Ionization

Electrons are nega-vely charged par-cles They orbit the atomic nucleus Neutral atom: nr of electrons = nr of protons Electrons are kept in orbit by the a=rac-ve force from the protons in the nucleus To escape they must be given energy Ioniza'on: the process that generates charged atoms
e.g. by radia-on

Atomic Excitation
Excita'on:
atoms can absorb energy without ge@ng ionized electrons in an excited atom jump into the next outer orbit de-excita-on and return to original orbit happens by emi@ng light (a photon) atoms absorb energy at certain values which depend on the type of atom

Energy Levels
Electrons are restricted to orbits with certain energies The orbits are dierent for every dierent type of atom Photons are absorbed or emi=ed only at specic energies Energy of photons depends on their wavelength hc E = hf = -15
where h is the Plack constant= 4.14 x 10 eV s

Example
What is the wavelength of a photon emi=ed when an electron jumps from the n = 3 energy level down to the n = 2 energy level in a Hydrogen atom? (c=3x108 m/s, h=4.14 x 10-15 eV s)
The table below shows the rst ve energy levels of a hydrogen atom. Energy Level n Energy 1 2 3 4 5 -13.6 eV -3.4 eV -1.51 eV -0.85 eV -0.54 eV

The electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagne'c spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagne-c radia-on

Wave-particle duality
Wave-par'cle duality: The amount of energy a photon has can cause it to behave more like a wave or more like a par-cle We are not talking about a dierence in what a photon is, but about how it behaves at dierent energies

The visible spectrum

The visible spectrum is the region of the electromagne-c spectrum consis-ng of photons with wavelengths from approximately 400 to 700 nm

Energy Levels & Spectra

Spectroscopy: is the study of the interac-on between ma=er and radiated energy

Energy Levels & Spectra

Spectroscopy: is the study of the interac-on between ma=er and radiated energy Three types of spectra:
a con'nuous spectrum is a smooth distribu-on of wavelengths and has no gaps

Energy Levels & Spectra

Spectroscopy: is the study of the interac-on between ma=er and radiated energy Three types of spectra:
a con'nuous spectrum is a smooth distribu-on of wavelengths and has no gaps an emission line spectrum is produced by excited atoms returning to their ground state

Photoelectricity
A heated cathode (metal conductor) can be used to produce a supply of electrons by thermionic emission Energy can be supplied to the conductor also in the form of UV light Observa-ons:

Emission only occurs if the frequency of incident light exceeds a minimum 'threshold frequency

11
A. Einstein in 1905

Einstein and photoelectricity

In 1905 Einstein published a paper explaining the eect Assumed that light travels in short packets called wavepackets Photon = wavepacket of light = quantum of light The amount of energy each photon has is given by E = h f = h c / where
f = frequency of photon h = Planck constant = 6.63 x 10-34Js c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s = wavelength of photon

Reminder: Energy measured in Joules

(some-mes also given in electronvolt eV) 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules

12

Energy Levels & Spectra

Spectroscopy: is the study of the interac-on between ma=er and radiated energy Three types of spectra:
a con'nuous spectrum is a smooth distribu-on of wavelengths and has no gaps an emission line spectrum is produced by excited atoms returning to their ground state an absorp'on line spectrum is produced when photons from a source with a con-nuous spectrum pass through a diuse gas cloud

Energy Levels & Spectra

The Solar spectrum

The hot dense centre of the sun emits a con-nuous spectrum The cooler outer layer of the sun, the Heliosphere, absorbs some of the light at specic energies Looking at the absorp-on spectrum we can nd out what the Sun is made of

Models of the atom

The Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom

The Bohr atom For circular mo-on: Centripetal force = Coulomb force

r + proton F

mv e e e F = = = 2 2 r 4 0 r 4 0 r e2 v2 = 4 0 rm

v - electron

Classical Physics

Models of the atom

The Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom

The Bohr atom For circular mo-on: Centripetal force = Coulomb force

r + proton F

mv e e e F = = = 2 2 r 4 0 r 4 0 r e2 v2 = 4 0 rm
Allowed orbits:

v - electron

n=3 n=2 n=1

mvr = n

h 2

0h 2 2 r= n 2 me
Bohr model

Energy of the electron

The Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom

Total energy of the electron:

Kine-c energy
(mo-on around nucleus) r + proton F

Electric Poten-al energy

(electric eld of +ve nucleus)

v - electron

1 2 e2 K.E. = mv = 2 8 0 r e e e2 P.E. = = 4 0 r 4 0 r

e2 E = K.E. + P.E = 8 0 r
e 2 me 2 me 4 E = = 2 2 2 2 2 8 0 0 h n 8 0 h n

Wave-particle duality (part 2): deBroglie wavelength

Energy of photon:

E = hf =

hc

Mass-energy equivalence E=mc2 De Broglie hypothesis: A par-cle of mass m moving with velocity v has a wavelength related to its momentum p = mv by

h h = = p mv

This wavelength , is known as the de Broglie wavelength of the par-cle

Example
1) A cricket ball has a mass of 0.15 kg and is thrown towards a bowler with a speed of 40m/s. What is the de Broglie wavelength of the cricket ball? [assume h=6.63 10-34 Js] 2) What is the de Broglie wavelength of an electron moving at 2.2 106 m/s?

Example
Calculate the wavelength of electrons which have been accelerated through a poten-al dierence of 100 Volts. You can assume that the electron mass me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg, the electron charge e = -1.6 x 10-19C and that the Planck constant h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js.

Beyond Bohr
Bohrs model is a good star-ng point but too simplis-c
Works with Hydrogen but not so well with other atoms because the electrons interact with each other

Quantum mechanics
Probabilis-c treatment of the atom

h mvr = n 2 h h = = p mv

hr h =n 2 r = n 2

Beyond Bohr
Bohrs model is a good star-ng point but too simplis-c
Works with Hydrogen but not so well with other atoms because the electrons interact with each other

Quantum mechanics
Probabilis-c treatment of the atom

2 r = n
Not the paths of the electrons! These represent the amplitudes of the electrons probability wave

Beyond Bohr
Bohrs model is a good star-ng point but too simplis-c
Works with Hydrogen but not so well with other atoms because the electrons interact with each other

Quantum mechanics
Probabilis-c treatment of the atom

2 r = n

Beyond Bohr
Bohrs model is a good star-ng point but too simplis-c
Works with Hydrogen but not so well with other atoms because the electrons interact with each other

Quantum mechanics
Probabilis-c treatment of the atom

Bohr model Quantum Mechanical model Werner Heisenberg

To Do
Read chapter 29 [p.601-608 Electrons inside the atom], skip X- rays (29.3) Homework Assignment wk8: ques-ons 28.14, 28.15, 28.16, 28.17, 28.18 and 28.19 Hand it in no later than 4:00pm next Wednesday - LATE WORK WILL NOT BE ACCEPTED