Conserving Historic Buildings

CONSERVING HISTORIC BUILDINGS
UCD School of Architecture, Landscape and Civil Engineering
A project submitted to University College Dublin
by Group 10: DECLAN MORRISSEY, BARRY MURPHY, PAUL MURPHY, SINEAD MURPHY, ORLAITH OBRIEN, MARK OCONNELL (Group Leader), DARRAGH OGORMAN, NOEL MORAN, THOMAS OBOYLE 14 April 2008
Executive Summary
This document reports the findings of 9 Bachelor of Engineering students on the subject of the conservation of historic buildings. This is an important topic for Irish engineers, especially those who work in the cities of Ireland where many historic structures (facing reuse, demolition or dereliction) can be found. This report attempts to identify some key areas of building conservation and investigate the existing literature to gain an understanding of the current status of building conservation. Then proposals are made for further research or amendments to current methods wherever possible.
Firstly, the importance of conserving historic buildings is explained and the term historic building is defined. It is investigated how a structure takes on this title and who is responsible for the conservation and maintenance works on historic buildings. The causes of decay in historic building are identified in order to gain an understanding of why buildings do not last indefinitely. The causes of decay are numerous and are examined in turn along with the associated risks, and a solution is proposed where possible. The impact that building conservation and rehabilitation has on modern society is discussed and it is argued that it is a positive impact as they preserve the culture and historical traditions of an area which encourages a sense of unity among the local people. Dublins Smithfield is taken as a case study.
To begin the examination of structural aspects of building conservation, foundations are investigated. The problems that occur in foundations are addressed and various underpinning remedies are reviewed. The main restriction on the foundation repair techniques is the fact that the historic building being repaired must be preserved, meaning that less invasive techniques are preferred. Old stone, brick and mortar walls are also researched. Stone was the main building material used in Ireland from neolithic times right up to the beginning of the twentieth century; it has withstood the test of time. Despite being an excellent building material, stone is still vulnerable to weathering especially in modern cities with high levels of pollutants. Having both aesthetic and structural qualities, it is important that sufficient care be taken when restoring brick and stone walls. More decorative structural elements are also examined domes, arches and beams. Engineers of the past used such ornamental features on many significant buildings so they make up an important part of building conservation.
Introducing modern building services into a historic building for the purpose of conservation poses many problems and difficulties. A balance must be sought so that the aesthetic and cultural integrity of the building is preserved, while still providing up-to-date utilities for the building and its occupants. With the recent emphasis on reducing the energy consumption of domestic buildings, which currently consume approximately 25% percent of the energy consumed in Ireland and Britain, it is becoming necessary to investigate the potential to reduce the carbon footprint of older housing stock which constitutes a large proportion of housing. As the last part of this report, to help keep historic buildings viable in the modern world, their environmental impact and ways of reducing this are investigated
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Table of Contents
1. CONSERVING HISTORIC BUILDINGS: AN OVERVIEW

1.1 Introduction 1.2 Defining a historic building and the importance of their conservation 1.3 Laws and legislation established to protect/conserve historic buildings 1.4 Role of the engineer in building conservation 1.5 Benefits of being a protected historic building and the role of the pwner 1.6 Conclusions 1.6 References
2. CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL DECAY IN HISTORIC BUILDINGS

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Literature review 2.3 Climate causes of decay 2.3.1 Solar radiation 2.3.2 Temperature and thermal expansion 2.3.3 Moisture and precipitation 2.3.4 Frost and snow 2.3.5 Wind 2.3.6 Natural disasters 2.4 Botanical and biological causes of decay 2.4.1 Botanical causes of decay 2.4.2 Biological and microbiological causes of decay 2.4.3 Fungal decay 2.5 Insects and other pests as causes of decay 2.5.1 Deathwatch beetle 2.5.2 Carpenter ants 2.5.4 Termites 2.6 Anthropogenic causes of decay 2.6.1 Vibration 2.6.2 Water abstraction 2.6.3 Atmospheric pollution 2.7 Internal environment of historic buildings 2.7.1 Moisture content of air 2.7.2 Heat and humidity 2.7.3 Ventilation 2.7.4 Lighting 2.8 Conclusions 2.9 References
3. RESTORATION OF HISTORIC BUILDINGS FOR MODERN USE

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Literature review 3.3 The role of rehabilitation in society 3.4 The rehabilitation process 3.5 Case study: Smithfield 3.5.1 Original site 3.5.2 Historic features retained iii
1 2 2 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 16 16 17 18 18 19 19 21 21 21
3.5.3 Engineering techniques 3.6 Conclusions 3.7 References
4. FOUNDATIONS
4.1 Introduction 4.2 Literature review 4.3 Foundations and their importance in building conservation 4.3.1 Foundations in historic buildings 4.3.2 The importance of foundations in building conservation 4.4 Assessing problems with foundations of historic buildings 4.4.1 Foundations problems and the need for repair 4.4.2 Assessment of foundations 4.5 Repair of foundations in historic buildings 4.5.1 Mass concrete underpinning 4.5.2 Pier-and-beam underpinning 4.5.3 Pile-and-beam underpinning 4.5.4 Pile underpinning 4.5.5 Review of methods of underpinning 4.6 Conclusions 4.7 Recommendations 4.8 References
5. RESTORATION OF OLD STONE, BRICK AND MORTAR WALLS

5.1 Introduction 5.2 Literature review 5.3 Causes of decay in old walls 5.3.1 Characteristics of construction 5.3.2 Type of stone/brick used in construction 5.3.3 Environmental factors 5.4 Materials and methods used in the repair of old walls 5.5 References
6. BEAMS, ARCHES AND DOMES

6.1 Introduction 6.2 Literature review 6.3 Domes 6.3.1 History of domes 6.3.2 Problems with domes 6.3.3 Rectifying problems with domes 6.4 Beams 6.4.1 History of beams 6.4.2 Problems and solutions with beams 6.4.3 Problems with reinforced concrete 6.5 Arches 6.5.1 History of arches 6.5.2 Problems with arches 6.5.3 Rectifying problems with arches 6.6 Case study: The Mostar Bridge
22 23 24 25 26 26 27 27 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 30 30 31 31 31 32 33 34 34 35 35 36 36 36 37 39 40 40 40 40 41 42 43 43 43 43 44 44 44 44 45
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6.7 Conclusions 6.8 References
7. BUILDING SERVICES IN CONSERVING HISTORIC BUILDINGS

7.1 Introduction 7.2 Literature review 7.3 Heating services in conserving historic buildings 7.3.1 Primitive forms of building heating 7.3.2 Requirements and general considerations for installing a heating system 7.3.3 Plant and delivery system considerations 7.3.4 Dispersal units 7.4 Electrical services in conserving historic buildings 7.4.1 Primitive electrical installations 7.4.2 Electrical survey 7.4.3 Choice of cables for new installations 7.4.4 Practical considerations for electrical installations 7.5 Conclusions and recommendations 7.6 References
46 46 47 48 48 48 48 49 49 50 51 51 51 52 52 53 54 55 56 56 56 57 57 58 59 60 61 62 62 62 63 63 64 64 65 66 67 69
8. MODERN MATERIALS IN THE CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC

BUILDINGS
8.1 Introduction 8.2 Literature review 8.3 Modern materials 8.3.1 Aluminium 8.3.2 Modern materials in protection from earthquakes 8.3.3 Polymers 8.4 Conclusions 8.5 References
9. ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY AND SUSTAINABLE BUILDING

CONSERVATION
9.1 Introduction 9.2 Literature review 9.3 Windows 9.4 Insulation 9.4.1 Insulation of walls 9.4.2 Insulation of lofts 9.5 Case study 9.6 Summary and conclusions 9.7 References
10. CONCLUSIONS 11. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Conserving historic buildings: An overview

B. Murphy1
Year 2 Bachelor of Engineering Student, School of Architecture, Landscape and Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4.
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Abstract. This chapter explains the importance of conserving historic buildings and what we mean when we use the term historic building. It explains how a structure takes on this title and what advantages this allows to the building. Then it explains the roles of different areas of the community and their relation to the topic of historic building conservation; the Irish government and its legislation, the role of the proprietor in regards to maintenance and the role of the engineer when working on renovation or restoration projects.
1.1. Introduction We are all familiar with the term historic building, an expression which creates images of Dublin Castle, the Four Courts and the Customs House. However, it is not widely known what the definition of a historic building is, or indeed how a building comes to have such a status. This chapter attempts to address these issues and thereby provide a context for the entire report. A brief look is also taken at building conservation and with whom the responsibility falls in making sure these buildings are properly maintained for future generations. It is also shown how being a registered protected historic building will invariably extend the life of the building. After reading this chapter, it is hoped the reader will have a better understanding of the importance of defining historic buildings and the value of their prolonged conservation.
1.2. Defining a historic building and the importance of their conservation When dealing with issues relating to Historic buildings it is important to first be able to define exactly what a historic building is. We must be able to acknowledge exactly what constitutes a historic building, what roles and functions it incorporates, and hence why there is a need to conserve them. We can broadly define a historic building as one which is recognized as being of particular architectural or historic interest; a Listed Building or a building of local importance included on a local list (1). They are protected structures, buildings that a local authority considers to be of special interest from an architectural, historical, archaeological, artistic, cultural, scientific, social or technical point of view (2). They are everyday reminders of the history of a great city, such as our own, Dublin. The GPO evokes images to us all of one of the most important times in our countrys history. Historic buildings are inarguably engraved in our past, as the name suggests, but they also serve an important role in modern times. They help shape the cities in which they are situated, accentuating the diversity and uniqueness of the areas around them. They are a constant reminder of how a location has developed and to lose them would be to lose part of the soul of the city. They may also portray certain architectural and engineering qualities which defined an era, such as the Georgian houses around Leeson Street (see Fig. 1.1), the Customs House (see Fig. 1.2) or Christ Church which dates back to the 11th century. Failure to conserve such buildings would lead to an extinction of evidence of these past times and the undoubted architectural merits and examples of early engineering techniques which encompass them.
Fig. 1.1. Leeson Street, Dublin 2.*
Fig 1.2. The Custom House, Custom House Quay, Dublin 1.*
*Photographs by Mark OConnell
According to a conference article written by Ingmar Holstrom, historic buildings should be conserved for future generations by respecting the original building, an antiquarian demand meaning that any intervention of the building should be done using original materials or those closest to them, while not damaging other aspects of the building. All interventions should also be minimal, reversible and recorded (3). Holstroms words clearly indicate a need for these buildings to be maintained and conserved and to be kept relevant in the 21st century. They should not be allowed to become derelict due to neglect or replaced for financial gain. This responsibility is often placed upon us as engineers but is also the duty of the owner, the government and wider community. 1.3. Laws and legislation established to protect/conserve historic buildings The Irish government, as an elected body representing the people, has a duty to protect important historic buildings by passing and upholding laws which ensure their conservation. Measures are put in place to create a clear process for buildings to become protected historic buildings and laws are passed to make sure this title has great significance. The legislation relates mainly to strict planning permission rules when the building in question needs to be altered or when ownership is changing hands.
Every planning authority is obliged to have a Record of Protected Structures (RPS). Buildings are proposed for inclusion in the RPS by elected members of the planning authority. Subsequently the owners, occupiers, Minister for Environment and Local Government must be notified of the proposal. The proposal is presented to the public and any queries or concerns may be raised over the following six weeks. The elected members of the planning authority then have a further twelve weeks to come to a unified decision, one which reflects the comments of the public. If they decide to make the building a protected structure, the owner and occupier must be notified within two weeks. This process was established under the Local Government (Planning and Development) Acts from 1963 to 1999. All these acts have now been consolidated under part IV of the Planning and Development Act 2000. It reads:
For the purpose of protecting structures, or parts of structures, which form part of the architectural heritage and which are of special architectural, historical, archaeological, artistic, cultural, scientific, social or technical interest, every development plan shall include a
record of protected structures, and shall include in that record every structure which is, in the opinion of the planning authority, of such interest within its functional area.(4)
They are legally protected from harm and all future changes to the structure are controlled and managed through the development control process (for example, planning permission) or by issuing a declaration under Section 57 of the Planning and Development Act 2000. These laws warrant that the building is now safe and will not be sacrificed. Should an investor attempt to buy the property with the aim to demolish it, rebuild on the land and make a quick profit, they would find it impossible to push the planning permission through the system.
1.4. Role of the engineer in building conservation Engineers are often allocated the responsibility of conserving historic buildings. Urgent renovations to old historic buildings require specific engineering techniques if they are to be undertaken adequately such as if the roof needs to be replaced or an aspect of the building has become structurally weakened. Jobs such as these require a great deal of care, making sure large-scale renovations do not damage the historic building in question. This is where engineers come in. For example, if a load bearing wall needs to be replaced (having lost its structural integrity over the years) an engineer will have the duty to manage the replacement safely. Engineering techniques such as underpinning (see Section 3.5) may need to be used to give temporary load relief to the structure. Underpinning techniques may also be used to improve the foundations if the originals are deemed to be inadequate, or if some nearby construction threatens to compromise them. Engineers can also enhance a historic building (see Chapter 9 for environmentally friendly enhancements) thereby guaranteeing it will be conserved even under modern day conditions. Historical structural members can be strengthened to carry increased loading, degraded timber, brick and stone (see Chapter 5) structural elements can be restored to their original properties and flood control measures can be installed where there are inadequate draining systems. Modern building services (see Chapter 7) can also be incorporated if the historic building is to be turned into a museum or tourist center. However all these works must be done without damaging the buildings defining characteristics and this is the responsibility of the acting engineer. Engineers play a huge part in the conservation of historic buildings in developing cities.
1.5. Benefits of being a protected historic building and the role of the owner As a protected structure a lot of the responsibility in ensuring adequate conservation to the historic building falls upon the owner. The owner must guarantee that no element of the historic building which contributes to its special interest is endangered in either the short or long term. If the building is kept in a habitable condition and regular maintenance is carried out the building should not be in danger of becoming derelict or damaged. Planning permission regulations are very specific when relating to protected historic buildings. Changes to the property which would usually not require planning permission, such as interior painting, has to be approved by the planning authorities as even these minor works may alter the intrinsic, material qualities of the building. An owner may apply in writing to the authorities if unsure of what works may be carried out. A declaration, under Section 57 of the Planning and Development Act 2000, will be issued within twelve weeks of the request stating what works may be carried out without planning permission. This may be appealed by the owner to An Bord Pleanla. More extensive works are also under stricter scrutiny than with regular buildings as the application must include an extensive and highly detailed list of drawings, photos, plans and documents which leave no doubt that the works involved will not compromise the character of the historic building. If the building is becoming endangered the planning authority can intervene by serving a notice to the owner that certain works must be carried out. A conservation grant scheme has been established to assist the owner in undertaking these necessary works. The standard figure is 50% of the cost of works (up to 13,000) or 75% (up to 25,000) in exceptional circumstances. In the event that the owner refuses to complete the renovations, the law grants special power to the planning authorities. They may complete the works themselves or in extraordinary cases may buy out the property by compulsory purchase if they deem this to be necessary for the buildings conservation. There are also possible penalties for non-compliant owners or those who knowingly allow the structure to be endangered as stated in the Planning and Development 2000. If found guilty they could serve a term of imprisonment or incur a fine of up to 1.27 million.
1.6. Conclusions This report has given an overview of the topic of Conserving Historic Buildings, acting as a general introduction to the report. It has clearly defined what a historic building is and the reasons why they should be conserved. They are soaked in tradition, culture and society and it would be a shame to allow them to pine away in the face of heartless urban development. It was found that engineers, the government and the owner all have their place in the 6
conservation project. The government has a responsibility to provide ample protection for these protected structures by using the judicial system and by enforcing laws for the benefit and betterment of the buildings. The owner of any such building also has to accept the responsibility that they are in possession of a structure of national significance and make sure any works or renovations required are satisfactorily seen to. Finally, any engineer working on a project dealing with the conservation of a historic building has a professional duty to complete the works with the utmost care and minimal disruption to the structure. In conclusion the conservation of historic buildings is an important issue controlled by laws which must be adhered to by all involved parties.
1.7. References (1) http://www.torridge.gov.uk/onlineplan/written/cpt28.htm (2)http://www.environ.ie/en/Heritage/ArchitecturalProtectionandHeritagePolicy/Publications Documents/FileDownLoad,3498,en.doc (3) Conference Article written by Ingmar Holstrom at conference in Sweden entitled To Build and Take Care of What We Have Built with Limited Resources, CIB 83, The 9th CIB Congress. Volume 4: Building Materials and Components. (4) http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2000/en/act/pub/0030/sec0051.html#partiv (5) www.dublintourist.com (6)http://www.citizensinformation.ie/categories/housing/building-or-altering-ahome/protected-structures (7) http://www.leemccullough.ie/renovation/index.html
2. Causes of structural decay in historic buildings

T. OBoyle2
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Abstract. In conserving historic buildings it is important to know how decay might come about, how it affects the building and what intervention is needed to save the building. The causes of decay were researched using books, internet databases and journals. These are climate, the affect of seismic zones, botanical, biological and microbiological causes of decay, insects and pests, anthropogenic causes and internal environment of historic buildings. Each of these is examined in turn as well as the associated risks, and a solution is proposed where possible. It was found that some causes of decay are far more harmful than previously expected. This research indicates that the internal environment of historic buildings needs more research as the type of damage associated with it can ultimately destroy the building in question. An increase in inspections done for this type of damage is recommended, as many old buildings have poor ventilation.
2.1 Introduction Conservation of buildings in an extremely important matter and although gravity is one of the principal causes of structural decay, the causes of decay which shall be detailed in this chapter have a huge influence on structures. These should give a varied outlook onto the decay in historic buildings and generally aid the process of conserving building. It is clear that it is impossible to conserve building without knowing sufficient information.
2.2 Literature review Feilden (2003) was an extremely useful resource as it offers a broad approach to examining the causes of decay in historic buildings, and thus provided a context for this chapter. Beckmann and Bowles (2004) provide an insight into the vulnerability of materials in historic building. It discussed the damages these materials incur and suggested possible (through reinforcement etc.). OCofaigh et al. (1996) was useful for the section on the internal environment. It addresses in detail the affect of heat and humidity on the indoor environment. The Met ireann website (http://www.meteireann.com/climate) provided vital statistics for this chapter to highlight how rain statistics need to be gathered in order to conserve a building properly, as rain can cause certain materials to dissolve. Furuno et al. (2004) highlights the extreme danger of termites. Huge amounts of research are done into termite damage and this article shows this. It also offers a solution to this type of decay.
2.3 Climate causes of decay Climate, in all aspects, is one of the fundamental causes of decay of buildings. It causes materials to fail which affects the structure. The resistance of building materials to climatic agents of decay increase with age and exposure thus this becomes a problem for historic buildings. Thus the site needs to be examined before any conservation work is undertaken. 2.3.1 Solar radiation Solar radiation is the prime cause of climate conditions. Different materials vary in there ability to absorb wavelengths of solar radiation. Dark materials absorb more heat than others. Materials vary from being a good absorber to being a good reflector. Ozone, water vapor, clouds and dust restrict the amount of solar radiation. A climatologist measures this using a radiometer. Shown are values gathered that a conservation architect or engineer needs when working
Table 2.1: Global Solar Radiation in Joules/cm2 for Dublin Airport

Jan 2008 7050 2007 8076 Feb 13090 12672 Mar Apr May 53834 Jun Jul Aug 40987 Sep Oct Nov 8342 Dec 6553 Total 64469 350504
26830 10420 26685 49222
45900 48739
30376 19118
(Source: http://www.meteireann.ie)
Light, especially the UV component is a destructive agent especially to organic materials such as wood and causes fading, embrittlement and loss of substance. The cause of air temperature change is done by the sun, radiation through day and convection by night. Shaded parts of building arent liable to damage, only being affected by the seasonal average temperatures. 2.3.2 Temperature and thermal expansion All materials expand and contract with heat which causes damage. The extent of thermal movement depends upon the temperature change, the thickness, the conductivity and coefficient of expansion of the material. Temperature induces stresses into buildings. This produces cracks on materials which can result in failure. The internal temperature of stone fluctuates a lot so this needs to be considered. 2.3.3 Moisture and precipitation The presence of water in any form causes or accelerates the decay of most materials. Faulty disposal of rain water is the most frequent cause of deterioration in ancient masonry. Moisture causes condensation which is more dangerous than water as it takes in the gaseous pollutants and suspended dirt which affects a building. Charts, graphs and research must be done to monitor the rainfall. These are important statistics as the type of material in a certain place needs to be considered as rainfall can cause serious damage. Table 2.2 is the type of statistic that Conservation Engineers and Architects need: Table 2.2: Total rainfall in millimetres for Dublin Airport
Jan 2008 2007 97.4 73.2 Feb 14.7 77.8 Mar 101.8 38.8 Apr 7.9 14.7 May 35.0 Jun 126 Jul 127 Aug 95.5 Sep 39.2 Oct 15.7 Nov 53.8 Dec 63.8 Annual 221.8 761.0
Dissolved salts in materials can be damaged by rain and moisture. Salt can be carried by rain and where there is heavy rain, especially in coastal areas, this can be a serious problem. 2.3.4 Frost and snow Frost is a serious condition where buildings are concerned. But it is not extreme cold that causes damage to buildings as much as frost changes - the actual process of freezing and
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resultant expansion of ice and subsequent contraction on thawing. The depth of foundation should be depth enough to avoid heave or expansion which causes the sub-soil to move with consequent damage. Freezing damages porous building materials such as bricks and stone through expansion. The weight of snow damages part of buildings like roofs, and gutters. 2.3.5 Wind Wind doesnt need to be considered unless the wind blows at high speeds. Coastal areas are subject to this as they get extremely high winds. Winds can also be dangerous as they can pick up grit and pieces of material and gusts can rotate materials at high speeds and drill it into buildings. Dust disfigures the exterior and interior of historic buildings. The eroding action of wind combined with sand and dust can ultimately destroy massive buildings. Indeed the most serious effects of wind pressure are found in conjunction with rain. 2.3.6 Natural disasters Natural disasters cause a huge amount of destruction to historic buildings and these includes seismic sea waves, tidal waves, landsides, volcanic eruptions, cyclones, hurricanes, tornadoes, avalanches and snow slips. These need to be seriously considered depending on the location and individually assessed. They are unpredictable and difficult to assess. Lightning is the most frequent of natural disasters and usually strikes the top of buildings. Earthquakes are disasters that cant be controlled. Inspections of vulnerability should be done on target buildings and reinforcement or addition of members should be done if needed.
2.4 Botanical and biological causes of decay 2.4.1 Botanical causes of decay Ivy, creepers and other plants can cause damage if allowed to grow freely. Ivy is dangerous as it digs into crumbling masonry and causes disintegrated. Stonecrop, wallflowers, trees and bushes should be taken care of. But these can be dealt with weed killers and such treatments. 2.4.2 Biological and microbiological causes of decay Bacteria and lichens cause decay by producing acids which react chemically with the structural material. Algae, moss and lichens grow on brick and stone which allow more damaging plants to grow, through moisture. Lichens are made of certain algae and fungi which can reproduce on moist external surfaces. Toxic washes can kill these. 2.4.3 Fungal decay Fungi, mildew, moulds and yeasts do not need sunlight to grow. They depend upon organic material such as plant life for their energy. Fungal attack occurs in well seasoned wood where damp conditions prevail. Adequate water and oxygen supply, suitable temperature and space 11
to grow are the basic requirements for survival. Corners and poorly ventilated areas are targets. Soft wood and a musty smell can indicate attack. The most common forms of fungi are: Dry rot and Wet rot
Dry rot fungus (see Fig. 2.1) is serious as it can manufacture and carry its own moisture and thus attack wood. This fungus grows from a spore and through its hair-like growth forms a snowy-white growth. They like unventilated voids such as linings to walls but growth can be slowed down by low temperatures. The cellulose is its food. When inspecting and controlling this, identifying the starting point is vital. The best way to stop it is by removing the affected area. Sterilization by chemicals and the use of high and low temperatures are also solutions.
Figure 2.1. A wood support infected by dry rot fungus Wet rots are much less serious than dry rot as they do not carry their moisture with them so their range can be found. The most common type is cellar fungus and it requires 25% moisture content before it will attack. The ends of timber beams are vulnerable to this.
2.5 Insects and other pests as causes of decay All buildings and materials are subject to attack by animals and pests, especially birds and pigeons. Obvious methods such as spikes and cages can be used here to protect the building but in the chapter we will be discussing insect attack. 2.5.1 Deathwatch beetle The deathwatch beetle is one of the major enemies of historic buildings, as its favorite food is oak, the principal structural timber of old buildings. They bore a hole and lay up to 400 eggs. Eradication is done by drilling holes in the timber and filling them with preservative so the larvae can be reached. 12
2.5.2 Carpenter ants The carpenter ant attacks exposed timber and can be noticed because of their loud buzzing. They bore out large tunnels and an egg is laid in each cell and provided with food in the form of pollen. Eradication is done by an annual paint of creosote or a thick lime wash coat. 2.5.4 Termites Termites, of which there are two types (ground termites and drywood termites), can cause sever damage to timber structures (see Fig. 2.2).
Figure 2.2. Damage that termites can cause.
Ground termites live in large colonies in the earth depending on source of moisture. There are two main types of ground-dwelling termites are of concern and these are differentiated by the way they digest the cellulose in the wood. They will die if denied access to their underground home. Seal up any holes cut as these are prime spots for termites. It is necessary to poison the earth below the building with a strong dose.
Drywood termites like to feed on seasoned wood. Their attack is more or less confined to the sapwood. Mounds of dust and heaps of excreta pellets are the only evidence of attack. Small amounts of poison can be used on these as they digest each others food. With drywood termites, authorities need all the help they can get as drywood termites are air-borne. Fumigation is done by covering the area with a tent.
A solution to this problem is using insoluble metaborates in wood. Its done by impregnating the wood with borax and metallic salts the metaborate and research shows that the treated woods showed generally show little decay and termite resistance (Furuno et al., 2004).
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A lot of research has been done into termites and pests in general and this is something that should not be taken lightly as pest and insects can ultimately destroy a building.
2.6 Anthropogenic causes of decay Man-made causes of decay are complicated and have widespread implications on historic buildings. Little is being done to prevent these yet they are very important. 2.6.1 Vibration Damage by vibration is one of the main man-made causes of decay. Ground transmitted traffic vibration particularly that from heavy diesel vehicles is a serious problem. It causes loss of structural strength in the superstructure through additional stresses and cracking. Traffic vibration and pile driving cause the most damage to historic buildings, where vibration is concerned, and the best way to resolve this is to remove the source. 2.6.2 Water abstraction Water abstraction can be extremely damaging especially if its done for industrial purposes. It caused Venice to sink and is affecting other cities such as London. This can cause differential loading on foundations inducing stresses on buildings. To ease this new machines exist to obtain the water and new codes exist. 2.6.3 Atmospheric pollution Atmospheric pollution is the by-product of industrial and commercial activities, heating and traffic. Pollution control is an important factor in preventing damage to our cultural heritage. The greatest part of the pollution of the atmosphere arises from the burning of fuel in boilers, furnaces, domestic fires and in internal combustion engines. Carbon dioxide occurs naturally being given off by all living organisms as a product of respiration, as well as being a product of artificial combustion of fuel. It is capable of dissolving limestone made of calcium carbonate by converting into calcium bicarbonate, Ca(HCO3), which is water soluble. Sulphur dioxide occurs as a man-made by product, although quite significant amounts occur by natural means. Its present in oils and coal and emitted quite heavily through diesel-engine vehicles. Ozone is created in the upper atmosphere by the action of ultraviolet radiation on oxygen its created through complicated chain of reactions resulting in the formation of ozone and proxy acyl nitrate (PAN). It causes metals to corrode rapidly. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, chlorides, asbestos, beryllium and mercury are pollutants that each affect and promote decay on buildings. They cause rust and decomposition. With stone, pollution
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generally dissolves stones. Its protected using lime but this doesnt last. Wood, bricks, tiles, terracotta and glass arent too affected as long as theyre treated right.
2.7 Internal environment of historic buildings 2.7.1 Moisture content of air Moisture exists in the air and in most building materials except metals, glass, paint and plastics. Also occupants produce this as well. Moisture can also be produced by evaporation from indoor plants, by direct or indirect infiltration of rain water and dampness. 2.7.2 Heat and humidity Low relative humidity cause damage to objects in a building. It dries out materials and promotes cracking. High relative humidity promotes growth of mould and attracts insects. Heat in a building is gained from the occupants and other things like electric lighting and solar energy. All in all, good insulation, thermal mass and permeability to moisture are beneficial. 2.7.3 Ventilation Stagnant air creates condensation which leads to dampness and this leads to outbreaks of rot. Old buildings generally have no mechanical ventilation so natural ventilation is important. Windows are important for this. The stack effect can be used here. Cold air enters at low levels and pushes warm air out at high level outlets through the use of pressure. (This is reversed during the summer). The bigger the openings, the more the wind flow. Air conditioning units can be used but these can be damaging to an old building. 2.7.4 Lighting For natural lighting, windows are crucial and the placement of them needs to be carefully considered. There are three important aspects of the natural lighting of a building. First, the window/wall ratio in relation to thermal mass. Second, heat loss and air infiltration caused by windows. Third, the danger of unwanted thermal gain from sunlight, particularly as UV rays tends to damage buildings. These contribute significantly to affecting the internal environment. Artificial lighting produces radiation and heat which is dangerous but this can be solved using low heat fluorescent tubes. Also flashes used in photography can cause drying in wood and other materials due to its radiant heat so the area in question may need to be protected.
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2.8 Conclusions The causes of decay listed above have a significant affect on historic buildings. Their impacts on historic buildings can be devastating if left unchecked. The solutions proposed in this chapter must be implemented if any of the symptoms described are observed. It is recommended that there be an increase in inspections and intervening action taken where necessary. With historic buildings, it is important to identify problems early and prevent the development of decay, as often it is impossible to fully restore the true nature of a building which has succumbed to decay.
2.9 References Beckmann, P. & Bowles, R., (2004). Structural aspects of building conservation. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Feilden, B. M., (2003). Conservation of Historic Buildings. 3rd ed. Oxford: Architectural Press Furuno, T., Lin, L. & Katoh, S., (2004). Leachability, decay and termite resistance of wood treated with metaborates. Journal of Wood Science 49 (4), p.344-348 Met ireann website, http://www.meteireann.ie [accessed 13 April] OCofaigh E., Olley, J. & Lewis J.O., (1996). The climatic dwelling: an introduction to climate-responsive residential architecture. London: James & James Science Publishers Ltd.
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3. Restoration of historic buildings for modern use

O. OBrien3 Year 2 Bachelor of Engineering Student, School of Architecture, Landscape and Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4.
3
Abstract. This chapter discusses the impact that rehabilitation has in modern society. Through extensive research it was found that it has a positive effect as it preserves the culture and historical traditions of an area which encourages a sense of unity. From a financial point of view it was also discovered that rehabilitation is advantageous as it reuses capital and resources which already exist. This means that the cost of demolishing and rebuilding an entire new structure is compensated for. The process of undertaking a rehabilitation project was also explored as there are many guidelines that must be followed in order to protect historical buildings and their heritage. It was discovered that tax incentives are offered by the government to encourage rehabilitation. However, it is difficult to preserve classic buildings while still adapting them for use in todays society. This balance is hard to find but is possible as demonstrated in the case study of Smithfield, where the Jameson Whiskey Distillery was founded in 1780. This site is a prime example of how rehabilitation should be done it rejuvenated the area, giving it a modern purpose in the economy and at the same time retained many of the features that make it a unique place. The designers cleverly used the heritage of the area to their advantage by featuring a museum on site which highlights the original use of the site as a whiskey distillery. Two hotels were also included in the development and Smithfield is now one of the top tourist attractions in Dublin city.
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3.1 Introduction The previous chapter gave you an outline as to why historic buildings need conservation. This chapter sets out to find equilibrium between history and the modern world we live in. Historic buildings are present in most major cities around the world and have a particular prominence in Dublin. Beautiful buildings, such as the Customs House (built 1791) and Dublin Castle (built 1208-1220), are a reminder of what came before us and are important in our heritage and cultural identity. However, not every building over one hundred years old can be preserved exactly how it is; a city must still grow and develop with the culture of the time. It is natural to adapt old buildings for contemporary use as otherwise a city would become stale and decay. This process is called rehabilitation and defined as: The act or process of returning a property to a state of utility through repair or alteration that makes possible an efficient contemporary use, while preserving those features of the property significant to historical, architectural and cultural values. (Dept of Cultural Affairs, Nevada, 2002) The subsequent chapters will deal with the structural aspects of conserving historic buildings whereas this chapter focuses on the steps of rehabilitation and the significant role engineers have in it. They are the back bone of any construction project; however dealing with historic buildings is a much more difficult challenge. Engineers are responsible for the structural integrity of the building but they must also realise its cultural importance and take appropriate care when planning. The stages of rehabilitation will be outlined and then highlighted through a detailed case study on the Smithfield area; the redevelopment of the abandoned Jameson Distillery into a museum, a music studio, two hotels and numerous apartments transformed the region from desolate to thriving. Nevertheless the true spirit of the area was maintained through innovative design and the understanding of the historical value of Smithfield.
3.2 Literature review Feilden (2003) presents a broad approach to building conservation and provided base reading for this chapter, discussing the idea of historic buildings and their conservation.
Barrett and Kennedy (1999a) and Barrett and Kennedy (1999b) detail the rehabilitation of the Smithfield area in Dublin, which together give an excellent example of a successful rehabilitation project undertaken in recent times.
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The rest of the information for this chapter was gathered from many websites of Dublin-based public bodies and tourist information organisations.
3.3 The role of rehabilitation in society The presence of a historic landmark in an area is often an underappreciated gift. Living in a country as culturally rich as Ireland might cause people to take advantage of the wonderful structures that surround them. However, these buildings are a testament to our heritage and are what bring us together as a community. There is a sense of pride and identity as a result of the history that was made in buildings like the G.P.O (built 1818) or the skill in designing the stunning Christ Church (todays structure built from 1871 to 1878). These factors are all down to the rehabilitation of historic buildings. Places like Temple Bar and UCDs very own Newstead underwent rehabilitation to make them what they are today. Notable buildings like these were made useful in todays society yet still maintained their heritage. In most cases rehabilitated buildings are brought back from the brink of death to find a new life and purpose. The Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government has emphasised in its report Architectural Heritage Protection Guidelines for Planning Authorities that it is beneficial for historic sites to be kept in use rather than left to deteriorate. The Government even gives tax incentives to those who take on the challenge of rehabilitation. The Historic Area Rejuvenation Plan was also started by Dublin City Council in 1996 (after the Smithfield Village development began) in order to promote conservation of historic buildings and encourage private development on derelict sites. These measures were taken because the Government is aware of the positive impact rehabilitation has on society. It rejuvenates areas that are neglected and decaying and in many cases the revitalised area prospers as tourists come to share the unique culture. Hence without the rehabilitation of countless historic buildings our world would be a much more depressing place.
3.4 The rehabilitation process Rehabilitation is a multi-faceted issue and so it needs a multi-disciplinary team. This is especially important for historic structures as there are even more factors to consider due to their age and importance. According to Feilden (2003) the following people, at least, should be included in a team for a thorough rehabilitation: Civil engineers Town Planners Quantity surveyors 19 Historic architects Landscape architects Urban planners
Traffic Managers Health officers
Development economists
It is the opinion of the author that adding project managers, historians and archaeologists to the team would make it even more capable of handling historic rehabilitations. Each professional is responsible for different aspects of the development but all are important in order to stay true to the history of the building. For example, the civil engineers job is to guarantee that the historic building remains structurally reliable. On the other hand, the historic architect is responsible for the architectural history of the building. Skill and understanding are essential to completing the project with appropriate consideration.
The keys to any good development are organisation and communication. Therefore the specialised group should meet regularly so that there is complete and accurate communication within the team. They must first of all establish their priorities the most important of which is preserving the historic attributes of the building. The next step is one of the most vital stages in the rehabilitation process the survey. A thorough survey must be done on the historic building to analyse its condition. Precise detail is required when dealing with old structures as they may have deteriorated over the years due to lack of maintenance. The survey will determine the moisture content of supports and any structural work or repairs that are required to bring the building up to date with the present building regulations. The specific regulations for a building depend on its use and hence the new function of the building must be defined once the survey is evaluated. This decision requires research to be done into the previous uses of the building; as Feilden (2003) stated, the team must work with history, not against it. It is generally advised that the rehabilitation keeps the modern use of the building as similar to the original as possible. This means less interference and change to the landmark and so preserves its historic elements. From a financial point of view it also reduces costs as altering the use may require expensive structural work, such as floor strengthening, to be done. However, old buildings do have a lot of scope for modernisation as they often have large, spacious rooms that are easily adapted. Nevertheless, respect for the rareness of ancient buildings is a big part of completing the transformation from past to present. In an ideal rehabilitation skilled members of the team would identify the special features of the building which make it unique. It is then up to the architect and engineer to design the rehabilitation around those extraordinary characteristics.
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3.5 Case study: Smithfield
3.5.1 Original site In 1995 the Smithfield Village development got underway when the developers Heritage Properties Ltd applied for planning permission for a vast rehabilitation. The 85m x 125m site (approx.) is located in the whole area surrounded by Bow St, New Church St, Smithfield and Friary Ave as you can see from the map in Figure 3.1 below.
Figure 3.1: Smithfield site
Figure 3.2: Smithfield under construction
Architects A. & D. Wejchert and Barrett Mahony Consulting Engineers were hired for the task of transforming the abandoned whiskey distillery into a modern village with modern facilities that still remained true to its original purpose. The distillery was originally built in 1780 and, along with the local markets it made Smithfield a very prosperous area. After the distillery closed in the 1970s the area suffered and the old distillery was subjected to vandalism and disregard. 3.5.2 Historic features retained Throughout the site it is clear that a conscious effort was made to ensure that the uniqueness of Smithfield remained. Along Bow St and New Church St the original stone walls were kept. Also the 9 storey tower and 3 chimneys were maintained and incorporated into the design. Unfortunately, in some situations preserving everything just as it was did not work and so alternatives had to be devised. In one case a red brick wall was carefully taken down and erected in a different place on the site. This is slightly controversial as according to Architectural Heritage Protection Guidelines for Planning Authorities the recycling of historical materials confuses the history of the building. However, seeing as the bricks were reused in the same site I believe that the site retains its integrity. The designers merged the past and present in another innovative way by incorporating the 3 storey red brick wall that
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faces onto Smithfield plaza into the entrance to one of the hotels. They preserved the majority of the 1895 wall as it was and cut high vertical slots into it to allow light and access into the hotel behind. This is easier to understand from Figure 3.3 below.
Figure 3.3: Red brick wall
Figure 3.4: Inside the museum
Figure 3.5: Turret roofs
The special characteristics of Smithfield were also reflected in other aspects of the development. Duck Lane which runs through the site from Bow St to Smithfield is an imitation of a lane which existed when the distillery was active. The turret roof design of the apartments (seen in Figure 3.5 above) is also intended to represent the roofs of the kilns that were used in the whiskey making process. The museum built into the development was an excellent way of showcasing the special features of the distillery. The brick vats used to store the whiskey were carefully restored and are now on show for tourists. Also two original timber trusses (which can be seen in the top of Figure 3.4) stretch the length of the reception and were perfectly conserved. They now support a new mezzanine from which visitors can look down to the glass covered ground floor where the retained old foundations and brick lining structures are clearly visible. Figure 3.4 again emphasises this inventive design.
3.5.3 Engineering techniques As in most rehabilitations extra effort and skill is required by the engineer as dealing with historic buildings can be difficult. However the engineers on this development rose to the task very well when faced with tricky problems. One issue was the very old tower on site which restricted access during construction. This matter was solved by carefully taking it down and rebuilding it in the exact same place when the rest of the work was completed. Another 1813 chimney had to have its foundations encased in concrete so that it was not destabilised by excavations for an underground car park nearby. The largest chimney in Smithfield was also preserved because the 42 metre high structure is a dominant feature in the skyline. It was 22
converted into a viewing tower which boasts a 360 view of Dublin. Even though it was built in 1895 an inspection showed that the red brick was in good condition. However the cast iron plate which covered the rim at the top had been damaged by corrosion and weather. This was replaced with a re-enforced concrete capping which was inventively shaped using the restored cast iron plates as formwork. As its new purpose required it to support a lift and additional weight the chimney needed to be strengthened and its wind resistance increased. This was done by spraying a re-enforced concrete lining on the internal walls to form a stiff diameter pipe which transfers the stresses down through the length of the tower. The spiral staircase up to the viewing cap goes down through the chimney and was anchored into the brick wall. The finished product can be seen below in Figure 3.6 (a) with the lift shaft on the left.
(a)
(b) Figure 3.6: Views of Smithfield
(c)
3.6 Conclusions and recommendations From the points discussed above it is clear that rehabilitation of historic buildings is a necessary action in order to revitalise structures and areas that were once active parts of the community. It is important that these buildings become integrated into modern society by adapting them for use again. This process may be more difficult than a regular development but it is unreasonable to build entirely new buildings whilst disused historic buildings deteriorate. There are many guidelines available which underline the important factors to consider when taking on rehabilitation. The case study detailed in this report is an example of a very successful rehabilitation of a group of historic buildings which make up old Jameson whiskey distillery in Smithfield. The rehabilitation has updated the buildings to give them purpose while staying true to the history of the site. The entire area has been lifted as a result and it is once again a thriving community in the heart of Dublin city centre.
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3.7 References Feilden, B. M., (2003). Conservation of Historic Buildings. 3rd ed. Oxford: Architectural Press Barrett, V. & Kennedy, C. (1999a). The redevelopment of the Jameson distillery site, The Engineers Journal, Vol 53, pp. 9-19. Barrett, V. & Kennedy, C. (1999b). Smithfield Village - The redevelopment of the Old Jameson distillery site. Presented to a meeting of the Structures and Construction Section of the IEI, 3rd February. Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government, www.environ.ie, [accessed 5 April 2008] Dublin City Council, www.dublincity.ie, [accessed 10 April 2008] Dublin Tourist information, www.dublintourist.com, [accessed 22 March 2008] Department of Cultural Affairs, Nevada (2002), State Historic Preservation Office, http://dmla.clan.lib.nv.us/docs/shpo/poguide/guide6.htm, [accessed 18 March 2008] Map of Smithfield area, www.google.com/maps, [accessed 20 March 2008] National Inventory of Architectural Heritage, www.buildingsofireland.ie, [accessed 9 April 2008] Jameson Whiskey, www.jameson.ie, [accessed 11 April 2008]
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4. Foundations
M. OConnell4
4
Abstract. The purpose of this chapter is to outline the various types of foundations that may be found in historic buildings, and then to examine the methods of assessment and repair associated with these foundations. This is done by examining basic texts on the subject of building foundations and integrating this information with that of texts more concerned with the holistic concept of conserving historic buildings in general. In this way, an understanding of foundation repair may be cultivated in such a way as to be sympathetic to the requirements of historic building conservation. Foundation maintenance is an integral part of building conservation, because if done properly, it can save costs by preventing the need for further repair work on damages resulting from differential settlement. Indeed, it is of paramount importance that a building is well founded before any superficial restoration works are considered.
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4.1. Introduction A foundation is basically the widening of the bottom of a vertical element in such a manner so that the allowable bearing pressure of the soil on which it sits is not exceeded, and hence the building does not sink or move. This can be achieved by the simple widening of the base of a wall, or the digging of a trench, filling it with concrete and building on top of that. Hodgkinson (1986) points out that modern foundation design and geotechnical engineering has only been developed relatively recently and that there are many intriguing foundation types to be observed in buildings of the late nineteenth century (see Section 3.3.1). With this in mind, it is no surprise that many historic buildings require foundation maintenance and repair in order to avoid excessive movement of the buildings, and hence prevent damage to the buildings both structurally and aesthetically.
4.2. Literature review Perhaps due to the fact that building conservation requires unique solutions for every case or maybe because it straddles a fine line between civil engineering and architecture, much of the literature produced in this area seems to have a slightly vague, discursive nature and tends to avoid putting forward any exact techniques or methods. This lack of prescriptive guidance is also prevalent in the specific area of foundation repair, but this could be explained by the fact that although foundation repair is relatively straightforward, its application in individual situations depends on many factors such as the historic building in question, the existing foundations of the building, or indeed the infinitely many different soil conditions that may exist.
Conservation of historic buildings Feilden (2003) presents a broad approach to building conservation, which is slightly lacking in technical information, but does include a dedicated section on foundations with wellknown interesting case study examples. BS 7913:1998 lays out widely accepted guidelines for the conservation of historic buildings. Although neither of these texts is particularly prescriptive, together, they provide a context for the discussion of foundations in this chapter.
Fundamentals of foundations Hodgkinson (1986) provides a comprehensive overview of foundation design in buildings including, most notably for this chapter, sections on underpinning, foundation hazards and related construction problems. 26
Foundations in historic buildings Hodgkinson (1986) briefly discusses the kinds of foundations that have been used in building construction in the past.
Assessment of foundations Feilden (2003) identifies some key factors that should be included in the assessment of foundations in historic buildings. The Building Research Establishment (1993) discusses the investigation of buildings which may require underpinning, and describes the kinds of problems that occur with foundations as well as the possible causes of these problems.
Foundation repair or reuse The Building Research Establishment (1993) gives a concise guide to the process of underpinning, identifying the reasons for underpinning and the methods used. This is a core idea in this chapter.
4.3. Foundations and their importance in building conservation 4.3.1. Foundations in historic buildings Hodgkinson (1986) gives some examples of rudimentary foundations built many years ago which are still in service today. These include walls merely resting on the soil, widened early strip footings and even some timber piling arrangements (see Fig. 4.1).
Figure 4.1. Old types of foundation still giving service today (Source: Hodgkinson, 1986)
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4.3.2. The importance of foundations in building conservation Foundation maintenance and repair are perhaps the most important aspects of building conservation. It is important that underpinning or any foundation repairs are undertaken, if necessary, before any other restoration work is done or any damage repaired (Building Research Establishment, 1993).
4.4. Assessing problems with foundations of historic buildings 4.4.1. Foundation problems and the need for repair The two main causes of problems with foundations are identified in Building Research Establishment (1993) as settlement and subsidence. Settlement is described as downward movement brought about by the pressure from a foundation causing compression of the groundthe differential settlement of one part of a building relative to another that produces distortion and cracking and subsidence is defined as downward movement of the ground brought about by removal of water from the ground, excavation, soil erosion etc..
Foundation repair is generally only necessary if further undesirable movement of foundations needs to be stopped. There is little point in modifying the foundations of a building in which undesirable movement has occurred and has finished more than 50 years ago (unless of course, a significant change of use is planned, or excavation works are being considered nearby). Therefore, it is important to assess whether or not the movement is continuing.
4.4.2 Assessment of foundations The first and quickest way to identify foundation problems is to look for severe cracking of walls and finishes. Then any cracks found would be fitted with strain gauges to see if the movement is ongoing. The movement of the building itself can also be measured using plumb bobs, theodolites and similar equipment. It is noted by Feilden (2003) that it is highly desirable to measure alterations in the level of the water table. This is because a change in the water table (possibly due to water extraction, see Section 2.6.2) may very well alter the allowable bearing capacity of the founding soil.
It is also important to accumulate as much information about the building as possible, such as plans or drawings if available or indeed if they exist at all. As Feilden (2003) points out, these may reveal something of vital importance such as whether or not timber piles are involved. If
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this is the case, the possibility of decay (see Section 2.3.3) in the piles must be considered, especially if there has been variation in the level of the water table. This, in turn, complicates the assessment of the foundations as timber is a far more variable material than either of stone or concrete. A Dutch study (Sass-Klaassen et al., 2007) has found however, that although timber piles are not generally suitable samples for testing, dendrochronological dating and provenancing (i.e. identifying the age and origin of the timber) of the piles is possible to a reasonable extent. This allows more inferences to be drawn regarding the reliability of the foundations.
4.5. Repair of foundations in historic buildings The method of underpinning is described by the Building Research Establishment (1993) and is presented here. In general, underpinning involves the extension of foundations downwards to reach stiffer or more stable ground. There are four main types of underpinning: Mass concrete Pier-and-beam Pile-and-beam Pile
4.5.1 Mass concrete underpinning This involves excavating systematically (see Fig. 4.2) in adjoining bays beneath the existing foundation, filling the excavations with concrete and then pinning-up the small gap between the old and new foundations.
Figure 4.2. Mass concrete underpinning (Source: Building Research Establishment, 1993) 4.5.2 Pier-and-beam underpinning A reinforced concrete beam is installed in the wall, either just above the existing footing or replacing it, and discrete pits are excavated at intervals beneath the modified wall. After 29
filling the pits with concrete to form piers, pinning-up is carried out between the concrete and the base of the beam or existing foundation as with mass concrete underpinning (See Fig. 4.3).
Figure 4.3. Pier-and-beam underpinning (Source: Building Research Establishment, 1993) 4.5.3 Pile-and-beam underpinning Piles are installed beside the walls and beams are inserted, both within the walls and through them, to join the tops of the piles (see Fig. 4.4).
Figure 4.4. Pile-and-beam underpinning (Source: Building Research Establishment, 1993) 4.5.4 Pile underpinning
There are various ways piles can be used in underpinning, but the type most relevant to repairing the foundations in historic buildings would be where piles are installed through holes drilled in existing foundations (see Fig. 4.5).
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Figure 4.5. Pile underpinning (Source: Building Research Establishmen,1993) 4.5.5 Review of methods of underpinning Pile underpinning is not always suitable because it generally requires the incorporation of the current footings, of which there may be none in historic buildings. Another reason why pile (and indeed, pile-and-beam) underpinning is not always desirable is that the installation of piles might be damaging to sensitive structures. It is for this reason that mass concrete and pier-and-beam underpinning methods are the favoured methods of underpinning historic buildings. Of these two, mass concrete underpinning is generally preferred for simplicity and economy.
4.6. Conclusions It was found that mass concrete underpinning is the most useful technique in securing the foundations in any historic building, thus preventing any further damaging movement of the building. Mass concrete underpinning is preferred over other methods for reasons of economy and protection of the building being repaired. It forms an integral part of the whole process of building conservation, as building movement is a major cause of many problems which necessitate repairs on historic buildings. Indeed, it is imperative that underpinning is carried out before any other structural or superficial restoration work is undertaken.
4.7 Recommendations Reviewing literature on the subject of foundation repair in historic buildings revealed that there is not much prescriptive guidance available to help engineers and architects formulate solutions to any particular historic building foundation repair problems they may be faced with. The variation in the types of buildings and their associated foundations is simply too
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great for texts to address the issue with any kind of specificity. It is proposed that the best option for an engineer seeking guidance with a foundation repair on a historic building is to look at past examples of similar cases, both successes and failures, and then try to avoid previous mistakes and develop and advance proven techniques.
It is therefore recommended that a specific journal be established to which engineers and contractors could submit reports on restoration works they have been involved in, divided into different general building types (e.g. churches/cathedrals, castles, towers etc.). In this way, an engineer could refer to this journal to find similar examples to the type of problem they are faced with and consequently have a solid knowledge base on which to begin their formation of a solution. Since there is already legislation in place regarding actions involving historic buildings (see Section 1.3), it might be desirable to make the submission of such a detailed report regarding any works on historic buildings a legal requirement, although assessing the feasibility of this kind of auxiliary legislation is outside the scope of this report.
4.8 References Beckmann, P. & Bowles, R., (2004). Structural aspects of building conservation. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Building Research Establishment, (1993). Underpinning. BRE Digest 352. London: Construction Research Communications Ltd. British Standards Institution, (1998). BS 7913:1998 Guide to the principles of the conservation of historic buildings. London: BSI Chapman, T., (2007). Reuse of foundations. London: CIRIA Feilden, B. M., (2003). Conservation of Historic Buildings. 3rd ed. Oxford: Architectural Press Hodgkinson, A., (1986). Foundation Design. London: Architectural Press Ltd. Maintain our Heritage, (2004). Putting it off: How lack of maintenance fails our heritage. [internet]. Bath, England: Maintain our Heritage. Available at: http://www.maintainourheritage.co.uk/pdf/report.pdf [accessed 9 April 2008] Sass-Klaassen, U., Vernimmen, T., Baittinger, C., (2008). Dendrochronological dating and provenancing of timber used as foundation piles under historic buildings in The Netherlands. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 61 (2008), p.96-105
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5. Restoration of old stone, brick and mortar walls

D. Morrissey5
5
Abstract. The aim of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive insight into the restoration of old stone, brick and mortar walls. Historic buildings cannot be viewed as stationary impermeable and maintenance-free structures, when these buildings were built they were designed to interact with their surrounding environment, they move and breathe like living organisms. Stone was the main building material used in Ireland from neolithic times right up to the beginning of the twentieth century, it has withstood the test of time and it is a material that most people view as maintenance-free, however this is untrue, stone is vulnerable to weathering especially in modern cities with high levels of pollutants. In order to protect our great stone buildings responsible restoration and conservation must be practiced. Careful attention must be paid to the materials and methods we use in looking after these historic structures. Brick and mortar wall construction became widespread in Ireland in the 19th century, these structures were robust, cost effective and attractive. Brick and Mortar walls were also designed to breathe and move according to weather conditions, they are also vulnerable to weathering especially in urban areas due to the effects of pollution. All these factors must be borne in mind when restoring brick and mortar walls and we must use methods and materials which are sympathetic to their original construction.
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5.1 Introduction Stone was used as a building material in this country as far back as 5000 years ago. The Neolithic age took place around 2000 3000 BC, this is commonly referred to as the Stone Age. Right across Ireland one can find primitive structures dating from this period, the most impressive of these by far is the burial tomb at Newgrange, Co. Meath. This structure covers an acre and a half and demonstrates the engineering ability of the people of the time. It is a testament to stone as a building material that this structure has stood for almost 5000 years and is still structurally sound. Stone was used in construction across Ireland because of its abundance and durability. Limestone is the most predominant rock type in Ireland, it is both attractive and durable. Sandstone, granite and slate were also popular in wall construction in times past. Today stone is seen as an expensive building material and is used sparingly. Since the advent of concrete and steel framed buildings at the beginning of the twentieth century walls have lost some of their functionality, they are no longer structural load bearing objects and now serve a purely aesthetic purpose in many modern buildings. It is for this reason that we no longer use stone as the main material in wall construction, it has been replaced by concrete panels, glass and timber cladding. The stone wall is now a rarity and it is for this reason that we must practice responsible conservation and restoration of our historic buildings.
The second part of this paper covers the topic of restoration of brick and mortar walls. Bricks became a popular material in wall construction in the mid 18th century. It proved to be easier to work with than stone and also allowed for quicker construction. Bricks were manufactured in local foundries all around Ireland, the main raw material, clay, was abundant in most parts of the country. Many of Irelands greatest historic buildings were constructed of brick, such as the great period houses of Dublin city centre. It is not as durable or attractive as stone but is still an important part of our building heritage. Like stone it is important that we are sympathetic in our methods and conservation of brick and mortar walls.
5.2 Literature review Earl (2003) provided a general overview of the principles of conservation which should be observed when restoring a historic structure. ICC (200?) discussed at length the methods and materials which should be used when restoring historical structures. Baer et al. (1998) provided an insight into the methods and materials used to conserve and restore brick structures. Baer and Snethlage (1996) dealt particularly with restoring stone built structures 34
and the methods and materials used in their restoration. Forsyth (2007) discussed the various construction methods used in historic structures and techniques of conservation. Pava and Bolton (2007) was the most relevant to my project as it encompassed the various types of historic buildings that exist in Ireland in particular, the materials and methods used in their construction, and the relevant methods of conservation. The Irish Georgian Society website (http://www.igs.ie) provided guidance on relevant literature and the relevant topics of research to include in this project.
5.3 Causes of decay in old walls
Stone, brick and mortar contain a variety of minerals which are in equilibrium. When the stability of this mineral balance is disturbed by external factors, the mineral balance readjusts to become stable with the new external conditions, this process is known as decay or weathering. In rural areas the surrounding climate is primarily responsible for weathering and decay however in urban areas high levels of pollutants and chemical compounds in the atmosphere rapidly increase the rate of decay of stone, brick and mortar.
The main factors which influence the decay of building materials can be classed into three main groups:
The characteristics of construction; The type of stone/ brick used in construction; The surrounding environment.
5.3.1 Characteristics of construction
A buildings orientation, foundations and geometry can all affect the rate at which it weathers. Building faades which are south facing typically recieve more sunlight and therefore provide the ideal growth medium for micro-organisms which feed of minerals in the outer layer of the building material. Solid foundations are not always present in historic buildings, if a structure is built on unstable ground it is prone to movement which in turn leads to rupture and cracking of the structures walls. The geometry of building can also affect the rate at which it weathers, sheltered areas can be susceptible to soiling due to moisture and pollutant retention
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whereas exposed faades experience physical weathering which can wash away any decay agents before they attack the stone.
5.3.2 Type of stone/brick used in construction
Certain types of stone and brick prove to be much more durable than other types. Stone with a high quartz content tends to be more resistant to chemical attack than stone with a high calcite content which is dissolved by acidic solutions such as rainwater. The same principles apply to brick- those which were made with clays with high calcium concentrations tend to react with rainwater more readily than those with a high silica content. Other factors which influence the durability of brick include the way in which it was fired and if there was a glazing treatment applied to the bricks before it was fired.
5.3.3 Environmental Factors
The location of the building, its surroundings and the general atmospheric conditions in the area have an influence on decay agents such as water, atmospheric pollution and ice, thermal changes, wind and salt minerals, and therefore have a huge bearing on the type and rate of decay. Stone and brick decay vary between urban and rural areas due to varying levels of atmospheric pollution. The main atmospheric factors affecting decay are climate and
pollution. Climate can influence the type of weathering; freeze-thaw action; rainfall; sunshine all influence the type and rate of decay.
5.4 Materials and methods used in the repair of old walls
There are several stages to take into account when repairing a damaged stone or brick and mortar wall, they are as follows; Diagnosis study of causes and mechanisms of decay and the history of the wall in need of restoration. It involves mapping of decay forms found on the wall in question and studying the composition and condition of the stone or brick in question. Cleaning the removal of dirt and deposits from the wall Pre-consolidation the superficial hardening of the building material prior to cleaning, it is only carried out in cases of advanced decay.
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Consolidation the reinforcement of stone or brick which has lost its cohesion using bonding agents Protection shielding the stone or brick by applying water repellents which act as a barrier to pollutants and water. Reconstitution includes the replacement and recycling of badly damaged stone or brick and the replacement of badly damaged mortar. Maintenance the periodic inspection of buildings to control their evolution and assess their condition. It is important to prevent decay by detecting and repairing minor failures. Maintenance of historic buildings is essential practice in order to conserve them long into the future.
Good conservation practice should delay or halt the decay of the building or object. It should also improve the condition of the material and where possible its external conditions and surroundings. To halt the causes of decay can often be very difficult for example, it is difficult to control pollution arising from traffic in built up urban areas. A conservation strategy should be carefully planned, and based on the study of the building material, the causes of decay and its needs. It is expensive to clean, consolidate or re-point buildings with unsuitable products which may cause further damage in the near future.
5.5 References
Earl, J., (2003). Building conservation philosophy. 3rd ed. Shaftesbury : Donhead ICC: International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property. (200?). Conservation of architectural heritage, historical structures and materials. Baer, N.S., Fitz S. & Livingston R.A., (1998). Conservation of historic brick structures: Case studies and reports of research. Shaftesbury: Donhead Baer, N.S. & Snethlage, R. (1996). Dahlem Workshop on Saving our Architectural Heritage: The Conservation of Historic Stone Structures (1996 : Berlin, Germany) Saving our architectural heritage : the conservation of historic stone structures : report of the Dahlem Workshop on Saving our Architectural Heritage - Conservation of Historic Stone Structures, Berlin, March 3-8, 1996. Forsyth, M. (2007). Structures & construction in historic building conservation. Oxford : Blackwell
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Pava, S. & Bolton, J. (2007). Stone, brick and mortar : historical use, decay and conservation of building materials in Ireland. Bray: Wordwell The Irish Georgian Society, http://www.igs.ie [accessed 13 April 2008]
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6. Beams, arches and domes

S. Murphy6
6
Abstract. This chapter aims to examine the causes and methods involved in the conservation of some of the aesthetically pleasing features on some structures domes, arches and beams. Engineers of the past used such decorative features on many significant buildings thus the job of restoring these proves more difficult. Such features can fail or indeed just need reinforcing for many reasons- however everyday wear and tear can be accounted for a lot of the damage. Restoring such pieces can prove difficult and historical accuracy can not always be achieved On many occasions strict guidelines most be followed when carrying out any preservation work although no one can deny that this work is indeed worth it in order to restore some of the beautiful pieces of bygone generations e.g. dome of the rock. In a few cases the damage done was indeed carried out on purpose as an act of vendetta making restoration a necessity. Examining the causes I have looked at some case studies, which highlight different ways, which these failures have been eradicated.
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6.1 Introduction The Pyramids of Giza, the Parthenon of Greece, the Great Wall of China, the Colosseum of Rome; today, we stand in awe before these wonders of the ancient world. They hold our history and the deepest secrets of our past in their hidden recesses. However as the saying goes nothing lasts forever and although these buildings have thus far stood the test of time many historically important buildings need a little help. This chapter aims to examine the causes and methods involved in the conservation of some of the aesthetically pleasing features on some structures domes, arches and beams.
6.2 Literature review The Building Construction website provided many resources and sources of information for this chapter on building construction and new innovations in construction methods. The Education Place website provided an excellent database of useful texts for some reading material to help define the scope of this chapter. Fairhurst (1945) gives a comprehensive guide to arch design, and is used as the main reference text when discussing arches in this chapter. Feilden (2003) is a general text on the subject of building conservation, and helped to define the context and importance of beam, arch and dome elements in the area of historic buildings. Melarango (ca. 1991) is an introductory text on the concept of vaulted structures and domes. Again, this is the chief reference text when discussing these topics in this chapter. The Technology Student website gives some very basic advice on design ideas which are addressed in this chapter.
6.3 Domes 6.3.1 History of domes A dome can be thought to be an arch which has been rotated around its vertical axis. Domes have a great deal of structural strength. A small dome can be constructed of ordinary masonry and held together by friction and compressive forces. Domes sometimes sit directly on a circular base. This is not possible if the base is square. The concave triangular sections of vaulting that provide the transition between a dome and the square base on which it is set and transfer the weight of the dome are called pendentives. A pendentive is a constructive device which allows the placing of a circular dome over a square room or an elliptical dome over a rectangular room. The pendentives, which are triangular sections of a sphere, taper to points at the bottom and spread at the top to establish the continuous circular or elliptical base needed for the dome. In masonry the pendentives receive the weight of the dome, 40
concentrating it at the four corners where it can be received by the piers beneath. Before pendentives were common practice, corbelling or a squinch was used. The first attempts at pendentives were made by the Romans, but it was not until the 6th century and the Byzantines in Hagia Sopia at Constantinople that it was fully achieved. Simple domes consist of pendentives as part of the dome itself; however these are rare, more commonly the pendentives are part of the surface of a sphere of larger radius than the dome itself but whose center is at a point lower than that of the dome.
The technological achievement of Roman architecture (the dome) opened up a new and exciting era in architecture which gave the potential of large, unencumbered space. Famous ancient domes include the Great Stupa in Sanchi (actually, a solid mound with stone facing), the Pantheon in Rome, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (or in that time Constantinople), and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (see Fig. 6.1). In Western architecture, the most influential domes built since the Renaissance have been those of St. Peters Basilica in Rome and Jules Hardouin-Mansarts dome at Les Invalides in Paris.
Fig. 6.1. The Dome of the Rock.
6.3.2 Problems with domes The major problem in early design of domes was the necessity for extremely thick walls which in turn resulted in great weight. The enormous weight of early domes produced tension 41
in the perimeter, which leads to circumferential cracks in the lower parts of the dome this occurred in both the pantheon and in St. Peters basilica.
6.3.3 Rectifying problems with domes In order to rectify this problem a lighter dome had to be designed. This was achieved by divorcing the inner and outer shells. We have the Islamic architects to credit for this
achievement. Impressively the domes they built had improved weather resistance. Other efforts to reduce the weight and thus reduce the amount of cracking were made by coffering and by using hollow pots. This reduces the outer trusts in the lower levels. A method used by Brunelleschi in the dome in Florence was the insertion of wood and stone tension rings.
Lightness could really only be achieved in the twentieth century when the use of reinforced materials (i.e. concrete) became common practice and a smaller ratio between thickness and span could be obtained. Many of the most impressive dome structures of recent years have been part of sporting venues. These prove useful in climates that vary greatly from winter to summer. The first such stadium was the Astrodome in Houston, Texas. This was the home to the Houston Oilers and the Huston Astros. Unfortunately this stadium which was deemed the eight wonder of the world when it was built in 1965 lies vacant and awaiting approval for any of the redevelopment plans which have been proposed.
The dome depends on its supports more specifically the firmness of its support which means that the main weaknesses would be found at these supports. The major stresses and strains in the dome itself come in the form of tension at first which, if it occurs results in circumferential cracking. The second stress is as a result of thermal movement which causes thermal cracking.
Restoration has had to be carried out on practically all famous domes around the world as a result of any of the above mentioned causes. Brunelleschis Dome of Santa Maria del Floria, Florence has had conservation work done in the form of ribs and coffers which lighten the structure. Radial repairs are another problem associated with domes. The solutions to this problem have generally consisted of adding chains to act in tension. For example, the restoration of St. Pauls consisted of linking the two dome drums, additional steel chains were added as a precautionary measure.
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6.4 Beams 6.4.1 History of beams When we look back on the earliest and simplest form of building construction in both timber and masonry it is the beam whether it be post-and-lintel, columns, or slabs. It is believed that this originated from the Greek Doric order, who started out using timber but progressed to stone and structures were carried out this way until Roman times. A simply supported beam is an element acting in compression, bending and in shear. The beam acts as a set of arches (which act in compression) associated with an orthogonal family of catenaries (which act in tension). These arches adjust themselves within the beam to each change in the loads. A common occurrence in stone is cracks appearing which is due to a weakness in tension. When this happens the beam acts mainly as an arch thus producing outward thrusts. The beam can also fail in shear. Although it was the Pope of 1811 who first developed reinforced and prestressed concrete it was not until Wilkinson that the correct disposition of tensile forces was recognized.
6.4.2 Problems and solutions with beams Failures in beams depend on the material of which the beam is made naturally. Decay effects timber beams and would occur as a result of dampness or insect attack. A method of prevention of such occurrence is to rest columns on a pad of stone which is above ground level. Penetrating rain, as well as the eventual resulting dampness may cause the beam to collapse. Although not as frequent, cracks also appear in stone columns and beams; these are usually injected with epoxy resin and strengthened with steel. Riveting or welding increases the strength and is also used to repair crack in steel beams but there is still on going investigation into a method of finding a satisfactory method of repairing beams of iron.
6.4.3 Problems with reinforced concrete The problem with reinforced concrete is that the important part (i.e. the reinforcement) is hidden, this leads to difficulty with reinstating the lost parts and also reinstating lost continuity. Thus the most difficult problems associated with reinforced concrete beam are the rusting of reinforcements, due to cracks or insufficient covering material.
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6.5 Arches 6.5.1 History of arches The arch originated in Mesopotamia, Indus Valley civilization and Egypt and was later refined in Ancient Rome. Originally they were used underground for drainage and vaults. It was the Romans that first started to widely use them above ground. It quickly became an important technique in cathedral building and is still used today in some modern structures such as bridges.
6.5.2 Problems with arches The sources of stress in arches come from the weight of the structure, dead loading, applied loads and the settlement of abutments. It is a difficult problem to calculate the condition and strength of masonry arches. Calculations do not give a final result and so experienced judgment most be relied upon for the final assessment. Annual movement is taken into account so the settlement in each season can be studied and the shape of the arch is greatly important-an arch is likely to be weak if its rise is less than a quarter of the span is considered a rule of thumb. Although not buildings, ancient bridges can be considered arches. For bridges the impact of heavy vehicles is a frequent source of damage, this and the continued live load which all bridges are subjected to may cause damage. Large cracks may indicate that the arches have broken up into narrower rings, each spanning independently; this is potentially a sign of danger. The insertion of pipelines or any new public services will have no effect if the original and new workmanship and masonry are of good quality, if not however such an act can have negative effects on the original masonry. Thermal action is not so much of a threat in arches as arched structures can absorb these movements by forming local cracks which act as hinges. The limitation of this is that only 3 such hinges are safe. Over a long time span, varying temperature can cause the top part of the structure to lengthen; this will break up the mortar of the arch. The bulging outwards of the arch may indicate poor internal condition. One might test the soundness of the masonry by tapping a hammer on the opposite side of the wall damp brick is likely to be considerably weaker than dry areas.
6.5.3 Rectifying problems with arches Repairing of arches may involve dismantling the original and rebuilding it. This is a rather drastic step but some would argue it is indeed the best way to repair any damage that has been done. If the arch is of sufficient width it may be possible to rebuild in sections or just to 44
replace defective stones individually. Repointing and grouting masonry is also used to strengthen the arch.
6.6 Case study: The Mostar Bridge Up until now we have considered many possibilities of failure/damage in buildings due to everyday wear and tear. However possibly the most devastating and indeed the most severe damage caused to buildings is that done on purpose by humans, in the form of war. Countless numbers of renowned historic buildings have been damaged or even destroyed in acts of violence. The Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church in Berlin, Dublins own Four Courts and The Twin Towers (New York) are some such examples. Unfortunately not all these structures have been repaired or rebuilt. One such structure that has been restored to its former glory is The Mostar Bridge.
The Mostar Bridge was a very famous and historical bridge before its destruction in 1993 during the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (part of the former Yugoslavia). The bridge crosses the River Nerrtva and was designed by a Turkish architect Mimar Hayruddin. It took nine years before it was finally complete in 1566. The bridge was 29 metres in length and stood at a height of 20 metres, a classic example of a single span, stone arch bridge and was an example of advanced technology in its time. It became a World Heritage site during the twentieth century.
Figure 6.2. The original Bridge.
Figure 6.3. The rebuilt Bridge.
UNESCO, the World Bank and the City of Mostar launched a project to rebuild the old bridge, which had been a symbol of Bosnias multi-ethnic society. Much of the original white limestone was salvaged from the bed of the river below. New stone was also be quarried from
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nearby quarries. The new bridge was officially opened in July 2004. The rebuilding of the bridge will symbolise the reunification of Mostar and will be part of the healing process for this ethnically divided town.
6.7 Conclusions Engineers are constantly developing newer and more advanced techniques for construction. These new methods are favoured because we believe them to be more efficient than ones from the past, but we have to wonder will the structures of today stand the test of time as well as some of the buildings examined in this chapter. It is a considerable achievement that the monuments and buildings designed and erected by engineers and builders of the past, who had less knowledge and tools at their disposal, are still standing to this very day. This chapter has highlighted some of the reconstruction work which has been carried out and hopefully highlights the importance of such work. As well as having enormous historical significance these buildings, some of which have been standing for thousands of years, should be an inspiration to us, (especially as engineers) that some day we too might be able to contribute to something which will still be around for generations to come.
6.8 References Building Construction (http://www.buildingconstruction.com) [accessed 13 April 2008] Education Place (http://www.educationplace.biz) [accessed 13 April 2008] Fairhurst, W.A., (1945). Arch design simplified: a text book on the rapid and economical design of arch bridges. London: Concrete Publications Ltd. Feilden, B. M., (2003). Conservation of Historic Buildings. 3rd ed. Oxford: Architectural Press Melarango, M., (ca. 1991). An introduction to shell structures: the art and science of vaulting. London: Chapman and Hall. Sacred Destinations (http://www.sacred-destinations.com) [accessed 13 April 2008] Technology Student (http://www.technologystudent.com) [accessed 13 April 2008]
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7. Building services in conserving historic buildings

D. OGorman7
7
Abstract. Introducing modern building services into a historic building for the purpose of conservation poses many problems and difficulties. A balance must be sought so that the aesthetic and cultural integrity of the building is preserved, while still providing up-to-date utilities for the building and its occupants. It is vitally important that those involved in the conservation project have an appreciation and understanding of the more primitive services used in older buildings so that a decision can be made as to what needs to be updated and what needs to be completely restored. For this reason, the following report outlines the services that can be expected to be found in buildings constructed as far back as the last two hundred years or so. This report also looks at the two utilities which have made the most significant developments in recent years, heating and electrical services. Both of these systems are examined in detail, explaining how initial assessments can be made, what options are available as regards installation and what practical considerations need to be taken into account when designing electrical and heating utilities for historic buildings. Some of the more common pitfalls associated with successfully implementing electrical and heating services into a building are discussed, and solutions to these problems provided.
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7.1 Introduction Heating and electricity have made more pronounced advances than any of the other main building services since they were first introduced into buildings many years ago. With a dramatic increase in building conservation projects in recent years, engineers, architects and the like have been posed with the great challenge of successfully implementing modern heating and electrical services into buildings that were never designed to take them. This section of the report focuses on the keys to fulfilling this difficult task. The primitive heating and electrical systems that were found in older buildings are presented, as well as many of the considerations that the designers must look at when implementing these building services.
7.2 Literature review The Building Conservation website provides excellent up-to-date information on building conservation in the modern construction industry. Feilden (2003) gives an excellent wellrounded explanation of the conservation of historic buildings and was used as a general reference to maintain focus throughout this chapter. Watt (1996) supplies a lot of information in relation to the surveying of historic buildings, examining the services that can be expected to exist in historic buildings.
7.3 Heating services in conserving historic buildings
7.3.1 Primitive forms of building heating The earliest forms of heating came from the burning of wood, peat and other combustible materials on an open hearth, in a wall fireplace or in a container such as a brazier. Smoke would find its way through roof vents or gaps within the covering. With the demand for increased levels of comfort in the early sixteenth century open hearths gave way to an increased use of fireplaces, with associated flues and chimney stacks which allowed for smoke disposal. By the end of the sixteenth century sea coal was seen as an alternative to wood, requiring the use of fire baskets instead of firedogs or andirons. Requirements for artificial ventilation increased in response to demands for improved levels of comfort (which led to the development of air conditioning ) in the large public buildings of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and developed alongside systems of central heating using warm air, hot water and steam.
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7.3.2 Requirements and general considerations for installing a heating system The heating system chosen should keep the relative humidity at a level that is required for human comfort without being at such a level that is damaging to the building or its contents. The United States Environmental Protection Agency cites the ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers) Standard 55-1992 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, which recommends keeping relative humidity between 30% and 60%. External weather conditions will also play a part in determining what relative humidity level should be maintained. For example, insisting on 55 60% RH during a long winter in a cold climate may result in frost damage to the building as a result of the freezing of moisture as it passes outwards through a wall with no vapour barrier. Low - level continuous heating is generally preferred to intermittent heating in historic buildings as the latter does not give real comfort to occupants and induces stresses on the materials of the building due to sudden and repetitive temperature and humidity variations. The masonry walls of most historic buildings are thick but permeable, with the materials themselves likely to be poor insulators. However, the thermal mass of the masonry materials means that overall these materials have a good thermal resistance. Therefore, these materials respond much better to continuous heating than to intermittent heating as they are able to maintain uniform internal temperature when heated continuously.
7.3.3 Plant and delivery system considerations The first thing to consider is what space is available for the heating plant. For example, a sectional boiler will take up a lot more space than say water tube boilers, which can be fired by high - efficiency gas or high - grade oil. The plant required for a modern air conditioning system will take up a significant amount of space. From an economic perspective, plant, where possible, should be flexible in their adaptively to a fuel. This is becoming even more important in a time when oil prices are rising and their may be shortages in the future. Sectional boilers are great in this regard as they will burn almost anything. If an AC system is required for the purposes of a historic building, (say, for example, a museum in which different rooms must be kept at certain temperatures and relative humidities so as to preserve artifacts) spare rooms, if they exist, can be converted to store plant. The delivery system is defined here as the physical entities used to transfer heat from the source to various dispersal units. The delivery system for a heating system will involve pipe runs (water) or duct runs (air). Because one will want to keep the aesthetic feel to a historic building, a good architect will ensure that pipe runs, where they appear, are camouflaged behind curtains and shutters. 49
Whilst it may be tempting to encase pipe or duct runs in order to hide them from view, from an energy efficiency point of view this is not recommended as their heat output is valuable.
7.3.4 Dispersal units Dispersal units are defined here as the physical units responsible for transferring heat to the interior of the building (e.g. radiators, panels etc). Heat is mainly dispersed in a building through convection and radiation. Panels are generally used to provide radiant heat. They can be placed on the ceiling but are most effective when installed beneath the floor, due to the simple fact that hot air rises. Also ceiling panels can induce draughts in the roofspace. Although expensive, floor panels are very efficient when heating large spaces and mean that there are no unsightly radiators or pipes showing. They are best suited to continuous heating because even the modern systems are slow in response to controls. The ground beneath the floor panels must be insulated because the extra heat can cause soil shrinkage and affect the buildings foundations. Although expensive, floor panels are very suitable for use in historic buildings, especially if the floor has to be replaced anyway.
Radiators (correctly termed convection heaters in the United States) heat by convection. These heat dispersal units are now being made in lightweight aluminum and pressed steel, as well as the more traditional cast iron. Cast iron radiators (see FIG. 2.1 below) are more durable than the steel versions and look best in historic buildings. However, they are heavy and therefore can cause problems where plasterwork is weak. Also, the valves and fittings will eventually rust. Aluminum radiators are more efficient than those made of other materials and therefore can be smaller, saving on space and cost. Radiators are not suitable for use in high rooms as the temperature near the ceiling can become significantly greater than that below, which can result in draughts. By connecting a fan to the radiator however, this problem can be overcome. The fan will allow the radiator to heat more air horizontally, as well as mixing hot and cold air. By using cold water in an extra set of pipes during summer months simple and inexpensive air conditioning system can be set up. Indeed, this was done in the Jefferson Library in New York.
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Figure 7.1. A traditional cast iron radiator
7.4 Electrical services in conserving historic buildings 7.4.1 Primitive electrical installations Modern standards in electrical installation require all cables, switches, appliances and sockets to be well insulated and correctly earthed. This alone means that many outdated electrical systems in historical buildings will have to be completely replaced. Vulcanized rubber (VIR) cables were the first to be used to insulate electrical wiring and were used in the period from 1920 to 1929. These were usually installed behind a ribbed wooden cover or, later, steel conduits. Worryingly, switches and sockets had brass cover plates. Obviously, this falls well short of modern standards. Lead sheathed cables and tough rubber insulated cables were used extensively during the period from about 1915 - 1940. Like the VIR cables these fail modern standards in that there is no earthing system and so are considered unsafe. Mineral insulated copper (MICC) sheathed cables have also been used in the past. Poly-vinyl chloride (PVC) twin-and-earth insulated cables are now the ideal option in terms of both safety and ease of installation. In Ireland three pronged sockets are used to ensure the system is well earthed.
7.4.2 Electrical survey As defective wiring is one of the major causes of fire in historical buildings it is essential that proper testing and a complete electrical survey is carried out by a qualified electrician or electrical engineer. This survey will be carried out to a particular EU standard. In a historical building the electrical system may consist of a number of the types of wiring outlined in Section 7.4.3, as amendments have been made to the system over time. The survey will ascertain what parts of the wiring can be re-used and what parts will need to be replaced.
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Generally only mineral-insulated copper cables and PVC cables will pass modern standards. It is risky to carry out testing on any circuits that contain old VIR cables because the rubber sheath would now be so withered that any insulation that existed before testing would be further damaged as a result of the test. The VIR cables are well past their use-by date anyway and should be replaced. Old MICC cables may have a plastic sheath but can still be re-used provided no faults show up during testing.
7.4.3 Choice of cables for new installations When installing new cables there are generally two choices as to what can be used; PVC or MICC cables. Irrespective of the choice made it is recommended that both should have a low smoke and fuel (LSF) sheath to ensure that they will not produce corrosive halogen gases and excessive smoke in the event of a fire. PVC cables are generally cheaper and are easier to install than MICC cables due to their greater flexibility. However, MICC cables have a longer life and a greater fire resistance. If, due to cost restraints, MICC cables with no protective sheath are used it is important they are not installed in damp locations where lime mortar is present. The lime and mortar can combine to chemically break down the copper and can cause a short circuit between the live, neutral and earth wires. Fig. 7.2 shows the formation of verdigris and the deterioration of the bare-sheathed MICC cables when attached to a damp wall.
Figure 7.2 Verdigris and deterioration of bare-sheathed MICC cables on a damp wall
7.4.4 Practical considerations for electrical installations In order to preserve the aesthetic integrity of a historic building wiring should be concealed as best is as practically possible. For example cables can be concealed in old and unused chimneys or flues, in plaster walls, beneath floors and above ceilings. Indeed, if it is decided that all lighting terminals and switches are to be kept in their original positions, then the steel or wooden conduits which were used for old VIR cables, if they exist, can be used to hide 52
new PVC or MICC cables. When it is not possible to conceal cables, and they must be run along brickwork, every care should be taken so that the brick is not damaged. Different colour sheaths are available which can camouflage the cables against the background of the wall. The cables should be fixed into the mortar joints, and not the brick itself, (see Fig. 7.3) as this will mean that they can be removed in the future without damage to the historic stone. If there is no option but to pass cables through the walls, holes should be made using a diamond core drill to ensure a neat hole with as little damage as possible done to the masonry. Electrical wiring can be channelled through a plaster wall, but every care must be taken to restore the plasterwork afterwards. The use of plastic conduits, which should have a diameter of about 20 mm, means that rewiring can take place in the future without the need to strip away plasterwork once more. When placing cables in roof-spaces they should be run along galvanized trays. Where the cables must pass through thermal insulation in roof-spaces, they should do so at 90 degree angles. This minimises contact between the cables and the insulation, hence minimising the heating effect on the cables which can sometimes be damaging. When passing cables through floor joists, they must be steel protected to prevent them being penetrated by screws and nails.
Figure 7.3. Shows wiring unnecessarily crossing brickwork
7.5 Conclusions and recommendations There is no universal option available for installing heating and electrical utilities into historical building. Each building is different and will need to be treated separately, although architects and engineers can draw on previous experience to help inspire them in the design process. However, it is recommended that a number of important factors be considered before deciding on the type of system to be integrated into the building. The most important of these factors include the internal and external environment, the building type and building use, the space available for plant and of course the financial budget allocated to building services in the conservation project. In order to determine the requirements of the building, and hence
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decide upon a heating and electrical system for it, a complete survey of the building is required before the design process begins.
7.6 References Building Conservation website. (http://www.buildingconservation.com) [accessed 13 April 2008] Feilden, B. M., (2003). Conservation of Historic Buildings. 3rd ed. Oxford: Architectural Press Watt, D., (1996). Surveying Historic Buildings. 2nd Ed.. Donhead St. Mary: Donhead Publishing Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors website (http://www.rics.org) [accessed 13 April] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers website (www.ashrae.org) [accessed 13 April 2008]
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8. Modern materials in the conservation of historic buildings

P. Murphy8
8
Abstract. The purpose of this report was to investigate how modern materials were utilised in restoring historic buildings. The benefits of using modern materials were examined noting that there were strength and durability improvements in the restored buildings. While the buildings were improved from an engineering perspective, there was a need to restore faithfully to the original design which through careful implementation was achieved. Modern materials such as aluminium, reinforced concrete, modern steel and polymers are key components of modern building conservation. They have considerable benefits to buildings, improving their structural integrity and engineering performance.
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8.1 Introduction Historic building conservation is a delicate process as the desired end result is as close to the original design as possible. When new, modern materials are introduced therefore, designers have to be very careful to maintain the history of the building as these materials would not have been found in the original design.
There are many reasons why one would want to use modern materials however, such as the improved durability and strength. They also can be cheaper than sourcing dated historical materials.
8.2 Literature review The book Structural Analysis of Historic Buildings: Restoration, Preservation and Adaptive Reuse Applications for Architects and Engineers was studied and it presented some interesting opinions on the subject. Detailed information on historic buildings was included and interesting methods of structural analysis were demonstrated. Information obtained from North Carolina State Universitys official website, gave valuable insight into the function and usage of polymers in restoration. Modern material information from these sources was very accessible and relevant to the subject at hand.
8.3 Modern materials When an historic building is undergoing renovation today, the structural capacity of the system or individual member is usually unknown. This is because there is very little data on many of these systems as they are so old. Reinforcement or modification with modern materials is the simplest solution as these materials have known properties.
Depending on the particular building, analysis will have to be done. Comparisons are made of the original design capacity of a member, say a column, the capacity as it would be found using the modified strength of the original member and the actual capacity of the column found today by methods of modern analysis utilising the allowable stresses of the period. This method is still conservative and may require the designer to modify allowable stresses in cases where good engineering judgment permits. In many instances, existing buildings have been modified unnecessarily or even demolished due to the lack of a rational method of determining the capacities of the structural systems. Visual inspection methodology, analysis criteria, and data on structural shapes and the allowable stresses for dated or historic building 56
materials are needed on a daily basis by professionals who work with histories and outdated buildings.
The allowable stresses on hand-made brick, cast iron, wrought iron, and early steel, and the dimensional data and section properties needed by the architects and engineers responsible for certification of historic buildings, have been lost as current texts and academic courses concentrate on contemporary building materials. The problem is more complex than it appears because the allowable stresses on the early metal components changed regularly as grades of the materials evolved over time. Producers did not utilise any type of marking system identifying, for example, the type of steel, and rolling mills manufactured the same shapes in the new grade as it became available. Dating methods, testing of extracted samples, and in situ testing methods exist that can be utilised in the certification process.
8.3.1 Aluminium Aluminium is a product with unique properties. Thanks to its strength, durability, corrosion resistance and recyclability, it has become an essential product for the building industry and over the past 50 years its use in building applications has shown continuous and consistent growth.
Hotel 1898, in Barcelona, presented by Nuez i Navarro. This project clearly shows that aluminium is the ideal solution for the renovation of historical buildings in big cities.
The aluminium solutions used in the window and door systems clearly satisfied the high thermal and acoustic insulation needs of a hotel, while being sufficiently discreet so as not to hinder the renovation of the buildings unique faade. The systems used perfectly integrated themselves into the elegance and sobriety of the stone faade which dates back to 1880. The window and door systems used permitted the replacement of the original iron windows while maintaining the original aesthetics.
8.3.2 Modern materials in protection from earthquakes Many historic buildings lie in regions of high seismic frequency. This means that its vital to restore the building with earthquake proofing for the long-term conservation of the building as it will be damaged by a large earthquake with great loss of its history. Every building is
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different and each requires its own seismic solution. Each structure must be carefully examined to evaluate what the strengths and weaknesses of the building are.
Historic buildings of masonry structure are the most prone to earthquake damage. These old buildings are essentially brick buildings with no steel reinforcement in them. A solution for this is to reinforce the existing masonry walls with a new layer of steel rods and concrete.
The buildings are also structurally improved by adding bracing (e.g. X-bracing, Chevron bracing, K-bracing). This bracing transfers earthquake forces and triangulates them through the trusses, greatly improving the structural integrity of the building. Another solution is called base isolation where a shock absorbent material is placed in columns and foundations. A device for absorbing the energy of vibration of one of two abutting members which has begun to vibrate due to forces applied to either of the two abutting members, so as to reduce the frequency and magnitude of vibration of one of the two abutting members.
The primary energy absorbing element is a piece of elastomeric resilient material which contains a core (or cores) of a substantially incompressible, highly efficient dampening material; the presence or absence of this core of highly efficient dampening material will depend upon desired device stiffness and dampening characteristics. The primary energy absorbing element is surrounded by a flexible reinforced shell which contains and restrains said element, yet allows said element to deform in the transverse and vertical directions. Two end pieces or mounting plates are secured to opposite ends of the primary energy absorbing element.
The Los Angeles City Hall has been retrofitted with base isolation and the new Los Angeles Cathedral included them in its original design.
8.3.3 Polymers About 30% of all polymers produced each year are used in the civil engineering and building industries. Polymers offer many advantages over conventional materials including lightness, resilience to corrosion and ease of processing. They can be combined with fibres to form composites which have enhanced properties, enabling them to be used as structural members and units.
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One new material, fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) is a very strong, flexible fabric made of carbon or glass. With a resin such as epoxy, FRP can be bonded to a concrete surface to expedite bridge repair, in many cases without even closing the bridge to traffic during the process. Applying FRP is not labor-intensive compared with traditional methods, and heavy equipment generally is not required. Strengthening and repairing a bridge is much faster and more economical using this new material. Existing bridges can even be upgraded to accommodate heavier, wider vehicles.
Figure 8.1. Workers apply fibre-reinforced polymer to a damaged bridge 8.4 Conclusions It was found that modern materials are valuable for the improvement of the structural capacity of historic buildings and that with careful implementation do not detract from the historical authenticity of the particular building. They can be important economical investments as well and improve many of the engineering characteristics of the building, including insulation (both heat and sound), durability and environmental efficiency.
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8.5 References Modern Materials http://books.google.ie/books?id=9ejQFre6hQC&pg=PA453&lpg=PA453&dq=historic+buildings+modern+materials&source=web&ot s=auhUCH2vNf&sig=0_osCpfbQJxA72_73ukytKRhXbs&hl=en#PPA453,M1 Aluminium http://www.aluminium-award.eu/2007/index.php?page=12&item=50 Base Isolation http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4887788.html http://www.netnative.com/news/05/feb/1175.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Los_Angeles_City_Hall_%28color%29.jpg Polymers http://www.ncsu.edu/news/press_releases/03_02/43.htm http://www.polymercomposites.co.uk/ [all internets accessed 13 April 2008]
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9. Environmentally friendly and sustainable building conservation

N. Moran9
9
Abstract. With the recent emphasise on reducing the energy consumption of domestic buildings, which currently consume approximately 25% percent of the energy consumed in Ireland and Britain (IHBC.2007), it is becoming necessary to investigate the potential to reduce the carbon footprint of older housing stock which constitutes a large proportion of housing. However, the incorporating of sustainable technologies into historic buildings poses a unique set of problems. These problems mainly relate to increasing energy efficiency without damaging the buildings original character and structure. This can be especially important in the case of protected buildings where any changes are subject to approval. This report aims to address the issues involved with balancing the wish for energy efficiency with preserving the historic features of the building. An example of this is window replacement, where the best option for energy efficiency is to replace existing windows with modern double-glazing, however, in many cases this prohibited by protection orders. The findings of this report show that through the use of innovative and creative solutions it is possible to effectively integrate sustainable technology into historic buildings, while simultaneously improving the quality of the indoor environment of the building.
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9.1 Introduction In recent years due to economic and political reasons, as well as a change in clients preferences, there has been a trend of increased use of sustainable technologies in buildings. More recently Governments have begun to, or are contemplating introducing minimum statutory standards for energy efficiency in buildings. However, the incorporating of sustainable technologies into historic buildings poses a unique set of problems. Governments plans to increase the energy efficiency of buildings can often conflict with their plans to preserve the character of unique historic buildings. Even when historic buildings are not protected structures and a loss of character is not an overriding issue the installation of many energy saving technologies can be detrimental to the actual structure of the building. This report intends to access the practicality of attempting to increase the energy efficiency of historic buildings and the alternatives to more conventional methods used in renovation. The scope of the report deals primarily with the difficulties in attempting to apply standard methods for reducing energy loss to older structures.
9.2 Literature review While compiling the report it was found that reports Energy Performance Certificates for Historic and Traditional Homes, and Select Committee Inquiry: Existing Housing Stock and Climate Change, provided a great deal of information and were generally in favour of lowering the energy consumption of historic buildings. On the other hand the website http://www.oldhousejournal.com was very much in favour of minimizing any intervention with historic buildings and focused mainly on the possible adverse affects of insulation. The various journals provide a large amount of detailed information and statistical data on energy saving technologies in general but only dealt specifically with older and historic buildings in passing.
9.3 Windows Windows cause the most conflict between the competing aims of energy efficiency and preserving architectural heritage. Traditional windows are responsible for a disproportional large percentage of heat loss through the fabric of a building. Their replacement by low-e windows can cut heating expenses up to 30%. (Kaklaukas et al., 2005) however, this is an unacceptable course of action in most listed buildings as it damages the existing character of the building. Another associated problem with the use of double glazing is the manner in which it can move condensation from being initially at the window to areas more susceptible 62
to damage caused by damp conditions. Heritage (2007) suggests repairing and modifying existing windows as the most effective compromise that can be reached. Draught proofing and the addition of secondary glazing have been shown to be effective at cutting down on energy loss, adding storm sash to a single paned wood window can make the interior window surface temperature comparable to that of a new multi-pane thermal window, and is not as detrimental to the character of the building, particular its external appearance as replacement. The addition of storm windows reduced the energy flow of the single glazed window substantially using a measurement which took into account both air infiltration and
conduction through the glass, without storm windows, and with a wind speed of 7 m.p.h., the single glazed window lost about 565 BTUs per hour, while with the
storms added, the single-glazed window lost 131 BTUs per hour. (McCold, 1987)
9.4 Insulation Insulating a historic building also presents numerous challenges that are not present in to the need for older buildings
insulating a modern structure. This occurs mainly due
and materials to breath unlike their modern counterparts, and the fact that older buildings are not insulated from external sources of moisture. Most modern buildings attempt to keep it out entirely, by using impermeable materials in practice these often fail, and can introduce unexpected complications (Heriritage, 2007).
9.4.1 Insulation of walls Firstly if the walls of the building, both the external and the internal faces, are protected and it is prohibited to interfere with them and unless a cavity exists it is unlikely that any form of insulation would be practical. There can however be significant problems with insulating older buildings even if a cavity is present or the building is not protected. Most common insulating materials in use today are impermeable and are designed to be use in modern constructions in which the buildings is sealed from the exterior environment. It is important that property owners do not find that the promised long-term financial benefits of thermal improvements (there are rarely any short-term benefits) are not overshadowed by disbenefits caused by deterioration to the fabric of their home (IHBP, 2007). For example the use of insulating foam in cavities for example does not allow the dissipation of moisture from the masonry and brickwork, which can lead to these elements deteriorating over time. The use of loose fill granulated insulation pellets in cavity walls is one possible solution made from breathable insulating materials such as cotton, and various wools and cellulose based fibers 63
such as hemp. (oldhousejournal). When choosing insulation for a historic building it is important to ensure that the insulation has been treated only with borates as a fire retardant, rather than ammonium or aluminum sulfate. Insulation treated with sulfates reacts with moisture forming sulfuric acid, which can cause damage to most metals (including copper plumbing and wiring), stone, brick, and wood (oldhousejournal).
9.4.2 Insulation of lofts Since warm air has a tendency to rise most heat loss is typically through the roof. The loss of heat in lofts and attics of older buildings caused by the insulating can cause significant amounts of condensation to accumulate around the roof structure. Traditional materials have the ability to readily absorb even large quantities of water vapour, releasing it back into the atmosphere as the ambient humidity drops once again. Timber in roof beams, for instance, can absorb a great deal of vapour and still show only a tiny rise in moisture content (IHBP, 2007), however, condensation has been shown to be capable of much greater damage than vapour alone and can serious reduce the longevity of a roof structure. The problem of condensation can be avoided by increasing the ventilation that is present in loft spaces so vapour can dissipate before it condenses. The problem can be greatly exacerbated when the insulation itself blocks existing sources of ventilation such as at the soffit, ridge, or gable vents in the roof. Further problems can occur with the insulation of attics due to existing electrical wiring. Insulation around old knob-and-tube wiring can prevent heat dissipation from the electrical conductors and present a fire hazard.
9.5 Case study An example of how the thermal efficiency of a historic building can be increased can be seen in the 18th century cottage successfully renovated by Sally Harper and Tony Williams in England. The building is one half of an eighteenth century stone brewery with a welsh slate roof. The cottage posed a major renovation challenge. The renovation combined energy efficiency and conservation of an old building using ecological building practice. Selecting effective insulation, which was not harmful to the historic fabric or the environment was central to the design challenge. The walls, roof and solid floors are all insulated with natural breathable materials to allow water vapour to pass out through the building. The original stone and lime mortar walls are insulated with sheep wool batts. A new extension at the back of the cottage is constructed The oak frame is filled with insulating panels of hemp mixed with lime, and rendered with traditional lime plaster The cottage is in a designated 64
conservation area and they had numerous battles with the local planning department. It has reduced heat loss through the walls and roof by 90%, and as result the house has very small environmental footprint.
9.6 Summary and conclusions To conclude, in the majority of cases it is impractical or even impossible, to attempt to reduce the energy requirements of a historic building to levels attainable by more recently constructed buildings, especially in the case of a protected structure. In fact to do so could seriously shorten the lifespan of the building question, and in the long-term cause greater environmental harm through the resources consumed during its replacement than if no intervention had taken place. A more favourable solution is one in which the structural integrity and architectural character of the building is maintained while efforts are made to reduce the buildings energy consumption to the lowest practical levels attainable. This can be achieve through the modification and in certain cases replacement of existing features of the building, or through the use innovative insulation materials and methods.
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9.7 References Journals: Selection of low-e windows in retrofit of public buildings by applying multiple criteria method COPRAS: A Lithuanian case (2005); Arturas Kaklauskas, Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas, Saulius Raslanas, Romualdas Ginevicius, Arunas Komka and Pranas Malinauskas, Vilnius Efficiency of Energy Use in the United States (1973); Eric Hirst and John C. Moyers Field Test Evaluation of Conservation Retrofits of Low-Income, Single-Family Buildings: Combined Building Shell and Heating System Retrofit Audit (1987); Lance N. McCold, Tennessee
Reports: Energy Performance Certificates for Historic and Traditional Homes (2007); English Heritage, London
Select Committee Inquiry: Existing Housing Stock and Climate Change (2007); Institute of Historic Building Conservation (IHBC), London
Websites: http://www.oldhousejournal.com [accessed on 11 April 2008]
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Conclusions
Historic buildings are considered to be a vital part of our cities and our heritage and are therefore afforded a special place in the law. There is a great deal of specific legislation in place to protect and regulate historic buildings.
The causes of decay to historic buildings are numerous and have (sometimes unexpectedly) significant effects on their appearance and structural integrity. Their impacts on historic buildings can be devastating if left unchecked. The solutions proposed in this report must be implemented if any of the symptoms described are observed.
The rehabilitation of historic buildings is a necessary action in order to revitalise structures and areas that were once active parts of the community. It is important that these buildings become integrated into modern society by adapting them for use again as complete redevelopment is undesirable and abandonment is unacceptable in the modern world, especially with urban sites. This process may be more difficult than a regular development but it is unreasonable to build entirely new buildings whilst disused historic buildings deteriorate. There are many guidelines available which underline the important factors to consider when taking on rehabilitation. The case study detailed in this report is an example of a very successful rehabilitation of a group of historic buildings which make up old Jameson whiskey distillery in Smithfield. The rehabilitation has updated the buildings to give them purpose while staying true to the history of the site. The entire area has been lifted as a result and it is once again a thriving community in the heart of Dublin city centre.
Reviewing literature on the subject of foundation repair in historic buildings revealed that there is not much prescriptive guidance available to help engineers and architects formulate solutions to any particular historic building foundation repair problems they may be faced with. The variation in the types of buildings and their associated foundations is simply too great for texts to address the issue with any kind of specificity. However, the texts do provide the basic ideas needed to come up with foundation repair solutions, and it is the engineers responsibility to devise a suitable solution, taking into account past instances of foundation repair on historic buildings.
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As with foundation repair, there is no universal option available for installing heating and electrical utilities into historical building. Each building is different and will need to be treated separately, although architects and engineers can draw on previous experience to help inspire them in the design process. However, it is recommended that a number of important factors be considered before deciding on the type of system to be integrated into the building. The most important of these factors include the internal and external environment, the building type and building use, the space available for plant and of course the financial budget allocated to building services in the conservation project. In order to determine the requirements of the building, and hence decide upon a heating and electrical system for it, a complete survey of the building is required before the design process begins.
It was also found that modern materials are valuable for the improvement of the structural capacity of historic buildings and that with careful implementation do not detract from the historical authenticity of the particular building. They can be important economical investments as well and improve many of the engineering characteristics of the building, including insulation (both heat and sound), durability and environmental efficiency.
Regarding environmental issues, the most favourable solution for a historic building is one in which the structural integrity and architectural character of the building is maintained while efforts are made to reduce the buildings energy consumption to the lowest practical levels attainable. This can be achieved through the modification and in certain cases replacement of existing features of the building, or through the use innovative insulation materials and methods.
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Recommendations
It is recommended that there be an increase in inspections and intervening action taken where necessary with historic buildings. In this manner, breaches of conduct (in terms of legislation) and early signs of decay or structural problems can have attention drawn to them. With historic buildings, it is important to identify problems early and prevent the development of decay, as it is often impossible to fully restore the true nature of a building which has succumbed to decay.
Regarding structural repairs, or more specifically foundation repairs, it is proposed that the best option for an engineer seeking guidance with a foundation repair on a historic building is to look at past examples of similar cases, both successes and failures, and then try to avoid previous mistakes and to develop and advance proven techniques. It is therefore recommended that a specific journal be established to which engineers and contractors could submit reports on restoration works they have been involved in, divided into different general building types (e.g. churches/cathedrals, castles, towers etc.). In this way, an engineer could refer to this journal to find similar examples to the type of problem they are faced with and consequently have a solid knowledge base on which to begin their formation of a solution. Since there is already legislation in place regarding actions involving historic buildings (see Section 1.3), it might be desirable to make the submission of such a detailed report regarding any works on historic buildings a legal requirement, although assessing the feasibility of this kind of auxiliary legislation is outside the scope of this report.
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Conserving Historic Buildings

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Conserving Historic Buildings

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CONSERVING HISTORIC BUILDINGS

UCD School of Architecture, Landscape and Civil Engineering

A project submitted to University College Dublin

1. CONSERVING HISTORIC BUILDINGS: AN OVERVIEW

2. CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL DECAY IN HISTORIC BUILDINGS

3. RESTORATION OF HISTORIC BUILDINGS FOR MODERN USE

3.5.3 Engineering techniques 3.6 Conclusions 3.7 References

5. RESTORATION OF OLD STONE, BRICK AND MORTAR WALLS

6. BEAMS, ARCHES AND DOMES

6.7 Conclusions 6.8 References

7. BUILDING SERVICES IN CONSERVING HISTORIC BUILDINGS

8. MODERN MATERIALS IN THE CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC

9. ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY AND SUSTAINABLE BUILDING

10. CONCLUSIONS 11. RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Conserving historic buildings: An overview

Fig. 1.1. Leeson Street, Dublin 2.*

2. Causes of structural decay in historic buildings

Table 2.1: Global Solar Radiation in Joules/cm2 for Dublin Airport

26830 10420 26685 49222

Figure 2.2. Damage that termites can cause.

3. Restoration of historic buildings for modern use

Traffic Managers Health officers

3.5 Case study: Smithfield

Figure 3.1: Smithfield site

Figure 3.2: Smithfield under construction

Figure 3.3: Red brick wall

Figure 3.4: Inside the museum

Figure 3.5: Turret roofs

(b) Figure 3.6: Views of Smithfield

5. Restoration of old stone, brick and mortar walls

5.3 Causes of decay in old walls

5.3.1 Characteristics of construction

5.3.2 Type of stone/brick used in construction

5.3.3 Environmental Factors

5.4 Materials and methods used in the repair of old walls

6. Beams, arches and domes

Fig. 6.1. The Dome of the Rock.

Figure 6.2. The original Bridge.

Figure 6.3. The rebuilt Bridge.

7. Building services in conserving historic buildings

7.3 Heating services in conserving historic buildings

Figure 7.1. A traditional cast iron radiator

Figure 7.3. Shows wiring unnecessarily crossing brickwork

8. Modern materials in the conservation of historic buildings

9. Environmentally friendly and sustainable building conservation

insulating a modern structure. This occurs mainly due

Websites: http://www.oldhousejournal.com [accessed on 11 April 2008]

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