.

The convention of the later days that poetry should deal with the four aspects of life, viz aram (virtue),
porul, (wealth and politics), inpam (love and pleasure) and vitu (salvation), was not prevalent, in those
early days. The poets sang of either Akam or Puram. Akam dealt with ideal love and Puram with the rest,
viz. war, munificence, etc.
37
Tamil literature: see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_literature
38
The paper of Professor Mu.Varadarajan was presented at the first International Conference of Tamil Studies, held at
the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, between 16th & 23rd April 1966. See
http://www.tamilnation.org/conferences/IATR66_Kuala_Lumpur/index.htm#Xavier

17
Of the eight anthologies, five are on Akam, two on Puram, and one on both. Six of them are in 'akaval'
metre which is a kind of blank verse, interspersed with alliterations and rhymes. The poems on Akam as
well as Puram theme are written in this metre and its regulated and subtle music adds to the poetic beauty.
This metre is a simple but wonderful instrument, which causes no impediment to the freedom of expression
of the poet. In has been found to be an appropriate and natural medium for the expression of the valuable
experience of the poets. The other two anthologies that are not written in `akaval' metre are Kalittokai and
Paripatal. The poems of Kalittokai are in Kali metre which is well known for its dramatic and lyrical
qualities and which, according to Tolkappiyanar, is well suited to express the emotions of the lovers. There
is repetition of certain lines and phrases and this, added to the haunting music of the metre, is very
appealing. Paripatal is a metre full of rhythm and music and the anthology known by this name consists of
songs composed in this metre. There are religious poems as well as those on love-themes. The love-theme is
worked against the background of bathing festivities. These songs were sung in different tunes as is evident
from the notes on the music at the end of these. The names of the musicians who set tunes to these songs are
also mentioned therein.

EARLY LITERATURE REMARKS

Sangam Literature
(1) 'Eight Anthologies'
(1) pattupaatu
Other Literature
Panniru Thirumurai
The Works of the 63 Tamil Saivite
Nayanars (Great Saints)
(1) sthothiram (stothram)
(2) chaaththiram (shaastram)
(3) prabhantam (assorted)
(4) Puranam (history)
Nalayira Divya Prabandha
The works of the 12 Alvar Bhaktas
(Great Tamil Poets)
Tiruvaymoli by Divya Prabandha
Mukunda-mälä-stotra
Thirukkral
By the Great Tamil poet,
Thiruvalluvar
consists of three books,
The Works of the 473 Tamil Poets, 18 volumes, of a total
2371 Poems - the earliest known Tamil Literature
“Ten Idylls”, 1st ten volumes
“Eight Anthologies”, remaining eight volumes
REMARKS
Saint Nambiyandar Nambi compiled a complete series of
their literatures into twelve major volumes (Tirumurais),
which are arranged into four categories
Hymns in praise (thirumurais 1-9)
Guidelines or philosophical treatises (10th thirumurai)
Songs composed of various language constructs (11th
thirumurai)
Historical recount (12th thirumurai).
REMARKS
Compiled by the great scholar/saint Nathamuni.
Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand' verses.
Also known as “Tamil Veda” or Divine Collection.
Words of the Sacred Mouth - is one of the Divya Prabandha,
an important liturgical compilation of the Alvars.
A Sanskrit works compiled by the Älvär, King Kulaçekhara
REMARKS
Discusses various aspects of life. An important works in
Tamil. Known by other names such as - amilmarai (Tamil
Veda), poyyamozhi (speech that does not lie), and teyva nul
(divine text).
First book on aram (the way or dharma), the second on
porul (material or artha), and the third on inbam (joy or

18
 kama).
Note: The Kural Is one of the most important forms of classical Tamil poetry
– a very short poetic form or style
The Naladiyar of Four Hundred REMARKS
Quatrains
Compiled by Tamil Poets Forty chapters, of ten stanzas each, on moral subjects
Table 5.5 Partial Summary of the Tamil Literature

5.4.1.1.1 The Panniru Thirumurai

The Panniru Thirumurai39 is a set of scriptures written in Tamil and forms the fountainhead of the
Saivite philosophy and culture. The Panniru Thirumurai comprises of the writings in the form of
poetry and songs of sixty-three Tamil Saivite Nayanars40 (Great Saints). These great saints were from
Southern India, especially Tamil Nadu, and were mostly responsible for development and
preservation of Saivism. Their literature paved the way for devotional literature in other regions to
appear in their regional languages instead of Sanskrit; and occupy a special place in Indian or Hindu
religious literature. The Thirumurais have been named numerically as the 1st Thirumurai (Book 1),
2nd Thirumurai (Book 2), etc. Of these, the compositions of Saint Thiru-jnana sambanthar are divided
into the first three books (Thirumurai 1-3). Thirumurais 4-6 are the hymns of Saint Thiru-navukk-
arasar (Appar), who was a contemporary of Sambanthar. Thirumurai 7 contains the hymns of Saint
Sundarar. All these seven books are collectively called Thevaaram. The 8th Thirumurai is by Saint
Manikkavasagar and contains two works, namely Thiruvaasagam and Thirukkovaiyaar. The 9th
Thirumurai is known as Thiruvisaippaa and Thiruppallaandu, which together comprise an anthology
of hymns by nine saints. Thirumanthiram is by Saint Thirumular who was a Siddhar (mystic Yoga
Practioner) is the 10th Thirumurai. He has described various aspects including Science, Medicine,
Human aspects of Life, Lord Shiva the mystery of yoga and tantra in the Thirumandhiram. The 11th
Thirumurai contains the hymns of ten saints, including Saint Nakkeerar and Saint Nambi-Andar-
Nambi and is called Prabhantams. The 12th Thirumurai is the Periya Puraanam by Saint Sekkilaar,
narrating the legendary poetic account of the lives and time of the sixty-three Nayanars.

5.4.1.1.2 The Nalayira Prabandham (Devotional Poems of the Älvärs)

There were twelve Älvärs41 (great ecstatic mystic poets), whose devotional poetry was composed in
the Tamil language. In later years, the great Saint Nathamuni collected all available poems and hymns
of the twelve Älvär Saints into a monumental collection work, known as the Nalayira Prabandham 42.
This works is also called the Anubhava Vedanta. The great Älvär, Nammalvar, composed the
Tiruväymoli43 (sometimes referred to as the four Tamil Vedas). Another Älvär, King Kulaçekhara is said
to have composed two great works: (1) the Mukunda-mälä-stotra (in Sanskrit) as part of his
expression of devotion to the Lord and his eagerness to share his good fortune with everyone else;
and (2) a total of 105 Tamil hymns at Çré Raìgam Kulaçekhara. These works were later incorporated
into the Tiruväymoli under the title Perumäl-tirumoli44.

39
Panniru Thirumurai: see http://www.shaivam.org/siddhanta/thiru.html
40
Nayanars, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayanars
41
Älvärs, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alwars
42
Nalayira Prabandham, see http://www.kamat.com/indica/faiths/bhakti/alvars.htm and see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divya_Prabandha
43
Tiruväymoli, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiruvaymoli
44
Perumäl-tirumoli: Information sourced from Mukunda-mälä-stotra

19
5.4.1.1.3 The Naladiyar of Four Hundred Quatrains

The Naladiyar of Four Hundred Quatrains45 is also considered one of the original works in Tamil. The
Naladiyar contains altogether forty chapters, of ten stanzas each, on moral subjects which are listed as
follows:- Chapter 1--Unstable Wealth, Chapter 2--Unstable Youth, Chapter 3--The Unstable Body,
Chapter 4--The Source Of The Power Of Virtue, Chapter 5--The Impure Body, Chapter 6--Asceticism
Chapter, 7--Placidity, Chapter 8--Patience, Chapter 9--Not Coveting Another's Wife, Chapter 10--
Liberality, Chapter 11--The Effect Of Actions Done In A Former Birth, Chapter 12--Truth, Chapter
13--The Fear Of Misconduct Chapter 14--Learning, Chapter 15--High Birth, Chapter 16--The Good,
Chapter 17--Against Reproaching The Great, Chapter 18--Good Society, Chapter 19--Greatness,
Chapter 20--Perseverance, Chapter 21--The Union Of Relations, Chapter 22--The Choice Of Friends,
Chapter 23--The Bearing With The Faults Of Others, Chapter 24--Improper Friendship, Chapter 25--
The Possession Of Understanding, Chapter 26--The Want Of Understanding, Chapter 27--Riches
Without Goodness, Chapter 28--Illiberality, Chapter 29--Poverty, Chapter 30--Innocence, Chapter
31--Dread Of Mendicity, Chapter 32--Experience In (Conducting Of) Assemblies, Chapter 33--
Defective Knowledge, Chapter 34--Ignorance, Chapter 35--Meanness, Chapter 36--Baseness Or Envy,
Chapter 37--Miscellanies, Chapter 38--Courtesans, Chapter 39--Chaste Women, Chapter 40.
The origin of the name has been recorded in the introduction of Father Beschi's Shen Tamil Grammar
as follows:

"Eight thousand poets visited the court of a certain prince, who, being a lover of the Muses, treated
them with kindness and received them into favour; this excited the envy of the bards who already
enjoyed the royal patronage, and in a short time they succeeded so completely in their attempt to
prejudice their master against the new comers that the latter found it necessary to consult their safety
by flight, and, without taking leave of their host, decamped in the dead of night. Prior to their
departure, each poet wrote a venba on a scroll, which he deposited under his pillow. When this was
made known, the king, who still listened to the counsels of the envious poets, ordered the scrolls to
be collected and thrown into a river, when four hundred of them were observed to ascend, for the
space of four feet, naladi, against the stream. The king, moved by this miraculous occurrence,
directed that these scrolls should be preserved, and they were accordingly formed into a work, which
from the foregoing circumstance received the name of Naladiyar."

5.4.1.2 Telugu literature

The works of the Kavitraya’s (the three great Telegu poets) called Andhra Mahabharatamu as well as
the later works of Marana (Markandeya Puranam), Ketana (Dasakumara Charita), and of
Yerrapragada’s (Harivamsam) are the earliest translations of the Mahabharata. Later on some of other
original Telugu literature46 were compiled by Srinathudu (Sringara Naishadham), Potana
(Dasamaskandham), Jakkana (Vikramarka Charitra), and Talapaka Timmakka (Subhadra Kalyanam).

5.4.1.3 Kannada literature

45
Direct quotation about the Naladiyar: According to The Indian Antiquary, a Journal of Oriental Research: see
http://www.sacred-texts.com/journals/ia/nldr.htm
46
Telugu literature – see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_literature

20
Kannada literature47 is the body of literature of Kannada, a Dravidian language spoken mainly in the
Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Kannada script. Its literary characteristics and philosophy
can be traced to three distinctive groupings: (1) Jain, (2) Veerasaiva and (3) Viasnava.

5.4.1.4 Malayalam literature

The Malayalam literature48 was written in the Malayalam language, which is a Dravidian language
spoken by the people, mainly the inhabitants from the state of Kerala and the union territory of
Lakshadweep Islands in India.

5.4.2 North Indian Literature

5.4.2.1 The Vedic literature

The Vedic literature is divided into two sections, namely SRUTI (refers to that which was heard) and
SMRTI (refers to that which was remembered). The third category is called NYAYA-SASTRA, the
“scriptures of philosophical disputation” or scriptures that carefully examines and judges all previous
scriptures and all other systems of philosophies. There is difference in opinions about the oldest or
the root Vedic scripture. Some say it is the Rg (Rig) Veda and others say it may have been the Atharva
Veda. This original Vedas was divided into four parts by Srila Vyäsadeva totalling 4520 titles namely
1130 Samhitas, 1130 Brahmanas, 1130 Aranyakas, and 1130 Upanisads. After compiling other
scriptures, he compiled the Vedänta-sütra and finally a commentary thereof. According to history49, it
is described that while Vyäsadeva was compiling the Vedänta-sütra, seven of his great saintly
contemporary sages were also engaged in similar work. These saints were Ätreya Åñi, Äçmarathya,
Auòulomi, Kärñëäjini, Käçakåtsna, Jaimini and Bädaré. In addition, it is stated that Päräçaré and
Karmandé-bhikñu also discussed the Vedänta-sütra aphorisms before Vyäsadeva. There are six
systems of philosophies based on the Vedas by the following great sages, namely (i) Kaëäda50, the
author of Vaiçeñika philosophy; (ii) Gautama51, the author of logic; (iii) Pataïjali52, the author of
mystic yoga; (iv) Kapila53, the author of Säìkhya philosophy; (v) Jaimini 54, the author of Mémäàsä;
and (vi) Srila Vyäsadeva55, the author of Vedänta-darçana, which is the most popular and detailed
system. The six great philosophers of the Vedas may have appeared either before or after Vyäsadeva
on this planet. The later great saints have explained that the Vedic Sages developed the different
sections of the Vedic knowledge to assist and guide people from all walks of life. Their primary
interest was to provide education, the main purpose being for the elevation (transformation) of the
human beings to transcendental (spiritual) life and free them from the activities of material enjoyment or
material distress. By the influence of time, however, most texts of the Vedic literature were lost, stolen
and destroyed. In the 15th century, it was estimated by Srila Jiva Goswami, a great Gaudiya Viasnava
Äcärya and a foremost scholar, in his research titled, Tattva-sandarbha56, that only 6% of the original

47
Kannada literature, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannada_literature
48
Refer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam_literature and see http://kerals.com/malayalam/literature.htm
49
Source, cc Adi 7, Text 106, purport by Srila Prabhupada
50
Kaëäda see, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaisheshika
51
Gautama, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya
52
Patanjali Yoga Sutras, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali
53
Kapila, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankhya.
54
Jaimini , see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimamsa
55
Srila Vyäsadeva , see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanta
56
Tattva-sandarbha Refer bibliography section, further recommended reading

21
Vedic literature was available during those times. Although, there are different theories and
differences in opinions about the actual composition of the Vedic Scriptures, there is general
consensus about the authority of the Vedas and Upanisads and the existence of the six systems of
philosophy developed from the Vedas, which can be summarised as follows:

i. Säìkhya: explains the evolution of natural elements from subtle to gross. In the western
education this corresponds to the study of “metaphysics”,
ii. Yoga: describes the eightfold method of meditation or spiritual practice,
iii. Nyäya: the science of critical study or logic – it is a system that analyzes the nature and
source of knowledge, its validity and non-validity
iv. Vaiçeñika: considers the basic metaphysical categories of reality, also referred to as atomic
theory
v. Mémäàsä: establishes the standard tools of scriptural interpretation or deals with
hermeneutics and rituals
vi. Vedänta: means to inquire about the conclusion of all knowledge or the Absolute Truth (i.e.
What is the source of everything)

SECTION REMARKS
SRUTI-SASTRA - (that which was heard)
Rg (Rig) Veda This is the Original Veda that was divided into four parts - Samhita,
Brahmana, Aranyaka, Upanishad
Samhita (four Vedas) Rg (Rig) Veda - Veda of praise, Sama Veda - Veda of chants, Yajur Veda -
sacrifices, Atharva Veda – chants and rites
Brahmana Rituals and sacrifices
Aranyaka Treatises for renunciants (Sanyasi or Monks)
Upanisads (Total-108) Philosophy, meditation, the nature of God, self realization
SMRTI-SASTRA - (that which was remembered)
Puranas Stories, history, philosophy - Maha Puranas & Upapuranas
Itihasas Histories - Mahabharata and Ramayana
Agamas Worship of the Lord. (Tantras, Mantras, and Yantras.)
Dharma Sastras Religious principles or God’s laws for Mankind (twenty parts or sections)
Upavedas Ancillary Vedas - Ayurveda, Dhanur Veda, Gandharva Veda, Sthapatya Veda.
The Artha Sastra also considered belonging here.
Vedanga Parts of the body of the Vedas - Siksha, Chandas, Vyakarana, Nirukta,
Jyotisha, Kalpa
Sad-Darsanas • Six Systems of Philosophy – Säìkhya, Yoga, Nyäya, Vaiçeñika,
Mémäàsä, Vedänta
• Presentations of a more developed and comprehensive explanation of
different aspects of Vedic knowledge.
• The sad-darsanas are termed astika philosophies because they all
acknowledge the Veda as authoritative.
Authorised (Bonafide) Refers to the Works of the great sages, risis, saints, and their representatives
Translations and coming in a bonafide disciplic succession in pursuance of the conclusions of the
Commentaries Vedic literature.
NYAYA-SASTRA - Scripture of philosophical disputation.

22
 Vedänta-sutra The only scripture that carefully examines and judges all systems of Vedic
philosophy (as well as all other philosophies)
TECHNICAL DIVISIONS - the two classifications of educational literature
OF KNOWLEDGE
para Vidya Literature on Transcendental knowledge (spiritual)
apara vidya Everything else – including literature dealing with (1) dharma (religion), (2)
artha (economic development), (3) Kama (sense gratification), (4) moksa
(liberation)
The Main Sources of referred to as Prasthanatrayi are (i) Bhagavad-gita, (ii) the principle
Scriptural Evidence Upanisads and (iii) the Brahmasutras
The three prasthänas on i. nyäya-prasthäna (Vedänta philosophy),
the path of advancement ii. çruti-prasthäna (the Upanisads and Vedic mantras) and
in spiritual knowledge iii. småti-prasthäna (the Bhagavad-gétä, Mahäbhärata, Puräëas).
Table 5.7 - Summary of the Vedic Tree of Knowledge (North Indian Literature)

• The Vedas

The Rg (Rig)57 is the original Veda. Later everything was divided and composed of four portions, i.e.
Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanisads. The Samhita refer to four Vedas. The Rg Veda was
divided into the four Vedas, namely the Rg (Rig), Sama, Yajur, and Atharva. According to the
Muktikopnishad these four Vedas originally had 21; 109; 1,000 and 50 branches respectively; having
a total of approximately 100,000 verses in their 1,180 branches. Every branch has four subdivisions
called Samhita (or Mantra), Brahmana (contains mantras and prayers), Aranyaka and Upanisad (both
with philosophical contents). In summary, the Vedas consist of 1130 Samhitas, 1130 Brahmanas,
1130 Aranyakas, and 1130 Upanisads, a total of 4520 titles.58 The Vedas are mainly hymns, chanted
by Brahmanas (Priests), in praise of the gods. The Åg Veda, “the Veda of praise,” consists of 1,017
hymns arranged in ten books. Most of the verses are in praise of Agni, the god of fire, and Indra, the
god of rain and the heavens. Their use is confined to those (Brahmanas) trained in the disciplines of
spiritual life. The Yajur Veda59 contains instructions for performing sacrifices and is known as the
“sacrificial Veda”. The Säma Veda60 is the “Veda of chants” and consists of 1,549 verses. The Atharva
Veda61 contains chants and rites, often for healing sickness.

• Upanisads

The philosophical aspects of all the important processes and practices of knowledge (known as
vidyas) from the Vedas are discussed in the Upanisads. The Upanisads primarily discuss philosophy,
meditation, and the nature of God. The sections covering the details for spiritual realization are found
in the Upanisads. The Upanisads main conclusion is that they establish the Absolute as nonmaterial.
The Äcäryas explain that the wisdom of the Upanisads transcends the karma-käëòa portions of the
four Vedas through transcendental knowledge. In the Muktikopanisad, verses 30-39, there is a
description of the 108 Upanisads62. They are as follows:-

57
Rg Veda, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda
58
Source, see http://www.veda.krishna.com/encyclopedia/scriptures.htm
59
Yajur Veda, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yajurveda
60
Säma Veda, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaveda
61
Atharva Veda, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atharvaveda
62
List of 108 Upanisads, see Caitanya Caritamrta Adi 7, TEXT 108

23
(1) Isopanisad, (2) Kenopanisad, (3) Kathopanisad, (4) Prasnopanisad, (5) Mundakopanisad, (6)
Mandukyopanisad, (7) Taittiriyopanisad, (8) Aitareyopanisad, (9) Chandogyopanisad, (10) Brhad-
aranyakopanisad, (11) Brahmopanisad, (12) Kaivalyopanisad, (13) Jabalopanisad, (14)
Svetasvataropanisad, (15) Hamsopanisad, (16) Aruneyopanisad, (17) Garbhopanisad, (18)
Narayanopanisad, (19) Paramahamsopanisad, (20) Amrta-bindupanisad, (21) Amrta-nadopanisad,
(22) Siropanisad, (23) Atharva-sikhopanisad, (24) Maitrayany-upanisad, (25) Kausitaky-upanisad,
(26) Brhaj- jabalopanisad, (27) Nrsimha-tapaniyopanisad, (28) Kalagni-rudropanisad, (29) Maitreyy-
upanisad, (30) Subalopanisad, (31) Ksurikopanisad, (32) Mantrikopanisad, (33) Sarva-saropanisad,
(34) Niralambopanisad, (35) Suka-rahasyopanisad, (36) Vajra-sucikopanisad, (37) Tejo-
bindupanisad, (38) Nada-bindupanisad, (39) Dhyana-bindupanisad, (40) Brahma-vidyopanisad, (41)
Yoga- tattvopanisad, (42) Atma-bodhopanisad, (43) Narada-parivrajakopanisad, (44) Trisikhy-
upanisad, (45) Sitopanisad, (46) Yoga-cudamany-upanisad, (47) Nirvanopanisad, (48) Mandala-
brahmanopanisad, (49) Daksina-murty-upanisad, (50) Sarabhopanisad, (51) Skandopanisad, (52)
Mahanarayanopanisad, (53) Advaya-tarakopanisad, (54) Rama-rahasyopanisad, (55) Rama-tapany-
upanisad, (56) Vasudevopanisad, (57) Mudgalopanisad, (58) Sandilyopanisad, (59) Paingalopanisad,
(60) Bhiksupanisad, (61) Mahad-upanisad, (62) Sarirakopanisad, (63) Yoga-sikhopanisad, (64)
Turiyatitopanisad, (65) Sannyasopanisad, (66) Paramahamsa-parivrajakopanisad, (67)
Malikopanisad, (68) Avyaktopanisad, (69) Ekaksaropanisad, (70) Purnopanisad, (71) Suryopanisad,
(72) Aksy-upanisad, (73) Adhyatmopanisad, (74) Kundikopanisad, (75) Savitry-upanisad, (76)
Atmopanisad, (77) Pasupatopanisad, (78) Param-brahmopanisad, (79) Avadhutopanisad, (80)
Tripuratapanopanisad, (81) Devy-upanisad, (82) Tripuropanisad, (83) Katha-rudropanisad, (84)
Bhavanopanisad, (85) Hrdayopanisad, (86) Yoga-kundaliny-upanisad, (87) Bhasmopanisad, (88)
Rudraksopanisad, (89) Ganopanisad, (90) Darsanopanisad, (91) Tara-saropanisad, (92) Maha-
vakyopanisad, (93) Panca-brahmopanisad, (94) Pranagni-hotropanisad, (95) Gopala-tapany-
upanisad, (96) Krsnopanisad, (97) Yajnavalkyopanisad, (98) Varahopanisad, (99) Satyayany-
upanisad, (100) Hayagrivopanisad, (101) Dattatreyopanisad, (102) Garudopanisad, (103) Kaly-
upanisad, (104) Jabaly-upanisad, (105) Saubhagyopanisad, (106) Sarasvati-rahasyopanisad, (107)
Bahvrcopanisad and (108) Muktikopanisad.

 Amongst the Upanisads, there are eighteen referred to as the “principle Upanisads”63,
namely

(1) Aitareya Upanisad, (2) Brhad-Aranyaka Upanisad, (3) Chandogya Upanisad, (4) Iso Upanisad, (5)
Jabala Upanisad, (6) Kaivalya Upanisad, (7) Katha Upanisad, (8) Kausitaki-Brahmana Upanisad, (9)
Kena Upanisad, (10) Maitri Upanisad, (11) Mandukya Upanisad, (12) Mundaka Upanisad, (13)
Paingala Upanisad, (14) Prasna Upanisad, (15) Subala Upanisad, (16) Svetasvatara Upanisad, (17)
Taittiriya Upanisad, (18) Vajrasucika Upanisad

• Itihasas

The Itihasas64 are described to be recorded histories in early Vedic civilization. The Äcäryas explain
that the Vedic rituals are hard to understand and the Vedänta-sütra is compressed and highly
philosophical. The purpose of Vedic knowledge in the form of stories and historical incidents are
simple for the masses and less intelligent. The Mahabharata and Ramayana are examples of Itihasas.
The Bhagavad-Gita is a conversation (one chapter) that is part of the histories described in the
Mahabharata. The Chändogya Upaniñad refers to the Mahäbhärata and Puräëas as the “Fifth Veda”.

63
List of principle Upanisads, see http://www.veda.krishna.com/encyclopedia/upanisads.htm
64
Itihasas, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itihasas

24
• Puranas

The Äcäryas explain that in summary the purpose of the Puräëas 65 is to give knowledge about the
Vedas through recorded histories and stories, as it is much easier for the masses to understand. The
eighteen Maha Puranas are (1) Brahma, (2) Padma, (3) Vaisnava, (4) Saiva (or Vayu), (5) Bhagavata
Purana (Srimad Bhagavatam), (6) Bhavisya, (7) Naradiya, (8) Skanda, (9) Linga, (10) Varaha, (11)
Markandeya, (12) Agneya, (13) Brahmavaivarta, (14) Kaurma, (15) Matsya, (16) Garuda, (17)
Vayaviya, (18) Brahmanda.

In addition to the Maha Puranas, there are eighteen Upapuranas and eighteen Vidyas66 that belong to
this section of Vedic literature. The eighteen Upapuranas are (1) Sanat Kumara, (2) Narasimha, (3)
Brhannaradiya, (4) Linga, (5) Durvasa, (6) Kapila, (7) Manava, (8) Ausanasa, (9) Varuna, (10)
Kalika, (11) Mahesvara, (12) Samba, (13) Saura, (14) Parasara, (15) Devibhagavata, (16) Aditya, (17)
Vasistha, (18) Visnudharmottara.

The eighteen Vidyas are (1) Purana, (2) Nyaya, (3) Mimamsa, (4) Dharma sastra, (5) Rg, (6) Sama,
(7) Yajur, (8) Atharva, (9) Siksa, (10) Kalpa, (11) Canda, (12) Jyotisa, (13) Nirukta, (14 Vyakarana,
(15) Ayurveda, (16 Gandharva, (17) Dhanur, (18) Arthasastra.

• Agamas

The Agamas67 are literature referred to as “practical manuals” of Deity Worship. The Agamas include
the Tantras, Mantras, and Yantras. The knowledge from the Agamas is accepted as good as that of the
Vedas, because it provides all the necessary details how the Lord should be worshiped in the Deity
form. The reader should note that is another system of Deity worship, known as the Païcopäsanä
System68, by Ādi Śankarācārya. Among the existing books on the Agamas, some are the Isvara-
Samhita, Ahirbudhnya-Samhita, Sanatkumara-Samhita, Narada-Pancharatra, Spanda-Pradipika, and
the Mahanirvana-Tantra. There are three main agamic schools - the Saiva, Sakta and Vaisnava and
each has their own Pancaratras and all of these agamas comprise four topics69 in general, namely, (i)
Jnana or knowledge; (ii) kriya (service such as construction of temples, installation of deities); iii)
carya or conduct (such as the observance of daily rites, festivals); and (iii) Yoga or devotion. The
common features of all agamas are (a) They accept the existence of a supreme personality of godhead;
(b) The existence of undivided souls; (c) The reality of the objective universe; (d) Devotion is the
only means of emancipation.

 The Vaisnava Agamas are of four kinds: the Valkanas, Pancaratra, Pratishthasara, and Vijn-
analalita. The Brahma, Saiva, Kaumara, Vasishtha, Kapila, Gautamiya, and the Naradiya are
the seven groups of the Pancaratras. The Naradiya section of the Santi-Parva of the Ma-
habharata is the earliest source of information about the Pancaratras.
 The Saivaites recognise twenty-eight Agamas, of which the chief is Kamika. Both the two main
branches of Saivism, i.e., Saiva Siddhanta, and the Kashmir Saivism, regard these Agamas as
their authority, besides the Vedas.

65
Puranas, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puranas
66
Upapuranas and Vidyas, see http://www.veda.krishna.com/encyclopedia/scriptures.htm
67
Agamas, see http://www.dlshq.org/religions/agamas.htm
68
This system is partially discussed in the section “Temples and Deity Worship”
69
four topics of the agamas, see http://www.veda.krishna.com/encyclopedia/scriptures.htm

25
  The Sakta followers, who glorify Sakti as the World-Mother, recognise seventy-seven Agamas,
which focus on the Sakti (energy) aspect of God and prescribe the details of the worship of the
Divine Mother in various forms. This group of scriptures is also known as the Tantras.

• Vedänta-sütra

The word “Veda” means “knowledge,” and the word “anta” means “the end”. Vedänta-sütra is revered
as the scripture of philosophical disputation and provides the proper understanding of the Vedas’
ultimate purpose, which is to inquire about the conclusion of all knowledge or the Absolute Truth.
According to the Väyu and Skanda Puräëas, A sütra is a code that expresses the essence of all
knowledge in a minimum of words. It must be universally applicable and faultless in its linguistic
presentation. The Vedänta-sütra70 was expertly compiled in the form of codes revealing the method of
understanding Vedic knowledge, and it is a very concise form of the Vedic knowledge. The Vedänta-
sütra is known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-sütra, (2) Çäréraka, (3) Vyäsa-sütra, (4)
Bädaräyaëa-sütra, (5) Uttara-mémäàsä, and (6) Vedänta-darçana. There are four chapters (adhyäyas)
in the Vedänta-sütra and four divisions (padas) in each chapter. Thus, Vedänta-sütra is known as
çoòaça-pada because it contains sixteen divisions of codes. The theme of each division is fully
described in terms of five different subject matters (adhikaraëas), which are technically called (i)
pratijïä, (ii) hetu, (iii) udäharaëa, (iv) upanaya, and (v) nigamana. Every theme must necessarily be
explained with reference to pratijïä, or a solemn declaration of the purpose of the treatise. Reasons
(hetu) must be expressed, examples (udäharaëa) must be given in terms of various facts, the theme
(upanaya) must gradually be brought nearer for understanding, and finally it must be supported by
authoritative quotations (nigamana) from the Vedic literature. At the beginning of the Vedänta-sütra
there is the solemn declaration of purpose, athäto brahma-jijïäsä: “Now is the time to inquire about
the Absolute Truth.” The Vedänta-sütra belongs to the nyaya-sastra category of spiritual literature.
The first two chapters discuss the relationship of the living entity with the Supreme Personality of
Godhead. This is known as sambandha-jïäna, or knowledge of the relationship. The third chapter
describes how one can act in his relationship with the Supreme Personality of Godhead. This is called
abhidheya-jïäna. The fourth chapter describes the results, known as (prayojana-jïäna). The ultimate
goal of life is to go back home, back to the Kingdom of God.

• Bhäñyäyä (the original commentary of the Vedänta-sütra)

Srila Vyäsadeva compiled the original commentary of the Vedänta-sütra himself and it is referred to as
Bhäñyäyä. In the Garuda Purana, it is stated, "This composition is exceedingly perfect. It contains the
meaning of the Brahmasutra and determines the meaning of the Mahabharata. It functions as a
commentary on the Gayatri and fortifies the meaning of the Vedas. It is the Sama Veda of Puranas,
declared by Bhagavan Himself. It contains twelve skandhas, numerous vicchedas, and eighteen thousand
(verses), and goes by the names Srimad Bhagavata”. There are five other major commentaries of the
Vedänta-sütra referred to as Sariraka-bhasya, Parijata-saurabha-bhasya, Sarvajna-bhasya, Sri-bhasya,
and Purnaprajna-bhasya. These commentaries were compiled by Ādi Śankarācārya, Nimbarkācārya,
Visnusvami, Ramanujācārya and Madhvācārya respectively.

In the Çrémad-Bhägavatam it is stated: “there are ten divisions of statements regarding the following:
(1) the creation of the universe, (2) sub-creation, (3) planetary systems, (4) protection by the Lord, (5) the
creative impetus, (6) the change of Manus, (7) the science of God, (8) returning home back to Godhead,
(9) liberation, and (10) the summum bonum”. Nimi, the King of Videha, asked the following nine
70
Vedänta-sütra Caitanya Caritamrta, Adi 7, Text 106

26
questions to the nine Yogendras or the saintly sons of Åñabha (Kavi, Havir, Antarékña, Prabuddha,
Pippaläyana, Ävirhotra, Drumila, Camasa and Karabhäjana). ( i ) What is the highest good?; (ii) What
are the religious principles (dharma), natural proclivities (svabhäva), behaviour (äcära), speech
(väkya) and outward symptoms (lakñaëa) of a devotee of the Lord (bhägavata)? ; iii) What is the
external energy of Viñëu, the Supreme Lord? (iv) How can one become dissociated from this mäyä?;
(v)What is the true identity of Brahman? ; (vi) What are the three types of karma, namely karma
based on the enjoyment of the fruits of work, karma offered to the Supreme Lord, and naiñkarmya? ;
(vii) What are the various pastimes of the various incarnations of God? ; (viii) What is the aim or
destination of one who is against the Supreme Lord and devoid of bhakti?; and (ix) What are the
respective colors, forms and names of the four yugävatäras, the four incarnations of the Supreme Lord
who appear in the four ages, and what is the process of worshiping each of Them?

The reader should take note that for the followers of the school who do not accept the SMRTI section
of literature as “Vedic literature”; the Bhäñyäyä or the Srimad Bhagavatam is not an accepted scripture
by some communities or philosophers, since it belongs to the Puranas, and they do not accept the
Puranas. In any case, I do accept the SMRTI section as part of Vedic literature and I have used the
Srimad Bhagavatam as one of the main or major sources of references to compile the philosophy sec-
tions of this book. In the Tattva-sandarbha, published Srila Jiva Goswami71, the Bhäñyäyä or this ori-
ginal commentary is a presentation of the essential aspects of the Supreme Truth by Vyäsadeva him-
self. Srila Jiva Goswami has philosophically proven and established the Srimad Bhagavatam as the
highest level of spiritual authority from all the Vedic literature – past, present, future. His predecessor,
Srila Sanatana Goswami had previously compiled the Brhat Bhagavatamrita, or the Glories of the
Srimad Bhagavatam. The great spiritualist, theologian, and devotional scholar, Srila Bhaktivinoda
Öhäkura also did a technical and devotional presentation of the Bhäñyäyä in his works titled the Çré
Kåñëa-saàhitä72. The Srimad Bhagavatam, as it has now become more commonly known, is available
in over 100 languages and used as a standard textbook in religious departments of the leading uni-
versities throughout the world. The following statement is found in the Vedic literature, “of what use
is a collection of books without the Bhagavata Purana”. Skanda Purana (Visnu-Khanda 5.16.42-42)73.

• Other parts of the Vedic Literature

• Brahmanas

The Brahmanas74 are scriptures dealing with the proper performance of rituals and sacrifice. The
Aranyakas75 (also known as the books of the forest) discuss philosophy and sacrifice. They were
compiled by the great sages who practiced their meditation in the forests and are regarded as
“treatises for renunciants”. The Upaniñads76 primarily discuss philosophy, meditation, and the nature
of God. The sections covering the details for spiritual realization are found in the Upanisads. In the
Mundaka Upanisad77 it is mentioned that the Vedanga78 (also known as parts of the body of the

71
Srila Jiva Goswami is one of the Six Gosvämés of Våndävana. He wrote eighteen major works on Vaiñëava philosophy,
comprising more than 400,000 verses. He is considered by many philosophers and Sanskritists to be the greatest
scholar who ever lived.
72
Çré Kåñëa-saàhitä, Translated and Published by Bhumipata Dasa, 1998
73
Source, The Book of Samskaras, Purificatory Rituals for Successful Life, page 41.
74
Brahmanas, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmana
75
Aranyakas, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aranyakas
76
Upaniñads, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanishad
77
Mundaka Upanisad, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad
78
Vedanga, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanga

27
Vedas) are topics to be observed by students of the Vedas. They are divided into six disciplines, which
are meant for the understanding the tradition of the Vedas. These are: (1) Siksha ( phonetics and
phonology), (2) Chandas (meters), (3) Vyakarana (grammar), (4) Nirukta (etymology), (5) Jyotisha
(astrology and astronomy, dealing particularly with the auspicious days for performing sacrifices), (6)
Kalpa (rituals).

• Upavedas

The Upavedas79 (also known as ancillary Vedas) are: (1) Ayurveda or the science of medicine and
physiology, (2) Dhanur Veda or the Science of martial arts, (3) Gandharva Veda or the Science of
Music and dance and finally (4) The Sthapatya Veda deals with architecture. The Artha Sastra or the
Science of Politics and Economy may be classed as part of the Upavedas.

• Dharma Sastras

There are a total of twenty Dharma Sastras80 (religious principles or laws given by God) listed in the
Yajnavalkya Smrti as follows, Manu, Atri, Visnu, Harita, Yajnavalkya, Usana, Angira, Yama,
Apastambha, Sanivarta, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyäsa, Sankha, Likhita, Daksa, Gautama,
Satatapa, Vasistha.

• Ramayana

The Pastimes of Lord Rama was recorded in the famous Vedic Scripture called The Ramayana 81, by
the great Sage Çré Valmiki. Although the Ramayana is an historical epic, it is accepted to contain all
the information of the original Vedas. It is the most famous and a commonly read or known scripture
amongst Hindus, not only in India, but also throughout the world, even in current times. Other
scriptures referring to Lord Rama’s pastimes are the Srimad Bhagavatam, Vishnu Purana and the Vayu
Purana. The Ramayana is divided into seven books dealing with the life of Rama from his appearance
to his disappearance from this planet. These are: (1) Bala Kanda – Book of the young Rama which
details the miraculous birth of Rama, his early life in Ayodhya, his slaying of the demons of the forest
at the request of Vishvamitra and his wedding with Sita; (2) Ayodhya Kanda – Book of Ayodhya in
which Dasharath comes to grief over his promise to Kaikeyi and the start of Rama's exile; (3) Aranya
Kanda – Book of the Forest which describes Rama's life in the forest and the abduction of Sita by
Ravana; (4) Kishkindha Kanda – Book of Kishkindha, the Vanara kingdom in which Rama befriends
Sugriva and the Vanara army and begins the search for Sita; (5) Sundara Kanda – Book of Sundar
(Hanuman) in which Hanuman travels to Lanka and finds Sita imprisoned there and brings back the
good news to Raam; (6) Yuddha Kanda Book of the War, which narrates the Rama-Ravana war and the
return of the successful Rama to Ayodhya and his coronation; (7) Uttara Kanda – Epilogue, which
details the life of Rama and Sita after their return to Ayodhya, Sita's banishment and how Sita and
Rama pass on to the next world. Later on, there was another version of the Ramayana compiled by
Gosvāmī Tulsīdās82. This presentation has some differences in the narration of Lord Ramachandra’s
Pastimes compared to the presentation by the Sage Çré Valmiki. The popular Hanuman Chalisa is part
of the Ramayanna version compiled by Gosvāmī Tulsīdās.

79
Upavedas, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas#Supplementary_Vedas
80
Dharma Sastras, see http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/scriptures.htm
81
The Ramayana, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayana
82
Gosvāmī Tulsīdās, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulsidas

28
• The Brahma-saàhitä (The Treatise Spoken by Lord Brahmä)

The Brahma-saàhitä83 is the hymns (prayers) of Lord Brahma glorifying the Supreme Personality of
Godhead. It is Lord Brahmä’s personal account of his birth, his penances, his realization of the
spiritual world, and his revelation of Lord Viñëu’s wish for him to create the material cosmos. In the
Gaudiya Vaisnavism tradition, the Brahma-saàhitä is regarded as the highest level or postgraduate
study material of the Vedic literature. These hymns of Lord Brahmä were originally recorded in one
hundred chapters and were considered lost, until the 15th century. A written version of Chapter Five
was discovered in the temple of Ädi-keçava at Tiruvattar, a village lying under the government of
Travancore by Lord Çré Caitanya Mahaprabhu. Lord Caitanya made a copy of this chapter before he
travelled any further. Later it was translated and published into English in the early 19th century.

• The Säìkhya System of Philosophy

Lord Kapiladeva is the founder of Säìkhya philosophy84. The Säìkhya school is considered as the
oldest of the philosophical systems of Hinduism. Lord Kapiladeva first taught this to his mother,
Devahüti, who asked for knowledge that will remove the ignorance created by sensory interaction
with the material creation. Lord Kapiladeva explained that, “The yoga system which relates to the Lord
and the individual soul, which is meant for the ultimate benefit of the living entity, and which causes
detachment from all happiness and distress in the material world, is the highest yoga system”. Later on,
there was another Sage Kapiladeva, and the later Kapila’s säìkhya-yoga is different from Lord
Kapiladeva’s säìkhya-yoga. According to the school of Sage Kapiladeva, there was no philosophical
place for a creationist God in this system. The argument was that the existence of Ishvara
(creator/controller) cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist. The school also argued
that an unchanging Ishvara as the cause cannot be the source of a changing world as the effect. Later
on followers of Säìkhya adopted theism and included Ishvara within the system. The concept of
Ishvara was incorporated into the Säìkhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the theistic
Yoga system of philosophy.

• The Yoga System of Philosophy

The sage Pataïjali compiled the Pataïjali-sütras85 dealing with the Pataïjali yoga system, also called
añöäìga-yoga, which is partly discussed in the Bhagavada Gita. Sage Patanjali divided his Yoga Sutras
into 4 chapters or books (padas), containing in all 196 sutras, divided as follows: Samadhi Pada (51
sutras) - Samadhi refers to a blissful state. He describes yoga and then the nature and the means to
attaining samadhi; Sadhana Pada (55 sutras) - Sadhana is the Sanskrit word for "practice" or
"discipline". Here he outlines two forms of Yoga: Kriya Yoga or Karma Yoga (Action Yoga - to act
without attachment to the results or fruit of action and activity. It is the yoga of selfless action and
service.) and Astanga Yoga (Eightfold Yoga); Vibhuti Pada (56 sutras) - Discusses about Vibhuti or
"power" or "manifestation" of supra-normal powers acquired by the practice of yoga; Kaivalya Pada
(34 sutras) - The Kaivalya Pada describes the nature of liberation and the reality of the transcendental
self. According to the Bhagavad Gita, the eight "limbs" or steps prescribed in the second pada of the
Yoga Sutras are Yama (controlling the senses); Niyama (following regulative principles), Asana
(sitting posture - discipline of the body: rules and postures. Correct postures are a physical aid to

83
Brahma-saàhitä, refer bibliography section
84
As explained by Srila Prabhupada. Refer to the Srimad Bhagavatam. Also see the website
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankhya
85
Pataïjali-sütras, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali, also refer to Chapter Six of Bhagavada Gita

29
meditation, for they control the limbs and nervous system and prevent them from producing
disturbances). Pranayama (control of breath - Beneficial to health, steadies the body and is highly
conductive to the concentration of the mind), pratyähära(withdrawal of senses from their external
objects); Dharana (means meditating or concentrating) , Dhyana (steadfast Meditation or
concentration of the mind on the supreme Lord); and Samadhi(a very advanced stage reached when
the heart and mind is fully or completed absorbed on the Supreme Lord)

• The Nyäya and Vaiçeñika Systems of Philosophy

This Nyäya system of philosophy deals with logic and was headed by Aksapada Gautama and Kaëäda
(who formed the Vaisheshika school) which considers the basic metaphysical categories of reality (all
objects in the physical universe are reducible to certain types of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as
the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these atoms). According to Nyaya, obtaining valid
knowledge was the only way to gain release from suffering, and they took great pains to identify valid
sources of knowledge and distinguish these from mere false opinions. There are exactly four sources
of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony; the Vaisheshika accepted only two -
perception and inference

• The Mémäàsä System of Philosophy

Jaimini was the founder of the Mimamsa philosophy, which main objectives were to establish the
authority and effectiveness of the Vedic rituals, sacrifices, and ceremonies. It focuses on the power of
the mantras and yajnas (fire-sacrifices) to sustain all the activities of the universe. One is advised to
stick to principles, ethics and morals. God, the Supreme is bound to give you the result of your
honest work. This is generally referred to as one of four results (i) Janmaiçvarya-çruta-çré or Janma
good birth in a good family or good nationality, (ii) aiçvarya to become rich, (iii) Çruta, to become
very learned, (iv) and çré, and to become very beautiful. These are results of past good work. The
understanding is that these are good situations are beneficial for practising spiritual life as there will
be fewer disturbances and fewer anxieties. Being sober minded is a great asset in the practise of a
Yoga process.

5.4.2.2 The Sikh Religion and Sikh Literature (a partial summary)

One of the principal Sikh scripture86 is the Adi Granth (First Scripture). It was called Adi Granth until
Guru Gobind Singh conferred on it the title of the Guru in 1708, after which it was called Guru
Granth Sahib. Sikhs only have custodians of the Guru Granth Sahib (granthi), and any Sikh is free to
read the Guru Granth Sahib in the Gurdwara (a Sikh temple) or in their home. There are other works
such as (i) Dasam Granth, (ii) Sarab Loh Granth, and (iii) Varan Bhai Gurdas.

Some of the main aspects of the Sikh teachings are:

• There is only one God. He is the same God for all people of all religions
• The soul goes through cycles of births and deaths before it reaches the human form. The goal
of our life is to lead an exemplary existence so that one may merge with God. Sikhs should
remember God at all times and practice living a virtuous and truthful life while maintaining a
balance between their spiritual obligations and temporal obligations.

86
Sikh scriptures, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_scriptures

30
5.4.3 Post Vedic Literature

The works grouped as “Post Vedic Literature” may include those literature compiled within the
“Golden Age of Vedic Times” and afterwards. For the school that does not accept the Smrti section of
literature as “Vedic literature”, this includes the Itihasas, Puranas, Agamas, Darshanas, and literature
compiled in pursuance of the Vedic conclusion by the Great (Bonafide) Sages and Saints. They will classify
all of the above as part of the post Vedic literature grouping.

5.4.4 Other Literature

5.4.4.1 Hindi and Gujarati Literature

SECTION REMARKS
Hindi language & literature origin of the language - traced to Sanskrit
Religious Background • traceable to Jain, Siddhar, Nath and Vaisnava literature
Ddivided into four prominent • Adikal (the Early Period),
forms or styles • Bhaktikal (the Devotional Period),
• Ritikal (the Scholastic Period)
• Adhunikkal (the Modern Period).
Gujarati language origin of the language - traced to Sanskrit
Can be divided into three periods • The old (Apabhramsa) period (10th-14th cent.)
• The middle period (15th-17th cent.)
• Modern period (after 17th cent
Gujarati literature can be divided mainly into Prose and Poetry
Religious Background • traceable to Jain and Vaisnava literature
Table 5.8 Hindi and Gujarati

The constitution of India recognises Hindi as the official language of India and the Hindi language is
spoken throughout India. Hindi literature87 can be categorized into the following distinctive origins:
Jain, Siddhar, Nath, and Vaisnava literature. Gujarati is an Indian language spoken in the state of
Gujarat. The Gujarati community is a descendant of the Yadhu Dynasty, the same as Lord Krishna
when the Lord appeared on this planet. The state of Gujarat has experienced some religious influence
of Jainism as well as other development in the history of Hinduism. Besides its spiritual heritage,
Gujarat has always been a prominent centre of development for trade and commerce. The religious
background or origin of Gujarati literature88 is traceable mainly to Jain and Vaisnava literature.

5.4.4.2 The Jain Religion and Jain Literature (a partial summary)

The Jains follow the teachings of the twenty-four Jinas (Conquerors) who are also known as
Tirthankars. The 24th Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira was very prominent in the establishment and
development of Jainism89 throughout India. Later on, Jainism was divided into two major sects or
traditions, Digambar and Svetambar and both believe in ahimsa, asceticism, karma, sanskār, and jiva.
The differences between the two main sects are mainly conduct related. Jains preach that this material
world is temporary and full of miseries and sorrow. In order to attain lasting bliss one must transcend
the cycle of transmigration. Otherwise, one will remain eternally caught up in the never-ending cycle
87
Hindi literature, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi_literature
88
Gujarati literature, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarati_literature
89
Jainism: see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_literature and also see the website http://www.jainworld.com/scriptures

31
of transmigration. The only way to break out of this cycle is to practice detachment through (a)
rational perception, (b) rational knowledge and (c) rational conduct. The human life is valued as a
unique, rare opportunity to cultivate spiritual life and reach enlightenment. To kill any person, no
matter what crime they committed, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. Compassion for all life,
human and non-human living entities, is part of the Jain philosophy, culture and civilization. A full
Jain monk in either the Svetambar or Digambar tradition can belong to one of three ranks, namely (i)
Äcärya: leader of the order, (ii) Upadhyaya: a learned monk, who both teaches and studies himself,
(iii) Muni: an ordinary monk. The nuns are called Aryikas in Digambar tradition and Sadhvi in the
Svetambar tradition.

The following Jain Scriptures (Sacred Books) are used, namely: (1) Kalpa Sutra, (2) Pravachansara,
(3) Tattvarth Sutra , (4) Prasamarati Prakarana, (5) Samay Sar, (6) Chha Dhala, (7) Chha Dhala in
Hindi, (8) Purushartha-Siddhyupaya, (9) Saman Suttam, (10) Niyamsara, (11) Ashta Pahuda, (12)
Dravya Samgraha, (13) Samaya Sara, (14) Jinagamsar in Hindi, and (14) Jina Sutra.

5.4.4.3 Literature or Works by Great Sages, Saints, Scholars.

In the beginning, the Great sages and Saints were responsible for further developing, compiling and
distributing all knowledge. Some literature was compiled in the local Indian languages. Over the
years, many these literature were translated into English and other languages spoken outside India.
These translations are the works by the saints of recent times, devotional scholars, professional
scholars and many others who felt inspired or motivated to do so. Finally, there are literature
compiled on teachings by Great or Prominent Personalities and Leaders who introduced reform in
Hinduism. This literature was compiled at different times for different reasons to achieve a particular
goal or objective such as to improve religious and moral principles to raise the standards.

5.4.5 The Popular / Common Reference Scriptures of Hinduism

The Panniru Thirumurai, the Thirukkral, the Nalayira Divya Prabandha, the Tiruvaymoli, the
Naladiyar of Four Hundred Quatrains, the Ramayanna and the Mahabharata are very popular
scriptures for many Hindus. The Bhagavad-Gita and the Hymns of the Vishnu Sahasranama are found
in the Mahabharata. The Hanuman Chalisa is part of the Ramayanna, a version that Gosvāmī Tulsīdās
compiled in the 1500th centaury. One of the main reference scriptures of the Shaktism90 faith is the
Markandeya Purana. The Devisukta is a hymn of eight verses found in the most ancient Hindu sacred
text, the Rig Veda (in the 10th mandala). The Devisukta (RV 10.125) declares that the Goddess is the
power expressed through all the gods, that they are united in her who shines with consciousness, that
her presence is all-pervading, that she supports all of creation, that she is the source of righteousness
and the revealer of truth, that she is the source of all worlds, yet that she shines transcendent beyond
them. Among Shaktas, this Vedic hymn is held in high esteem.

5.4.6 The Process to Acquire Spiritual Knowledge

With the establishment, growth, development, and success of a religious system within any
community, many crucial questions of identity and legitimacy arise 91. How do they define themselves

90
Shaktism, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaktism & http://www.shaktisadhana.org/ and also see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markandeya_Purana
91
Questions based on a paper “Walking a Theological Tightrope: Controversies of Sampradaya in Eighteenth Century
Caitanya Vaisnavism” by Ravi M. Gupta. See http://www.iskcon.com/icj/11/04-gupta.html ,

32
as a community? From where do they derive their authority? How do they represent themselves to
those who are not members of their community? In the Hindu culture and civilisation, such
questions usually centre on the important concept of Sampradaya, or the tradition of a Spiritual
Disciplic Succession. The concept of Sampradaya and how the links are made to these traditional
successions is an essential ingredient in understanding authenticity and integrity in precept and
practice among most of the spiritual organisations. Formerly it was customary and a standard way of
life for the Hindu community. Some of the main aspects of a disciplic succession are (i) the
transmission of knowledge, (ii) “issuing of mantras”, or the process of spiritual initiation, and (iii)
the position of the leadership or the spiritual authority of an organisation. There are various systems
of “disciplic successions” accepted and followed by many spiritual or Hindu organisations and it has
continued through what, has become known, as the “oral tradition”. The specific details of the
different traditions are a very detailed subject matter, of which the full details were not possible to
discuss in this book. These last sections are just a partial overview or background on some examples
of different ‘traditional disciplic successions”.

Generally there is no faculty at schools or universities to teach spiritual culture and knowledge (for
example knowledge about the self - who are you? where did you come from? why are you suffering? what
is the goal of life? how to achieve spiritual perfection?). In the teachings of Christianity, it is explained
that one has to confess unto Lord Jesus Christ as saviour and one must repent all one’s sin. Thus,
that confession opens the door for one to go back to the Kingdom of God, known as Heaven, as long
as one follows the process given by Lord Jesus Christ. It is described in the Bible “no man can come to
the father but through the Son”; the Son is accepted as the mediator and saviour. There is a similar
concept and process described in the different Hindu Scriptures. The understanding is that all living
entities are in the material world, which is compared to a prison house or reformatory. The purpose
of life is to correct oneself and become qualified to go back to Godhead or the Kingdom of God. The
process is to seek the guidance, assistance and to get the grace of a guru or spiritual master, who acts
as the “Representative”92 of the Lord. According to the tradition or system, the Guru himself must be
connected and trained through a disciplic chain or succession. A Guru must have realized the
conclusion of the scriptures by deliberation and arguments and be able to teach others of these
conclusions. In addition to the above competencies, he must be full of compassion and humility. He
maintains that spiritual knowledge is the ultimate welfare for humanity. A Guru must be properly
situated and faithfully representing his predecessors (superior and previous gurus). The Guru, himself
lives a life that demonstrates detachment from material pleasure. There is one scripture that states the
following: “A sober person who can tolerate the urge to speak, the mind’s demands, the actions of anger,
and the urges of the tongue, belly, and genitals is qualified to make disciples all over the world”. In
Sanskrit, there is a word describing such a person, known as “sudurlabha”, which means that such a
person is very rarely found. The system is that such great personalities are accepted as confidential
representatives of the Lord and offered the necessary respect, similar to the respect offered to the
Lord. A prominent aspect of the Hindu culture and civilisation is the great respect offered to the Guru
(spiritual master), Brahmanas (Priests) and Sadhus (Saintly Persons). Another common tradition is for
the Guru to be offered worship by the disciples and followers. According to the scriptures, another
way to improve one’s position in spiritual life (make spiritual advancement) and to attain liberation or
to achieve stages beyond (higher than) liberation is: (i) through the performance of authorised
ritualistic activities and rites performed by qualified Brahmanas, or (ii) by serving (including
worshiping) the guru, and (iii) through the association of these respected personalities, especially the
Saintly Persons. It is a common practise or tradition for Hindus to touch the feet of Saintly Persons,
92
Qualifications & character of the Lord’s Representative. Adapted from the Srimad Bhagavatam, a Purport by His Divine
Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Founder Äcärya of ISKCON.

33
listen to him speak about spiritual courses (transcendental knowledge) and to honour his remnants,
for example his left-over foodstuffs, all of which is based on the authority of the Hindu scriptures.

2.6.1 Disciplic Successions or Chains based on the Vedic Tradition93

The Vedas explain that if we want to know about things beyond the jurisdiction of our experience -
beyond the limitations of human perception and cognition - we hear from one who knows. The Lord
first uttered the transcendental knowledge of the Vedas in the form of sound. Later everything was
later documented into written form. Although most of this documented treasure is lost, the entire
knowledge remains available in the form of “sound”. The Lord cannot fall under the influence of any
other force. Consequently, His knowledge must be perfect. Just as one gets an instruction manual
with any new purchase, the Lord gave us the “Vedas as our instruction manual” – how this material
world operates, how to get out of this material world and while in it, how to follow His instructions
and to sustain our very existence.

Some of the basic principles of Vedic scriptural injunctions are-

• The Vedic literature describes anyone born through the material energy is subject to the four
material deficiencies: (i) bhrama (the tendency to commit mistakes), (ii) pramäda (the tendency
to be illusioned), (iii) vipralipsä (the tendency to cheat) and (iv) karaëäpäöava (imperfect senses).
Thus with four material deficiencies, one’s intelligence is described to be “materially conditioned”.
• The Vedic literature describes that there are three kinds of evidence in an educational system: (i)
pratyakña, (ii) anumäna and (iii) çabda. Pratyakña means “direct evidence.” Direct evidence is not
very good because the senses are not perfect. Anumäna, means inductive knowledge, or
“hypothesis” - that is a suggestion, and this too is not accepted as perfect. Vedic knowledge is
called çabda-pramäëa, also referred to as Çruti, which means that knowledge received simply by
aural reception, from authorised higher (bonafide) authorities through the process of hearing
(çravaëam).
• The Vedic literature describes that there are ten Pramanas or means to obtain knowledge. These
are: (1) arsa – through the statements of sages and demigods, (2) upamanu – through comparison,
(3) arthapatti – by assumption, (4) abhava – through the absence of something or indication of its
absence, (5) sambhava – by inclusion, (6) aithiya – through tradition, (7) cesta – through gestures,
(8) pratyaksa – by direct perception, (9) anumana – by influence based on general experience,
(10) sabda – through revealed knowledge.
• According to the teachings of the Vedic literature, in terms of a technical perspective, there are
three stages or aspects of realising the Absolute Truth (God realization). These are (1) Brahman
(the Lord as all prevading), (2) Paramatama (the Lord as localized form as Supersoul within the
heart), (3) Bhagavän (the Lord as Supreme, eternal, full of knowledge and bliss).The Upanisads
focus upon Brahman; the yoga systems focus upon Paramätmä; the Bhagavad-gétä and the Puräëas
focus upon Bhagavän. The spiritual Äcäryas have analysed these stages, and have explained that,
“all three aspects are actually one, seen from different angles of vision”.
• Dharma94 is the inherent characteristic of a substance and there are two divisions: namityika
dharma and nitya dharma. Namityika dharma is the dharma of body and nitya dharma is the

93
Note, although the references to various websites are cited, all final references and quotations used in this presentation
on the Vedic Scriptures is mainly from the Works of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the
Founder Acarya of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) and his followers. Also, see:
http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy.
94
Dharma, as explained by my Spiritual Master, Srila Bhakti Charu Swami.

34
 dharma of the soul. Just as water is a substance, its dharma is liquidity and fire is a substance, its
dharma is light, heat and ability to burn. Similarly, every substance has its dharma or inherent
quality. Dharma of the body may change but the dharma of the soul never changes, as it is eternal.
The dharma of the atma is to love and serve the Lord. The process to achieve this state of
consciousness is given in authorized scriptures and it is administered under the authority of
authorized representatives through the system of disciplic successions.

The care of the Vedic paramparä (the passing down of Vedic knowledge) has always been entrusted to
the Äcäryas - the great saints, teachers and higher authorities, and their representatives who have for
centuries guided the destiny of Vedic culture. Also very prominent in the history of the preservation
and development of the Vedic disciplic tradition is the role of Avatars (Incarnations of God).
Historically and traditionally, everything was preserved over time by transmission through an
unbroken chain of gurus or spiritual masters. The following are some scriptural references from the
Vedic literature about disciplic successions and its origins.

• “The Åg Veda, Yajur Veda, Säma Veda, and Atharva Veda, the Itihasas, or histories, the Puranas, the
Upanisads, the slokas or mantras chanted by the brahmanas, the sutras, or the accumulations of Vedic
statements, as well as vidya, the transcendental knowledge, and the explanations of the sutras and
mantras are all emanations from the breathing of the great Personality of Godhead.”
Båhad-äraëyaka Upaniñad
• "In this yuga the son of Parasara, who is glorified as a part of Visnu and who is known as Dvaipayana,
the vanquisher of all enemies, became Vyasa. Urged by Brahma, he undertook the task of classifying
the Vedas. Vyasa accepted four disciples to preserve and continue the Vedas. They were Jaimini who
took care of the Sama Veda, Sumantu - the Atharva Veda, Vaisampayana - the Yajur Veda and Paila -
the Rg Veda, and for the Itihasa and Puranas - Lomaharsana." Vayu
Purana

• “Lord Brahmä spoke this Vedic knowledge to his eldest son, Manu, and the seven great sages headed
by Bhågu Muni then accepted the same knowledge from Manu. From the forefathers headed by Bhågu
Muni and other sons of Brahmä appeared many children and descendants, who assumed different forms
as demigods, demons, human beings, Guhyakas, Siddhas, Gandharvas, Vidyädharas, Cäraëas,
Kindevas, Kinnaras, Nägas, Kimpuruñas, and so on. All of the many universal species, along with their
respective leaders, appeared with different natures and desires generated from the three modes of
material nature. Therefore, because of the different characteristics of the living entities within the
universe, there are a great many Vedic rituals, mantras and rewards. Thus, due to the great variety of
desires and natures among human beings, there are many different theistic philosophies of life, which
are handed down through tradition, custom and disciplic succession. There are other teachers who
directly support atheistic viewpoints.”
Bhagavad Purana
• Just try to learn the truth by approaching a spiritual master. Inquire from him submissively and render
service unto him. The self-realized souls can impart knowledge unto you because they have seen the
truth”. Bhagavad Gita
• “Dry arguments are inconclusive. Philosophers are known for their differences of opinion. Study of the
branches of the Vedas will not bring one to the correct understanding of dharma. The truth is hidden in
the heart of a self-realized person. Therefore one should follow the path of such great souls”
Mahabharata
• “Only unto those great souls who have implicit faith in both the Lord and the spiritual master are all
the imports of Vedic knowledge automatically revealed”.

35
 Çvetäçvatara Upanisad
• “What is not possible to achieve in thousands of lives can be achieved in one moment if there is an
opportunity to meet a saintly person. It is therefore enjoined in Vedic literature that one should always
try to associate with saintly persons and try to disassociate oneself from the common man, because by
one word of a saintly person one can be liberated from material entanglement. A saintly person has the
power, because of his spiritual advancement, to give immediate liberation to the conditioned soul”.
Bhagavad Purana

Formerly, all Vedic knowledge was received from the higher authorities by the process of hearing
(çravaëam), also known as the “oral tradition”. In previous ages, people were very intelligent and
their memories were extremely sharp. Just by hearing once from a spiritual master, disciples could
remember everything. Therefore, there was no necessity for keeping the Vedas in written form during
those ages. The great sage, Çréla Vyäsadeva could see beforehand that people in the future would be
much less intelligent, possessing extremely short memories and they would be very disturbed. This is
due to the influence of the Iron Age (Kaliyoga) and passing of time where memory and intelligence of
man began to deteriorate. Therefore, about 5,000 years ago he systematically compiled different Vedic
literature, in written form, for the future benefit of everyone. Çréla Vyäsadeva compiled everything
based on (i) the Rg Veda, (ii) the instructions of his spiritual master, and (iii) the blessings of his
spiritual master, Srila Narada Muni. The Vedic scriptures were originally complied in Sanskrit
language, which was not so well known by the masses. They relied on the learned and saintly persons
to guide them, especially the Brahmanas. Later on, various saints and scholars translated these works
into different local languages. Nowadays, there are many English translations of these works, which
was further translated into various other languages spoken throughout the world. These translations
are the works by the saints of recent times, devotional scholars, professional scholars and many
others who felt inspired or motivated to do so. The Vedänta-darçana, one of the main works of Srila
Vyäsadeva, is the most prominent of the six schools of philosophy and it is referred to by a variety of
names, including (i) Brahma-sütra, (ii) Çäréraka, (iii) Vyäsa-sütra, (iv) Bädaräyaëa-sütra, (v) Uttara-
mémäàsä, and (vi) Vedänta-darçana.

There are five prominent and early traditional disciplic successions of the Vedänta-darçana. The first
four disciplic successions or chains are referred to as the four Vaisnava Sampradyas, which still exist
in India, including other parts of the world to this day. These four original root lines of disciplic
successions are: (1) one from Lord Brahmä; (2) one from Lord Çiva; (3) one from Çré Lakñmé, the
goddess of fortune; and (4) one from the Kumäras. The disciplic succession from Lord Brahmä is
called the Brahma-sampradäya, the succession from Lord Çiva (Çambhu) is called the Rudra-
sampradäya, the one from Lakñméjé is called the Çré-sampradäya, and the one from the Kumäras is
called the Kumära-sampradäya. Many branches or extensions have later emerged from these four
original branches. Sometimes the name of a prominent Äcärya maybe added at the end. This is a way
to identify the disciplic linage and capture the history of its development. For instance in the Brahma-
sampradäya, Srila Madhavacarya is the first prominent Äcärya followed by Lord Caitanya, His
associates, devotees and followers. In the Rudra- sampradäya, it is Srila Visnusvami. In the Kumära-
sampradäya, it is Srila Nimbarkacarya and in the Çré-sampradäya, it is Srila Ramanujacarya. The guru
or founder of the fifth traditional disciplic succession, also known as the Pure Monism School of
philosophy, was the great sage, Añöävakra Muni95. This branch of philosophy was later developed by
Ādi Śankarācārya96, who is highly respected as a great ācārya and scholar of the entire Vedic
literature, civilisation, and culture. Ādi Śankarācārya appeared at a time in India after the Vedic
95
Añöävakra Muni: information sourced from the Bhaktivedenta Archives
96
Ādi Śankarācārya: see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Adi_Shankara

36
literature was rejected by the masses and by the Indian society in general. After the works compiled
by Çréla Vyäsadeva, it is accepted that Ādi Śankarācārya compiled the oldest commentary of the
Vedänta-darçana, known as the Sariraka-bhasya. He traveled to various parts of India to restore the
study of the Vedas and its authority. Later, he founded four Mathas in the East, West, North and
South of India to guide and further develop the Vedic tradition. These were the Sringeri Math in
Karnataka in the South, Dwaraka Math in Gujarat in the West, Puri Math in Orissa in the East, and
Jyotirmath in Uttarakhand in the North. According to history (tradition), he put his four main
disciples: (1) Sureshwaracharya, (2) Hastamalakacharya, (3) Padmapadacharya, and (4) Totakacharya
in charge of these mathas respectively. The Guru Parampara or traditional disciplic successions of
these four Mathas or their branches are continuing until this very day. The heads of the centres trace
their authority back to these personalities and are given the title of Sankaracharya ("the learned
Sankara") after the first Sankaracharya. Further details and analysis of this philosophy and its
histories97 are discussed in the Puranas section of the Vedic Literature. For example, the Siva Purana
and Bhagavad Purana describe some details about the identity, purpose of the advent of Ādi
Śankarācārya and his style of interpretation of the Vedas or his philosophy. It is described that his
teachings primarily served to restore the authority of the Vedic literature (Post Buddhism). The
following table is a summary of the five traditional disciplic successions of the Vedänta-darçana.

The Five
Schools of 1 2 3 4 5
VEDÄNTA
NAME of BRAHMA LAKSMI SIVA KUMARA MONISM
SAMPRADAYA SAMPRADAYA SAMPRADAYA SAMPRADAYA SAMPRADAYA SCHOOL
*(from Sanaka *(founded by
Kumara) Añöävakra Muni)
• KNOWN AS • Madhva • Ramanuja • Rudra • Nimbarka • Smarta
Sampradaya Sampradaya Sampradaya Sampradaya Sampradaya

• Brahma • Sri • Visnuswami • Nimbaditya • Mayavadi

• ALSO Madhva Sampradaya Sampradaya Sampradaya Sampradaya
CALLED Gaudia
Sampradaya • Srivaisnava • Vallabha • Sanakadi
Sampradaya Sampradaya Sampradaya
ACARYAS Madhvacarya, Ramanujacarya Visnusvami, Nimbarka Shankaracarya
Lord Caitanya Vallabhacarya
THEIR Madhvacarya Sri-bhasya. Sarvajna-bhasya Parijata- Sariraka-bhasya.
COMMENTARIE (Purnaprajna- saurabha-bhasya.
S ON VEDÄNTA bhasya);
Lord Caitanya
(Çikñäñöaka)
OTHER *The Çikñäñöaka, *Other works *Works by others *Other works are:
INFORMATION a compilation of are: Vedartha- are: Śrī Sanat Viveka
just eight verses, Sangraha, Sri Kumāra Samhitā, Chudamani, Atma
is the only Bhasya, Gita- the Vedanta Bodha, Aparoksha
documented Bhasya, Vedanta- Parijata Anubhuti, Ananda
literature of Lord Dipa, Vedanta- Saurabha, Lahari, Atma-
Caitanya. The Sara, Saranagati- Sadachar Anatma Viveka,
Lord98 focused Gadya and Sri prakash, Gita Drik-Drishya

97
More about Ādi Śankarācārya, all references are found in Srila Prabhupada’s Books (Bhaktivedenta Archives) and later
work by his followers. See the Siva Purana, Srimad Bhagavatam and Sri Tattva-Muktavali
98
Note, Lord Caitanya personally taught His two chief disciples, Rupa Goswami and Sanathana Goswami on the Science
& Philosophy of Bhakti Yoga. He instructed disciples to write books and develop / reestablish the holy sites.

37
 more on the Ranga-Gadya, bhasya, Rahasya Viveka and
chanting of the Visnu, Sri sodasi, Prapanna Upadesa Sahasri
Hare Krishna Vaikuntha-Gadya, kalpa valli, Prata
Maha Mantra. Nitya-Grantha smarana stotram,
Kamadhenu Dasa
sloki and Krishna
stava raja
Madhvacarya: Visistadvaita-vada Suddhadvaita- Dvaitadvaita-vada Advaita
suddha-dvaita- (specific vada (purified (monism and Kevaladvaita
TATTVA vada (purified monism) monism) dualism) (monism)
(Philosophical dualism) Lord
Conslusions) Caitanya:
Acintya-
bhedabheda-tattva
(inconceivable
oneness and
difference)
Table 5.9 - Summary of Philosophical Schools or teachings of Vedänta-darçana

All of the acaryas listed above have accepted a common Personality as the Supreme God. The main
difference on how things have developed is that there was a partial, or a complete acceptance or total
rejection of their works. There may have been deviations and adjustments as well. Their differences
in philosophical interpretation, presentations, and teachings on the end goal of life and the
recommended practices to achieve this end goal of life are a factor to take into consideration. The
standard for a disciple is to follow the path one has accepted and to serve the particular organisation
or the acarya they have joined. In this way, one would not be disturbed nor would one cause a
disturbance to others. This system has always worked in all the different Hindu traditions and
culture. In this way, there was always peace and harmony in the entire Hindu society. Therefore, it
can be described that “Hinduism is so strong and strangely timeless that a certain homogeneity prevails
all the time”.

2.6.2 The Brahmana Tradition

The Brahmana tradition is based on a spiritual initiation system. At the time of initiation, the
Brahmana Mantras and the sacred “Brahmana Thread” is given to the initiate. Prior to this and even
after the ceremony, the initiate is trained in the practises, disciplines and on all relevant codes or
standards to perform rituals and religious ceremonies required of the Brahmanas. Religious-minded
people have always honoured and carefully protected the prestigious position of the brahmanas.
Traditionally, the Brahmanas lived according the following principles (i) they studied the scriptures,
(ii) they worshipped the Supreme Lord, (iii) they taught others to worship the Lord, (iv) they
provided spiritual guidance and council. A Brahmana never accepted employment; he accepted
charity from the community, especially the students whom were training under him. A Brahmana
never accumulated any wealth; whatever given to him was used in the service of the Lord and for the
spiritual welfare or benefit of the masses. The following is a partial list of verses99 from the Vedic
literature about the Brahmana Tradition, its histories and significance.

99
Information sourced from a conference paper of September 1911 held at Balighai Uddhavapura, Midnapur, W. B.
India by Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura, Founder Acarya of the Gaudiya Math, and later translated by
Bhumipati Dasa. Other information was sourced form “Six Systems of Philosophy” an unpublished works of His
Grace Suhotra Prabhu of ISKCON.

38
“the brahmana appeared from His (the Lord’s) face, the royal class from His arms, the Vaisya from His
thighs and the Sudra was born from His feet”. Rg-parisista

“the demigods are not seen by gross senses. The brahmanas are manifestations of the demigods. The
brahmanas sustain all the planets. The demigods reside in the heavenly planets by the mercy of the
brahmanas. The brahmanas’ word can never be false. Whatever the brahmanas speak in great satisfaction
is accepted by the demigods. When the manifested forms of the demigods, the brahmanas, are satisfied, the
demigods, who are beyond sense perception, are also satisfied”. Dharma Sastras, Visnu

“the brahmanas have become the lords of the entire creation through their religious council. The
brahmanas were born in order to receive havya and kavya on behalf of the demigods and forefathers.
Among those with developed intelligence, the human beings are the highest. Among the human beings, the
brahmanas are the highest. As soon as they are born, the brahmanas assume the topmost position in this
world, and in order to protect religious principles they become the lords of all living beings …..”
Bhargaviya Manu Samhita

“from the mouth, the sinless brahmanas were created for the purpose of performing sacrifices. The child
born of a brahmana family in the womb of his brahmana wife is known as a brahmana” Dharma Sastras,
Harita

“when men of the various castes headed by the brahmanas produce children in the wombs of their wives
belonging respectively to the same caste, their sons attain the same caste as their fathers”. Yajnavalka

“the son born of a brahmana in the womb of a brahmana woman in undoubtedly a brahmana, and the son
born of a brahmana in the womb of a kstriya or vaisysa woman is also a brahmana”. Yajnavalka

Peacefulness, self-control, austerity, purity, tolerance, honesty, knowledge, wisdom, and religiousness—
these are the natural qualities by which the brähmaëas work”. Bhagavata Gita

Formerly the study of the Vedas was the special prerogative of the brahmanas. There were four
degrees or levels of education in Vedic knowledge that corresponded to the four ashramas, namely (i)
brahminical culture (the brahmacari or student ashrama, (ii) the grhastha or householder ashrama,
(iii) the vanaprastha or retired ashrama and (iv) the sannyasa or renounced Monk ashrama. The first
degree of learning was the memorization of the 20,000 mantras of the four Vedas, referred to as Vedic
Samhita. These mantras are chanted by priests in glorification of various aspects of the Supreme Being
during sacrificial rituals. The second degree was the mastery of the Brahmana portion of the Vedas,
which teaches rituals for the fulfillment of duties to family, society, demigods, sages, other living
entities and the Supreme Lord. The third degree was the mastery of the Aranyaka portion, which
prepares the retired householder for complete renunciation. The fourth degree was the mastery of the
Upanisads, which present the philosophy of the Absolute Truth to persons seeking liberation from
birth and death. The texts studied in the four stages of formal Vedic education are collectively called
sruti-sastra, or scripture that is to be heard by the brahmanas. According to the Chandogya Upanisad,
sruti-sastra is not all there is to the Vedic literature. The Chandogya Upanisad declares that the
Puranas and Itihasas comprise the fifth division of Vedic study. The Puranas and Itihasa teach the
same knowledge as the four Vedas, but it is illustrated with extensive historical narrations. The fifth
Veda is known as smrti-sastra or “scripture that must be remembered”.

39
The reader should take note that there are various systems within the Brahmana culture 100 and
Brahmana traditions. Within the Vedic literature itself, there are two sections or divisions of the
Brahmana Tradition. The first tradition or system is “the birth principle”, as per the evidence - some
verses listed above. In summary, in this tradition, also associated with the “caste system”, only a
person (the son) born in a Brahmana family is given such initiation, whilst others were regarded as
the “non-brahmanas or the untouchables”. In the second tradition, the principles of one’s character,
qualifications, qualities, and strict practice of the etiquette (spiritual rules and regulations) in terms of
the authorised Vedic literature are applied in the initiation system or an accreditation system. The
birth principle is not a primary consideration or requirement for initiation or for one to become
accredited. There is sufficient evidence to support the second system, which is not listed in this
presentation. Therefore the study of Smrti-sastra was permitted to “non-brahmanas”. These systems
are prominent amongst Gaudiya Vaisnavas and the Aryans, based on the Païcarätra-sästras and the
teachings of His Holiness Swami Dayanand Saraswati respectively. In South Africa, the Shri Luxmi
Narayan Temple of Mobeni Heights, and a strong affiliate member of the Shree Sanathan Dharma
Sabha South African, have a special training program to train Brahmanas to any Hindu who is serious
and sincere in following the principles of religion. Due to the social conditions in South Africa, the
Hindu community are very united, so the “birth right” is not a major issue, although some temples,
organisations, or communities maybe very strict about it. Whatever the case may be, one must take
note that in the Hindu culture, the masses have never disrespected nor considered that others should
disrespect the Brahmanas. The Brahmanas have always provided a religious and cultural support to
the Hindu community. Based on a Brahmanas’ qualities, activities and behaviour, there are ten kinds
of brahmanas mentioned or described in the Vedic scriptures: (i) devas, (ii) munis, (iii) dvijas, (iv)
rajas, (v) vaisyas, (vi) sudras (vii) nisadas, (viii) pasus, (ix) mlecchas, and (x) candalas. These are all
described in the Dharma Sastras, Atri (Texts 364 -374).

2.6.3 The Linage of the Saivites (A Partial History)

Lord Siva is worshiped as the Supreme Lord by his followers (Saivites) and the reference scriptures
used are mainly the South Indian Literature. Further details on Lord Siva (his identity, activities, and
pastimes) are described in the following Puranas101 (North Indian Literature) – (1) Matsya Purana,
(2) Kurma Purana, (3) Linga Purana, (4) Siva Purana, (5) Skanda Purana, (6) Agni Purana, and (7) the
Bhagavad Purana. The Siva Purana102 is one of the purānas dedicated to the Lord Siva. It contains
instructions of Lord Siva on Dharma sitting in the form of Linga and the twenty-eight different forms
of Lord Shiva are described in the Siva Purana. It has twenty-four thousand slokas (verses or texts).
These are divided into six samhitas (sections). The names of the sections are (i) jnana samhita, (ii)
vidyeshvara samhita, (iii) kailasa samhita, (iv) sanatkumar samhita, (v) vayaviya samhita and (vi)
dharma samhit. Each samhita is further sub-divided into many chapters (adhyaya). The Jnana samhita
has seventy-eight chapters, vidyeshvara samhita has sixteen, kailasa samhita has twelve, sanathkumar
samhita has fifty-nine, vayaviya samhita has thirty and the dharma samhita has sixty-five chapters.

One of the strongest linage of the Saivates can be traced to the sixty-three Nayanars, (great devotional
Tamil Saints), and of which (1) Saint Thirugnana Sambanthar, (2) Saint Thirunavukkarasar, (3) Saint
Sundaramoorthy Nayanar, and (4) Saint Manikkavasagar are considered as the prominent Saints.
Another group of great devotees were the Twelve Älvärs (great Tamil Devotional Poets): (1) Poigai
Älvär, (2) Bhoothathälvär, (3) Peyälvär, (4) Thirumalisai Älvär, (5) Nammälvär, (6) Madhurakavi

100
Brahmana culture, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmanas.
101
About Lord Siva from the Puranic literature, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puranas#Texts
102
Siva Purana, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva_Purana

40
Älvär, (7) Kulashekhara Älvär, (8) Periyaälvär, (9) Andal, (10) Thondaradippodi Älvär, (11)
Thiruppaan Älvär, (12) Thirumangai Älvär.

Finally, there were the Siddhars103 (great mystic yoga practitioners). The list of prominent Siddhars
are (1) Agastyar, (2) Bogar, (3) Korakkar, (4) Kailasanathar, (5) SattaiMuni, (6) Tirumoolar, (7)
Nandhi, (8) Poonaikannar, (9) Konganar, (10) MachaMuni, (11) Karuvoorar, (12) KoormaMuni, (13)
Edaikaadar, (14) KamalaMuni, (15) Punnakeesar, (16) Sundarandandar, (17) Romarishi, (18) Pulipani.
According to the Thirumanthiram of the great Saivite sage, Sri Thirumular, Sri Guru Nandhi deva
thought the science and practice of this great yoga to eight disciples namely Sanagar, Santhanar,
Sanath Sujatar, Sanath Kumarar, Siva Yoga Maamuni, Patanjali, Vyakramapadar and Thirumoolar.
Later Patanjali wrote this Great treatise of Yoga in Sanskrit, whereas Saint Thirumoolar wrote them as
Thirumanthiram in Tamil.

The Nath Sampradaya104 is a Siddha Yoga Tradition. It was founded by Matsyendranath and further
developed by Gorakshanath. The Natha Sampradaya does not recognize caste barriers, and their
teachings were accepted and practiced by everyone. The Natha Sampradaya is traditionally divided
into twelve streams containing many sub-sects. The nine teachers collectively known as Navnaths105
considered the representatives or great teachers in this tradition or parampara are (1)
Matsyendranath , (2) Gorakhnath , (3) Jalandharnath, (4) Kantinath, (5) Gahininath, (6) Bhartrinath,
(7) Revananath, (8) Charpatnath, (9) Naganath.

The Adinath Sampradaya106 is one of the branches of the Nath Sampradaya. The last sadhu holding
authentic Guru Status in the Adinath Sampradaya was Shri Gurudev Mahendranath, who aparently
terminated the Adinath Sampradaya by refusing to bestow Sannyas Diksha, an initiation required for
succession.

The Nandinatha Sampradaya107 is also a Siddha Yoga Tradition. Its founder was the MahaRishi
Nandinatha, who is believed to have initiated eight disciples (1) Sanatkumar, (2) Sanakar, (3)
Sanadanar, (4) Sanathanar, (5) Shivayogamuni, (6) Patanjali, (7) Vyaghrapada, and (8) Tirumular
and he sent them to various places to spread the teachings of Advaita Shaivism (non-dualistic
Shaivism).

2.6.4 The Linage of the Sikhs

The founder of Sikhism was Guru Nanak, who was born in 1469 in Nankana Sahib, Punjab. He was
also the first of ten Sikh Gurus108 in disciplic succession from the period 1469 until 1708. The
complete list of Sikh Gurus are (1) Guru Nanak Dev, (2) Guru Angad Dev, (3) Guru Amar Das, (4)
Guru Ram Das, (5) Guru Arjan Dev, (6) Guru Hargobind, (7) Guru Har Rai, (8) Guru Har Krishan, (9)
Guru Tegh Bahadur, (10) Guru Gobind Singh.

In terms of the further development of the system or their disciplic succession, the Guru Granth
Sahib was declared as the main guru of Sikhs by the last of the living Gurus (Guru Gobind Singh) in
1708. There is no further living Gurus and all Sikhs are free to become Granthi or read from the Guru
103
Siddhars, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddhar
104
Nath Sampradaya, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nath
105
Navnaths, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navnath_Sampradaya#Navnaths
106
Adinath Sampradaya, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adinath_Sampradaya
107
Nandinatha Sampradaya, see http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Nandinatha_Sampradaya
108
Sikh Gurus, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Gurus

41
Granth Sahib. All places where Sri Guru Granth Sahib is installed are considered equally holy for
Sikhs. Sikhism preaches that people of different races, religions, or sex are all equal in the eyes of
God. It teaches the full equality of men and women. Women can participate in any religious function,
perform any Sikh ceremony, or lead the congregation in prayer.

2.6.5 The Original Linage of the Jains

The Jains follow the teachings of the twenty-four Jinas (Conquerors) who are also known as
Tirthankars109. The original twenty-four tirthankars in disciplic succession were – (1) Adinath (or
Rishabhnath), (2) Ajitanath, (3) Sambhavanath, (4) Abhinandananath, (5) Sumatinath, (6) Padmaprabh,
(7) Suparshvanath, (8) Chandraprabhu, (9) Pushpadantanath (or Suvidhinath), (10) Sheetalanath, (11)
Shreyansanath, (12) Vasupujya, (13) Vimalanath, (14) Anantanath, (15) Dharmanath, (16) Shantinath,
(17) Kunthunath, (18) Aranath, (19) Mallinath, (20) Munisuvratanath, (21) Neminath, (22)
Arishthanemi, (23) Parshvanath and (24) Mahavira (or Vardhamana).

2.6.6 An Example of a Traditional Disciplic Succession - Outside Hinduism

In the Roman Catholic Tradition, the Pope has always been the Spiritual Head of the organisation for
hundreds of years. There have been 265 Popes110 of the Roman Catholic Church, starting with Pope
Apostle Peter, the first Pope of Rome, and leading up to Pope Benedict XVI, the current Pope. The
following is a partial list of how the existing disciplic succession was continued:

• since the beginning of the year 1800: Pope Pius VII, Pope Leo XII, Pope Pius VIII, Pope Gregory
XVI, Pope Pius IX, Pope Leo XIII, Pope Pius X, Pope Benedict XV, Pope Pius XI, Pope Pius XII, Pope
John XXIII, Pope Paul VI, Pope John Paul I, Pope John Paul II, Pope Benedict XVI (19 April 2005 to
present).

• for the period 1592 to the year 1800: Pope Clement VIII (1592-1605), Pope Leo XI (1605), Pope
Paul V (1605-21) , Pope Gregory XV (1621-23), Pope Urban VIII (1623-44), Pope Innocent X
(1644-55), Pope Alexander VII (1655-67), Pope Clement IX (1667-69), Pope Clement X
(1670-76), Pope Blessed Innocent XI (1676-89), Pope Alexander VIII (1689-91), Pope Innocent
XII (1691-1700), Pope Clement XI (1700-21), Pope Innocent XIII (1721-24), Pope Benedict XIII
(1724-30), Pope Clement XII (1730-40), Benedict XIV (1740-58), Pope Clement XIII (1758-69),
Pope Clement XIV (1769-74), Pope Pius VI (1775-99).

4 Conclusion

In modern times, for the average person, the following “eternal” burning issues apply: (1) are the
“Hindu Scriptures” authentic? (2) What aspects should one accept and follow and under whose or what
scriptural authority? (3) What aspects should a person reject and on what basis? (4) Is there really a need
for a spiritual mentor/teacher/guide (the Guru)? (5) How does one strike a balance between one’s spiritual
life and living in a competitive, modern, and developed environment? From an academic perspective and
of universal public interest, the main key issues are: (1) What do the original scriptures say? (2) Is it
relevant? (3) What has changed? (4) Can there be a universal minimum standard or code of practise? (5)
What should it be? (6) Who says so? The reader should take note of (i) the different groups of Hindu
faiths (sects or cults) mentioned in this chapter (ii) that some followers and scholars of the Vedic

109
Tirthankars (twenty-four Jinas), see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirthankaras
110
List of All Popes, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popes

42
literature only accept the SRUTI section, whilst others accept both sections. When one takes this into
account, together with the six systems of philosophy and the following prominent Hindu schools (i)
All is One, (ii) Monism, (iii) Personalism, (iv) Shaktism; one can begin to realise how all this has led to
a major difference in how the message of God was passed onto others (Past / Present / Future) under
the banner of the Hindu Religion. One may begin to understand or appreciate statements such as:-

1. “Everything is in a state of flux. The tolerance of Hinduism is unparalled. It has no fixed dogmas, it has
no international council recommending any particular common conduct, and it has no centralised
community life. Yet Hindu tradition is so strong and strangely timeless that a certain homogeneity
prevails all the time”111.
2. The great writer Mark Twain, who was also a wide reader himself and he even travelled on
pilgrimage to India has made the following comments about India: "In religion and culture India is
the only millionaire . . . . . . . / India is, the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech,
the mother of history, the grandmother of legend, and the great grand mother of tradition. Our most
valuable and most structure materials in the history of man are treasured up in India only”.
3. “Lord Buddha rejected the Vedas”
4. “I have traveled across the length and breadth of India and I have not seen one person who is a beggar,
who is a thief, such wealth I have seen in this country, such high moral values, people of such caliber,
that I do not think we would ever conquer this country, unless we break the very backbone of this
nation, which is her spiritual and cultural heritage, and, therefore, I propose that we replace her old
and ancient education system, her culture, for if the Indians think that all that is foreign and English is
good and greater than their own, they will lose their self esteem, their native culture and they will
become what we want them, a truly dominated nation112”.
5. “India has been politically subjugated so to say for the last one thousand years but very few have been
able to exploit her spiritual resources up till now which are measured unlimited by the spiritual
masters. Politically, India may ask all so-called foreigners to quit the shores of India but spiritually she
did never ask any body to do so nor she will do so even now. She will rather invite all the so-called
foreigners to come and exploit the spiritual resources of India's advancement and this transcendental
exploitation will not only enhance the glory of India but will also enrich the glory of the whole world
for unity, faith and humanity.113”
6. “the early Hindus in this country had brought with them their culture and civilisation, their religion
and philosophy, their language and literature, their food and dress, their music and art, their
ceremonies and festivals, in fact, they had transported a minute part of India to South Africa114”
7. “There is no peace or happiness in our worldly life. Circumstances create turmoil and annoyances….
Unless we are devoted to God, secularism will not leave us… Every spot on earth where discourses on
God are held is a place of pilgrimage”115,
8. Religion without philosophy is sentiment, and philosophy without religion is mental speculation116.

After reading the first statement, a part of me agreed. Another thought entered into my mind was that
there should be a response, especially after reading their presentation of Hinduism, specifically on the
Vedic literature, which I thought was a great injustice. My own way, (as listed below) in responding to
this statement in relationship to the complexity and diversity of the “Hindu religion” (as it is known,
111
The Human Search for Meaning, A Multireligious Introduction to the Religions of Humankind
112
See the following website http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/hinduism/macaulay.html
113
Extract from Back to Godhead, 1944 – 1960, the Pioneer Years. Volume 1, Parts 1-4, page 9.
114
Quotation by Dr TP Naidoo, Indian Academy of South Africa, Indian Annual 2000, page 235.
115
Cited by His Holiness Bhakti Charu Swami, 9 September 2008. Quotations by Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati
Thakur, see www.bhaktisharuswami.com
116
Statement in the purport by Srila Prabhupada in Bhagavada Gita As It Is, Chapter Three, Text Three.

43
grouped or understood today) is to a group together the world’s major religions and to give an overview
of religion on the planet earth. I would then conclude, “In the planet Earth, everything is in a state of
flux. The tolerance of religion is unparalled. It has no fixed dogmas, it has no international council
recommending any particular common conduct, and it has no centralised community life. Yet religious
tradition is so strong and strangely timeless that certain homogeneity prevails all the time”. I appreciated
the comments of Mark Twain who is a highly respected personality. The third statement is from a
magazine117 and is a true statement. However, the magazine did not mention some other important
aspects, such as (i) the Vedic scriptures predicts the appearance of Lord Buddha, (ii) the Lords place
of birth (appearance), (iii) the family in which the Lord would appear, (iv) the Lord’s mission and
activities. It also failed to mention any details of any predictions from Vedic scriptures about the
future developments in India and the rest of the universe, “Post Buddhism”. The fourth statement was
received in an email on the Independence Day of India and can be found on several Internet sites. It
cannot be verified as a true statement, but it is a very profound statement. It is very difficult for one
not to believe this statement after examining the history of India, post “British Rule”. I felt satisfied
after I read the last three statements. All the presentations in this book about “Hindu” philosophy was
prepared to stimulate thoughts in the readers mind by sharing information and knowledge in
response to the statements listed above in order to introduce knowledge about an alternative lifestyle,
which is grouped under the “banner of Hinduism”. It is hoped that eventually, all information
presented in the book will assist one to understand more about (i) how do Hindus see and respond to
the world. (ii) What are their core beliefs? (iii) What are their ideals, philosophical concepts, practises,
and values? (iv) a perspective of the modern day “scientifically based educational system” in relation to the
“Hindu perspective of Knowledge”, which is beyond the bodily conception of life (material education).
Everything was prepared for the benefit of the reader so that the reader can fully appreciate the main
subject matter of the book “the history and development of all Ashramas, Temples, and Spiritual
Organisations in South Africa since the arrival of the 1860 Indian Settlers”.

AUM TAT SAT

NOTE
1. The Book titled, The Hidden Glory of South Africa, is being compiled by Prasanth Mohan, for
any enquires or information, please contact psdmohan@gmail.com, telephone: +27 12 6647400,
Cellular number is +27 082 412 8226, Fax to email 086 577 4609
2. The Theme of the Book is “Philosophy, Culture, Civilisation, Faith, Beliefs, Customs, Traditions,
Practices, Rituals, and System of Worship & Mediation”.

117
The source of this statement is from the inside cover page of a Jehovah’s Witness magazine. Readers are advised to
refer to a section published in, The Wake, 1989 titled, “Religion’s Future in View, An Enlightenment That Promised
Liberation” for a broader perspective of their presentation on this subject matter.

44
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