POWER AND ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES FOR NEXT GENERATION HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE *

Bimal K.Bose Min-Huei Kim ** Department of Electrical Engineering The University of Tennessee Knoxville, TN 37996,USA

M. David Kankam
NASA Lewis ]Research Center Cleveland. Ohio 44 135

Abstract
Fuel conservation and environmental pollution control are the principal motivating factors that are urging at present widespread research and development activities for electric and hybrid vehicles throughout the world. The paper describes different possible energy storage devices, such as Weq, flywheel and ultra capacitor, and power sources, such as gasoline engine, diesel engine, gas turbine and fuel cell for next generation hybrid electric vehicle. The technology trend and m energy storage and power devices indicate that battery and gasoline en@e, respectively, will remain the most viable devices for hybrid vehicle at least in the near future.

corn-

INTRODUCTION
Although the history of electric vehicle (EV) goes back to nearly hundred years, serious R & D activity in EV started during Arab oil embargo of 1970's. The prime focus at that point was fuel saving so that the dependence on imported oil could be reduced It is interesting to note that in USA oil constitutes approximately42% of total energy Cansumption, and the major part of this ol is consumed in automobile i transportation. Again, more than 50% of our oil is imported from outside. In the 1980's, the environmental pollution (parbcularly the u r h pollution) problem and the corresponding global warming effect became a major concern in our society. In 1990, the California Air Resource Board (CARB) established rules that mandate 2% of all vehicles sold in California in 1998 must be zero emission vehicles (ZEV). This quota increases to 5% by 2001 and to 10% by 2003. The Califomiadesnot only had seriousimpact in other states of USA, but had wide reverberation in Europe and Japan. The govements, prominent auto industries and research laboratoriesaround the world are persuing electrichybrid vehicle research seriously, and published literature in this area is swelling tremendously. In September 1993, the US Government along with the big three automakers (GhI, Ford and Chrysler) declared a historic partnership program for next generation vehicles (PNGV) [1 ] . The salient PNGV goals which are to be fully implemented before the year 2003 include: three times the present fuel efficiency (80 miledgallon) and the emission level of 0.125/ 1.7/0.2 (HC/CQ/NOJ (gms/mile).Although not mentioned as EV, it has to be hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) with coflsiderable regenerativebraking energy capture capability in order to meet the fuel efficiency and emission goals. In a federal urban driving cycle (FUD), the ICEV gives a typical efficiency of 12.24% with the overall fuel chain efficiency of 10%. On the other hand, an EV gives efficiencyof 51.6% with the total fuel chain efficiency of 18%. The EV has definite advantages over ICEV, but the disadvantages are t a the ht battery is bulky, too expawive and it has limited cycle life. The practical range of EV is lmtd and it has limited acceleration capability, and can iie

not definitely meet the performance of a gasoline car A good solution is HEV where a power source assists the storage device to enhance range extension, fuel economy, versatility and make compromise in emission. Figure 1 shows the general block diagram of dc distribution system of HEV with possible energy storage and power devices i future. n Basically, it is a series hybrid system where the power and storage devices feed electrical power to a common dc bus that drives an ac motor through an inverter. The battery, ultra capacitor and fuel cell can be directly connected to the bus, but the flywheel and engme power SOD require mache-converter interface. The control and optimum energy management of a HET1 system is very complex, and requires powerll microcomputers. Although literature in EVMEV is very large, there is hardly any paper that describes systematidly and compares the possible energy storage and power devices for future generations of EV/HEV. The paper aims to make that comparison.

.
AUXILIARY

* FLYWHEEL

BAITERY

SUPERIULTRA CAPACITOR

SUPER CONDUCTING MAGNET ENERGY STORAGE ISMESI

$ 1

-POWER FLOW

*IC ENGINE *GASTUR81NE I'FUEL CELL 'IDISEL ENGINE] 'ISTERLING ENGlNEl

L-----4

- . - r
USER INTERFACE

OPTIMAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT & CONTROL

Fig. 1 General block diagram of HEV distribution system showing possible enerpj storage and power devices.

ENERGY STORAGE DEVICKS

Battery
In EV literature, the discussion on battery has possibly the m a x i "

The project was supported by aresearch grant from NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland,USA.

** Dr. Kim is currently a faculty member in Yeungnam Junior College, S. Korea

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0-7803-3547-3-7/16 0 6 1996 lEEE $.03 4

coverage. The battery has possibly been the main barrier for consumer acceptance of EV in the market. Todays propulsion battery is too heavy, too expensive, has low cycle life and gives low practical vehicle range. For this reason, the battery has been the prime focus of R & D for along h e . Unfortunately, however, its technological evolution has been very slow. In 1990, the US Advanced Battery Consorhum (USASC) was established to systematically sponsor R & D activity i n EV battery technology. Unlike other applications, EV battery has to be specially designed to meet some special performance and cost goals. These are specific energy (Wh/kg), energy density (WWL), specific power (Wkg), power density (WL), cycle life (years), and of course, finally the most important parameter is cost ($kWh). Energy storage capabihty is the key pameter of-abattery that determines the range of EV. Increasing the battery weight can increase the energy storage which can give longer range, but soonthe vehicle becomes heavy and the cost becomes prohitive. Besides energy, the power ratmg of battery is equally important from the viewpint of acceleration/decelerationcapability and gradeability. For longer vehicle range, high accelerqtion capability at hgh speed and steep grade driving, the assistance of a power source (hybrid vehicle) is mandatory. Note that in high speed deceleration of HEV at high brakjng torque the battery must absorb the full power . An HEV battery, therefore, should be designed with high power-toenergy ratio (typically 10 or greater) compared to that for EV application ( typically 2). Besides the pnme performance factors as discussed above, the other considerations are maintainability, safety, reliability, material recyclability, abuse tolerance, charging delay, fuel gauging and charge equalization in the series cells. Although off-peakutility power charging of a battery is an advantage, the charging delay is deffitely a disadvantage partlcdarly from a way-side station. Assuming that the fast charging problem of a battery is solved satisfactorily, typical domestic outlet can not handle the kW demand due to fast charging. Sirmlar problem arises in utkty distribution system if large number of batteries are charged simultaneously. The battery types that are under consideration for EV are: LeadAcid, Nickel-Cadmium, Sodi~~~~SulfUr, Lithium-Polymer, Zinc-&, Nickel Metal Hydride, Nickel Iron, Zinc Bromide, Sodium Nickel ChIoride, Nickel-Zinc, Nickel Hydrogen and Lithium Iron Disulfide. Presently, lead-acid battery is possibly the best compromise in energy density, power density, Me-cycle, cost and other criteria. It has been widely used in the past and present EV projects, and will possibly remainso m the near future. It can be shown that 40-50 miles range in urban driving cycle is easily achievable by lead-acid battery that will not have more than 30% of vehicle curb weight. Nickel-cadmium battery is very expensive because of raw material cost. But, it has relatively hgL~ energy density and long Me compared to lead-acid battery. These factorsmake the vehicle range longer and the Me-cycle cost tends to be neutralized by long battery life. The battery is safe and sealable. C a d is not environmentally safe and recycling can be a problem. Sodium-sulfurbattery has high energy density but its power density is e somewhat low. Its cost is comparable with Ni-Cd battery. * drawback is that the battery operates a htgh temperature (about 300 C ) t to keep the sodium and sulfur molten withm insulated capsules. The battery must be preheated to operating temperature and maintained at t a t e m m during operation. Zinc-air has good energy capability, ht but low power and short life. Lithium-polymer battery may be a compromiseof all the good properbes required for EV. The battery has good power and energy capdnhty, and the cost is lower than that of NiCdbattery. Nickel-metal-hydride battery seems to be more promising for high energy capability, and it has been under development for several years. It is more expensive than other types of batteries, and it is not easily available. Nickel-iron batteries have been under development for a number of years, and have demonstrated potential for long Me. The low cell voltage needs large number of cells in series

and makes reduction of non-active components weight important for higher system voltage. Zinc-bromide battery systems are k i n g developedworld-wide. This technology has a potential for low cost, as the systemscomponents lend themselves to mass production and are made bf readily available and ine-nsive materials. Nickel hydTogen battery offers excellent energy density, high abuse tolerance and highest level of reliability of any battery system. The battery is somewhat expensive, it has a long Me cycle which can be guaranteed for the operating life of a vehicle.

Flywheel
Flywheel @W)as an energy storage element has been investigated for a long period of time for different applications. It has been considered as propulsion source for commercial transit bus, and a number of experimental vehicles have been built using flywheels for automobile applications. A running flywheel stores mechanical energy which is converted to electrical form through a coupled machine-converter system. The machine acts as a generator when the mechanical energy of the aywheel is extracted for vehicle acceleration, whereas it acts as a motor in brakmg when the vehicle kinetic energy charges the flywheel. Since the s t o r e d energy varies as the square of the speed, 75% of the stored energy can be u t k e d by varying the speed in 2:l range. A flywheel normally uses light-weight and high strength composite material to economize the cost, but the storage energy is increased by i n c g the speed that sometime exceeds 100,000 rpm The bearing friction and aero-dyiatuic loss of the FW-machme system should be critically reduced. The bearing fiction can be elimmated by active bearing ,whereas the aero-dynamic loss can be highly attenuated by placing the system in a vacuum chamber. Maintaming a good vacuum by a vacuum pump i an automobile environment may be difficult. The n gyroscopic efffect of the flywheel can be a safety concern. Of course, gymbol suspension can be considered to deviate this problem. All these elements add cost to the system. The machine-converter system has to handle the high frequency because of high machme speed. A spccdrcduction gear can be used at the expense of additional cost and losses. Either induction or synchronous machine can be used through voltagefd or current-fed converter. A flywheel energy storage has the advantages of higher power capability, quick charging, long service life and higher round trip efficiency (total energy in vs. Energy out) over the battery. Flywheel storage has been considered both for EV and HEV. It has been considered for load levelling in a battery-fed EV where it supplies/absorbs the peak power during acceleratioddeceleration and helps to prolong the battery life. Prototype flywheel systems have been demonshrated with a specific energy of 5 Wh/kg and specific power of 375 W k g for transit bus applications. Additional research and development efforts in flywheel systems should focus on increasing the specific energy and reducing the cost .

Ultra Capacitor
Recent advances in superhltra capacitor (UC) technology has renewed interest for its potential applications in EV/HEV and other areas. The energy storage density of UC is two order of magnitudes higher than the traditional electrolyhc capacitors. However, compared to battery, the energy density is very low. A UC is basically a chemical double layer capacitor (CDLC) that utilizes large surface area electrodes and liquid electrolyte to form a charge storage layer. The thickness of this layer is on the order of a few angstroms. Materials such as carbon blacks and Raney metals with surface areas of severalhundred square meters per gram had been used in the early CDLCs. For new CDLCs, the energy density bas practically approached to one-tenth that of lead-acid battery. Ultra capacitorsare presentlymanufactured by Panasonic, As& Glass, NEC, Pinnacle Research, etc.

Although characterized by low energy density, UC's have high specific power and high charge/discharge energy efficiency. The f m e r pennits veq high charge/dischargerate. TherefOre, combining hgh energy densitybattery with UC capable of handling high transient power requirement (load levelling)may provide an attractive solution for high powerhergy ratio i~ without impairing the battery life. HEV The UC's have also been msihed to operate in parallel with fuel cells which will be described later. Ultra capacitors that are commercially available today have a specific energy of about 1-2 W g . Recent laboratory prototypes have been demonstratedwith specific energy of about 2 to 5 W g and power density of 2 to 4 kWkg. The key techtllcal challenges are to improve the UC's low specific energy and reduce costs. Research and development offers the potential to improve UC mahiah, such as carbodmetal fibe~ composites, monolith foamed carbq foamed carbon with a binder, doped polymer layers on carbon paper, and mixed metal oxides (ceramic) on metal foil. Ultra capacitors are definitely very expensive for EV application and their present availability is poor. Another problem is that they are available in very low voltage rating. A large number of them can be connected in series and connected directly across the battery for load levelling. Or else, low voltage capacitor bank can be interfaced to the dc bus through a dc-dc converter. This, O course, adds additional cost, f power loss and sacrifke of reliability.

i.e., heat engine and fuel cell can be used although the former t p has ye been traditionally preferred. The engine types can be classified as gasoline engine, diesel engine , gas turbine and Stirling engine. Different types of power devices will be described below and then be followed by a comparison.

Gasoline Engine
Spark-ignited, homogeneous charge reciprocating type internal combustion engine (commonly known as gasoline engine) has long been the traditional power source for a passenger automobile. Since its invention in late nineteenth century and the subsequent invention of electric self-starter in the early part of this century, the engine has gone through slow evolutionary improvement over a long period of time. Modem turbo-chargedengine has smaller size and improved efficiency which is improved M e r by microprocessor-controlledfuel injection. It is possibly the best power source for HEV, and will remain so in the early part of the next century 181. Figure 2 shows the typical charslcteristics [7] of a four-stroke gasoline +e where the constant efficiency contours are given in the plane of normalizedmeaneffective p m e (related to engine output torque) vs. SM These contoursare also specified in terms of brake specific speed fuel consumption (BSFC) with units of grams of fuel per kwh of

Comparison of Energy Storage Devices

Table 1 gives a general comparison of energy storage devices. The Comparison, parbcularly the numerical figures, can be considered very approximate because adequate numerical information is not available and some of these technologes are in early stage of evolution. The lead-acid battery is taken as the basis for comparison. Again, as discussed above, a hybrid system, such as b a t t e y m or batteryAJC can be used combining the advantages of both although at a higher cost. From the table, it can be concluded that battery remains the most viable storage device in future. Table.1: Comparision of Energy Storage Devices
~~~~~

101

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~~

I_;;__i_i=_=EL_i__=====~~~=~==~.~=~.==~

==I=._

~~~~-~~ .~. .-. . ..

; i ; ;

Battery

Flywheel

Ultra capacitor

-----___Spsciiic Energy (pu)

I
1

0.125

0.1

Specific Power(po) Cost(pu)

A\ ailability

3
8'

20 20 *

I Good

Medium

I'oor
Good Very Good Very Large Very Good

Safety Maintenance
Cycle Life

Good
Good
Limited Good

not good
Medium Large Moderate

Fig.2: Typical Characteristicsof Four-stroke Gasoline Engine deliveredenergy. Using the heat content of gasoline (33.2 kWh/g), the percentage efficiencyvalues are calculated and noted on these contours. The heavy line contours indicale the effect of five-speed transmission ( do not usually apply for HETI). Also shown are the constant power hyperbolas with normalized power levels of 1 to 36. An optimal efficiency locus spanning the range of engine power is shown by the dashed contour FGCDE. The highest efficiency (30%) is obtained at the point D where BSFC = 274 gkwh. In a normal vehicle operation, the engine speed varies widely and bwause of the wastage of braking power the total efficiency h a d e exceeds 15% In parallel hybrid system, the engine also runs at variable speed but the braking energy is recovered in the battery. Hwwever, in a series hybrid system as consideredhere, the engine speed can be independently controlled for any power demand, and therefore, optimal efficiency can be achieved. Commercial automobile engines are available in various power and

ChargdDischarge Efficiency Comments

Available technology

Available technology

Needs R&D

* Nunmerical figure may not be accurate

POWER DEVICES
The power device in an HEV helps increasing the range, acceleration capability at high speed, gradeability and maintaining a minimum state of charge in the storage device. The important criteria for selection of power source are fuel economy, emission characteristics,specific power and cost. 'Two possible power sources,

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speed ratings depending on the size and performance needs of the car. A typical V4 engine of 93 kW and 6200 rpm has shipping weight of 130 kg which correspondingly gives 0.73 weight-specific power (kW/kg) and 52 volume-specific power (kW/L). These parameters decrease as the engine power increases. The use of unleaded gasoline and catalybc converter in the tail pipe have significantly reduced emission characteristics of recent automobiles. The typlcal emission (gmsimile) of a mid-size car can be given as 0.20/0.63/3.43/0.35 (SO,/NOJCO/HC)whereas the PNGV goals are 0/0.20/1.70/0.125. Various alternative fuels, such as natural gas, LPG, ethanol and methanol can a s be used in the engine. The gaseous fuels give lower lo volumehc efficiencyand consequently decreased power. The on-board storage of gaseous fuel ipvolves bulky and heavy tanks, or altematively, reduced range on a t n of fuel. Ethanol, normally available from ak agricultural products, will never be available in sufficient quantity. Methanob principally made from natural gas and possibly some day in significant quantity from coal, is stirring interest for long range use in automobile engine. The fuel economy and the correspondmg emission charachistics of an IC engjne canbe improved by increasing compression ratio, airfuel ratio, and charge stratifkation. Increased compression ratio causes combustion knock. The octane n u m h limit to 92 has reinforced this barrier. The lean-burn characteristics are shown in Fig. 3 [SI. The theontical efficiency increases with air-fuel ratio, but the shasp break occurs at the stoichiometric ratio. The experimental curves below follow the trend for theory. However, with increasing dilution, the flame speed falls which increases the time loss to offset the theontical gains. A faster burn rate increases optimum dilution and its associated efficiency.

c m t level), imposition of extra federal t x on diesel fuel, higher first a cost of diesel car, higher noise level and exhaust odor and fumes associated with today's diesel engine. Despite such shortcomings,the

z
w
1

Ir '

./STIRLING +GAS TURBINE

%STEAM

T
O' 19175

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1985

1980
YEAR

Fig.4: Fuel Economy Index for Various Engine Types diesel remains the most fuel-efficient engine for passenger car propulsion. Faced with the long range grim prospects for petroliusn, it is difficult to ignore this engine until a more efficient alternative is idenlitid However, the diesel continues strong in the heavy-duty truck market. It has also found a niche market in light and medium duty trucks and vans some of which are used in personal transportation. However, promulgated US particulate standads pose serious threht to the future of the diesel.

Gas Turbine
55, I

w i

351,
3

io

I
15

20

0 25

30

35

40 0

AIR-FUEL RATIO

Fig.3: Effect of Air-Fuel Ratio on Thermal Efficiency

Diesel Engine
The diesel reciprocating engine which uses compression ignition principle is also a good candidate for HEV drive. The principal advantage of diesel engine is its superior fuel economy, as indicated in Fig. 4, compared to that of a gasoline car. The &fision combustion of its fuel spray avoids the knock problem pmniting higher compression ratio, and therefore, improved efficiency. Again, diffusion combustion allows the load to be controlledby varying the overall air-fuel ratio, thus avoiding the part-load pumping loss of a trahtional gasoline engine during the intake stroke. All passenger-car diesels in the market today are of induect injection type.Research is in progress to develop direct injection type which promises 10%-15% higher efficiency. The diesel is more popular in Europe than in the USA, its market penel" in USA peaked at 6% in 1981, and now it is less than 1%. There are a variety of reasons behind the disaffection of the US consumer for the diesel car. Among them are the decline of gasoline prices (which once had been projected to be two to three times their

A gas turbine is an external combustion rotory heat engme where the process of combustionis conimuous unlike intermittent combustion l of IC enwe. Nearly al automotive gas turbines demonstratedto date have been of free or dual-shaft arrangement. The two shaft mangement permits independent speed for the compressor and power producing turbine. A generator is coupled to the power turbine normally through a reduction gear. Although gas turbines have been traditionally used in power plants, a smaller scale medel is a desirable candidate for HEV because it is free of noise and vibration associatedwith IC engines, it can be made small andhght, and it normally has excellent torque-curve for vehicle use. In laboratoly setting, it has demonstrated low emission level (0.41/3.4/0.4 )(HC/CO/NO,) at low mileage. A parhcular advantage of gas turbine is that variety of fuels, such as diesel oil, natural gas, gasoline or methanol can be used. The single p i n t in he1 economy index of Fig. 4 from a turbine-powered car built by Chrysler compares v e q unfavourably with other types of engines. The thermal efficiency of gas turbine increases with inlet ar temperature, regenerator effectiveness, i and other component efficiencies. It has been established that to improve efficiency to the desirable figure automotive gas turbine has to incorporate structural ceramics in hot parts, particularly in the highly stressed turbine rotor. This is expected to pennit raising d e t temperature from todayk level of around 1050' C with high temperature metal alloys to as much as 1350.C. The present research is now heading in ti direction. It is interesting to note that recently AB hs Volvo of Sweden has announced its Environmental Concept Car (ECC) [9] which is an HEV using gas turbme as power source that directly drives the generator. The 20 kW, 100,000 rpm turbine uses nickel alloy in the rotor and is fuelled by diesel oil. The discussion on heat engmes wiU remain incomplete without a brief touch on Stirling engine. The Stirling engine [14] receives heat at elevated tempxature from an external source and converts a fraction of it to work rejecting the remainder at lower temperature. Stirling engine has several advantageous characteristm.These include silent operation,

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low exhartst emission levels, superior fuel economy at steady state operation, the ability to operate on any liquid fuel (gasoline, diesel oil, kerosine, propane or methane), low cyclic torque variation, and a flat part-load characteristics. It is conceivable that they could be used in automobile. In fact, a nnmber of research projccts in last decade has d e n i o n s W the Stirling engine propulsion for cars, trucks and buses. Despite the favourable factors, they are very expensive, have large warm-up time and have poor performance in urban driving cycle. Excessive manufacturing costwill remain a main barrier for consumer acceptance.

Fuel Cell
Fuel cell is a potentially viable power source for HEV and has been considered for trrmsportaton applications over a number of years. They are attractive because thay convert chemical energy of a fuel directly into electricity without combustionprocess ,can achieve high efficiency ( 2 to 3 times better than gasoline engine), virtually gives no emission, inherently modular, static, and noise-free. The operating principle of fuel cell is indicated in Fig. 5. Basically, it is a reverse process of

HYDROGEN FUEL (Hz)

2H'J ELECTROLYTE

connected in series in a fuel cell stack. In addition to the stack, the auxiliary system components include controls, cooling fans, recirculation pumps and air compressor. Fuel cells are classified on the basis of the electrolyte and include phospharic acid he1 cell (PAFC), molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), solid oxyde fuel cell (SOFC), direct methanol fuel cell (DWLFC) and polymer or proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). Table 2 summarizes [lo] the charactenstics of some of these fuel cells.The PAFC is relatively more mature technology and is nearest to commercialization. However, PEMFC is the strongest candidate for vehicle application due to its use of solid electrolyte, cold start capability, relatively high power density, and efficiency characteristics. The solid polymer electrolyte (referred to as a membrane) consists of hn i m thin sheets. The cell electrodes have a t i f l platinum catalyst supported on carbon and are bonded to the faces of the electrolyte. Fuel cells have recently been used as low to medium capacity power plants in utility system, power generation in space vehlcles and occasionally to power urban transit buses. However, their excessive cost ($/kW) and bulkiness makes them impractical for automobile applications. Besides, their sl;art-up time and transient response are d & . The PEMFC basic mated cost alone is estimated to be over $2,OOO/kW ( i.e., $60,000 for a 30 kW unit in an HEV) ,and including the auxiliary system the specific power (kWkg) may be 0.04 to 0.06. The fuel cell, as indicated besore, has higher efficiency than gasoline ht engine, and it has been e h n a h l t a the payback period for fuel saving is 34 years for an automobile, eight years for cross-country track and four years for a commercial bus. At present, research and development activities in fuel cells are very heavy by government and private agencies. Hopefully, the limitations will be solved in future and he1 cell will come out as a viable power source not only for automobiles but also for other applications.

Comparison of Power Devices

1/2 0% 2H'+ 2 e -+ HzO +

Table 3 gives the approximate comparison for different power devices excluchngthe Stirling engine. Considering all the factors, it can be concluded that gasoline engine will remain the most viable power source at least in the early pial of the next century.

AIR

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AND NS

CONCLUSION
Fig.5: Fuel Cell w r a t i o n Principle electrolysis of water where water breaks down to hydrogen and oxygen gases with the help of electncity. The construction of fuel cell is somewhat s d a r to a battery, except that it does not undergo any material change, and consequently, it operates as long as the fuel supply exists. The hydrogen and oxygen gases in he1 cell are supplied externally and react through electrolyte. First, the electrons are separated liom the hydrogen molecules by a catalist creating hydrogen ions and electrons, as indicated. The ions then pass through the electrolyte to the oxygen side. The electrons are forced to pass through the external electncal circuit to the oxygen side. When electrons reach the oxygen side, they combine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen creating water. Heat is generated as a result of this reaction that raises the cell temperature. Hydrogen can be stored in a t n ,or a hydrogenak Contairung fuel such as methane or methanol can be stored which can be refmed to hydrogen for feeding the fuel cell. The oxygen can be directly supplied from air through 3 compressor. The theontical efficiency of a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is 83%. Efficiencies of practical fuel cells using pure hydrogen and oxygen range &om 50% to 65% based on lower heating value. The theontical voltage of such a cell at 25 C is 1.23 volts. Under electrical load, the cell voltage falls to 0.6 - 0.8 due to polarization effect. Therefore, multiple cells are The paper discusses diflknmt types of energy storage and power devices ta are appropnzrte for next generatron electnchybnd vehicles. ht Approximate comparison is also given in the respective class of devices to indicate their viability of application. The study indicates that battery and gasoline engine will remain the most viable energy storage and power device, respectively ai least in the near-term hybrid vehicle. Although power electronics and drives area has attained a reasonable degree of m a e t y , it appears that considerable amount of R & D is needed in storage and power device technologiesin order to make the hybrid vehicle economically acceptable to the consumer. The technology evolution in this area is V ~ I Yslow inspite of large number of publications in the recent literature. The battery is the "weakest link" in electrichybrid vehicle, and will remain so in the near future.

REFERENCES
[ 1] Partnership for Next Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) Program Plan, July 1994. [2] B. K. Bose and M. H. Kim, "Advanced propulsion power
d s r b t o system for next generationelectrichybrid vehicle, Phase 1: itiuin prelimmiry system studies", Final Report submitted to NASA Lewis Research Center, June 1995. [3] X. Xu and V. A. Sankaran, "Power electronics in electric vehicles: challenges and opportunities",IEEE/IAS Annu. Meet. Cod. Rec., pp. 463468,1993.

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Table 2: Characteristics of Various Fuel Cell Types

Major Application Potential Dispersed Electric On-Site Molton Carbonate (MCFC) Dispersed Electric On-Site Cogen. Central Power Solid Oxide (SOFC) On-Site Cogen. Central Power Polymer (PEMFC) Vehicle Estimated Commercial 1996 41(80) Main Cell Materiais Carbons Emissions dGJ NO, So:
1.1

Cell Type Phosphoric Acid (PAFC)

Fuel Nat. Gas Nat. Gas Nat. Gas Nat. Gas Coal Nat. Gas Coal Methanol

KdMWh CO* 450

1992-5 1996-8

36-40(70) 48-55

1996-8 2000+
2002

45(70)

>50
42(70)

1
I
Safety Noise

I.IC Steels 4.1

oc

5 10-460

0 0
11.4

385-335

4.1

410 <645 440

5.7
1,000 Ceramics 2.6

2002+ 2000+

45

14.2 34.0
Polymers

715

(a) Fuel higher heating value to net ac electricity; cogeneration in parenthesis

(b) So, based on 4 percent sulfer coal

[4] D. Coates, Advancedbattery systems for electric vehicle applications,American Chem. Society Magazine, pp. 2.273-2.278. 1993. [j] C. W. Seitz, Industrialbattery technologies and markets,IEEE AES Syst. Mag., pp. 11-15, May 1994. [6] J. S. Lai et al., High energy density double layer capacitors for energy storage applications,BEE AES Magazine, pp. 14-19, April 1992. [7] J. Meisel, Ahybrid electric power tan for meeting the super car ri mandate, Environmental Vehicle 95 Cod. Rec., pp. 133-147, Jan. 1995. How shall we power tomorrows automobile, [8] C. A. A, Automotive Engine Alternative, pp. 1-35, (Ed.) R. L. Evans, Plenum Press, NY. [9] M. Valenti, Hybrid car promises high performance and low emissions,Mechanical Engg., pp. 47-49, July 1994. [ 101 J. H. Hirschenhofer, Latest progress in fuel cell technology, JEEE AES Syst. Magazine, pp. 18-27,Nov. 1992. [l 11J. Douglas, Solidfutures in fuel cells,EPRI Joumds, pp. 6-13, March 1994 [121D. H. Swan and A. J. Appleby, Fuel cells and other long range technology options for electric vehicles knowledge gaps and development priorities, OECD Documents (The Urban Electric Vehicle), pp. 457-468, May 1992. [13] J. R. H a e t al., Fuel cell in transportation, Battery Symposium, Long Beach, CA., 1987. [ 141 G. Walker et al. Automotive applications of Stirhg engine, Automotive Engine Alternative, pp. 105-124, @d.) R. L. Evans.

Table.3: Comparision of Power Devices

...........................................................

Gasuse

Engine

Diesel Engine

....................................

Gas Turbine

Fuel
Ccll

-----_----______-__30 * 15 *

cost (pu)
Weight (pu)

1.2
12

I .3
1.1
small

I medium good
god

Emission Availability Practicality Efficiency (pu)

high good
good

smaller or Zero Poor not good

good(?)

good
1.3

1
good medium

1.2 good higher

2
very good none

medium medium

Control Complexity Comments

medium
Available

medium
Available

high
Needs R &D

small
N-ds

R&D

technology

technology

........................................

* Numerical figure may not be accurate