,

NASA CR
2920

C.1
,.

I 7

NASA Contractor Report 2920

Calibration of Transonic and Supersonic Wind Tunnels

LOAN C 9 - V : RETI..lF, AFWL TFr! '?'fCfi LIBRARf ._ 1.. KIRTLAND AFB, N. M. -

*.?

T. D. Reed, T. C. Pope, and J. M. Cooksey

CONTRACT NAS2-8606 NOVEMBER 1977

NASA

~-

TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

NASA Contractor Report 2920

Calibration of Transonic and Supersonic Wind Tunnels

T. D. Reed, T. C. Pope, and J. M. Cooksey Vought Corporation Dallas, Texas

Prepared for AmesResearch Center under Contract NAS2-8606

National AeroMubics and Space Administration

Scientific andT e c h i d Information Office 1977

"

..

F RW R OE OD In April, 1970 a r e p o r t was issuedbyan ad hoc NASA-USAF groupontran-

s o n i cs c a l ee f f e c t s t e s t i n gt e c h n i q u e s t u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n

and t e s t i n gt e c h n i q u e s .T h i sr e p o r ta s s e s s e dt r a n s o n i c and recommended, among o t h e rt h i n g s ,t h a tat r a n s o n i cw i n d manual be w r i t t e nw h i c hr e v i e w e dt h es t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t .T h i s o f more a c c u r a t e and

was viewedasanecessarysteptowardthedevelopment s t a n d a r d i z e dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r e s . For t h i s purpose, present the

manual was j o i n t l y funded by:

(1) t h e

U. S. Navy throughtheOfficeofNavalResearch,
NASA throughtheWashingtonHeadquarters Centers.

(2) t h e U. S. A i r Forcethrough

t h e Air Force F l i g h t Dynamics L a b o r a t o r y and A r n o l d Research O r g a n i z a t i o n , and theLewis,Langley

(3)

and Ames Research Steinle erved s

The c o n t r a c t was administered by NASA Ames.

Mr. F. W.

as t e c h n i c a lm o n i t o r .

A rough d r a f t o f t h i s
Research Center reviewerswerecompiledby The manual

manual was reviewed by personnel o f NASA Ames The comments o ft h ev a r i o u s Ames and M r .
F. F. W.

and ArnoldResearchOrganization.
Mr.

Steinleat

M. Jackson a t
and e f f o r t s .

ARO.

was improvedconsiderablybytheconstructive

comments t h a t were

received, and we w i s h t o t h a n k a l l t h o s e i n v o l v e d f o r t h e i r t i m e Our thanks go t o M r . d i s c u s s i o no fh o tw i r e s w i s ht o

C.

J. Stalmach o f t h e Vought C o r p o r a t i o n f o r t h e
Appendix 1 . F i n a l l y , we and s e c r e t a r i a la s s i s t a n c ep r o v i d e d

and f i l m sw h i c hi sg i v e ni n

acknowledgethesuperiortyping

by Ms. F. H. Deason.

...
I l l

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sect

ion

INTRODUCTION

......................

It

................... ............... ............. TUNNEL VARIABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Types o f Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . Operational Parameters ............ 1 . PressureControl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . C a l i b r a t i o n Accuracy. Flow U n i f o r m i t y and R e l a t i o n s h i p t o Model T e s t i n g . . . . . . . References C . Flow Parameters and U n c e r t a i n t yR e l a t i o n s h i p s . 1 . Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A

. c.
B

Gackground

1
2

H i s t o r i c a lS k e t c h Calibration Procedures References

7
8 8
12 22 22

3 4 5

. . . . 6. 7. 8.
2

Temperature Mach Number Flow A n g u l a r i t y and Curvature Reynolds Number Unsteadiness.Turbulence. and Noise Humidity T e s t Mediums References

................ ................ ....... .............. .................. ....

34 36
40 42

47
52

...............

56 59 59

111

CALIBRATION PROCEDURES AND INSTRUMENTATION

....... A . S e t t l i n g Chamber Pressure . . . . . . . . . . .

. C.
B

. . . . . . E. . . . .
D

References T o t a l Temperature References P i t o tP r e s s u r e s References T e s tS e c t i o nS t a t i cP r e s s u r e s 1 TransonicSurveyPipes 2 TransonicStaticPressure Probes 3 SupersonicStaticPressure Probes 4 Orifice-InducedStaticPressureErrors 5 General Purpose StaticPressureProbe References Measurement o f Flow A n g u l a r i t y 1 D i f f e r e n t i aP r e s s u r e a w e t e r s : l Y 2-D 2 DifferentiaPressure l Yawmeters: 3-0 3 Hot W i r e / F i l m Yawmeters 4 ForceBalance Yawmeters References

............... ................

63
68

........... ......... ...... .....

78 79 86
105 110 116
124 124 128 134 137

... ... ......... ... .. . .......... ..........

Sect ion
....
."
~

Page

.;r
"

IV

.
. .

..

........ .... . ................ ........ . . ............ . .. H. . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... . . ....... . . ....... 1. ................. . ............. . .............. . ................ . .............. ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY CALIBRATION MEASUREMENTS . . . . A . Random E r r o r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F i x eE r r o r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d C . Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D . Error Propagat ion ................ References
F

Measurement o f Unsteady Flow Disturbances 1 DynamIc Pressure Measurements References TransonicTunnelBoundaryConditionsand W a nl t e r f e r e n c e Il 1 Conventional entilated alls V W 2 Adaptive Studies Wall 3 Boundary Layers Wall and Generated Noise Standard Models 1 AGARD Force Models 2-0 2 TransonicPressureModels: 3 TransonicPressureModels: 3-0 References O p t i c a l Methods 1 Supersonic Tunnels 2 Transonic Tunnels 3 Newer Methods References Humidity Measurements References

144 147

162 162

165
169 174

174 175 175

182 182 182

183 185 189

189
190

IN

191
192

....

v.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

.............

195
195 198
202

A
B C

.
. .

Summary o f S t a t e - o f - t h e - A r t o f Transonic and Supersonic Wind Tunnel C a l i b r a t i o n Transonic Tunnel s Supersonic Tunnels

. . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ......... .....

APPENDICES
..

AND HOT WIRES HOT FILMS Nomenclature References

I1

.
.

Ill
. .
IV

. . . ..... .. . . .. ..... .. .. . .. .. .... . . .. . LASER DOPPLER VELOCIMETERS ................ Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References EFFECTS OF VIBRATION OF A CIRCULAR CYLINDER ON STATIC PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FACILITIES WHICH RESPONDED TO QUESTIONNAIRE A Table 1 : Facilities B Table I I : T e sS e c t i o n h a r a c t e r i s t I c s t C

203 217

222 249

255

. .

.............. .....

260 267

vi

"

LIST O ILLUSTRATIONS F Fiqure 1.c.1 2. B. 1 2. B. 2

.
Page

.
Data and E r r o rl o w F

Title

Jackson's Flow Quality Criteria for Transonic Tunnels, Ref.

.......... 1 ....................
Diagram, Ref.

5
14

A l l o w a b l e L i n e a r Mach Number Gradient Over Model L e n g t hf o r Bouyancy Drag C o e f f i c i e n t C o n t r i b u t i oo f n 0.0001,

..................

17

2. B.

Effects of Reynolds Number o n C a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e PWT-16T Tunnel a t Mm = 0 . 6 and 0 . 8 f o r ew = 0 and

~ = 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. B.

18

Mach Number Gradient OverModel LengthasPercent o f Average Mach Number f o r Bouyancy D r a g . C o e f f f c I e n t o f 0.0001

2.

c. 1

2.c.2

2.c.3 2.C.4

2.c.5

2.C.6
2.C.7 2.C.8

2.C.9 2.c. 10

....................... Afterbody DragData a t anAverage Mach Number of 0.95.... ...................... AfterbodyDragDataWithTunnel Mach Number Given t o ThreeDecimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The U n c e r t a i n t y o f P i t o t - t o - S t a t i c P r e s s u r e F u n coifo n t Number Mach . . . . . . as .a . . . . . The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Dynamic P r e s s u r e t o S t a g n a t i o n PressureError,TransonicOperation .......... The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Dynamic P r e s s u r e t o S t a t i c P r e s s u r e Error,TransonicOperation. .............. The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Dynamic Pressure t o Mach Number Error, Supersonic Operation .............. The R e l a t i o n o f S t a g n a t i o n t o S t a t i c T e m p e r a t u r e a s a Function o f Mach Number ............... The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Mach Number t r and Stagnation Pressure Error .t o.S.t a.i c.P.e.s s.u r.e . . . . The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Mach Number t o S t a t i c P r e s s u r e ............... and StagnationPressures.
Change i n F l o w D i r e c t i o n W i t h Number, Ref. 3

19

23 24

27.
29

31
32

35 38

39
41

.....................

Increment o f Mach

vii

'

Flgure 2.c. 1 1 2.c.12 2.C. I3 2.C.14 2.C.15 2.C. 16 2.C.

Title

Page

.................... The Sensitivity of Unit Reyno1,ds Number to Stagnation Pressure Error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Sensitivity of Unit Reynolds Number to Stagnation Temperature Error . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The'Sensitlvity of Unit .Reynolds Number to Statfc Pressure Error. The Sensltlvity of Unlt Reynolds Number to Mach Number

43 44

45
46

Error.........................
Flow Disturbances in Transonic Tunnels, Ref. 5 Flow Disturbances in Supersonic and Hypersonic Tunnels, Ref. 5

....

49
50

...................
........

17

The Ratio of Relative Humidity in the Stream to Reservoir as a Function of Mach Number. Reservoir TemperatureRequired to Avoid Condensation, Ref. 1 0

53

2.C. I8 3.8.1

3.C. 1
3.C.2

. .... . . . . .. ...... Total Temperature Probes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Isentropic Stagnation Pressure Probe, Ref. 8. . . . . . AEDC Supersonic Mach Number Probes. . . . . . . . . . .
Mach Number Probe forSmall Pilot LEHRT Facilities, Ref.9....

54
64
70 72

3.c.3
3.0.1

R.A.E.

..................... Subsonic Static-Pressure Probe . . . . . . . . .

73 83

3. D. 2

Typical Pressure Distributions Along Probe Two at Locations on Tune1 Center1 ine,M = 0.74 (choked), R/L = 19.7 x 10 per meter.

.............. ..
........

84

3.0.3

Variation of Static-Pressure Reading With Position of Static Holes and Nose Shape at I4 = 1.6, Ref. 8 . Transonic Pressure Distributions on 20 deg Conea Cylinder Wtth 0.008% Blockage, Ref. 12

87
90

3.D.4

3. D. 5
3.D.6
3-0.7

3.D.8

................... Dimensions of the R.A.E. Static Pressure Probes . . . . Transonic Characteristics of the Two R.A.E. Probes. . . Effect of Orifice Location Utilizing Double Wedge a Support Strut, Ref. 32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
viii

Transonic Pressure Distributions a 20 deg Coneon Cy1 inder , Ref. 20

93
96

97
103

F I qure

Title

Paqa
Rakes, Ref.

3.D.9
3.D.10 3.0.11

3.E. 1

3. E. 2 3.E-3
3.E.4

3.E.5
3.E.6

3. F. 1
3. F. 2

... O r i f i c e - I n d u c e dS t a t i cP r e s s u r eE r r o r s , Ref. 50 . . . '. Transonic/SupersonicStaticPressure Probe. . . . . . . Two DimensionalYameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pyramid Yameter. ................... S e n s i t i v i t y o f 60 degConical Yawmeter. . . . . . . . . S p l i t Hot Film, 20 Wedge Probe C a l l b r a t i o n B r . i d g e F l o w Angle,Ref. 23 . . . . . . . V o l t a g eD l f f e r e n c ev s Geometry o f AEDC ForceBalance Yawmeter . . . . . . . . S e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e AEDC ForceBalanceYameter. .... FrequencySpectra o f Noise from a Turbulent Boundary Layeron a S o l i dW a l l , Ref. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Noise FrequencySpectra for Some E x i s t i n g C o n t i n u o u s Windtunnels a t = 0 . 8 0 , Ref. 3. . . . . . . . . . . . Small P i e z o e l e c t r i c Dynamic Pressure Probe, Ref. 14 . .
Survey General C r i t e r i a for Probe

33.

104 113 117 126 129 131

136 138 139

145 145 154

M-

APPENDIX I All ..
A. 1.2

CorrelationofConvective Heat T r a n s f e r f r o m Transverse Cy1 inders, Ref. 3.

.............

206

F l u c t u a t i o n Diagram f o r 1 Percent Mass Flow F l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h V a r y i n q Degrees o f C o r r e l a t i o n , Ref.7.. F l u c t u a t i o n Diagrams f o r 1 PercentTurbulent V e l o c l t yF l u c t u a t i o n s( V o r t i c i t y Made), Ref. F l u c t u a t i o nD i a g r a mf o r 1 PercentTemperature S p o t t i n e s s( E n t r o p y Mode), Ref. 7

.......................
7.

206

A. 1.3 A. 1.4
A. 1.5

209

...........

209
21 0

F l u c t u a t i o n Diagram f o r Sound Waves thatareAlmost Mach Waves Having I % P r e s s u r eF l u c t u a t i o n s , Ref. 7.

..

A.1.6

M11.75; TemperatureSpottinessof

F l u c t u a t i o n Diagram f o r U n c o r r e l a t e d Modes a t 0.1 PerCent: TurbulentVelocityFluctuationsof 0.2 Percent; Sound Waves (Detectable) 0.1 P e r c e n t o f Mass Flow F l u c t u a t i o n s .( D o t t e dL i n e s Show S e p a r a t eC o n t r i butions.) Ref. 7.

....................
fx

21 0

Fiqutc
1

Title Comparison of Pitot Probe and Hot-wire .Measurements of Free-Stream Pressure Fluctuations in a Conventional, Mach 5 Nozzle, Ref. 14 1

Page

A.1.7

... ..............
APPENDIX I I

214

A.II.l
A. 11.2 A. 11.3
A.

Dual Beam Laser Doppler Velocimeter, with Optional Forward and Backscatter Modes.

11.4

A. 11.5 A.

...... Generation of Interference Fringesin Measuring Volume of Dual Beam Laser Doppler Velocimeter. . Light Scattered by a Small Particle . . . . . . . . . Laser Anemometer Signal From Photodetector. . . . . . Effect of Particle Diameter Frequency Response . . . on
.......................

224 225 226 226 238

11.6

Time Constant As Function of Particle Diameter a For Various Mach Numbers, Particle Density = 1 gm/cc Maximum Frequency ForNo More Than 5% Attenuation of Sinusoidal Velocity Variations, Particle Density- 1 gm/cc. Effect of Velocity Biasing on Mean Velocity Measurements in Turbulent Flow

240

A.11.7

.................

240 243

A. 11.8 A. 11.9

...........

Sensitivity CoefficlentrFor Determination of and Stagnation Mach Number From Velocity Temperature Measurements.

..............

248

APPENDIX I l l

A.lll.1

Pressure Distribution on Circular Cylinder a in Crossf low,Ref. 1

................

258

NOMENCLATURE*

. .. ..

A
0

a m p l i t u d eo fs i n u s o i d a lo s c i l l a t i o n , f u n c t i o ni n t r o d u c e di n Eq. (3.0.1) f u n c t i o ni n t r o d u c e di n c r o s s f l o wi n t e r f e r e n c e fixederror Eq.

or p r o b ei n t e r f e r e n c e
as a measure o f probe-

(3.D.l)

*M
BY

1 imit f o r Mach number, Eq. (4.0.2)

Chapman-Rubesin v i s c o s i t y parameter

AC
DG

dragcoefficientincrementproduced g r a d i e n ti nt h et e s ts e c t i o n

by a l i n e a rp r e s s u r e .

RMS v a l u e o f f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t
RMS f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t p e r u n i t widthatfrequency n.

band

D
DS

d i a m e t e ro f

a t r a n s v e r s e ,c y l i n d r i c a l ,p r o b es u p p o r t

d i s t a n c e between c e n t e r so fs l o t si nt u n n e lw a l l diameterofstaticpressureprobe d i a m e t e ro fP i t o tp r o b e orifice diameter

d dl

F (n)

n o n d i m e n s i o n a ls p e c t r a lf u n c t i o nw h i c hi s a measure o f t h e i n t e n s i t y o f s t a t i cp r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n sp e ru n i t band w i d t h a tt h ef r e q u e n c y n, ACp =

1 ;

F(n)dn

f
fP
fr

o s c i l lraoqo n n c y f et f u e i frequencyofstaticpressurefluctuations f i n e n ep ooo e r arsf b s ti nose (2Ln/d)

t o t a l head or s t a g n a t po n s t sus c t i o n i r e seerte in

*Separate

lists of

symbols appear

i n Appendices I and I I . xi

t o t a l head i n s e t t l i n g chamber Pitot pressure at time-averaged, a = 0 (eithersubsonicorsupersonic) a normal shock a normal shock

t o t a lp r e s s u r eb e h i n d

RMS o f f l u c t u a t i n g t o t a l p r e s s u r e b e h i n d
s l o t parameter, Eq. model l e n g t h nose 1 eng t h

(3.6.7)

d i s t a n c e fo r m cone-cylinderjuncturetoneareststatic pressure orifice

d i s t a n c ef r o m a s t a t i c p r e s s u r e o r i f i c e t o b e g i n n i n g o f probeenlargement,e.g., f l a r e or support Mach number based on s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n Mach number i nt e s ts e c t i o n plenum chamber

mass f l o w p e r u n i t a r e a t h r o u g h v e n t i l a t e d w a l l mass f l o w p e r u n i t a r e a i n f r e e s t r e a m o f t e s t s e c t i o n n "d r e d u c e df r e q u e n c yo fs t a t i cp r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n s , g e n e r a ld e s i g n a t i o nf o rd i r e c t i o nn o r m a l s t a t i cp r e s s u r ei nf r e e s t r e a mo ft e s ts e c t i o n

RMS o f f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e

fpwT/u,

to a w a l l

<P' >

measured, unsteady s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s t a t i cp r e s s u r ei ns e t t l i n g chamber

t r u e ,u n s t e a d ys t a t i cp r e s s u r eo fu n d i s t u r b e df r e e s t r e a m time-averaged, s t a t i cP r e s s u r e t r u es t a t i cp r e s s u r e measured a on probe o r t u n n e l s i d e w a l l

i n d i c a t e d dynamicpressure, incompressible definition of dynamic p r e s s u r e i n s e t t l i n g

HI-P
dynamicpressure, chamber
H-P

dynamic p r e s s u r e o f f r e e s t r e a m i n t e s t s e c t i o n porosity parameter,

Eq. xi i

(3.G.5)

RS

viscous parameter for flow through slots

number Reynolds Re Rex Reynolds number based on wetted length wing reference area, width or of

S
SY

a strut support for

a probe

compressible yameter sensitivity. Eq. (3.E.2) incompressible yameter sensiflvity, (3.E.l) Eq. period o f sinusoidal oscillation time total, unsteady velocity along toea1 uncertainty Interval

sy*
T
t

u(t1

a probe axis
for Mach number,

ut4
"m

Eq. ( 4 . 0 . 3 )

velocity of freestream in test section veloclty of sound source turbulent friction velocity, mode 1 vo 1 ume total, unsteady velocity normal
to

us
U
T

112 (T~IP)

v
Vn(t) vn
WS

a probe axis

average velocity normal to a ventilated wall width of slots square root of cross-sectional area Cartesian coordinate measured Cartesian coordinate measured
o f test section

W T
X

along axis the tunnel normal totunnel the sidewalls

Y
2

Carteslan coordinaee measured normalthe and to top bottom walls of tunnel

Greek Letters

a
8
Y

angle of attack

(I"

2 1 112

ratio of specific heats angle between orifice planes of

6
ll

a yameter

azmuthalorcoordinate angle polar angle xiii

e
9w

semi-vertex angle of a cone tunnel wall angle (positive for divergent walls) viscosity coefficient at edgeof boundary layer viscosity coefficient at wall temperature density of gas standard deviation in Mach number along tunnel centerline wall porosity shear stress ata solid wall perturbation velocity potential, Eq. (3.6.1) yaw angle

e '
W '

a
T

TW

rlr
0

angular velocity, rad/sec

xiv

I1.

INTRODUCTION Background

1 .A.

The use of a wind tunnel for aerodynamic measurements requires knowledge a of the test environment. Furthermore, a definite relationship obviously exists between the accuracy with which the test conditions are known and the uncertainty

in the final results. The demand for increased wind tunnel data accuracy follows naturally from the demand for improved full scale vehicle performance and accuracy of performance prediction. A sustained effort has been directed toward improving the accuracyof test data from existing wind tunnel facilitfcs. In addition, requirements have been established for new wind tunnel facilities with more complete simulation capabilities.
The results of one of the first comprehensive test programs to study the correlation of wind tunnel data from several transonic facilities were reported by Treon et al. in Ref. ( I ) . Since the same model, instrumentation and support sting were used in each of the three tunnels, this unique series of tests allowed a comparative evaluation of the effects of facility flow environment and calibration upon data agreement. The results of this series of tests, using state-of-

but deficient the-art techniques and instrumentation, were considered good

relative to current goals. The purpose of this reportis to review the current state-of-the-art of
.

wind tunnel calibration techniques and instrumentation, evaluate the expected results and, where possible, recommend improvements. This program was carried out by ( 1 ) acquiring information from eighty-eight wind tunnel facilities by means of a c.omprehensive questionnaire,(2) a detailed literature search, (3) personal visits and telephone conversations, and (4) independent analyses. This report documents the results of these investigations. In addition

I to the above background information, Section also presents ( I ) a brief

historical sketch of attemptsto improve wind tunnel flow quality and calibraSection I I tion procedures and (2) a sumnary of tunnel cal ibrat ion tasks. discusses tunnel variables and how uncertainty the measurementsof various in flow quantities affect test results. all discussed in Section 1 1 1 . The details of measuring static and total pressures, temperature, flow angularity, flow unsteadiness, and humidity are This section also includesa review of the

t r a n s o n i c - w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c ep r o b l e m ,t h eu s eo fs t a n d a r dm o d e l s , w h i c ho p t i c a l methods have can d u r i n gt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n s .S e c t i o n

and t h e r o l e

IV discusses

thevarioustypes f i n a lr e s u l t s .

o f e r r o r s i n c a l i b r a t i o n measurements and t h e i r e f f e c t s on

In a d d i t i o nt op r e s e n t i n gc o n c l u s i o n s

and r e c m e n d a t l o n s , a

summary o f t h eq u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t si sg i v e ni nS e c t i o n

V.

The manual

concludes

w i t h four appendfces. Appendices

o f v i b r a t i o no n

I and t i r e v i e w ,r e s p e c t i v e l y ,t h eu s eo fh o t - , 1 1 1 d i s c u s s e st h ee f f e c t s
F i n a l l y , Appendix IV probe.

w i r t s / f i l m s and laserDopplervelocimeters.Appendix a c y l i n d r i c a l ,s t a t i cp r e s s u r e

sumnarizesthecharacteristicsoftunnelsforwhichquestionnaireswerereceived.

1 .B.

H i s t o r i c aS k e t c h l was recognizedbythe Ref. (21, t h e Counci 1 o f

The need f o r good f l o w q u a l i t y i n w i n d t u n n e l e a r l i e s ti n v e s t i g a t o r s . As r e p o r t e db yP r i t c h a r di n

theRoyalAeronauticalSocietyagreed

i n 1870 t o p r o v i d e f u n d s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c means o f i n s t a n t l y

t i o n o f 'la s u i t a b l e and w e l l - f i n i s h e d i n s t r u m e n t h a v i n g t h e settingvariousplanesurfacesat b o t hh o r i z o n t a l tion. any desired angle

and capable o f r e g i s t e r i n g degrees o f i n c l i n a -

and v e r t i c a l f o r c e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f o r a l l b ep u b l i s h e df o rt h eb e n e f i to ft h eS o c i e t y . ' '

The r e s u l t s t o

As a

result of this action,the first wind tunnel and a seriesoftests on f l a t p l a t e s

was c o n s t r u c t e d by Wenharn and Browning,

wereundertaken. have been

A laterreport

ontheresultsnotedthat"theseexperimentswould steady and c o n t i n u o u s c u r r e n t each arm ofthefan,as The need e.g., see

more s a t i s f a c t o r y had a f l u c t u a t i o n sc a r r i e db y i n f l u e n c eo nt h er e s u l t , " by l a t e re x p e r i m e n t o r s ,

been o b t a i n e d , b u t t h e an a p p r e c i a b l e

it revolved,exerted

f o r improved f l o w q u a l i t y Ref.

was a l s or e c o g n i z e d

(3).
1893

Dr.

Ludwig Mach (son o f E r n s t

Mach) c o n s t r u c t e d a t u n n e la tV i e n n ai n

with a test section of

I 8 x 25-cm which was used f o r flow o b s e r v a t i o n and

a w i r es c r e e no v e rt h ei n l e tt os t r a i g h t e n

photography. This apparatus used t h ef l a w .I n

1896, Sir Hiram Maxim c o n s t r u c t e d a 91 x 91-cm tunnel and used a

and s t r a i g h t e nt h ef l o wu p s t r e a m 1901, included The W r i g h t r o t h e r s t u n n e l , o n s t r u c t e d n b ' c i honeycomb.

form o f honeycomb t o remove f a n - i n d u c e d s w i r l o ft h et e s ts e c t i o n . both screens and a

A t u n n e lc o n s t r u c t e d
and w i r e t o

by D r . A .

F. Zahm a t Washington

i n 1901 i n c l u d e ds c r e e n so fc h e e s ec l o t h

smooth t h e i n l e t f l o w .

Dr. Zahm also was concerned with flow uniformity the accuracyo f and
calibration of thetunnel velocity. He developed an extremely sensitive
bv manometer for measuring the pressures generated a.Pitot-statlc tube which

was used for velocity measurements.

In describing this instrument, he used the term "wind tunnel" for the first time in the literature. Zahm also used a toy balloon moving with the flowto obtain a time-of-flight measurement o f the velocity.
Another calibration procedure used by Zahm involved measurement of the

force on a llpressure plate" or drag plate the same time the flow velocity at during was measured. This method allowed determination of the flow velocity

. .later testsby observing the forceon the pressure plate,Ref. 4

is Add i t iona 1 discussion of early wind tunnels and measurement techniques also given in an article by Goin -(Ref. 5). From the beginning, the development of wind tunnel facilities has usually been a precursor of improved flight vehicles as outlined by Goethert in Ref. 6. The development of new and improved wind tunnels has, in turn, required new calibration procedures, techniques and instrumentation in the struggle to provide experimental data with the accuracy required vehicle designers. by

I.C. Both the quality

CalibratioProcedures n and t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h

of, t h e w i n d t u n n e l f l o w e n v i r o n m e n t

whichthisenvironmentis measurements.

known c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e a c c u r a c y o f a e r o d y n a m i c aerodynamic data i st h er e s u l t

The t o t a l u n c e r t a i n t y i n

of a

l a r g e number o f e r r o r sources, as i s discussed i n S e c t i o n s F i g u r e I . C . 1 , from Ref.

11.8.2 and I V .

(71, i l l u s t r a t e s t h e many sources o f e r r o r and

to a t y p i c a l t e s t r e s u l t
number o f e r r o r suchasdrag s o u r c e s ,t h en e c e s s i t yt o

t h e manner i n w h i c he r r o r sp r o p a g a t e c o e f f i c i e n t .C o n s i d e r i n gt h et o t a l minimizethose h e l p f u ls i n c e

due t ot u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni so b v i o u s .T h i sf l o wd i a g r a mi s
i t i s o l a t e st h ef a c i l i t yf l o we n v i r o n m e n t

and c a l i b r a t i o n elements

whicharediscussedherein. Boththequalityoftheflow conditionsare and t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h t h e f l o w as p a r t o f t h e c a l i b r a t i o n c o n t r i b u t i o n .

known a r e c o n s i d e r e d

I t i s s u g g e s t e dt h a tt h ec a l i b r a t i o ne f f o r ti n c l u d et h ef o l l o w i n ge l e m e n t s :

1.

Initial evaluation

of performancecharacteristics

and f l o w q u a l i t y ,

and d e t e r m i n a t i o n as t o need f o r c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n .

2.

D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f optimum tunneloperationalparameterssuchas w a l la n g l e and p o r o s i t y ,c o n t r o l systemperformance,etc. a specificflowproblem

3.

D i a g n o s t i c measurements t o i n v e s t i g a t e deficiency.

or

4.

Measurement o f mean, unsteady and s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f t e s t s e c t i o nf l o wc o n d i t i o n sf o rt h es e l e c t e dt u n n e lc o n f i g u r a t i o n v a r i o u so p e r a t i n gc o n d i t i o n s . and

5.
6.

Standard model t e s t s f o r i n t e r - f a c i l i t y

comparisons.

P e r i o d i cr e - e v a l u a t i o no fb a s i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o nf o rc o n t r o l monitoringpurposes.This a s t a n d a r d f a c i 1 it y model. may be accomplished i n p a r tb yt e s t so n

or

Consideringthe

above t a s kd e s c r i p t i o n s ,

i t can be observedthatflow

q u a l i t y improvements, v e r i f i c a t i o n t e s t s i n t i m a t e l yr e l a t e d .

and b a s i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n sa r e may vary, depending upon t h e

The accuracy requirements and theprimarypurpose

typeofcalibrationtask most s t r i n g e n t f o r i t e m s directly to the

of the facility, but are measurements can c o n t r i b u t e

and

6 s i n c ee r r o r si nt h e

random or f i x e d e r r o r i n t h e f i n a l d a t a .

0
FACILITY

I'

FORCE

PRESSURE & TEMPERATITRF: TRANSIENTS

I

Figure l . C . 1 .

DATA AND

ERROR FLOW DIAGRAM, Ref. 7

R . J.:

" F u r t h e rC o r r e l a t i o no f

Data From I n v e s t i g a t i o n so f Model i n ThreeMajor

a H i gh

Subsonic-Speed T r a n s p o r t A i r c r a f t

Wind Tunne 1

A l A A Paper 71-291, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1971-

2.

P r i t c h a r d , J. L.: "The A e r o n a u t i c aS o c i e t y , l

Dawn o f Aerodynamics,'' Journal

o f the Royal

V . 61, March 1957.

H. :

3.

Randers-Pehrson,

H .

"Pioneer blind Tunnels,"

V.

93, No. 4, Smithsonian

M i s c e l l a n e o u s C o l l e c t ions.

4.

B i r d , K. D.:

"Old Tyme Wind Tunnels," Perspective

Sept.-OCt.,

1957,

Cornel1 Aeronautical Laboratories, Inc.

5.

Goin, K.

L.:

"The H i s t o r y , v o l u t i o n , E Feb. 1971.

and Use o f Wind TunneIs,"

A l A A Student Jour.,

6.
7.

Goethert, B. H . : New York,

Transonic Wind Tunnel Testing,

pp 2-31,

Perrnagon P r e s s ,

1961.
Lowe, W.
H.,

P i c k l e s i m e r , J. R . ,

and Cumrning, D . P. :

''A Study o f

Expected Data P r e c i s i o n i n The Proposed AEDC H l R T F a c i l i t y , "

AEDC-TR-

75-61, August, 1975.

I I.

TUNNEL VARIABLES Types of Tunnels

II.A.l

The m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n i s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d w i n d t u n n e l s o p e r a t i n g

i n t h e Mach number

range f o r m 0.4 t o 3.5.

The modes

o f o p e r a t i o n of t h e
(2) blowdown, and

various acilities urveyednclude: f s i

(1) continuous flow,

(3) i n t e r m i t t e n t .
I n thecase

of i n t e r m i t t e n t t u n n e l s ,

e.g.,

a Ludwiegtube,thevery measurement and r e c o r d i n g e i t h e rh i g h - r e s p o n s e measurements o f Thus, t h e

s h o r tr u nt i m e sr e q u i r es p e c i a lp r o v i s i o n sf o r systems.

Pressure measurements be can accomplished using

p r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r so r p r e s s u r ea f t e rt h er u n .

a capture system which permits

However,

t h e same basicproceduresmustbefollowed as f o r a l o n g - r u n - t i m ef a c i l i t y .

i n o r d e rt oc a l i b r a t et h ef a c i l i t y

s p e c i a lp r o b l e m sa s s o c i a t e dw i t ht h es h o r tr u nt i m e so fi n t e r m i t t e n tt u n n e l s a r en o td i s c u s s e d ,b u tt h eg e n e r a ld i s c u s s i o n so fc a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r e sa r e applicable. A l t h o u g ht r a n s o n i ct u n n e l sw i t hh i g h - a s p e c t - r a t i o a r eg e n e r a l l yo p e r a t e da th i g h e r d i s c u s s e ds e p a r a t e l y m e t r i c atl u n n e l s . Discussionsofthevarioustopicsare S u b d i v i s i o n si n t ot r a n s o n i c

o f a generalnaturewherepossible.

(2-D) t e s t s e c t i o n s
sym-

Reynolds numbers, t h i st y p eo ft u n n e li sn o t same c a l i b r a t i o n problemsas

becausetheysharethe

and supersonicareasare

made where d i c t a t e d b y made, as

t h ep e c u l i a r i t i e so ft h e s er e g i o n s .F u r t h e rs u b d i v i s i o n sa r e a p p r o p r i a t e ,i nd i s c u s s i o n s
o f details.

1I.B.

OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS Pressure Control

II.B.l

Pressure controls are incorporatedin some form in all wind tunnels (with the possible exception of supersonic,indraft tunnels). The methods of control are obviously different for transonic and supersonic wind tunnels and for intermittent, blowdown and continuous wind tunnels. This section is limited

to discussions of pressure control systems as they influence tunnel calibraby tion programs and the effects of variations introduced these systems on
tunnel flow quality and measurement accuracy. Continuous Wind Tunnels Continuous wind tunnels m a y be either pressure tunnelsor atmosphericvented tunnels. For the pressure or variable density wind tunnel, the stagnation pressure is determined by the static or wind-off pressure and the pressure added by the fan or compressor drive system. The drive system pressure ratio
may be controlled by v a r y i n g compressor speed, blade angle, auide-vane or
ang 1 e .

Vented tunnels usually operate at atmospheric stagnation pressure, but some facilities of t h i s type operate at atmospheric test section static pressure or theatmospheric vent may be located at some other part of the tunnel is circuit so that neither the stagnation nor the static pressure atmospheric. The drive system is controlled by the same techniquesa s for the pressure tunnel to achieve the desired pressure ratio across the nozzle test section. and For supersonic tunnels the Mach number(and all Mach dependent test
b section conditions) are determinedy the nozzle geometry and stagnation con-

ditions.

The supersonic nozzle is not normally considered a static pressure The pressure control is simplest for

control (although it does perform that function). Several tunnels include automatic control o f nozzle geometry. the atmospheric-stagnation-pressure, supersonic tunnel since the prime function of the drive systemis to create the pressure ratio necessary to start and
maintain nozzle flow. For pressure tunnels, both the tunnel pressurization and
main drive system control the stagnation pressure.

T r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t i o nr e q u i r e sa d d i t i o n a lc o n t r o lo ft h et e s ts e c t i o n s t a t i cp r e s s u r e .I na d d i t i o nt oc o n t r o lo f p r e s s u r ei sc o n t r o l l e d Mach numbers aboveabout i s u s u a l l y used. t h e r e f o r e be one by some t y p eo f compressor pressure plenum evacuation system. r a t i o ,t h es t a t i c A t supersonic a range o f may

1.4 a v a r i a b l e geometry,convergent-divergentnozzle
b yo t h e rc o n t r o lv a r i a b l e s .T u n n e l. p r e s s u r er a t i o and minimum power consumption.

Also, a s p e c i f i e d Yach number can be a t t a i n e do v e r

t u n n e lp r e s s u r er a t i o s

o ft h ev a r i a b l e si n v e s t i g a t e df o rt u n n e lf l o wo p t i m i z a t i o n ,i n Plenum evacuation pump t h e

terms o f b o t h f l o w u n i f o r m i t y canbeaccompli shed by

ejectorflapswhich

usethemainstreamflowto beused.

plenum, o r a u x i 1 i a r y pumping systemscan

Almost a l l o ft h ec o n t i n u o u st u n n e l sr e s p o n d i n gt ot h eq u e s t i o n n a m nua 1 con t r o 1 o f t o t a l a and s t a t i cp r e s s u r e ,a l t h o u g hs e v e r a l automatic systems t o i n d i c a t e t h e

i r e use and

have ava i l a b l e

measured t e s t c o n d i t i o n s t o t h e o p e r a t o r s , The response o f a continuous by thetime

a f e wi n c l u d ec l o s e d - l o o p ,a u t o m a t i cc o n t r o l . t u n n e l ,p a r t i c u l a r l y constantsinvolved.
A b e n e f i c i a le f f e c t

a l a r g e one, t oc o n t r o li n p u t si si n f l u e n c e d These t i m ec o n s t a n t sa r e
o f t h em a i nd r i v e ,e t c . ,

a f u n c t i o no ft h ec i r c u l a t i n ga i r and a r eg e n e r a l l yl a r g e .

mass, t h e r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a

o f t h el a r g et i m ec o n s t a n t si st h a ts h o r t - t e r md i s t u r b a n c e s
and smoothed. Precise, smooth c o n t r o li sp o s s i b l e a l o n g e rp e r i o dt h a nf o rs m a l l

tend t o be h e a v i l ya t t e n u a t e d by manual c o n t r o l ,b u t time constant a tt h e system systems.

changes i n l e v e l r e q u i r e

F l u c t u a t i o n si nt h ec o n t r o l l e dp r e s s u r et e n dt oo c c u r

natural frequency, which

i s t h ei n v e r s e

o f the time constant.

The p e r i o d o f t h e s ef l u c t u a t i o n s ordertoobtain mentsover

can be verylong

- up

t o 10-15 seconds.

In measure-

a measurement o f t h e

mean v a l u e o f t u n n e l f l o w c o n d i t i o n s ,

atleast

one p e r i o da r er e q u i r e d .

Blowdown Wind Tunnels The c o n t r o l systems f o r blowdown windtunnelscanhave a significanteffect

o nt u n n e lf l o wq u a l i t y .I na d d i t i o nt ot h ea u t o m a t i cs t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec o n t r o l system, a u t o m a t i cc o n t r o l blowdown w i n dt u n n e l sf o r systems a r e used i n a m a j o r i t y o f t h e t r a n s o n i c ,

Mach number c o n t r o l a l s o . a blowdown windtunnel uses a c o n t r o l

The s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l f o r v a l v e between t h es t o r a g er e s e r v o i r i nt h e chamber.

and t h e s t i l l i n g

chamber t o c o n t r o l p r e s s u r e mode o fo p e r a t i o n ,

Constantstagnationpressureisthenormal

but the system can also

be computer or program c o n t r o l l e d t o m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t

Reynolds number a s t h e s t a g n a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s d u r i n g t h e r u n , pressure may be i n c r e a s e d l i n e a r l y w i t h t i m e t o i n v e s t i g a t e R e y n o l d s e f f e c t s ,e x p l o r ef l u t t e rb o u n d a r i e s ,e t c .I ng e n e r a l ,t h ef u n c t i o n a lc a p a b i l i t y ofthestagnationpressure duction of digital

or t h e
number

system has become more s o p h i s t i c a t e d w i t h t h e i n t r o

computer c o n t r o l . mostimportantperformanceparameter more s p e c i f i ct e r m s , The p e r i o d o f

From t h e f l o w q u a l i t y s t a n d p o i n t , t h e ofthe

system i s t h e a c c u r a c y o f p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l o r , i n

t h ev a r i a n c eo ft h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ea b o u tt h e thisvariationistypically about 1 second and

mean l e v e l .

t h ec u r r e n ts t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t much l a r g e r p e r t u r b a t i o n s ,

appears t o be about a 0.1 percentstandarddeviation; up t o 1/2%, can e a s i l y r e s u l t misadjustment o ft h ec o n t r o l must o p e r a t e c o n t i n u o u s l y r e s e r v o i rp r e s s u r e . Thus a

due t o e l e c t r i c a l n o i s e , m e c h a n i c a l f r i c t i o n computer. The s t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec o n t r o ls y s t e m

or

t o overcome the disturbance created by the decreasir

c o n t r o l l e ro fh i g h e ro r d e rt h a nt h a t used for a

c o n t i n u o u st u n n e lp r e s s u r ec o n t r o li su s u a l l yr e q u i r e d accuracy.

t o a c h i e v et h ed e s i r e d

A simple regulator normally is inadequate.

oftheblowdown-wind-tunnelControl

The shocksystemgenerateddownstream

v a l v e may i n t r o d u c ee x c e s s i v ef l o wu n s t e a d i n e s s .T e s t - s e c t i o nf l o wa n g u l a r i t y may a l s o v a r y w i t h v a l v e p o s i t i o n (and t h e r e f o r e ,t i m e ) . Thus, t h e e n t i r e f l o w

channel,fromthestoragereservoirtothestilling when d e s i g n i n gt h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec o n t r o l been accomplished i n r e c e n t y e a r s t o i d e n t i f y b yt h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec o n t r o l choked-flowdevices a c o u s t i cs i l e n c e r s system.

chamber, mustbeconsidered system. Considerable work has and c o r r e c t flow problemscaused C o r r e c t i v e measures have included

i n s e r i e s downstream o f t h e v a l v e , s p e c i a l i z e d v a l v e s , and honeycombs i n t h e s t i l l i n g chamber. Mach

A second pressurecontrolsystem
number c o n t r o l , f u n c t i o n s t o m a i n t a i n s t a t i cp r e s s u r e

used i nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h e

a d e s i r e d Mach number by c o n t r o l l i n g blowdown,

as a f u n c t i o no fs t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e .A l m o s ta l l

t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l su s e

a choked t h r o a t downstream o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n t o c o n t r o l primaryadvantage ofthiscontrol mode i s t h a t t h e

subsonic Mach numbers. The Mach number o fa t t a c k )

i s determinedbythetestsectiongeometry(at
and i s t h e r e f o r e

a f i x e d model a n g l e

independent o f f l u c t u a t i o n si ns t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e .

10

A u t o m a t i cc o n t r o l

of t h e downstream t h r o a t a r e a i s

used i n a number

of faciliMach optimum under

t i e s .A u t o m a t i cc o n t r o li sh i g h l yd e s i r a b l ei no r d e rt om a i n t a i nc o n s t a n t number d u r i n g model a t t i t u d e v a r i a t i o n s and simultaneouslymaintain plenumevacuation.Moresophisticatedoperational computer c o n t r o l , such as Mach number sweeps, e t c . modes a r e a v a i l a b l e

The performance o f t h i s Mach number.

system a l s o d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e s t h e v a r i a t i o n Currentbestperformanceappears possibleatsubsonic

of the test section

t o be 'about 0.001.

butlargervariationsare

speeds, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t h i g h m o d e l - p i t c h r a t e s . by t h e Mach o r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e be
of

I n t h e absence o f p e r t u r b a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d
takenintoaccountbysimultaneous phase l a g and a t t e n u a t i o n e r r o r s .

c o n t r o ll o o p ,s m a l lv a r i a t i o n si ns t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec a n n o tn e c e s s a r i l y measurement of t h e twopressuresbecause

An i m p o r t a n tp r o c e d u r a ld i f f e r e n c ei nm a k i n gc a l i b r a t i o n a blowdown tunnel i s thatrunsshould

measurements i n

be made a t each c a l i b r a t e d Mach number an e n t i r e blowdown, in example, and v i c ev e r s a .

where a l l t u n n e l v a r i a b l e s a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t d u r i n g o r d e rt od e t e c tt i m eo rv a l v ep o s i t i o n a n g u l a r i t yp r o b ei s

dependent e f f e c t s .

If a traversing

moved a l o n g t h e t u n n e l c e n t e r l i n e d u r i n g t h e r u n , f o r

time-dependent e f f e c t s will be o b s c u r e d b y t h e s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s I n t e r m i t t e n t( I m p u l s e ) Wind Tunnels

I n t e r m i t t e n tw i n dt u n n e l sa r ec o n s i d e r e dt o b a s i c blowdown mode, b u t w i t h Ludwieg t u n n e li s canbeapplied a r u nt i m eo fa b o u t

b et h o s et h a to p e r a t ei n

a The

t o 5 seconds or less. The Ludwieg p r i n c i p l e

a t y p i c a lf a c i l i t yo ft h i sc l a s s .

to e i t h e r a supersonicor

a transonicwindtunnel.Pressure and i st h e r e f o r er e l a i st h a tt h es t a g n a -

c o n t r o li sl i m i t e dt ot h ei n i t i a lc h a r g et u b ep r e s s u r e t i v e l ys t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . t i o np r e s s u r e

Ludwieg tunnel An advantage o f the

downstream o ft h ei n i t i a le x p a n s i o nt u b ei sc o n s t a n t( n e g l e c t i n g The p r i m a r yc a l i b r a t i o n measurement problems associated

v i s c o u se f f e c t s ) . withthe

L u d w i e gt u n n e lo b v i o u s l ya r i s e

from t h e s h o r t t e s t d u r a t i o n .

11

ll.B.2

C a l i b r a t i o nA c c u r a c y ,

Flow U n i f o r m i t y and R e l a t i o n s h i pt o

Model T e s t i n g

The c a l i b r a t i o n o f a t r a n s o n i c w i n d t u n n e l i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y than calibration of s e c t i o nw a l l s . a supersonictunnel

more d i f f i c u l t

due p r i m a r i l y t o t h e v e n t i l a t e d t e s t

The v e n t i l a t e d w a l l s

and t h e b a s i c n a t u r e o f t r a n s o n i c

flow
geomA

p r e v e n tt h ed e t e r m i n a t i o no ft e s ts e c t i o nc o n d i t i o n s e t r ya l o n e , as i s t h ec a s ew i t h

fo t u n n e lo rn o z z l e rm

a c a l i b r a t e ds u p e r s o n i ct u n n e ln o z z l e .

measurement o f t e s t s e c t i o n s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , i n a d d i t i o n i sr e q u i r e dd u r i n gc a l i b r a t i o n t e s ts e c t i o n geometry,the

t o s t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e ,

and r o u t i n et e s to p e r a t i o n s .F u r t h e r ,f o rf i x e d can i n f l u -

model o r o t h e r a p p a r a t u s i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n

ence t h e Mach number. r e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r e

These f a c t o r sr e q u i r et h a tt h et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o np r o v i d e and a plenum chamber o r o n t h e v e n t i l a t e d w a l l .

a r e l a t i o n between t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n measured i n t h e

T r a n s o n i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni sf u r t h e rc o m p l i c a t e d of freedom providedby a ventilatedwall, i.e., w a l la n g l e ,w a l lp o r o s i t y( f o ra d j u s t a b l ep o r o s i t yw a l l s ) , r a t e ,t u n n e lp r e s s u r er a t i o , Criteria for sonic speeds, and choke c o n t r o l p o s i t i o n

by t h ea d d i t i o n a ld e g r e e s plenum e v a c u a t i o nf l o w must a l l be determined.

a t each Mach number, t h e optimum

optimum a d j u s t m e n t i n c l u d e u n i f o r m i t y o f

Mach number and, a t super-

shock and expansion-wave c a n c e l l a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h a r e based on t e s t so fc o n e - c y l i n d e r models.

u s u a l l ye v a l u a t e d

A t subsonic speeds,

in

additiontominimizingvariationsin o p t i m i z a t i o na r et u n n e ln o i s el e v e l r e p o r t by Jackson (Ref. tions.

Mach number d i s t r i b u t i o n , o t h e r c r i t e r i a f o r and f o r c e s on a standard model.

A recent

I ) p r o v i d e s a comprehensivediscussionoftheprocedures
Mach number varia-

employed i ns e l e c t i n at r a n s o n i ct u n n e lp a r a m e t e r st om i n i m i z e

Many o ft h et r a n s o n i ct u n n e l ss u r v e y e dd e t e r m i n et h ew a l la n g l e shock and expansion wave c a n c e l l a t i o n a t s u p e r s o n i c oftenmaintainedconstantatall a n g l ea c c o r d i n gt o w i t h Mach number a Mach number

based on

speeds, and t h i s a n g l e i s

Mach numbers, w h i l e o t h e r s a d j u s t t h e w a l l schedule. I ng e n e r a l ,a d j u s t m e n to fw a l la n g l e

will p r o v i d e a more

uniformflow. Mach numbers i s b a l a n c i n g o f The

A t y p i c a lo p t i m i z a t i o np r o b l e ma ts u b s o n i c

plenum evacuation and chokeareafor a v e r a g et e s ts e c t i o n c o m b i n a t i o n so f

a c h o k e - c o n t r o l l e d blowdown tunnel.

Mach number can be a t t a i n e d w i t h an i n f i n i t e number of choke area. example, For the criterion

plenum pumping and

u s u a l l y chosen i s t o m i n i m i z e

downstream Mach number increasesordecreasesfrom

12

theupstreamvalue.

Downstream d i s t u r b a n c e si n

Mach number

a r eu n d e s i r a b l e

becausetheycancreatebouyancyeffectsfurther ance magnitude i se x t r e m e l ys e n s i t i v et o Mach numbers belowabout

upstream.Sincethedisturbchanges i n plenum pumping a t subsonic i s d e t e r m i n e dd u r i n gc a l i b r a t i o n Mach number is

0 . 8 5 , t h e optimum pumping
chokeareawhichdoesnot

and m a i n t a i n e dc o n s t a n tf o rr o u t i n et e s t i n g . c o n t r o l l e d by v a r y i n g t h e ance.

The t e s ts e c t i o n alter the

downstream d i s t u r b -

A s i m i l a ru p s t r e a md i s t u r b a n c eo c c u r sa t
one o f thepurposes alongthetestsectionwithinwhichthe v a r i o u sl i m i t ss u c ha s followingcriteria

Mach numbers near

1.0.

Therefore,
flow

o f a c a l i b r a t i o n program i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e g i o n o f
Mach number

d e v i a t i o n does n o t exceed

+O.OOl,
beadopted

20.002,

etc. Jackson (Ref.

I ) has suggested

the

as a ni n d u s t r ys t a n d a r df o r

"good f l o w q u a l i t y " i n Mach number

Of

transonic tunnels. subsonic For flows, shouldbelessthan course,the 0.005 and less than

2a d e v i a t i o n si nc e n t e r l i n e

0.01

i nt h e

case o f supersonic flows.

minimum Mach number

deviationisindicativeofthebestdistribution a g i v e nt e s ts e c t i o nl e n g t h and s e t o f t u n n e l 2.8.1 as a shown i nF i g .

and t h e r e f o r e f l o w q u a l i t y f o r f u n c t i o no f Mach number.

c o n d i t i o n s .J a c k s o n ' sf l o wq u a l i t yc r i t e r i aa r e Recent c a l i b r a t i o nd a t a comparison.

from t h e AEDC-PWT

16T

TransonicTunnel

i sa l s oi n c l u d e df o r

M o r r i s and Winter(Ref.2)
for supersonic tunnels.

have suggested even more

s t r i n g e n tr e q u i r e m e n t s maximum a l l o w e d be 20.003 a t

These i n v e s t i g a t o r s have suggested the degand (2) Mach number

variations in ( I )
M = 1.4,

f l o w a n g u l a r i t y be +0.1

+0.005 a t M = 2, +0.01 a t ! = 3 . I
based o nt h es t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n do n o t Thus, empty-

I t should be n o t i c e d t h a t c r i t e r i a

d i s t i n g u i s h between random o r p e r i o d i c v a r i a t i o n s

and mean f l o w g r a d i e n t s . must be g i v e n t o

i n a d d i t i o n to s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n c r i t e r i a , c o n s i d e r a t i o n t u n n e ls t a t i cp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t s . t e s ts e c t i o n mustbe must be

The s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e any g r a d i e n t

e i t h e rc o n s t a n t( w i t h i na c c e p t a b l el i m i t s )o r a sufficiently high degree

known a n d r e p e a t a b l e t o

o f accuracy so t h a t

bouyancy c o r r e c t i o n s c a n b e
o f model drag.

made t o a t t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d a c c u r a c y i n

measurements

I t i st h e r e f o r eo fi n t e r e s tt oi n v e s t i g a t e ,i n
of testsectionpressuregradientondrag

a systematic measurement accuracy

manner, t h e e f f e c t s

and how t h i s r e l a t e s t o f l o w q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s .

0.024

0.020

l -0
"

0.01 6
0

AEDC-PWT

I-

16T DATA

> : . 0 12 0
a
0.008

"JACKSON

S CR I T E R I A FOR "GOOD"

, /
/

FLON QUAL 1 T Y

t 3 . '
0

I :

-"
"

0.004

0
0.2 0.4

0.6

0.8

1 .o
Mm

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

TEST SECTION MACH NUMBER,

F i g u r e 2.8.1

JACKSON'S FLOW Q U A L I T Y R I T E R I A C

FOR TRANSONIC TUNNELS, Ref.

1.

The bouyancy d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t r e s u l t i n g g r a d i e n t (Ref.

from a l i n e a r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e

3) can be s t a t e d as
=

AC

DG

dP/dx

,
qm

(2.8.1)

qw

where V i s t h e model volume, S i s wingreferencearea, s e c t i o n dynamic pressure, dP/dx i st h ep r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t

i st h ea v e r a g et e s t i st h e

and AC

d r a gc o e f f i c i e n ti n c r e m e n tp r o d u c e d U t i l i z i n gt h e bouyancy on windtunnel.

by t h ep r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t . (Ref.

DG
of

above equation,lsaacs

4) i n v e s t i g a t e dt h ee f f e c t s
models i n a 2.44-111 ( 8 - f t )
V/S

thedragoftypical,transportaircraft Based on model valuesoftheparameter t o 0.68 f t ) , lsaacs determined that (0.00014

ranging fo r m 0.069 t o should be known t o

0.208 meter (0.23 an a c c u r a c yo f to know AC

-dP qx d ,

0.00047 t o 0.0014 permeter t o an a c c u r a c yo f 0.0001,

t o 0.00043 per f t ) i n o r d e r

DG

i .e.

, one

dragcount.

I n a studyof w i n dt u n n e l s ,M o r r i s g r a d i e n tf o r

bouyancy e f f e c t s on drag measurement accuracy i n supersonic andWinter(Ref.

2) d e t e r m i n e dt h ea l l o w a b l ep r e s s u r e
model drag. Based on an assumed, 0.002 a t Eq. 2.8.1, t h ea l l o w a b l ep r e s s u r e

a bouyancy drag

o f 1% o f t h e model and

r e c t a n g u l a r - w i n g ,a i r c r a f t g r a d i e n ti nt e r m so f

AP/H overthe

model l e n g t h was foundtorangefrom corresponding Mach number

1.4 t o 0.0005 a t M = 3.0. The

g r a d i e n to v e rt h e The estimated

model l e n g t h was approximately 0.4% o ft h ea v e r a g e dragcoefficient a t M = 1.4 and 0.00013

Mach number.

o f t h ec o n f i g u r a t i o nc o n s i d e r e di n d i c a t e d
a t ?= 3.0. l

1% o f ACD was 0.00023

Mach

On a p e r - d r a g - c o u n tb a s i s ,t h ea l l o w a b l e

number g r a d i e n t , i n p e r c e n t and 0.31% a t M

of average Mach number, was then 0.17% a t M = 1.4

-- 3.0.
and Mach number e f f e c t s . Assuming a

Bouyancy e f f e c t s may be e v a l u a t e d i n a g e n e r a l i z e d way by t a k i n g i n t o accountboth model c o n f i g u r a t i o nv a r i a b l e s

specificheatratioof
- x

1.4,

t h er e l a t i o n s (2.B.2)

P H

(1

0.2

M 2) -3.5

- D

qW H

0.7 M 2 ( 1

+ 0.2

M2 -3.5

(2.B.3)

15

may be used

t o w r i t e Eq.
#-

(2.6.1) as

2
M (1+0.2 Hz)

(2. e.4)

Where H and qm areconsideredconstantattheiraveragevalues. I f t h e Mach numd M bergradientis assumed t o be 1 inear, =may be w r i t t e n as AM/Ax w i t h Ax takenas the model length, ., L
AM i s then the

Mach number

v a r i a t i o np e r

model length.

Eq.

(2.6.4) becomes
AC =

DG

"[

2
M(I+O.Z ) ' M

SLm

AM

.
2.8.2 shows t h ea l l o w a b l e
V/SL

(2.6.5)

The parameter V/SLm i s a nondimensionalconfigurationparameter fore independent gradient,overthe o f model scale.Figure model l e n g t h ,f o r

and i s t h e r e Mach number

a b o u y a n c y - i n d u c e d ,d r a gc o e f f i c i e n te r r o r

o f 0.0001 as a f u n c t i o n f h e o n f i a u r a t i o n a r a m e t e r ot c p extreme s e n s i t i v i t y o f d r a g are a number

Owing t o t h i s m' measurements a c c u r a t e t o w i t h i n one c o u n t , t h e r e example,

o f problems i na c h i e v i n gt h i sg o a l .F o r Mach number def.ine.

i f t h e random,
mean g r a d i e n t Over t h e model

s h o r tw a v e l e n g t hv a r i a t i o n si n may be obscured and d i f f i c u l t t o p r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o n s , length.

a r et o ol a r g e ,t h e

One approach i s t o use empty-tunnel

measured d u r i n g c a l i b r a t i o n s , t o i n t e g r a t e i ne r r o r

However, t h i s procedure be can

because o fl a c ko fe x a c t o ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h e e.g., Parker(Ref.

r e p e a t a b i l i t yo ft u n n e lf l o wc o n d i t i o n s .

lrt the case

model may inducedeparturesfromempty-tunnelcalibrations, I na d d i t i o n , Jackson (Ref.

5)

1 ) has foundthat

a chanqe i n u n i t Reynolds number o f 0.003 i nt u n n e l

6 6 from 4.1 x 10 t o 15.8 x 10 (per meter) cause increase can an

Mach number, see F i g . 2.6.3. d u r i n gt r a n s o n i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n s . The d a t a o f F i g . 2.6.2 a r ea l s o shown i n F i g . 2.B.4

T h i s i s an e f f e c tt h a ti sf r e q u e n t l yi g n o r e d

withthe

Mach number

gradientexpressedinpercentoftheaveraae the criteria shown on Fig. suggestedby

2.8.4

Mach number.

P o i n t sd e r i v e df r o m
flow are

M o r r i s and Winter'(Ref.

2) f o r s u p e r s o n i c

f o r comparison. This comparison indicates the

model

c o n f i g u r a t i o n used by M o r r i s and W i n t e r t o e s t a b l i s h f l o w u n i f o r m i t y c r i t e r i a had a value o f approximately 0.05 f o r V/SLm.

16

"

sLm

L/

2
3
TEST ECTION S MACH NUHEER
~ l ~ u 2.8.2 r e

ALLOWABLE LINEAR NUMBER MACH GRADIENT OVER MODEL LENGTH FOR BOUYANCY DRAG C O E F F I C I E N T Q N T R I B U T I O N OF 0.0001 C

17

0.020

0.016

0.012

Hm

Mc

0.008

0.004

0
0

1 .o

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

Re x 10-6/ft
I~

1
12

8
Re x 1'/ 06m

16

20

Flgure 2.8.3

EFFECTS OF REYNOLDS NUMBER ON C A L I B R A T I O N OF THE PWf-16T TUNNEL AT M _ = 0.6 AND 0.8 FOR Ow = 0 AND T = 6%

18

.5

1.0

1.5
TEST SECTION MACH NUMBER,

2.0
M

2.5

3.0

3.5

F i g u r e 2.8.4.

MACH NUHHER GRADIENT O V E R NOOEL LENGTH PERCENT AS NUMBER FOR RQUYANCY DRAG C O E F F I C I E N T F O 0.0001

OF AVERAGE MACH

The v a l u eo ft h ep a r a m e t e r

V/SLm f o r s e v e r a l a i r c 2 a f t t y p i c a l r . below.

OF

fighter,

a t t a c k and t r a n s p o r t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e l i s t e d

Aircraft

W/SL

F-1 5
F-16

0.054

0.048
0.043
0.071 0.061

YF-17
A-7

oc-8
DC-9
DC-IO

0 088 .
0.083 0.065 0.076 0.056 0.055 0.078

8-741
8-727-100 8-727-200

C-141A
C -5A The above d a t a d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e v a r i a t i o n

i n V/SLm w i t h a i r c r a f t t y p e
and t h a tt h e model

i s n o tl a r g e ,a tl e a s t
c o n f i g u r a t i o ns e l e c t e d

F o rc o n v e n t i o n a lc o n f i g u r a t i o n s , by H o r r i s and Winter (Ref. 2)

I t i s a n t i c i p a t e dt h a t

i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v eo f

s u p e r s o n i cf i g h t e ra i r c r a f t .

V/STOL c o n f i g u r a t i o n s above and would

would have a l a r g e rv a l u eo f

V/SL,

t h a nt h ea i r c r a f tl i s t e d

t h e r e f o r e be more s e n s i t i v e t o

Hach number q r a d i e n t e f f e c t s .

Due totheapproximatevalues used f o r some o f t h e a i r c r a f t valuesof W/SL, shouldberegarded as approximate.

volumes, the

20

I I .D.
1.
Jackson, F. M.: TestSection Jan.

P.eferences

" C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e

AEDC-PWT

1 6 - F t Transonic Tunnel

at

\,la11 P o r o s i t i e s o f

Two. Four, and SixPercent."

AEDC-TR-76-13,

1976.
E. and & l i n t e r ,

2.

M o r r i s , 0.

K. G . :

"Requirements f o rU n i f o r m i t yo f

Flow

i n Supersonic \,!ind Tunnels,"

RAE Tech Note A E R O 2340 ( l ? 5 4 ) .

and A i l e r o n s , "

3.

Glauert, H.:
A.R.C.
R&M

"Wind Tunnel I n t e r f e r e n c e on Vinqs, Yodies

1566 (1933).
" C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e

4.

Isaacs, 0 . :

R.A.E.

Bedford 8 - f t .

x 3 - f t . Wind Tunnel
to

a t Subsonic Speeds, I n c l u d i n o a Discussion of t h eC o r r e c t i o n sA p p l i e d the Measured P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n t o E f f e c t s due t ot h eC a l i b r a t i o n

Allow f o r t h e D i r e c t

and Crlockaae

Probe Shape,': A.R.C.

R&M 3583 (1569).

Wind Tunnel

5.

Parker,

P..

L.:

"Flow G e n e r a t i o n r o p e r t i e s P

o f Five Transonic

TestSectionWallConfiaurations,"

AEOC-TR-75-73,

Aug.

1975.

1I.C.

FLOW PARAMETERS AND UtKERTAlNTY RELATIONSHIPS

The proper measurement o f stream properties to allow the accurate determination of the various flow parameters is necessary for the meaningful interpretation o f wind tunnel test results. For example, the desirability o f The neces-

a Mach number accuracy of 0.001 has been suggested (i.e., Ref. I).

sity of such a requirement may be illustrated the afterbody data Fig. 2.C.I. by of This data appearsto have substantial scatter but may be correlated using Mach number measurements with a precision of 0.001 as shown in Fig. 2.c.2.*
It

also may be noted that for a typical fighter aircraft configuration the tranof sonic drag riseis such that a Mach numt.er uncertainty 0.001 is "equivalent"

to 0,0002 (2 counts) in drao coefficient. Similarly. other parameters must be

computed to high degrees o f accuracy.

The sensitivities o f the several flow

to parameters to the various measurements are presented in this section illus-

trate the consequences measurement uncertainty on accuracy. of II.C.1. Pressures The pressure o f a fluid is one of its most significant properties, The knowledge o f static and stagnation pressuresin a wind tunnel is necessary to define characteristic flow conditions such as Mach number and Reynolds number and to properly normalize the various data coefficients. The following discussion concerns the measurement these two pressures. of Static Pressure: During transonic operation static pressure is obtained from a reference pressure (wall or plenum) and a predetermined relation (calibration) of this pressure to the test section static pressure. During supersonic operation static pressure is usually obtained from stagnation pressure and the Mach
o number previously obtained during calibration f the facility w i t h the particular

22

nozzle setting. Figures 2.C.l and 2 were obtained through private communication with Mr. Jack Runkel. NASA Langley Research Center. This requirement for a Mach number accuracy O f at least 0.001 i s also substantiated by the recent nozzle-afterbody tests reported by Spratley and Thompson (Ref. 1 7 ) .

NASA LANGLEY TAIL INTERFERENCE M = .95 MODEL

.28

cD

.24

4
"jdP

Figure 2 C l ..
W
h)

AFTERBODY DRAG DATA A T AN AVERAGE

MACH NUMBER

OF 0.95

NASA LANGLEY

T A I LN T E R F E R E N C E I

MODEL

.2a

.24

%
.20

.16

Figure 2 . C . 2

AFTERBODY DATA DRAG

WITH TUNNEL

MACH NUMBER

GIVEN TO THREE DECIMALS

Inthetransonicregion may be used

a staticpressureprobe,orarray

o f probes

t or e l a t et h er e f e r e n c e

and t e s ts e c t i o ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e s .W i t h

regard t o t h eh i g h e r uncertaintyin

Mach numbers it has been i l l u s t r a t e d ( R e f .2 ) ,t h a tt h e

Mach number may be r e l a t e d t o u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n s t a t i c

P-,

i s e n t r o p i ct o t a l ,

Hs,

and P i t o t , H2,

p r e s s u r e sb yt h ef o l l o w i n gr e l a t i o n s

(assuming t h e r a t i o o f s p e c i f i c h e a t s i s

1.4):

" - a H2
aHS

aM[

HS

H2

35 (M2 112 (M2 + 5) (7M2 1)

(2.c.1)

I f it i s assumed t h a tt h et o t a lp r e s s u r ei s

measured i n t h e s t i l l i n g

(2.c.2) a nd

S o l v i n g for

i nt h ef i r s te q u a t i o n

and s u b s t i t u t i n gi n t ot h el a t t e r ,

t h ef o l l o w i n ge x p r e s s i o ni so b t a i n e d .

"

aH2

5 (M2-1)2
M2 ( 7M2- 1 )

'Pm - =o

(2.C.4)

H2

Po0

which yields

aH2
-

H2
-

a pm

5 (M - 1 )
M2(7M2-l)

2.

(2.C.5)
'

Since

"2
p m

[F]
2

3.5

[4"]
7H - 1

25 .
,then

aH2 a pm

(2.C.6)

can be

s i m p l i f i e d to:

Hence t h e r a t i o o f u n c e r t a i n t y o f P i t o t - t o - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e f u n c t i o no f Mach number and i s shown i nF i g . 2.C.3.

becomes a simple

It may benotedthatthe

r a t i o becomes 1 near M
M

1.6.

Thus, f o r a s p e c i f i e de r r o ri n

Mach number a t an

1.6,

t h ee r r o ri ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e

P i t o tp r e s s u r e .F o r occursbecausethe

may be g r e a t e rt h a n, . t h ee r r o ri n

Mach numbers g r e a t e rt h a n staticpressure

1.6 t h er e v e r s ei st r u e .T h i s
Mach numbers,

becomes v e r y s m a l l a t h i g h

andsmallabsoluteerrors e r r o r si nc a l c u l a t e d Mach

i n t h e .measurement of Pm produce r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e
For example, Fig. 2.C.3 can be

Mach number.

shows t h a t a t

3 theabsoluteerrorinPitotpressure

approximately seven times Mach number. Thus

t h es t a t i cp r e s s u r ee r r o rf o rt h e

same e r r o r i n c a l c u l a t e d

the use o f s t a t i c p r e s s u r e f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n r e s t r i c t e d to Mach numbers l e s s t h a n (withstagnationpressure)athigher

o f Mach number i s g e n e r a l l y

1.6; w h i l e P i t o t p r e s s u r e
Mach numbers.

i s employed

*Also
26

see Fig. 2.C.9, p.39.

StagnationPressure:

The pressure o f t h e t e s t

medium i s measured w i t h t h e

fluld at rest either in the settling

chamber o r by means of a t o t a l headtube.

The s e t t l i n g chamber ( i s e n t r o p i cs t a g n a t i o n )p r e s s u r e , used for b o t h t r a n s o n i c and supersonicoperation.

Hs, i s g e n e r a l l y

Because o f t h e a f o r e -

mentioned s e n s i t i v i t y o f Mach number t o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , a f t e r - s h o c k t o t a l ( p i t o t )p r e s s u r e , Dynamic P r e s s u r e :

H2,

i s employed abovenominal a

1.6 Mach number.

most f r e q u e n t l y employed q is

Dynamic pressure, q,

i s perhaps the

flow parameterused

tonormalizewindtunneldata.

Thus t h ea c c u r a c yo f most instances, (transonic)or by

d i r e c t l yr e f l e c t e di nt h ea c c u r a c yo fc o e f f i c i e n td a t a .I n afterstaticpressure inference(supersonic)
q =

has been

obtained by measurement

it i s used w i t h Mach number t o compute q from

M2Pm

.
Pm and ! a r e measured. i S
t h es e n s i t i v i t yo f

(2.c.8)
E r r o r si ne i t h e ra f f e c t

In he ransonic t t Mach number.

range, both F i g . 2.C.4 shows

q t o HS w h i c hr e s u l t ss o l e l y

from Mach number e r r o r a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g . Since q+pm

= YMPaHS

aM
a HS

(2.C.9)

and ( aq/q )/(aHS/Hs)

-5
q

=
aHs

(aM/M)/(aHS/Hs) = 2

I t wl subsequently be i l l u s t r a t e d (seeSection il
aM/(aHS/Hs)
31

Il.C.3)

that

5 7~

(1 + .2M

(2.C. IO)

28

-5
Figure 2.C.4

10 . Mach Number

15 .

2 .o

THE SENSITIVITY OF DYNAbEC PRESSURE To STAGNATION PRESSURE ERROR, TRANSONIC OPERATION

Equation 2.C.10 may

b es u b s t i t u t e di n t ot h ep r e c e d i n ge q u a t i o n

to o b t a i n (2.c.11)

Errors i n Pm a f f e c t

q by means o f t h e Pm term and theerroneous

Mach number

as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g .

2.C.5.

From q =

7 Y

M 2 Pm :

a
I

= yMPm

aM -+ -$ M 2 a

(2.c.12)

(2.C.13)

(aM/(aPm/Pm))

+ I

(2.C. 14)

It will be shown

i nS e c t i o n

Il.C.3 t h a t

aM/ ( P P) aJ,

- 7M
1

( 1 +.2M )

(2.C.15)

which upon s u b s t i t u t i o n y i e l d s (aq/q)/(aPm/Pm)

7 ~ z (M2+5)

(2.C.16)

D u r i n gS u p e r s o n i co p e r a t i o n ,c a l i b r a t e d

Mach numbers a r e known f o r t h e

f a c i l i t y geometry s e t t i n g and a r e employed w i t h HS f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n . q However, an e r r o r i n d e f i n i n g t h e c a l i b r a t e d shown i nF i g . as f o l l o w s : 2.C.6. Mach number will a f f e c t q as was obtained

The f u n c t i o ni l l u s t r a t e di nt h i sf i g u r e

30

I I

05

10 . Mach

er

-2

-3

-4

Figure 2.C.5

THE Sli3KLTIVITY OF DYNAMIC PRESSURE PRESSURE ERROR, TRANSONIC OPERATION

'K)

STATIC

31

\
-1

Mach Number

-2

-3

-4
Figure 2.c.6

THE SENSITIVITY OF DYNAMIC PRESSURE To MACH NUMBER ERROR, SUPERSONIC OPERATION

(2.C.'17)

(2.C. 18)

= 2
As shown i nS e c t i o n aM/(aPw/Pw)

( a P /P ) / , ( ~ M / M )
W O D

(2.C. 19)

ll.C.3,

5 - - (1 7M

2 .2M )

(2.C.20)

hence
(aM/M)/(aP
w

/P w 1 =

- 7M2

( I + .2M ) -

(2.C.21)

Then (2.C.22)

or

(2.C.23) I n a s i m i l a r manner, e r r o r s i n w i t h errors i n q.

HS can be

shown t o have a

o n e - t o - o n er e l a t i o n s h i p

A t lowsubsonic

Mach numbers, t h e p r e s s u r e r a t i o Mach number anddynamic

Pw/HS approaches u n i t y , pressure from measure-

s o that determination of the ments o ft h ei n d i v i d u a lp r e s s u r e s

becomes increasingly Inaccurate. 0.4) a p r e f e r r e dp r o c e d u r e

A t these

low Mach numbers (belowabout

d i f f e r e n t i a l (Hs

i s t o measure t h e and t o compute the

- )P ,

directlywith

a o rangetransducer l w

dynamicpressurefrom:

(2.C.24)

33

A t low Mach numbers, o n l y t h e f i r s t t e r m For example, t h e e r r o r i s o n l y

term. cent.

of t h e ' s e r i e s i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d .

0.14 percent a t M = 0 . 5 u s i n g o n l y t h e f i r s t
terms y i e l d r e s u l t s a c c u r a t e t o

A t M = 1.0,the

firstthree

0.1 per-

I I .C.2

Temperature

As a fundamental s t a t ep r o p e r t y ,s t r e a m( s t a t i c )t e m p e r a t u r ei so f s u b s t a n t i a li m p o r t a n c ei ne s t a b l i s h i n gt h ec h a r a c t e r

o f t h ef l u i df l o w .

Thus a na c c u r a t ev a l u eo ft e m p e r a t u r ei sr e q u i r e di nw i n dt u n n e lt e s t i n gt o d e t e r m i n es e v e r a lc o r r e l a t i o np a r a m e t e r sw h i c hd e f i n et h en a t u r eo ft h ef l o w . The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s t a t i c t e m p e r a t u r e i n i n v o l v e sa ni n d i r e c t measurement. a gasstreamconventionally i s a convenient

Stagnation temperature

measurement t o make s i n c e i t i s r e l a t i v e l y easy t o o b t a i n , and t h e r e a r e e s t a b l i s h e dp r o c e d u r e sf o rc o m p u t i n gs t a t i ct e m p e r a t u r e value and f l o w Mach number. F i g u r e 2.C.7

from t h es t a g n a t i o n

i l l u s t r a t e st h er e l a t i o no f i n an a d i a b a t i c

s t a g n a t i o n - t o - s t a t i ct e m p e r a t u r ef o r process. This relation'(To/T operateatmoderatepressures a r en e g l i g i b l e .

a p e r f e c t gas ( y = 1.4)

= 1

2 y-1 M 2) i s used i n wind tunnels which

and temperatures and where r e a l gas e f f e c t s t h a t an e r r o r i n t h e measurement o f stagnatemperature.

I t can be seen

t i o n temperature, To,

isdirectlyreflectedinthestatic

34

Mach Number

I I . C.

3 t,iach Number
s e t t l i n g chamber

As p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d Mach number i s computedusi.ng

pressure and e i t h e r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e o r a f t e r - s h o c k sure. I nt h et r a n s o n i cr e g i o n ,

( P i t o t ) s t a g n a t i o np r e s -

Mach number i s computed from

(2.C.25)

The sens it i v i t y o f Mach number t o s e t t l i n g chamber pressure measurementcan be d e r i v e d b y o b t a i n i n g t h e p a r t i a l respectto de r i v a t i v e o f t h e above e x p r e s s i o n w i t h

HS, i.e.,

(2. C .27)

T h i se x p r e s s i o n

may be n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l i t e d t o o b t a i n

aM/(aHS/Hs) =

7M

5 ( -"4
pW

(2.C.28)

or

Similarly,thenon-dimensionalsensitivity be aH/(aPw/Pw)= which i 1 l u s t r a t e s t h a t

":$,;. . . ..

of Mach number t o Poo i s found t o

- 7M

( 1 + .2M )

(2.C.30)

aM/(aPw/Pw) =

aM/(aHS/Hs)

(2.C.31)

The r e l a t i o n o f s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e b e h i n d as a Mach number f u n c t i o n i s :

a normal shock,

H2,

t o HS

(2.C.32)

Thisrelation

will n o t y i e l d

an e x p l i c i t e x p r e s s i o n f o r

Mach number, a

therefore,thesensitivityof numer i c a l ,f i n i t ei n t e r v a l

Mach number approach.

t o H2 was evaluatedusing

A s p r e v i o u s l y shown

(2.C.33)
These s e n s i t i v i t i e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Thisfigureconsistently e r r o ri n shows a
Fig.

2.C.8.
e r r o rp e rp e r c e n t

l a r g e r Mach number

Hs and H2 t h a n e r e r c e n t r r o r n p p e i
o f HS, PW and H

H S and Pa

However, when

nominal values

2 a r es u b s t i t u t e da p p r o p r i a t e l y ,t h er e l a t i v e
N/m2

number magnitude o f Mach thesuperiorityof

errorper

errorinthe

measurement i l l u s t r a t e s

H2 over PIP a t supersonic speeds (seeFig.

2.C.9).

37

2.4

2 .o

16 .

12 .

0.8

0.4
f o r M = f ( H S , P) ,

3
Mach Number

Figure 2.C

E .l

THE SENSITIVIm OF h4ZH NUMBER TO STATIC PRESSURE ANI) STAGNATION PRESSURE ERROR

Hs = 2 7 x 105 N/m2 .5

-1600

-1300

"0 20

-1OOO
x

lo6

N/m2

-800

-600

-400

-2oc

L
1
Figure 2 .c. 9
2
3

C
4

Mach Number
THE SENSITMTY OF MACH NUMBER "0 STATIC PRESSW AND STAGNATION PRESSURES

I 1 .C.4

F l o wA n g u l a r i t y

and C u r v a t u r e

F low angu l a r i t y and c u r v a t u r e c a n r e s u l t

from n o z z l e c o n t o u r e r r o r s ,
a tunnel,

ir r e g u l a r i t i e s o r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e s o f
in-floworout-flow

due t o leakage, and s w i r l or curvaturepropagated The r e s u l t i n gn o n - u n i f o r m i t yp r o -

fo rm

upstream o f t h en o z z l eo rc o n t r a c t i o n .

duces l o c a lp e r t u r b a t i o n si nt h ef l o ww h i c hr e s u l t t i o n si nf l o wp r o p e r t i e si n c l u d i n gs t a t i c number (see Fig. ancesby pressure t a k e nt o l a rt u n n e l

in gradients or variaand t h e r e f o r e , Mach dissipatethesedisturbconfiguration. These

of

2.C. 10).

Thus s t e p sa r e

means a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e p a r t i c u

c o r r e c t i v ea c t i o n si n c l u d en o z z l ec o n t o u r honeycombs i n r e g i o n s o f l o w p l a t e si nr e g i o n s where an Mach number

c o r r e c t i o n s ,i n s t a l l a t i o n

f l o w , and more r e c e n t l y , p e r f o r a t e d shockdown would

u n c o n t r o l l e d ,h i g h - p r e s s u r e - r a t i o

g e n e r a t ea d d i t i o n a lu n d e s i r a b l ep e r t u r b a t i o n s( R e f . Because o f t h e a c u t e s e n s i t i v i t y n o n - u n i f o r m i t yo ff l o w such as

4).

o f c e r t a i n model c o n f i g u r a t i o n s t o

l o c a lf l o wd i r e c t i o n

and Mach number, i t may e x i s t

i s necessary t o d e f i n e v i a c a l i b r a t i o n i nt h et e s ts e c t i o n . Section I I1.E.

any flowanomaliesthat

Probes f o r m e a s u r i n gf l o wa n g u l a r i t ya r ed i s c u s s e di n

40

0.6

0.5

cu

0,

2 Ed

0.2

01 .

c
2

&

4
Mach Number

Figure 2.C . 0 CHANGE IN F L O W D I I E C T I O N WIT)i INCRplENT OF MACH 1 B E R , Ref. 3

41

I I .C.5

Reynolds Number

The r a t i o o f i n e r t i a l t o v i s c o u s f o r c e s i n t h e t e s t o b t a i n e d from wind-tunnel number g i v e n by

R/E =
PU lJ

medium i s

measurements asadimensionalunitReynolds

(2.C.34) i n terms o f To,

M and Pm as f o l lows:

Thiscan

be expressed i n u n i t s o f m-l

R/I1 =

2.29 x 10

-( 1
To2

P,,H

.2M )

2, 2,

I1 . , : ,

(2.C.35)

R/E =

2 . 2 9 x 10

HSM

TZ ( 1

.2H 2 ) 1.5

Since P,/Q

i s al i n e a rf u n c t i o n

of

Pa

and H S , t h es e n s i t i v i t yt ot h e s e
error i n e i t h e r o f , t h e s e
R/R.

parameters i s one-to-one;that be r e f l e c t e di nt h e range poo and H

S

i s , ag i v e n

will

same p e r c e n te r r o ri n

However, i nt h et r a n s o n i c

a r e used t o o b t a i n Mach number which i s a l s o a v a r i a b l e i n Thus e r r o r s i n F i g u r e s 2.C.11

theaboveexpressions. t h r o u g he r r o r si n f o rs e l e c t e du n i t

P,,

and Hs can be r e f l e c t e d i n

R/%

M.

and 2.C.12

i l l u s t r a t e these s e n s i t i v i t i e s

Reynolds numbers (5, 25, 50

C 100 x 10 /meter)

at a nominal

stagnationtemperature

o f 311 OK (100

OF).

The s e n s i t i v i t y

Df

.?eynolds number

t o measurements o f stagnationtemperature Intunnels constantfor errors in

i s shown i n F i g . 2.C.13.
andconsidered any

where c a l i b r a t e d Mach numbers a r e o b t a i n e d

subsequentoperationwiththe

same f a c i l i t y c o n f i g u r a t i o n s ,

Mach number

due t o c a l i b r a t i o n or a d i s s i m i l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n

will con-

t r i b u t et oe r r o r si n

R/Q

T h i se f f e c t

i s shown i nF i g .

2.C.14.

42

Figure 2 C .11 T& . I

SENSITiVI!iT OF UNIT REYNOLDS NUMBER TO STATIC PRESSURE EHROR

43

100

60

40

20

I
5

3
h c h ,Jwnber

Figure 2 .C .12 THE SENSITIVITY OF UNIT REYPIOLDS F W E R TO STAGNATiON PRESSURE ERRCR

44

To = 3UoK
-6 10
2 \ \

\
-40

I
5

Mach Number

45

3
Mach Number

Figure 2 .C

. 4 THE SENSITIVITY OF 1
MACH NUMBER ERROR

UNIT REYNOLDS NUMBER To

46

ll.C.6.

Unsteadiness, Turbulence

and Noise

Large,continuousflowtunnelsoftenhavesmall-amplitude,low-frequency o s c i l l a t i o n si nt h e mean f l o wc o n d i t i o n s .F o r example, the 11-Ft Transonic 10 seconds.

Tunnel a t NASA Ames has a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p e r i o d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y

O f course,

thistypeofvariationshould

be c a l i b r a t e d and used t o e s t a b l i s h

r o u t i n et e s t i n gp r o c e d u r e s . AccordingtoJestley(Ref. w i n dt u n n e l si n d i c a t et h e areapproximately

5), measurements i n AEDC, Langley, and Modane

maximum a x i a l and t r a n s v e r s et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t i e s I nP a r t

1.0% and 0.4% f o r Mach numbers near one. has been

11.2 o f

Ref. 6 , i t i s notedthatwindtunnelturbulence and ONERA (France) t o e x c i t e c a u t i o n s ,t h a tt u r b u l e n c en o to n l y

used a t MLR (Netherlands)

model f l u t t e r modes.

However, T i m e (Ref. 7 )
of f l u t t e r , b u t

can mask t h e i n i t i a t i o n

may

also e x c i t e response modes w h i c ha r en o tt r u ef l u t t e r

p o i n t so u tt h a t

modes.

A l s o ,T i m e be v e r y sen-

Mabey (RAE) f o u n dt h et r a n s o n i cb u f f e tb o u n d a r yt o

s i t i v et of l o wu n s t e a d i n e s s ,I na d d i t i o n ,f r e e s t r e a mt u r b u l e n c ei n t r o d u c e s e r r o r si ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e l a y e rt r a n s i t i o n ,s e p a r a t i o n b o u n d a r yl a y e ri n t e r a c t i o n s . The f o l l o w i n g a r e known t o be sources o fn o i s ei nt r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e l s : i e s known as measurements (seeSection phenomena a tl e a d i n g 1 I I . D ) and a f f e c t s bounda r y and t r a i l i n g edges, and shock-

1. porous wa 11s which can g e n e r a t e d i s t i n c t f r e q u e n c

edgetones and/ororgantones,

2. slottedwallswhichgeneratebroad-banddisturbances
s h e a r i n gi nt h es l o t s between themovino

due t o

airinthetest plenum chamber,

s e c t i o n and t h e a i r i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g

*A

preferred procedure would appear to be a c o n t r o l l e d e x c i t a t i o n o f t h e model v i a e i t h e r a m e c h a n i c a le x c i t o r ,p r e s s u r ep u l s eg e n e r a t o r , or loudspeakers.

47

3.

r e v e r b e r a t i o n o f t u n n e lw a l l s , plenum chamber surges, t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r s a l o n g t h e t u n n e l w a l l s , d i f f u s e rf l o wi n s t a b i l i t y , compressors i nc o n t i n u o u sw i n dt u n n e l s , c o n t r o lv a l v e si n blowdown windtunnels,

4.

5.
6. 7.
8.
9.
10.

v i b r a t i o no ft u n n e ls i d e w a l l s , w o r k i n gs e c t i o nc u t o u t s , and

11.

model supports and s t r u t s . Mach numbers, a r e i n d i c a t e d

,The n o i s es o u r c e s ,w h i c hu s u a l l yd o m i n a t ea tv a r i o u s i n Figs. 2.C.15 and 16. paperb!estiey by (Ref. b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r a n s i t i o n

I t i s noted i n h e e v i e w t r onset, t r a n s o n i cd r a gr i s e , f r i c t i on drag, shock shapes noise. t u n n e l -generated

of f r e e - f l i g h tc o n d i t i o n s

5) t h a t CL

max

buffet

and separati.on, sk n.
. I
I .

and locat.ions, etc.,, m.a y a l i be.affected by Hence, wind tunnel data

will n o t be r e p r e s e n t a t ve

i n cases where this,

i st r u e .

Our p r e s e n ts t a t e

of

knowledge does n o t a l l o w between t u r b u l e n c e ,n o i s e , m e n t a lo b j e c t i v e

a quantitative definition of the

complex i n t e r a c t i o n s The funda-

and aerodynamic t e s t i n gi nw i n dt u n n e l s .
.

o f c u r r e n tr e s e a r c hi nt h i s a r e ai st oo b t a i n

a b e t t e ru n d e r .

s t a n d i n g o f t h i s phenomena v i a a s y s t e m a t i c t e s t i n g instrumentation. (Ref. 5).

programwhichusesstandardized paDer by Westley

P. l i s t o f 25 recommendations concludes the

m a i n l yc o n s i s to f :

These recommendations (1) decisions which

need t o be made t os t a n d a r d i z ei n s t r u m e n t a t and

ion

and t e s tp r o c e d u r e s ,
(2)

new experimental programs.

TRANSONIC

M,<

0.3

TUR.BULENCE u (valves. compressor 1

C Dominant

Souta
I

DIFFUSER

4-

"

03 < M . < ,

WALL HOLE RESONANCE

1
Figure 2 C 1 ..5

JET No'SE

IIC +

"
I I

F I x l W DISTURBANCES IN TRANSONIC TUNNELS, R e f . 5

SUPERSONIC

- HYPERSONIC
I

M , .

I -3

Usually Dominant

M ,

= 3 I O RADIATED NOISE 20 (cold flow)

>I O
ENTROPY

.(

c Usuolly

" Dominant " -

M ,

Arc tunnels Shock 9 MHD

Pigure 2.c.16

i!TQW

DISTURBANCES IN SUPERSOKIC

AND HYPERSO1:IC TUNNELS, Ref. 5

One o f t h e p r i m a r y to

recamnondations i s thatstandardInstrtnnentation

beadopted

measure free-streamdisturbances.This
i s discussedInSection

p r o b i m o f noise measurements i n

transonictunnels

1II.F.

51

I I. C , 7

Humidity

The a c c e l e r a t i o n o f a i r f r o m r e s t i n v o l v e s t h e r e d u c t i o n o f s t a t i c pressure and temperature. i nt h er a p i da p p r o a c h this condltion in Such expanslon t o even moderate speeds r e s u l t s 2.C.17 illustrates

to water-vaporsaturation.Figure

terms o f t h e r a t i o o f t h e r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y o f t h e s t r e a m as i n a r e s e r v o i r . The e x t e n t o f t h e e f f e c t o f conden-

tothatofairatrest sationon

aerodynamic t e s t d a t a ,

and thusthe

amount ofcondensationwhich

can be t o l e r a t e d , has n o t been f i r m l ye s t a b li s h e d( R e f . i n v e s t i g a t i o nr e p o r t e d by N o r t o n ,e ta l .

8).

For example, little

the

(Ref. 9) i n d i c a t e sv e r y

d i f f e r e n c ei nd a t ao b t a i n e d thatobtainedindryair. Inthe

on t h e same model i n m o i s t a i r

as compared

with

absence o f a w a t e r s u r f a c e o r

a precipitant(such

as a d r o p l e t o r

f o r e i g nn u c l e i ) ,

humid a i r can be c o o l e dw e l l

beyond t h et h e o r e t i c a ls a t u r a because the process i st i m e

t i o np o i n tb e f o r ec o n d e n s a t i o no c c u r s .T h i si s

dependent and t h e r a t e o f e x p a n s i o n ( w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e h i s t o r y o f t h ef l o w and i s u s u a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e t u n n e l s i z e ) d e f i n e s t h e can be a t t a i n e d .S u p e r c o o l i n go fa s amount o f much as 100

0

s u p e r c o o l i n gt h a t

C has been
0

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y measured using substantial temperature gradients (100 e.g., Ref. 10; and t h e o r e t i c a l work has been may be exceeded o f 30

C/cm),

a c c o m p l i s h e dw h i c hi n d i c a t e st h a t by a f a c t o r o f
OC

t h es a t u r a t i o n has been

vapor pressure

4, Ref. 1 1 .

It

demonstratedthatsupercooling

can be accomplished w i t h However, even w i t ht h i s an a r b i t r a r y dew p o i n t condensat i o n o f Ref. 8)

n e g l i g i b l el i k e l i h o o do fc o n d e n s a t i o n , tolerance, of 2
OC

Ref. 12. 2.C.18

i t may be seen i n F i g u r e

thatfor

extremereservoirtemperatureswould

be r e q u i r e d t o a v o i d

l w a t o supersonlc Mach numbers.

t o employ r e s e r v o i rh e a t i n g air dryers are usually a l t h o u g ht h i s

Therefore, i t i sg e n e r a l l yn o tp r a c t i c a l

(because o f a i r s t r e a m s t a g n a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e

1 i m i t s , suchasthose
as lowas

as a means f o ra v o i d i n gc o n d e n s a t i o n .I np r a c t i c e , practical ;

used t o reduce dew p o i n t s t o

may be above t h es t r e a mt e m p e r a t u r e ,t h et o t a lw a t e rc o n t e n ti s

small, and c o n d e n s a t i o n e f f e c t s a r e n e g l i g i b l e .
As noted by Pope and Goin(Ref.12),theeffectwhichhumidity

has on

tunnel Mach number

depends onwhethertheflowissubsonicorsupersonic.In toincreasethe Mach number and

t h e case o f subsonicflow,watervaportends

52

100

10

Mach Number Figure 2 .C .17 THE RATIO OF RELATIVE H M T I N THE STREAM TO U DY II RESERVDIR AS A FUNCTION OF MACH NUMBER

53

Assumptions: Dew Point Temperature = 2 c Allowable Supercooling = 30 C Allowable Stream Temperature = -29

Mach Number

Figure

2 .c .l8

RESERVOIR TEMPERATLTRE: REQUIRED TO AVOID

CONDEXSATION, Ref. IO

54

reduce s t a t i cp r e s s u r e ;

whereas, t h eo p p o s i t eo c c u r si ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w .T h i s AEDC.* These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e

e f f e c t has a l s o been s u b s t a n t i a t e db ya n a l y s e sa t a n e g a t i v e Mach number flow. g r a d i e n to c c u r s

when m o i s t u r e condenses i n supersonic

The absence o f c o n d e n s a t i o n d u r i n g t u n n e l c a l i b r a t i o n

(i empty .e.,

tunnel) model

- d o e sn o tp r e c l u d et h ep o s s i b i l i t yo fl o c a lc o n d e n s a t i o ni np r o x i m i t yo fa d u r i n gp r o d u c t i o nt e s t i n g . Tunnel 4T (Transonic 4T) t h a tt r a n s o n i c . f o r c ed a t ai su n a f f e c t e d c o n t e n tu n t i lc o n d e n s a t i o nc a nb e gm/gm o f a i r ) . should conducted be seen (anominalwater-vaporcontent However, t e s t si n v o l v i n gs u r f a c ep r e s s u r e w i t hh u m i d i t y

< - 0.0015
gm H20/gm a i r .

It has been observed i n t h e AEDC Aerodynamic Wind

bymoisture o f 0.002

measurements a r e more

s e n s i t i v e , and e x p e r i e n c ea t

AEDC i n d i c a t e s t h i s t y p e o f t r a n s o n i c t e s t i n g

**

An a d d i t i o n a l

procedure f o r r e d u c i n g t h e e f f e c t o f h u m i d i t y i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s i s t o a d j u s t w a l la n g l ea c c o r d i n gt ot h et e s t sonicregime,experience a good r u l e - o f - t h u m b o r f medium dew p o i n t , e.g., Ref.

8.

I nt h es u p e r mass f l o w

a t NASA Ames has shown t h a t 0.0004 gm H20/gm o f a i r i s model t e s t sw i t h

3.5.'

For example,

through an i n l e t model i s found t ov a r ya b o u t c o n t e n tv a r i e sf r o m 0.0002 t o 0,001.

1% a t M = 3.0 when t h em o i s t u r e

Because o f t h e f a c i l i t y v a r i a b l e s w h i c h
it i s d e s i r a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e l e v e l

a f f e c tt h ea l l o w a b l em o i s t u r ec o n t e n t , whichcan i nt h e

be t o l e r a t e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r f a c l l i t y

by c o n d u c t i n g t e s t s

on areprewas included

s e n t a t i v ec o n f i g u r a t i o n and v a r y i n go n l yh u m i d i t y .T h i st y p eo ft e s t work reported Corson, al. by et (Ref.

8).

*
ff

Privatecommunication, Privatecommunication, Privatecommunication,

Mr.

J. D. Gray, AEDC.

'

M . J. Gunn, AEDC. r Mr.

F. W.

S t e i n l e , NASA Ames.

55

I I .C.8

Test Mediums thetest medium i n t r a n s o n i c and

Air i s a l m o s t , u n i v e r s a l l y usedas

s u p e r s o n i cw i n dt u n n e l s .A l t h o u g ht h e s ef a c i l i t i e sh a v ed i f f e r e n to p e r a t i n g characteristicswiththeairbeingsubjectedtodifferentpressure t u r el e v e l sd u r i n gt h ev a r i o u sc y c l e s , t h e gas t o beideal.Realgaseffects tube such as i n a Ludwieg and tempera-

i t i sg e n e r a l l ya l l o w a b l et oc o n s i d e r

may become r e l e v a n t a t

e x t r e m ec o n d i t i o n s gas

f a c i l i t y (Ref. 6).

Departures from t h ei d e a l

r e l a t i o n s may occur when o t h e r t e s t

mediums a r e employed. However,

i t has been

found t h a t t h e i d e a l r e l a t i o n s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r t h e v e r y l o w t e m p e r a t u r e n i t r o g e n used intheLangleyIO-MeterTransonicCryogentcTunnel(Ref. R e c e n tt r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e lt e s t so fa i r f o i l s varying y

14).

have i n d i c a t e da ne f f e c to f was d e t e c t e d for s u b c r i t i c a l

, Refs.

15 and 16.

A l t h o u g hn oe f f e c t

f l o w s , a s y s t e m a t i cr e d u c t i o ni nl o c a l s u p e r c r i t i c a lf l o w s .T u t l a ,e ta l . w i t ht h ee f f e c t so f

peak Mach numbers was observedfor (Ref.

16) suggest t h i st r e n di sa s s o c l a t e d
i n t e r a c t i o n s .T h i si s

y on transonic-shock/boundary-layer

relevanttothecalibrationof s t a t i c - p r e s s u r ep r o b ei s t e s t gases, on a

empty,

t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s

i f a conventional,

used t o measure freestream Mach number i n d i f f e r e n t

As discussed i nS e c t i o n

lll.D.2,

a t r a n s o n i c shock always forms

y can a f f e c t super-

conventional static-pressure probe. pressure distributions, this

I f v a r i a t i o n si n

. .cr,itical

may a l s o change t h e l o c a t i o n o n

a probe

a tw h i c hf r e e s t r e a mp r e s s u r ee x i s t s .R e s e a r c ho nt h i s a t NASA Ames.

phenomena i sc o n t i n u i n g

56

1 I .C. 1.

References

H i 1 1, Jacques A. F. e t a l ,
Tunnels," Februaty 1956.

"Mach Number

Measurements i n High Speed Wind

MIT, NavalSupersonicLaboratoryTechnicalReport

145,

2.

Thompson, J.. S. and Holder, D. Y., February 1958.

"Notes on

Wind Tunnel Pressure View," RAE TN Aero.2547,

r m theOperator'sPointof Measurements f o

3.
4.

Raney, D. J.,

"Flow D i r e c t i o n Measurements i n Supersonic Wind Tunnels," London 1956. "Flow q u a l i t y Improvements i n a Blowdown

Her M a j e s t y ' s S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , Cooksey, J. M. and Arnold, J. Wind TunnelUsinga

Vol.
W.,

M u l t i p l e Shock Entrance Diffuser,''

A l A A Journal,

10, No. 9, September 1973.

6.

MiniLaWs Working

Group, "A F u r t h e r Review o f C u r r e n t

Research Aimed a t t h e Sept.

Design and FunctionofLargeWindtunnels,"

AGARD-AR-83,

1975.

7.
8. 9.

T i m e , A.,

" E f f e c t so fT u r b u l e n c e

and Noise on Wind-Tunnel Measurements Apr i 1 1973.

A t Transonic Speeds , I ' AGARD-R-602,

Corson, Blake, W.,

e ta l ." C a l i b r a t i o n so ft h eL a n g l e y1 6 - f o o tT r a n s o n i c

Tunnel w i t h T e s t S e c t i o n Norton,Harry f o rC o r r e c t e d T. Jr.,

Air Removal,"
F.,

NASA TR R-423, August 1974.

Runckel, Jack

and Pendergraft, Odis

C.

Jr.,

"Tran-

sonicPerformance

o f Two Convergent-DivergentEjectorNozzlesDesigned o f 3 and 9.4 Percent,"

NASA TM X-909,

SecondaryFlows

1964.

IO.

Lundquist, G. A.,

"Recent Experimental Work a t NOL on Condensation No.

i n Compressible Flows," Geophysical Research Paper

37, ARDL, J u l y 1955.

57

14.

Adcock, J e r r y B . , asaTransonic

Kilgore,Robert

A. an'd Ray, Gas,"

Edward J.,

"Cryogenic Nitrogen January 1975.

Wind TunnelTest

AlAA Paper 75-143,

IS.

Gross, A.

R. and S t e i n l e ,

F.

W: .

"Pressure Data from

a 64010 A i r f o i l a t Heatsfrom

Transonic Speeds i n Heavy Gas Media o f R a t i o o f S p e c i f i c 1.12

,'I

1.67 t o

NASA TH X-62468, Aug.

K.;

1975.
"y-Effects 2-Dimensional on Transonic June 1976.

16.

Tuzla,

Wai, J.

C.;

and Russell, 3. A.:

Aerodynamics," Proc.

A I M 9 t h Aerodynamic TestingConference,

17.

S p r a t l e y , A.

B.,

Thompson, E.

R.,

and Kennedy, T. L.:

l'Reynolds Number and

and N o z z l e A f t e r b o d y C o n f i g u r a t i o n E f f e c t s

on Model Forebody and Afterbody Drag,"

A I A A Paper 77-103,

January 1977.

58

111.

CALIBRATION PROCEDURES AND lNSTRUMENTATlON

A.
As discussed i n S e c t i o n variablewhichisusually

S e t t l i n g Chamber Pressure

11 .A.,

the re'servoi r t o t a l p r e s s u r e i s The Mach number

a fundamental

measured d i r e c t l y i n t h e s e t t l i n $ c h a m b e r s o f b o t h and dynamic pressure i n t h e

t r a n s o n i c and supersonictunnels. s e t t l i n g chamber aredetermined

by t h e c o n t r a c t i o n r a t i o , chamber and A* Mach number.

Ao/A

* , where

A .

is

t h ec r o s ss e c t i o n a la r e aa tt h es e t t l i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n gt ot h et e s ts e c t i o n Mach number n o r m a l l yo c c u r sa t a contraction ratio of IO,.for number i s 0.058.

i s t h e choked t h r o a t a r e a

The maximum s t i l l i n g chamber

At

Mach 1.0 i n a transonic-supersonictunnel. example, t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t i l l i n g and t h e r a t i o o f

chamber Mach

The f l o w may be consideredincompressible

dynamic t o s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e d e t e r m i n e d

frbm

qS
HS

"5

ps

= 1

(-+, S p
S

HS

where (PS/Hs) ratio of

i sd e f i n e d

by t h e s e t t l i n g t h ee r r o ri n

chamber Mach number. measured t o t a l head,

A t a contraction
induced using by a

10, t h e s t i l l i n g

chamber dynamic p r e s s u r e i s a P i t o t probe,wouldbe 0.002.

0.235 p e r c e n t o f t h e

s t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e .

Thus,

static orifice in place of

0.235 percent.Thiswould
i f a Mach number accuracy
probes. used t o measure s e t t l i n g

c o n t r i b u t e a Mach number e r r o r o f

Therefore,

o f 0.001 i s t o be achieved and s t a t i c o r i f i c e s a r e chamber p r e s s u r e , t h e e r r o r

must be e l i m i n a t e d v i a c a l i b r a t i o n w i t h P i t o t

When u s i n g a P i t o t probe t o c a l i b r a t e t o t a l p r e s s u r e i n theprobemust be l o c a t e d downstream o f anyscreens, s i g n i f i c a n tp r e s s u r e

a s e t t l i n g chamber,

honeycombs, e t c . , s i n c e Also, the chamber

these items cause can cross sectlon should v a l u eo ft o t a lp r e s s u r e t o Mach number t o t a lp r e s s u r e

losses, Ref. 1.
i s comnonly done) and

be surveyed for v a r i a t i o n si nt o t a lp r e s s u r e .

If a single
itscontribution

i s t o be used (as
be l e s st h a n

error is to

0.001,

then 2a o f s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s i n

must be lessthan

0.05 percent

(EAM =

0.0005 a t M = 0 . 8 0 ) .

Un-

fortunately,thisisnotonlynearthestate-of-the-art accuracy,

o f pressure measurement

it i s a l s o v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e t h i s u n i f o r m i t y i n p r a c t i c e .

Thus, t h e d e c i s i o n a s t o

what i s an acceptable amount o f n o n u n i f o r m i t y l e f tt oi n d i v i d u a l judgment.

in

s e t t l i n g chamber pressure must be

T h i sd e c i s i o n

The t e r m s " S e t t l i n g

chamber" and

" s t i l l i n g chamber" a r e usedinterchangeably.

59

should be based on t h e p a r t i c u l a r f a c i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s * t e s t sw h i c ha r ec o n d u c t e di nt h a tf a c i l i , t y . Once t h e s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s i n s e t t l i n g

and t h e t y p e o f

chamber p r e s s u r e a r e j u d g e d t o be d e f i n e d based on i nt h e

be

acceptable, i t i s suggested t h a t an a p p r o p r i a t ea v e r a g e measurements i nt h ec e n t r a lp o r t i o no ft h ef l o w .F o r TransonicTunnelat

example,

16 f t .
inthe

NASA L a n g l e y ,f o u rP i t o tp r o b e s
an average (Ref.

have been mounted

c e n t r a lp o r t i o no ft h ef l o wt od e f i n e

2).

I ng e n e r a l ,i n - i t i a l a s u i t a b l e average.

c a l i b r a t i o n s r e q u i r e more measurements i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h

However, o n c et h ea v e r a g et o t a lp r e s s u r ei sd e t e r m i n e df o rt h er a n g eo fo p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a s i m p l ew a l l torelateits test,ingcan mounted tube (or a s t a t i c o r i f i c e ) average. can be c a l i b r a t e d

measurements t o t h e

By f o l l o w i n gt h i sp r o c e d u r e ,r o u t i n e in the central

be accomplishedwithoutanyunnecessaryobstructions

portionoftheflow. Although a w i d e v a r i e t y o f P i t o t p r o b e nosegeometrieshave been used i n

o speed f l o w s ,s i m p l es t e e lt u b i n gw i t h w l
ratio

an i n t e r n a lt oe x t e r n a ld i a m e t e r

0 . 5 and a square-cut nose

chamber w i t hn e g l i g i b l ee r r o r . unaffectedbyflowanglesof

**

will measure t o t a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e s e t t l i n g

A P i t o t probe w i t ht h i sd i a m e t e rr a t i oi s

10 degrees or less, Ref.

3.

Assumina t h a t

reasonablecareistakentoaligntheprobewiththeflow,thistypeofprobe

wl provideadequateaccuracyeven il
s e t t l i n g chamber.

i f c o n s i d e r a b l et u r b u l e n c ee x i s t si nt h e
b yt h ef o l l o w i n gd i s c u s s i o n .

T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni ss u b s t a n t i a t e d

The problem o f P i t o t probe measurements i n an i n c o m p r e s s i b l e ,t u r b u l e n t f l o w has been examined by Becker and Brown (Ref. 4). on a t u b u l a rs u p p o r t ) , and These authors have

analyzed ata or our ifferent robe eometries: d f f d p g probe sphere (a square-nosedtube, e x t e r i o ro f a tube.

( 1 ) spherical-nosed

(2) a hemispherical-nosedtube,

(3) a

(4)

sharp-1ippedprobes

made by c o n i c a l l y t a p e r i n g t h e

The r e s u l t so ft h e i rs e m i - e m p i r i c a la n a l y s i sf o rs q u a r e an i s o t r o p i c ,t u r b u l e n tf l o ww i t h w i t h a diameterratio

nosed p r o b e si n d i c a t e st h ef o l l o w i n g .I n a turbulenceintensityof

percent, a square-nosedprobe

*A
A*

number o f s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s have f i x e d - c o n t o u r , s l i d i n g b l o c k n o z z l e s w h i c h a r er o u t i n e l yo p e r a t e do f fd e s i g n . These n o z z l e sc a nh a v es i g n i f i c a n tt o t a l pressurelosseswhichcanonly be determined by P i t o t surveys w i t h i n t h e t e s t section. However, t h ea v e r a g et e s ts e c t i o nt o t a lp r e s s u r ec o u l d be r e l a t e d t o s t i l l i n g chamber p r e s s u r e v i a c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t s .

T h i s assumes the nose i s f r e e o f b u r r s . F i n i s h i n g o f o r i f i c e s i s b r i e f l y discussed i n S e c t i o n I 11.0.4.

60

of 0 . 5 will c a p t u r e t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e w i t h a n e r r o r o f

0.56 x 10 q.

-4

For a

given amount o f t u r b u l e n c e , t h e e r r o r d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d i a m e t e r r a t i o . Thisaccuracy i s more than ample f o r most t u n n e l s s i n c e h o t - w i r e chamber o ft h e component o f t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y i s

M

measurements Ref.

a t AEDC i n t h e s e t t l i n g indicatethelongitudinal

Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel (4T),

5,

3.

of theorder,
means
I .

o f one p e r c e n o r ft

0.3

1.2.

Assuming i s o t r o p itc r b u l e n c e , i s u th

t h et o t a lt u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi sa p p r o x i m a t e l y suggested square-nosed probe can dence. The above d e s c r i b e d a c c u r a c y a n a l y s i s i g n o r e s sources o fe r r o r .

I t i s assumed the probe nose

1.73 percent.

Thus, t h e
;

be used i n most s e t t l i n g chambers w i t hc o n f i -

a number o f o t h e r p o s s i b l e ' i sl o n g enough t oi s o l a t e and Brown (Ref. 4) suggests

it from any e f f e c t s o f

downstream geometry. Becker

; i .

t h e nose l e n g t h be g r e a t e rt h a ns i xp r o b ed i a m e t e r s .A l s o ,t h ee f f e c to f changes i n h e n t e r n a d i a m e t e r s g n o r e d I n r d e r o l i m i n a t e n t e r n a l t i l ii . o t e i geometry as a s t a n tf o r v a r i a b l e , Becker and Brown suggesttheinternaldiameter be con-

a d i s t a n c eo ft h r e ep r o b ed i a m e t e r s .I na d d i t i o n ,t h ep r o b es h o u l d a

be l o c a t e d more t h a nt w od i a m e t e r sf r o mt h en e a r e s tw a l li no r d e rt oa v o i d r e d u c t i o ni n measured pressure (e.g., Ref.

3 , p. 12).

Finally,theprobeshould W i n t e r n i t z( R e f .

be designed and mounted t o m i n i m i z e v i b r a t i o n .

6) has presented a s i m p l i f i e dp r o c e d u r ef o rd e s i g n i n gc a n t i by vortexshedding. a c y l i n d e rw i t h a diameter

a i r i s 40 Hz a t 1.5 m/sec

l e v e r e d ,c i r c u l a rc y l i n d e r st oa v o i do s c i l l a t i o n si n d u c e d Ower and Pankhurst(Ref. and 160 Hz a t 6 m/sec. and t h en a t u r a lf r e q u e n c y tions.

7, p. 54) o b s e r v et h a tf o r

o f 0 . 8 cm ( 9 1 6 i n . )t h ev o r t e xs h e d d i n gf r e q u e n c yi n
o f theprobe

Hence, they conclude resonance between vortex frequency isunlikelyin most w i n dt u n n e la p p l i c a low speeds c h a r a c t e r -

However, i n some cases t h i sc o u l d chambers. Thus, probes

be a problem a t t h e

isticofstilling

f o r measurements i n t h e s t i l l i n g phenomenon.

chamber should be designed t o a v o i d t h i s

f:

The problem o f i n t e r n a l geometry changes c a u s i n g b i a s i n g o f p r e s s u r e si nf l u c t u a t i n gf l o w si sb r i e f l yd i s c u s s e di nR e f .

measured mean 3 , p. 105.

1II.A.

References

1.

Loehrke, R.

1 . and Nagib, H. M.:

"Experiments on Sept. 1972.

Management o f

Free-Stream Turbulence," 2. Corson,

AGARD-R-598,

B.

W.,

Jr. ; Runckel, J. F. ; and Igoe, #.

B.

" C a l i b r a t i o n of Air Removal , ' I

the Langley l6-Foot Transonic Tunnel with Test Section

NASA TR-R-423, Aug.

1974.
Pressure-Probe Methods for etermining D Her M a j e s t y ' s

3.

Bryer, D. W. Wind Speed and

and Pankhurst, R. C . : London, 1971.

A.

F l o wD i r e c t i o n ,N a t i o n a lP h y s i c a lL a b o r a t o r y ,

S t a t i o n e r yO f f i c e ,

4.

Becker, H. A. and Brown, Strearns,l' Jour.

P. G.:

"Response o f P i t o t Probes i nT u r b u l e n t

F l u i d Mech.,

Vol. 62, P a r t 1 , 8 Jan.

1974.

5.

Credle, 0. P.: i n t h e AEDC-PWT

"An Evaluation the of Fluctuating Airborne Environment 16-Ft TransonicTunnel L.:

,I1

AEDC-TR-69-236,

NOV. 1969.

6.

W i n t e r n i t z , F. A.

" E f f e c t so fV i b r a t i o no nP i t o t

Probe Readings,"

The Engineer, 1/01. 201, 30 Mar. pp. 228-290, London.

1956, pp. 273-275 and

6 A p r i l 1956,

7.

Ower, E. and Pankhurst, R. Press, London, 1966.

C.:

The Measurement o f Air Flow, Pergamon

62

III

. B.

TOTAL TEMPERATURE

The t o t a l t e m p e r a t u r e i s n o r m a l l y m o n i t o r e d . i n t h e s t i l l i n g r o u t i n et u n n e lo p e r a t i o n .S i n c et h ed i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e nt o t a l t u r e i s s m a l la t twotypes

chamber d u r i n g and s t a t i c tempera-

low v e l o c i t i e s , a shielded,high-recoverythermocoupleprobe by Stickney (Ref.

i sn o tu s u a l l yn e c e s s a r y .I nf a c t ,d a t ao b t a i n e d and M < 0.2.

1) f o rt h e s e

o f probes show t h a tt h er e c o v e r yf a c t o r sa r en e a r l yi d e n t i c a l Thus, Pope and Goin (Ref. can be measured

("0.999)
2) note
chamber,

f o r temperatures near ambient thatin

many cases t h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e

in the stilling

w i t hs a t i s f a c t o r ya c c u r a c y ,

by u s i n g a simplebare-wirethermocouplejunction.
i s shown i n t h e

A schematic o f t h i s t y p e o f t e m p e r a t u r e p r o b e

upper p a r t o f

F i g u r e 3.8.1.

Measurements by a much

Stickney (Ref. indicate such 1) that unshielded shorterresponsetime compared t o more e l a b o r a t e ,

temperatureprobeshave s h i e l d e dp r o b e s .I nt h ec a s eo f v a r yr a p i d l y ,t h i si s

blowdown tunnels where total temperature can i f t e s t sa r e must be con-

an essential advantage. example, For numbers, t h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e can be

ductedatconstantReynolds

monitored
Also,

c o n t i n u o u s l y s o t h a tt o t a lp r e s s u r e t y p i c a l l yr e q u i r e d .F o r

c o n t r o l l e da u t o m a t i c a l l y . i n . )d i a m e t e rw i r e

s m a l lw i r et h e r m o c o u p l e sw i t ht i m ec o n s t a n t so ft h eo r d e ro f

0.1 sec. a r e has a and pressure and same c o n d i t i o n s , a

*>*: a r t i m e o n s t a n o 0 . 1 e c i.n i a t c tf s

example, a 0.13 mm (0.005

ambienttemperature Whereas, f o r t h e

a v e l o c i t yo f

19.8 m/sec (65 f t / s e c ) .

0.53 mm (0.021")diameterwire

sec constant, e.g., Ref. has a 1.0 time

4.

I n response t ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e they do i n f a c t Estimated ccuracies aried rom a v f t h er e l a t i o n sp r e s e n t e di nS e c t i o n ber meter per

of

t h em a j o r it y

o f t u n n e lo p e r a t o r si n d

i ca ted

use thebare-wirethermocouple

f o r t o t a l temperature measurements.

+0.56"C t o 2 1 . 1 " C

(21F t o2 2 F ) .

Based on

l l . C . 2 , an u n c e r t a i n t yi nt o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e 0.5 p e r c e n t a t

o f 1 C will cause, a t M = 1 , a maximum u n c e r t a i n t y o f

a Reynolds numHowever,

33 m i l l i o n .F o r

most t e s t i n g purposes t h i s i s acceptable. havebeen calibratedfor

f e wt u n n e l s( t r a n s o n i co rs u p e r s o n i c )a p p e a rt o t u r eg r a d i e n t sw h i c h may e x i s t a c r o s s

tempera-

and a l o n gt h ef l o w .

*A
I A

c o m p r e h e n s i v ed i s c u s s i o no ft h e r m o c o u p l ep r i n c i p l e s ,c i r c u i t s ,e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c et a b l e s ,s t a b i l i t y and c o m p a t i b i l i t yd a t a ,i n s t a l l a t i o nt e c h n i q u e s ,e t c . may be found i n Ref. 3.

I .

r.

The timeconstant i s h e r ed e f i n e d as t h et i m er e q u i r e dt or e a c h instantaneoustemperature change.

63.2% of an

63

Typical Bare-Wire Probe

/Two-hole

ceramic holder

.229 O.D. x .033 W a l l

A l l Dimensions I Centimeters n

AEDC-IWT 1 6 ~ Probe (Ref. 5

.635 O.D. x .089

Wall

- + 1.27 .

v
v
h

11 R .2

30.48

L 4 Vent spaced holes(0.17) equally

.478 O.D.

x .081 W a l l

Figure 3 .B. 1 TOTAL !E!&PEMTUFU3 PROBES

One o f t h e Ref. 5.

most complete and e x t e n s i v e c a l i b r a t i . o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t s has been done i nt h e

AEDC P r o p u l s i o n Wind Tunnel (16T),

i n a t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l

The t e m p e r a t u r ec a l i b r a t i o n was done t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f a

special-purpose,cryogeniccoolingsystemwhichconsists tem t o c h i l l t h e c o o l a n t tureprobes section.

i n t h et u n n e lc o o l e r

o f a l i q u i d n i t r o g e n sys-

and a l i q u i d a i r system for d i r e c t and i n t h e t e s t 3.8.1.* Since Mach

i n j e c t i o ni n t ot h et u n n e la i r s t r e a m .

A rectangular array shielded of tempera-

was l o c a t e di nt h en o z z l ec o n t r a c t i o nr e g i o n
A schematic o f a t y p i c a l r o b e p

i s shown i nF i g u r e

t h er e c o v e r yf a c t o ro fa l lt h e r m o c o u p l ep r o b e s and Reynolds number e f f e c t s (Ref. c o r r e c t e df o rt h e s ee f f e c t s by Robson (Ref. 5 ) .

need t o be c a l i b r a t e d f o r first

l ) , t h e raw temperaturedatawere

Subsequently, temperature the was d e f i n e d

o ft h ef l o wt h r o u g ht h ec e n t r a lp o r t i o no ft h en o z z l ee n t r a n c es e c t i o n byanaverage o ft h i r t e e nt e m p e r a t u r e s

measured over a 2 x 3.5 m (6 x 1 1 f t ) was d e f i n e d by a 2 x 2 m (6 x 6 f t ) p o r t i o n o f was used t od e f i n e

r e c t a n g u l a rr e g i o n .

The t e m p e r a t u r eo ft h et e s ts e c t i o nf l o w

an average o f 17 temperaturesobtainedover thecore.

The d i f f e r e n c e between these temperatures two

a t e m p e r a t u r ec a l i b r a t i o np a r a m e t e rw h i c hr e l a t e st e m p e r a t u r ea tt h en o z z l e e n t r a n c et ot e s ts e c t i o nt e m p e r a t u r e .I nt h i s found t o be approximately 1 . 1 " C number range 0.2 of 28F wereobtainedacrossboththenozzle case, t h et e s ts e c t i o nf l o w was

(2F) lower than nozzle the flow. Deviations and t h e t e s t s e c t i o n o v e r a Mach by These d e t a i l e dt e m p e r a t u r e

t o 0.8 and -22C < To < 21C.

-1. . L
I\

measurements were made because o f t h e a n t i c i p a t e d n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s p r o d u c e d

,. temperature the special cooling system. Although smaller gradients usually

tures.
For r o u t i n et e s t i n g ,

e x i s ti nt u n n e l sw i t h o u ts p e c i a lc o o l i n g

o r heatingsystems,this

example tempera-

i l l u s t r a t e st h ep r o c e d u r er e q u i r e dt oa c c u r a t e l yc a l i b r a t ew i n dt u n n e l a single temperature probe can

be r e l a t e dt ot h e

average s t i l l i n g chamber t e m p e r a t u r e v i a c a l i b r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e disturbingeffectsof anunnecessarythermocouplegrid.

. L

"Robson (Ref. 5) states that copper-constantan the thermocouples used i n t h i s p r o b ea r eg e n e r a l l yc o n s i d e r e dt o have a s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r o f +2.2"C (24F).
-8. I
I I ..

Temperatures i n t h e 1/3-MeterTransonicCryogenicTunnel a t NASA Langley a g r i d o f thermocoupleprobes,Ref. 6. havealso,beensurveyedusing

65

Additionalinformation probes be can found problem o f e r r o r s i n windtunnels

on thedesign

and c a l i b r a t i o no ft o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e

i n Refs. 7-10. Also, Bate (Ref.

1 1 ) has reviewed the

e x p e r i e n c ei nt h e DFVLR

thermocouple measurements based on

i n West Germany.

66

I
I I I . 6.
References

1.

Stickney, T. M.:

"Recovery and Time-Response C h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fS i x i n SubsonicandSupersonicFlow,"

NACA TN 3455,

ThermocoupleProbes J u l y 1955. 2.

Pope, A. and Goin, K. L.: High-speed

Wind Tunnel Testing, Wiley,

New York,

1965. 3.
A m e r i c a n o c i e t yo r e s t i n g S f T onthe and M a t e r i a l s (ASTM), Committee E20: Manual

Use o f Thermocouples i n Temperature Measurement, ASTM Special No. 470, P h i l a d e l p h i a , Pa.,

Technical ublication P

1974.

4.

The Omega Temperature Measurement Handbook, Omega Engineering, Inc., Stamford, Conn.,

1975.
D.:

5.

Robson, G. Feb. 1969.

"Test Section Temperature Calibratlon the of a tS t a g n a t i o n Temperaturesfrom-30

AEDC P T 16-Ft W

TransonicTunnel

t o 3OoF,"

AEDC-TR-69-2,

6.

Polhamus, E. C . ; K i l g o r e , R . A. ; Adcock, J. High Reynolds Number Wind-Tunnel Program,"

6. ; and Ray, E. J. : Oct. A s t r o . 5 Aero.,

"The Langley

1974.

7.

Benedict, R. P . : Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, Wiley, New York,

and Flow Measurements,

1969.
and Baker, FI. H.: Temperature Measurement i n

8.

Baker, H . D.;

Ryder, E.A.;

Engineering, Vol.

I I , Wiley, New York,

1961.
20, Wind

9.

V o l l u z , R. J.:

"Handbook o f Supersonic Aerodynamics, Section and Design,"

NAVORD Rept. 1488 ( V o l . ) , 6

Tunnel Instrumentation

1961.
Eagle

10.

Dean, R. C.,

Jr.: Aerodynamic

Measurements, MIT

Gas Turbine Lab.,

E n t e r p r i s e s , New York,

1953.
RAE L i b T r a n s l . .

11.

Bate, J.:

"Temperature Measurements i n Wind Tunnels,"

No.

1736, AD 922 120, Farnborough, Hants, England, June

1974.

67

1II.C.

PITOT PRESSURES

Use o f P i t o t Pressures f o r C a l i b r a t i o n

As d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n
t e s ts e c t i o n

II.C.l, when M > 1.6 t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n c a l c u l a t e d

Mach number i s l e s s

i f t h ec a l c u l a t i o ni s
and assumingan

based on P i t o t p r e s s u r e been

r a t h e rt h a nf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i cp r e s s u r e . c a l i b r a t e dv i aP i t o tp r o b es u r v e y s t h es t i l l i n g e ta l . chamber.

Thus, most supersonic tunnels have i s e n t r o p i ce x p a n s i o nf r o m such as Hill (Ref.

I nt h ep a s t ,i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e p o r t e dt h a t

1) and Hill,

(Ref. have 2)

measurements i ns m a l l ,s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s

(<0.5 m) o f t h e r a t i o o f t o t a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n t o r e s e r v o i r p r e s sure exhibit a range o f

0.998 - 0.003. +

This type of resul

leads t o t h e connormaloperating one

elusion t h a t n o n i s e n t r o p i c e x p a n s i o n e f f e c t s a r e n e g l i g i b l e a t
temperatures and p r e s s u r e si n i n which the empty t u n n e li sf r e eo f shocks.

a properlydesignedsupersonictunnel,i.e.,

However, l a r g ec o n t i n u o u st u n n e l s

a r eo f t e no p e r a t e da tr e l a t i v e l yh i g hh u m i d i t yl e v e l si no r d e rt oi n c r e a s et h e o p e r a t i n gt i m ep r i o rt od r y e rs a t u r a t i o n . (Ref.

For example, Maxwell

and H a r t l e y was 0.002 g m was 2 t o 6% decreasing

3)

found i n t h e AEDC-PWT 165 Tunnel t h a t when t h eh u m i d i t y average t o t a l p r e s s u r e o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n was reduced 50% by

t

H20/gm o f d r y a i r , t h e

lowerthanthereservoirpressure.Thisloss t u n n e lh u m i d i t yt o 0.001.

Inadditiontowatervaporcondensation,obliqueshocks e f f e c t s can cause a l o s si nt o t a lp r e s s u r e .A l s o ,l a r g et u n n e l sc a n caused incomplete by mixing

and r e a l gas have noninthestilling

** chamber,
(e.g.,

u n i f o r m i t i e si nt o t a lp r e s s u r e

and small tunnels have can losses caused

by a x i a lv e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t s causes o ft o t a lp r e s s u r ev a r i a t i o n , and supersonictunnels make

Ref.

4).

W i t ht h i s

number o fp o s s i b l e

it i s recommended t h a to p e r a t o r s

o f b o t ht r a n s o n i c

c a l i b r a t i o n measurements t o v a l i d a t e t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f u n i f o r m t o t a l p r e s s u r e . T h i s can be accomplished i n s u b s o n i cf l o wv i a used d i r e c t l y t o a P i t o t probe,since

it can be

compare t e s t s e c t i o n t o t a l p r e s s u r e w i t h r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e . must be measured suchasfreean

Insupersonicflow,anotherindependentpressure s t r e a ms t a t i c ,s u r f a c ep r e s s u r eo n , a o b l i q u e shock. Once a c h o i c ei s

cone o r wedge, or P i t o t p r e s s u r e b e h i n d

made, t h e two pressures and t h e r a t i o o f s p e c i f i c

?t

These r e s u l t s w e r e o b t a i n e d w i t h 55 OC < To < 78 OC. T h i s can be d e t e r m i n e d d u r i n g s e t t

2 .o < M < 4.75,

3 .1 Wcm2 <

Hs < 9.1

N/cm

A*

l i n g chamber c a l i b r e t i o n ,S e c t i o n

1II.A.

68

heatscanbeused pressure. Barry (Ref. Mach number when wedge probes. and Holder(Ref.

tocalculatethetest-section

Mach number

and t o t a

5 ) has d i s c u s s e di nd e t a i lt h e
usingpressures
A s i g n i f i c a n tc o n c l u s i o n ,o b t a i n e d

e r r o r s t h a to c c u ri n

computed

measured w i t h t o t a l , s t a t i c , c o n i c a by Barry (Ref.

and

5) and Thompson
measurement has been a P i t o tt u b e The

6 ) , i s t h a tt h e

Mach number computed from a p r e s s u r e r a t i o

i s l e s ss e n s i t i v et o

i n v o l v i n gt h ei s e n t r o p i cs t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e errors. designed and t e s t e d by Goodyer (Ref. 7 ) . mounted on t h es u r f a c eo f

P i t o t tubesensestheimpactpressureof

For t h i s reason, isentropic an stagnation pressure probe

The p r o b ec o n s i s t so f

a c u r v e dc y l i n d e ro fc i r c u l a rc r o s ss e c t i o n . a streamtubewhich

has been slowed edge o f t h e

t os u b s o n i c

speed by

isentropiccompressionalongtheleading
i s shown I n i g u r e F

curved ylinder. c

A sketch the robe of p

3.C.l.

The independent

8) i n d i c a t et h a tt h i st y p eo fp r o b ep e r m i t s measurements o f a b s o l u t e s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e s w i t h a n a c c u r a c y o f 99.8 percent

e x p e r i m e n t a lr e s u l t so f i n a number Mach recoverydecays probe. can be Couch (Ref. range of 1.4 t o 2.2. and theprobe Beyond a number Mach
o f 2.2,

t h ep r e s s u r e

ceases t o o f f e r

any a d v a r , t q eo v e r

a conventional

However, f o r Mach numbers less than used f o r d i r e c t

2.2

the stagnation pressure probe case

measurement of t o t a lp r e s s u r el o s s .A l s o ,f o rt h e measured pressures and 1.6

M < 2.2,

o f equal ncertaintyn u i Barry(Ref. probe.

t h ea n a l y s i so f

5) i n d i c a t e st h e

most a c c u r a t e c a l i b r a t i o n o f

Mach number would be a c o n v e n t i o n a lp i t o t

o b t a i n e d by u s i n gt h ei s e n t r o p i cp r o b ei nc o n j u n c t i o nw i t h

I f a s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e le n g i n e e re l e c t sn o tt o the o f i t s l i m i t e d Mach number range, next Ref. 5.

use a Goodyer probe because

most a c c u r a t et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n and on a wedge, success.

procedure i s t o measure P i t o tp r e s s u r e si nt h ef r e e s t r e a m Thisprocedure has been used at a number

offacilitieswith

Perhaps t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d use of t h i s method has been developed a t t h e

AEDC P r o p u l s i o n Wind Tunnel, Ref.

3.

A v a r i a b l ea n g l e

wedge w i t h a movable The purpose o ft h e

p i t o t tube near each surface v a r i a b l ea n g l ef e a t u r e

i s used i n t h e

16s f a c i l i t y .

i s t oo p t i m i z et h e

wedge angle and t h e r e b ye l i m i n a t e

u n c e r t a i n t yi ne f f e c t i v ea n g l e I ne f f e c t ,t h i sf e a t u r ee l i m i n a t e s
o f Mach number.

caused by changes i n boundary l a y e rg r o w t h . wedge a n g l eu n c e r t a i n t yi nt h ec a l c u l a t i o n

The complete Mach number probeincludestwoconventionalPitot

Dimensions In Centimeters

Straight Section

Dia

Figure 3 .C . . ISENTROPIC STAGNATION PRESSURE PROBE, Ref. 8 l

probeslocatedoutboard planview of 165.

and a l i g n e dw i t ht h el e a d i n g

edge o f t h e

wedge.

o f t h i s Mach number probe i s shown on t h e r i g h t i n F i g .

been usedon a sting to calibrate the t oc a l i b r a t e These same data have been used

3.C.2.

One

o f theseprobeshas
theprobewhich extended,the permitsroutine

empty t e s t s e c t i o n

a r e t r a c t a b l ev e r s i o no f When f u l l y an i s e n t r o p i c

i s mounted i n t h e c e i l i n g o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n . wedge c e n t e r 1 i n e i s

58.4 cm (23 in.) f o t h e c e i l i n g . T h i s rm

may r e f e r t o Reference

Mach number measurements w i t h o u t t h e u n c e r t a i n t y o f The i n t e r e s t e dr e a d e r

expansion assumption. t i o n a ld e t a i l s .

3 f o ra d d i -

A second t y p e o f Mach number probehas

AEDC Von Karman F a c i l i t y . T h i s p r o b e

been employed i n Tunnel A a t t h e onthesurface

measures s t a t i c p r e s s u r e

of a r e t r a c t a b l e d i s k .
has a s m a l lP i t o tp r o b e shown on the edge and

The s u p p o r t i n g arm 1s a 15 deg included-angle wedge and mounted belowthedisk.

A schematic o f t h i s

probe i s

l e f ti nF i g u r e

3.C.2.

A l t h o u g ht h i sp r o b ei ss u s c e p t i b l et ol e a d i n g
i t may be c a l i b r a t e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l , s t i n g
3:

angleofattackerrors,

mounted probes and has t h ei m p o r t a n tf e a t u r eo fs i m p l i c i t y . I nt h e case o f i n t e r m i t t e n t t u n n e l s , probe i s r e q u i r e d e.g.,

a Ludwieg Tube, a d i f f e r e n t t y p e and t h ep o s s i Group,

o f Mach number bilityofrapid

because o ft h es h o r tr u n - t i m e

changes i nt e s t - s e c t i o nf l o w .

The AGARD Technical Working

which i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s e l e c t i o n Number Transonic Windtunnel

As reportedby

and design o f theLargeEuropeanHigh-Reynoldsshown i nF i g .

(LEHRT), has recommended the probe

3.C.3.

ROSS and Hartzuiker(Ref.

g ) , t h i sm i n i a t u r ep r o b eu t i l i z e sh i g h measurement o f b o t h P i t o t and s t a t i c
LEHRT f a c i l i t i e s .

frequency-responsepressuretransducersfor The primarypurposeofthisprobe Dougherty (AEDC)

pressures and i s designed t o be used i n t h e s m a l l - s c a l e p i l o t

i s tomonitortemporal

changes i n mean Mach number. measurements o f s t a t i c and

has p o i n t e do u tt ot h ep r e s e n ta u t h o r st h a t

pressurefluctuationswiththisprobe thusshouldnot

will have a limitedfrequencyresponse

be used t o c a l i b r a t e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h However, t h ef l u c t u a t i n gP i t o tp r e s s u r e s f o rf u r t h e rd i s c u s s i o no f can be used f o r

noiseand/orturbulence. steady f 1 ow d is turbances.

t h i s purpose; see Section 1 I I . F .

measurements o f un-

P i t o t ProbesforFreestreamCalibration Although a w i d e v a r i e t y

of P i t o t nosegeometrieshave
of 0.125,

been used, t h e s i m p l e

cylindricaltubewithsquare-cut
R

nose i s adequate f o r f r e e s t r e a m c a l i b r a t i o n s . t h et e s t so f Gracey (Ref.

For an i n t e r n a l t o e x t e r n a ld i a m e t e rr a t i o

IO)

Compared t o t h e o t h e r two Mach number probes, t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e hasan a d d i t i o n a l disadvantage. Barrys analysis (Ref. 5) shows t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n c a l c u l a t e d Mach number i s g r e a t e r when t h e r e i s equal u n c e r t a i n t y i n measured pressures.

71

Tunnel A

.051 o r i f i c e

7-A
10 '

II.'
P itot

31 75

1.

Disk ot resently alin p C bra ted w i t h C, probe d a t a .

1.

Variable angle (10'-26') p i t o t wedge probe mounted on c e i l i n g ; e x t e n d s c e n t e r of wedge

58.4 cm from ceiling.

2.
C a l i b r a t e dw i t hi d e n t i c a l tunnel G,

Dimensions In Centimeters

,
.

Tunnel 16 S

wedge located a t

Figure 3.C .2.

AEDC SUPERSON I C MACH NUMBER PROBES

Scale 4 l :

Pitot and Static Measuring Transducers are K u l l t e CQL-062-50. Type, Mounted in Silastimer Compound i n Probe.

.!,

Static Holes 0.5 dia

d
r

1I

t?-"3 "

-1:l Scale

-1

f-

8 d

U
W

d e m o n s t r a t e dt h a tt o t a lp r e s s u r e e r r o r by 0.01q' a t anangle

measurements w i t h t h i s p r o b e

wl be i n il

of attack of

1 1 degrees and M , = 0.26 and 1.62.

T h i s same accuracy was a t t a i n e d a t a =

2230 , M =

0.26 and a = +29O, M = 1.62 was

by i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i a m e t e r r a t i o t o
increasedeven ratioto more by near one.

0;96.

The a n g l e o f a t t a c k r a n g e

usinginternal.bevellingtoincreasethediameter empty t e s ts e c t i o n s and a

However, s i n c ef l o wa n g u l a r i t yi n

seldomexceeds

1 or 2 degrees, a t u b e w i t h

a s t r a i g h t impactopening

diameterratioof error.

0.5, o r more, will p r o v i d e i m p a c t p r e s s u r e s w i t h n e g l i g i b l e

i sf r e eo fb u r r s . )

(Of course, t h i s assumes the probe

E f f e c t so fV a r i o u sP a r a m e t e r s Size: -

on P i t o t Probes

E a r l ye x p e r i m e n t sw i t hP i t o tp r o b e s independent o f probe size, by the size of facility e.g., Ref.

showed measuredpressures

t o be

11.

Thus, s i z i n gi su s u a l l yg u i d e d be used. an impact 12.

and Mach number

atwhichtheprobeisto a P i t o t probe senses

When t o t a lp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t sa r ep r e s e n t , pressurecorresponding Thiseffect

t o a displacementtowardsthehigherpressure,Ref. and w i t h i n c r e a s i n a w a l l t h i c k n e s s . a c o n i c a l nose P i t o t , w i t h

decreases w i t h p r o b es i z e

However, Livesey(Ref. a tt h e opening,

13) foundthat

a sharp edge
it

isbestfor

use i n a t r a n s v e r s ep r e s s u r eg r a d i e n ts i n c e But since cones cannot

e x h i b i t s a n e g l i g i b l ed i s p l a c e m e n te r r o r . veryclosetowalls, made w i t h P i t o t square-cut nose,

be used

two dimensionalboundarylayer

measurements a r e u s u a l l y and a

probeshavingverysmall,flattened-ovalopenings e.g., Refs.

1 1 and 12.

A n a l y s i so fd a t af o rt h es i m p l e ,c i r c u l a rP i t o tt u b ei n d i c a t e st h e measured pressure i s independent o f Reynolds number (based on i n s i d e r a d ius

o f the opening)

when i t i s g r e a t e rt h a n

100, Ref.

12.

Mach number: In dry air, the Mach number Pitottube has a e n e r a l l y been found t o be i n s e n s i t i v e t o

and w i l 1 r e l i a b l yp r o v i d e t h e f r e e s t r e a m s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e a t t h es t a g n a t i o n pressurebehind a normal shock a t super-

subsonic speeds and son ic speeds. Tu r b u 1ence :

The i n c o m p r e s s i b l ea n a l y s i so f a circulartubePitotwithsquare-cut lence.

Becker and Brown (Ref.

14) i n d i c a t e st h a t

nose i s r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o t u r b u -

However, theseauthorssuggestthatthelengthoftheconstantdiameter

74

opening be a tl e a s tt h r e ed i a m e t e r s . flow, in response t o t u r b u l e n c e ,

The i n t e n t i s t o e l i m i n a t e s u r g i n g o f t h e and t h u s a s s u r e t h e e x i s t e n c e geometry. byGracey(Ref.

of stagnation

c o n d i t i o n sp r i o rt o

changes i n i n t e r n a l

When. t h e r e s u l t s o f

Becker and

Brown a r e viewed i n l i g h t o f t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d strates decreasing flow angle sensitivity of Pitot number, one may c o n c l u d e t h a t c i r c u l a r t u b e l e v e l so ft u r b u l e n c e .S i n c et h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi n lessthan
t o p e r c e n t ,t h e w

lo),

which demonMach by o w l

probes w i t h i n c r e a s i n g

P i t o t probesareunaffected

most empty t u n n e l s i s

recommended P i t o t p r o b e s( i . e . ,c i r c u l a rt u b e sw i t h

i n t e r n a l j e x t e r n a ld i a m e t e rr a t i o s

> 0.5) can be used w i t h c o n f i d e n c e t o c a l i b r a t e

t r a n s o n i c and supersonicwindtunnels. Rakes, Arrays and Supports,: Insubsonicflows,impactpressure orificein a c i r c u l a rc y l i n d e r can be s u c c e s s f u l l y measured w i t h an

mounted normal t o t h e

flow, e.g.,

Ref.

12.

Thus,

P i t o t p r o b e sa r eg e n e r a l l yc o n s i d e r e dt o

be i n s e n s i t i v et os u p p o r ta r r a n g e m e n t s . a support could conceivably measuredbehindtheshock Thus,

However, near Mach one t h e bow shockgeneratedby i n t e r f e r ew i t ht h ep r o b e i n t e r a c t i o n sw o u l d attransonic t oa v o i dt h i s recommended. shock.

The r e s u l t i n gp r e s s u r e

be expected t o d i f f e r

from the normal shock pressure.

probeshouldextendfar

speeds t h e nose o f t h e P i t o t problem.

enough forward

A t u b el e n g t ha tl e a s t

12 t i m e st h es u p p o r tt h i c k n e s si s and Krause (Ref.

A t subsonicspeeds,Dudtiniski

15) have observed

thattheeffectofproximityof negligible i f the strut is

a transversecylindricalsupportingstrutis two o r more s t r u t d i a m e t e r s downstream from t h e P i t o t

tube ip. or upersonic pplications, t F s a thePitottubelengthisusually When s e v e r a l P i t o t p r o b e s a r e

Pope and Goin (Ref.

16, p. 353) n o t et h a t

I 5 t o 20 tubediameters.
used i n a r a k e o r an a r r a y , t h e a t H = 1.6 measured

pressures may be a f f e c t e d by i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e bow waves on adjacenttubes. Bryer andPankhurst(Ref.12)notethatexperiments between P i t o t probes may be assmallas error. As Mach number decreases toward i n d i c a t et h e gap

one d i a m e t e r w i t h o u t c a u s i n g s i g n i f i c a n t one, theseparationdistancemust be

increased.

I n s u b s o n i cf l o w ,t h es p a c i n go fP i t o tp r o b e si sg e n e r a l l yn o tc o n Ref.

s i d e r e d t o be c r i t i c a l , e.g.,

17.

75

I I .C.
1.

References

H l , J. A. il
Aero.

Sci

., Vol . 22,
F.;

F.:

"On t h e Cal

No. 6,
Schindel', L. H.: "Mach Number Measurements Tech. Rept.

2.

Hill, J. A.
145, Jan.

Baron, J. R.

i n High-speed Wind Tunnels,"HITNavalSupersonicLaboratory 1956 ( A l s o a v a i l a b l e and H a r t l e y , M. as AGARDograph 22, Oct.

1956).

3.

Maxwell,

H.

S. : "Aerodynamic C a l i b r a t i o nR e s u l t sf o rt h e a t Mach Numbers

AEDC-PWT 16-Ft.SupersonicTunnel
AEDC-TR-69- 102, May 1969.

fo r m 1.50 t o 4.75

,I'

4.

Murphy, J. S . :

"Evidences o f an I n h e r e n tE r r o ri n Aero. Engr.

Measurement o f Total-Head

Pressure a t Supersonic Speeds,"

Rev., Nov.

1953.

5.

Barry, F. W.: Trans. ASME,

"Determination o f Mach Number A p r i l 1956.

From Pressure Measurements,''

6.

Thompson, J. S. and Holder, D. W. : mentsfromtheOperator'sPointof Feb. 1958.

"Notes on Wind Tunnel Pressure View," R.A.E. Tech. NoteAero.

Measure2547,

7.
8.

Goodyer, M. J.:

"A New Probe f o rt h eD i r e c t

R.A.E.

Measurement o f Stagnation

Pressure i n Supersonic Flow," Couch, L.

Tech. Rept. 73122, March 1974. on the Performance of a i n Super-

H.:

" E f f e c t so fG e o m e t r i cV a r i a b l e s May 1975.

Probe f o r D i r e c t Measurement o f Free-StreamStagnationPressure sonic Flow," NASA TN 0-7887,

9.

Ross, R. and H a r t z u i k e r , J. P.: LEHRT P i l o t F a c i l i t i e s , " A c t i o n 61, June 2,

"Recommended Flow Q u a l i t y Measurements i n Group AC/243 (PG.7/WG. 1)

AGARD TechnicalWorking

1975.
I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a Number o f T o t a l - P r e s s u r e Tubes

10.

Gracey, W.:

"Wind-Tunnel

a t High Angles of Attack,"

NACA Rept.

1303, Jan.

1956.
1956.

11.
12.

Folson, R. G.: Bryer,

"Review o ft h eP i t o t

Tube,"

Trans ASME, Oct.

D. W. and Pankhurst, R. C.:

London, 1971.

Pressure-Probe Methods f o r e t e r m i n i n g D Her M a j e s t y ' s

Wind Speed

and F l o wD i r e c t i o n ,N a t i o n a lP h y s i c a lL a b o r a t o r y ,

S t a t i o n e r yO f f i c e ,

76

13.

Livesey, J. L.: Sci.,

Vol.

"The Behavior o f Transverse Cy1 i n d r i c a l and Forward Facing i n TransverseTotalPressureGradients,"Jour.Aero. Oct. 1956. "Response o f P i t o t Probes i n T u r b u l e n t

TotalPressureProbes 23, p.

949,

14.

Becker, H. A. Streams,''

and Brown, A. P. G . :

Jour. F l u i d Mech.,

Vol. 62, P a r t 1,

8 Jan.. 1974.
NASA TN 0-6406, July

15.

D u d z i n i s k i , T. J. and Krause, L; N.:

" E f f e c t o f I n l e t Geometry.on Flow-Angle Tubes,"

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f MiniatureTotal-Pressure

1971.
16.
Pope, A. and Goin, R . L . : Chew, W. High-speed Wind Tunnel Testing, Wiley,

1965.

17.

L . , Jr.:

" C a l i b r a t i o n of Five Total Pressure

and Temperature May 1959.

Survey Rakes a t Speeds from M = 0.2 t o 1.0,"

AEDC TN-59-37,

77

I I I.D.

TEST SECTION STATIC

PRESSURES

As discussed i n S e c t i o n I I . C . l , measurement o f s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s
fundamental t o r a n s o n i c i n d u n n e l a l i b r a t i o n . t w t c I t i sc u r r e n t l ys t a n d a r d s t a t i c to

p r a c t i c e t o measure s e t t l i n g chamber pressure and empty-tunnel c a l i b r a t es u b s o n i c and t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s when M < 1.6.

T y p i c a l l y , an average used t o c a l i b r a t e
it i s g e n e r a l l y

o fs t a t i cp r e s s u r ed a t a ,

measured a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e , i s

a r e f e r e n c e r e s s u r e .n r d e r o v o i dn t e r f e r e n c e , p i o t a i considered good p r a c t i c e n o t t o

measure t h i s r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e w i t h

a probe

permanently mounted i nt h et e s ts e c t i o n . u s u a l l y measured e i t h e r i n t h e

Thus, t h er e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r ei s

plenum chamber or a t s i d e w a l l o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d Once c a l i b r a t e d ,t h er e f e r e n c e d u r i n gr o u t i n eo p e r a t i o n . appears t o

i nt h ef o r w a r dp o r t i o no ft h et e s ts e c t i o n . p r e s s u r ei s used t o c o n t r o l Mach number

The b e s t l o c a t i o n t o be a m a t t e ro fo p i n i o n . t ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e ,u s e

measure t h e r e f e r e n c e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
Al o f t h el a r g e rt u n n e l s l

( > 2.4 m ) , which responded

s u r v e yi n d i c a t e d

plenum chamber measurements. The

s m a l l e rt u n n e l su s ee i t h e ru p s t r e a mo r i f i c e so r

plenum chamber measurements.

A totalofthe

responsesindicated

a m a j o r i t yo fa p p r o x i m a t e l y

2:l p r e f e r r e d

t o use plenum chamber measurements. Advantages o fu s i n q plenum chamber d a t a r e : a

(I)

i t i sr e l a t i v e l y

i n s e n s i t i v et ol o c a t i o na tw h i c ht h ep r e s s u r ei s

measured, and (2) i t a v o i d s However, has proven

h a v i n gt oc o n t e n dw i t he r o s i o na n d / o rc o n t a m i n a t i o no fo r i f i c e s . e x p e r i e n c ew i t ht u n n e lw a l lp i e z o m e t e rr i n g si n o r i f i c ed e t e r i o r a t i o ni sn o t
a number o ft u n n e l s

a s i g n i f i c a n t problem.

A t supersonic Mach numbers,

t h e plenum chamber pressure i s g e n e r a l l yl o w e rt h a nf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i cp r e s s u r e , and t h ed i f f e r e n c ei n c r e a s e sw i t hi n c r e a s i n gt l a c h more s i g n i f i c a n ta t Mach numbers exceeding 1.4. number, becoming increasingly

I nc o n t r a s t ,t e s t - s e c t i o n - w a l l

78

pressuresaregenerallyhigherthanfreestreamstaticpressureatsupersonic numbers. I nt h e Vought High Speed Wind Tunnel ( w i t hw a l l ss l i g h t l yc o n v e r g e d ) ,

Mach

tunnel-wallpressureIsclosertofreestreamstaticthan

plenum pressure when because

1 < M < 1.6.

Thus, t h i st u n n e li sc a l i b r a t e du s i n gt u n n e l - w a l lp r e s s u r e s

smaller departures

fo r m freestream static offer the possibility of greater

c a l i b r a t ion. In general,
a more a c c u r a t e t u n n e l c a l

accuracy I n Mach number t i o n may beexpected pressure.

ibra-

when t h e r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e i s c l o s e r t o f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c

I nt h ec a s eo fs u b s o n i c

Mach numbers, t e s t - s e c t i o n - w a l l and plenum presA p o s s i b l ee x c e p t i o nt ot h i sg e n e r a l

s u r e sg e n e r a l l ya g r e ev e r yc l o s e l y . c l u s i o ni st h a t

con-

models, w i t hl a r g eb l o c k a g er a t i o s( i . e . ,

> 2 % ) , may reduce

plenum chamber p r e s s u r eb e l o wt h ec a l i b r a t e d ,e m p t y - t u n n e lv a l u e sa th i g h subsonic Mach number, e.g., holes, such used as e x c e s s i v ei n f l o w with slots or Parker (Ref.

57).

As i sw e l l

known, i n c l i n e d

i n t h e AEDC t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s , a r e d e s i g n e d t o i n h i b i t

fo r m t h e plenum t o t h e t e s t s e c t i o n , b u t v e n t i l a t e d t u n n e l s
more v u l n e r a b l e t o t h i s t y p e o f d e p a r t u r e f r o m plenum chamber pressure may l a g

normalholesare

e m p t y - t u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n .I na d d i t i o n ,t h e f r e e s t r e a mp r e s s u r ed u r i n gr a p i d
III.D.l.

changes i n model o r i e n t a t i o n . Transonic Survey Pipes

Responses t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n d i c a t e t h a t have used long pipes

31 o u t o f

53 t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s
The r e s u l t s o f t h e one o r more l e n g t h s

t os u r v e yc e n t e r l i n es t a t i cp r e s s u r e .

centerlinestaticpressuresurveyareusuallyaveragedover o ft h et e s ts e c t i o n and used t o c a l i b r a t e

a r e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r e .I nr o u t i n e most c l o s e l y matches t h e l o c a t i o n a

t e s t s , a c a l i b r a t e dl e n g t hi ss e l e c t e dw h i c h and l e n g t h o f a p a r t i c u l a r model.

An a l t e r n a t ep r o c e d u r ei st oc o n s t r u c t

number o f c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e s t o r e l a t e t h e r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e t o s e v e r a l s t a t i o n sa l o n gt h ec e n t e r l i n e . By l o c a t i n g t h e aerodynamiccenter o f a model a t

79

I 1 I

a station which has been calibrated, the local Mach number at that station can be used in data reduction. This method NASA Ames
f*
A

is used in transonic tests at

And is considered to be important for measurements o f Mach num-

ber at which a model encounters transonic drag rise.

In low supersonic

tests (M < l . 6 ) , the nose o f the model is usually located at one o f the calibrated stations for more accurate wave drag measurements.

In either case

a (i.e., calibrations of the reference static pressure withn averaae along

the centerlineor with pressures measured at particular locations), buoyancy corrections are usually applied using centerline pressure measurements by obtained in the empty tunnel. Guidelines for the installation of a long survey pipe are presentedin Reference 1.
1.

Some rules o f thumb are:

The nose of the pipe should a sma.11 angle cone or ogive and be should be located well upstream in t,he subsonic portion of the tunnel nozzle, e.g., in the 11-ft. Transonic Tunnel at NASA Ames the nose o f the pipe extends into the settling chamberand is supported under tension.

2.

In order to minimize pipe sway, the pipe should be loaded with a

large tensile force, and if appropriate, an upward moment should be applied a t the downstream support.

*
. . L J
n

.. Private

In cases where a measured-average is used to calibrate a tunnel, a variation on this procedure would be to account for- local departures from the average.
communication, Mr. F. . ! b Steinle, NASA Ames.

80

3.

I nt h ec a s eo fv e r yl o n gp i p e s ,t h r e eo rf o u rc a b l e ss h o u l db e attachedtofurthercontrolpipe sag and vibration. and a l l t u r n -

4.

A l l s u p p o r tc a b l e ss h o u l db ef r e eo fo b s t r u c t i o n s ,

buckles and c a b l ea t t a c h m e n tf i x t u r e ss h o u l db el o c a t e db e h i n dt h e t u n n e lw a l l s .

5.

Cablesnearor

w i t h i nt h et e s ts e c t i o ns h o u l d

be swept back

at

an angle of approximately

30 deg t o t h e c e n t e r l i n e .
have been conducted w i t h t h e nose

Although a number o f t u n n e l c a l i b r a t i o n s

ofthepipelocated,inthetestsectionnearthebeginningofuniformventilat i o n (e.g., Refs.

1 and 2 ) , t h ep r e f e r r e d

arrangement i s w i t h t h e

nose w e l l

upstream so t h a t i t i s always i n subsonic flow, Ref. minimizesdisturbances caused by t h e nose (e.g., theorifices.

3.

This arrangement

no bow shock) and assures

t h a t no t r a n s o n i c shockpassesover

A properly-designed,static-pressuresurveypiperequires
c a l i b r a t i o nc u r v e

no t r a n s o n i c

and s u p p l i e ss i m u l t a n e o u sd a t at h r o u g h o u tt h el e n g t ho f

t h et e s ts e c t i o n .I nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,b o u n d a r yl a y e rg r o w t ho nt h ep i p e does n o tu s u a l l yi n d u c e any l o n g i t u d i n a l Mach-number g r a d i e n t s because o f

t h ev e n t i l a t e dw a l l sf e a t u r e .I nc o n t r a s t ,t h ed i s a d v a n t a g e so ft h el o n g pipe are:

**

1.

sag c a nc a u s et h ep i p et o i n t u r n cancauseerroneous

be i n c l i n e dt ot h ef l o ww h i c h staticpressuredata,

2.

v i b r a t i o n can induce errors, Appendix see

Ill,

**However,

T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni so f t e ns u s t a i n e d bydemonstrationthat a plotofpipe measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e v e r s u s plenum chamber pressure i s smooth through t r a n s o n i c Mach numbers. l e s st h a n as a r u l e o f thumb, t h e b l o c k a g e r a t i o o f t h e p i p e s h o u l d 0 . 5 % , Ref. 6. be kept

81

3. 4.

disturbances generated supports by i t sb u l k

may i n t r o d u c ee r r o r s ,

and

makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o use f o r surveys o f f c e n t e r l i n e a source o f e r r o r , w h i c h i s o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d An example o fs i g n i f i c a n to r i f i c e - i n d u c e de r r o r

Orificesare l o n gf i x e dp i p e .

when us i n g a has been shown i n and were

discussed lsaacs by (Ref. Fig. 3.D.l.

5).

T h i st u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o np r o b ei s

The o r i f i c e s have a

diameter of 0.076 cm (0.030 i n . )

ground and deburred w i t h p a r t i c u l a r c a r e However, s t a t i c p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n s a s l a r g e surewereobserved.

t o preventchamferoftheopening. as 0.3% o f t h e were indeed dynamicpresorificeerrors

The f a c t t h a t t h e e r r o r s

was ascertainedbymovingtheprobealongthetunnelcenterline. p a t t e r ni nt h ev a r i a t i o no f measured s t a t i cp r e s s u r e

A repeatable
was observed. Figure

3.D.2

shows a comparison o f d a t a o b t a i n e d a t

two d i f f e r e n t t u n n e l l o c a t i o n s

w i t h M = 0.74. T h i s example i l l u s t r a t e s t h e Pressuresurveypipe;particularly s t a t i o ni so b t a i n e d need f o r c a u t i o n when u s i n g a f i x e d , s t a t i c when t h e p r e s s u r e a t a g i v e nt u n n e l

w i t h o n l y one o r i f i c e .

It i s suggested t h a tt u n n e l

o p e r a t o r s , who use such p i p ef o ra tl e a s t

p i p e s ,c h e c kt h eo r i f i c ep r o b l e mb yt r a n s l a t i n gt h e and one supersonic Mach number.

one highsubsonic

If a

problem i s d e t e c t e d , t h i s s o u r c e o f e r r o r o r more o r i f i c e s t o g e t h e r a t

may be reducedbymanifoldingfour

a g i v e ns t a t i o n .

A second a l t e r n a t i v e i s
measure-

totranslatethepipeeitherforward

or rearward and t a k e s e v e r a l

ments a t a g i v e n s t a t i o n w i t h d i f f e r e n t o r i f i c e s . E i t h e r o f t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s would improve accuracy the o fs t a t i cp r e s s u r ec a l i b r a t i o n s . A l s o , it i s

*A

second pipe, mounted on t h e f l o o r , has been used f o r s u b s o n i cC a l i b r a t i o n measurements i n t h e 11-FootTransonic Wind Tunnel a t NASA Ames,

82

Dimensions In Centimeters

QUADRANT

HOLES AT :Oa.'076 'ID, 51 CM SPACING .

25 STATICPRESSURE

S T I N GF A I R I N G

STATIC PRESSURE PROBE MOUNTED ON CALIBRATION GEAR S T I N G (FAC I L I T Y FOR TRANSLATI ON ALONG TUNNELCENTERLINEOVER -229 CM)

Figure 3.D.1.

R.A.E. SUBSONIC STATIC-PRESSURE PROBE

Q)

I
P-Pw

Hole No. 2

Hs-Pn
-0.005

-0.010 -127

t
L

Hole N o . 2

I
25

-102

-76

-51

-25

cm, distance downstream from tunnel datum

(a) PROBE DATUM53

CM UPSTREAM OF TUNNEL DATUM

P -Pw

Hs-Pw
-0.010
x

I
-178

I
-25

-152

-127

-102

-76

-51

cm, distance downstream from tunnel datum

(b) PROBE DATUM

1 4 UPSTREAM OF TUNNEL 0m DATUM =19-7 x

A T TWO LO ATIONS los PERMETER

Figure 3.D.2.

T Y P I C A LP R E S S U R ED I S T R I B U T I O N S ALONG PROBE ON TUNNEL CENTERLINE, M = 0.74 (choked), R/R

g e n e r a l l yc o n s i d e r e d w i t h each o t h e r , s i n c e downstreamand As notedby

good p r a c t i c e n o t t o p l a c e o r i f i c e s d i r e c t l y i n l i n e a disturbance at an upstream orifice adownstream orifice. seldom canpropagate

induceerrorsat

Pope and Goin (Ref.

6 ) , t h es t a t i cp i p ei s

used t oc a l i b r a t ec l o s e d - w a l ls u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s . altersthe Mach number because o f t h e reducedarea

The p i p en o to n l y ratiobutalsointer-

fereswiththeexpansionpatternwhichisrequired

for u n i f o r m f l o w .

However, a s t a t i c p i p e has been used quitesuccessfullyfor Mach numbers up t o two a t AEDC i nt h e Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel (4T), Ref. 7. For example, at M = 1.6 t h e 2 (I v a r i a t i o n i n measured c e n t e r l i n e Mach numbers was o n l y .007 and a t M = 1.99 was 0.008. Thisapplicationof a s t a t i c p i p e was made poss i b l eb yt h eu n i q u ef e a t u r e so ft h i st u n n e l ,v i z . ,a d j u s t a b l ep o r o s i t y (0-10%), w a l la n g l e , and plenum pumping.

85

lll.D.2.
I n caseswhere

Transonic tatic ressure robes S P P

v a r i a t i o n s o f Mach number t r a n s v e r s e t o t h e f l o w

hadbeen

c a l i b r a t e d ,r e s p o n d e n t st ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r ei n d i c a t e dt h a t a r eo f t e nl a r g e rt h a nl o n g i t u d i n a lv a r i a t i o n sa l o n gt h ec e n t e r l i n e .

such v a r i a t i o n s These

data were o b t a i n e dw i t hc o n v e n t i o n a lp r o b e sw h i c h ,a sd i s c u s s e dl a t e r ,a r e s u b j e c tt oa s y m m e t r i c a lw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e when moved o f f c e n t e r l i n e and may be p a r t l y t h e r e s u l t such v a r i a t i o n s i s In he ast, t p

M exceeds 0.85.

A l t h o u g ht h e s et r a n s v e r s ev a r i a t i o n s

oftransonicwall-probeinterference,thecalibrationof o b v i o u s l yi m p o r t a n t ,p a r t i c u l a r l yf o rt e s t i n g t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t o r s

winged models.

have t r a d i t i o n a l l y concludedthat

i f (1) t h et u n n e l

w a l lp a r a m e t e r sa r es e tt om i n i m i z e and ( 2 ) theaverage chamber p r e s s u r e( f o r

Mach number v a r i a t i o n s a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e plenam

ofthecenterlinepressuresagreescloselywiththe
M < 1 1 , t h e nt h et r a n s v e r s ev a r i a t i o n si n

Yach number

a r en e g l i g i b l e .T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni s and, i ng e n e r a l ,

based on

the comparison between averages, two

does n o t j u s t i f y t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f n e g l i g i b l e t r a n s v e r s e measureone o f

gradients. ments as

Thus, w i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ns h o u l di n c l u d eo f f - c e n t e r l i n e

a s t a n d a r dp a r to ft h ec a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r e .F o rt h i sr e a s o n ,
o f c o n v e n t i o n a ls t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e s

theprimaryadvantages

i s m o b i l i t y as

c o n t r a s t e dt ot h el o n g , s t a t i cp r e s s u r e , s u r v e yp i p e . Q u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t sa l s or e v e a lt h a tt h e pressureprobe most p o p u l a r t r a n s o n i c s t a t i c

i s a 10 deg a p e x - a n g l ec o n e - c y l i n d e rw i t ho r i f i c e sl o c a t e dt e n downstream o ft h es h o u l d e r .T h i sc r i t e r i o n

o r more c y l i n d e rd i a m e t e r s( c a l i b r e s ) for orifice location Holdereal(Ref. ,t . mentalstudy

appears t o have o r i g i n a t e d w i t h t h e t e s t s c o n d u c t e d b y

8).

These i n v e s t i g a t o r s o n d u c t e d c

a s y s t e m a t i ce x p e r i , on s t a t i c

oftheeffects

o f nosegeometries

and o r i f i c e l o c a t i o n

I pressure measurement a t ! = 1.6.

A summary o ft h e s ed a t ai sp r e s e n t e di nF i g . i s w i t h i n 0.5% o f t h e r e f e r -

3.D.3.

The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e ence pressure when 1

0 -

measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e

> 10d.

As noted n he igure, he eference ressure, i t f t r p

36

External

Diameter d = O . Z O ~ C M

Four 0.0LSCI)I Diameter a t 90' Intervals

Collar

Static

Soldered Tuk

eo

(a) Long Ogive

(b) Short

Oglve

( ) Cone c

(b) Hemisphere

(e) Square

General arrangement of the static tubes and the nose shapes tested.

P
p
po

Messured static Prusure = Static prusure mlssured

by

'40 k c b

1 0

10

dl
b*

H = Total Head o f Prcr Sirearn L , . Distance of stscic holes Dshind smulder d = Diameter of static tuoe

I 5

Figure 3.D.3

VARIATION OF STATIC-PRESSURE READING WITH POSITION OF STATIC HOLES AND NOSE SHAPE T H A 1.6, Ref. 8

which was assumed o g i v a ln o s e

t o be t r u e f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c , was o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e l o n g

and o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d

40 c a l i b r e s downstream.

Highsubsonic

(H = 0 . 6 t o 0 . 9 ) d a t ai n d i c a t e p r o b e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a l l y
0.5% o f q) a t l o / d v a l u e s
dependent nose on geometry. (Ref.

r e t u r n s t o f r e e s t r e a ml e v e l s( w i t h i n c a l i b r e s , Ref.

of 4 to 6
For

9.

The e x a c tl o c a t i o ni s

example, t r a n s o n i cd a t ap r e s e n t e db yR i t c h i e s u r ep r o b e ,w i t h a nosecorresponding

IO) f o r a s t a t i cp r e s shown i n Fig. 3.0.3, two

t ot h el o n go g i v e

i n d i c a t e n e g l i g i b l e measurement e r r o r when o r i f i c e s a r e l o c a t e d o n l y c a l i b r e s downstream o f t h e n o s e - c y l i n d e r j u n c t u r e . However, s i n c et h eo v e r e x p a n s i o na tt h es h o u l d e re x t e n d sf a r t h e r downstream i nt h es u p e r s o n i c case, Gracey (kef.

9)

c o n c l u d e do r i f i c e s

l o c a t e d 10 or more diametersdownstreamwouldsensefreestreampressurewith "small-error"

a t both subsonic

and low supersonic speeds. consensus The Gracey.

of

t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t o r s

seems t o a g r e e w i t h

As noted by Davis and Graham (Ref. byEstabrooks(Ref.

1 1 1 , i nt h ep a s tt h ed a t ao b t a i n e d
used,almostuniversally,

12) f o r a cone-cy1 i n d e r has been

as a s t a n d a r df o rt r a n s o n i ci n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e ed a t a .A l t h o u g ht h ep u r p o s eo f these measurements was t o i n v e s t i g a t e p e r t i n e n tt op r o b ed e s i g n

w a l l effects,theresultsarealso

and performance. Estabrooks obtained data on AEDC-PWT 16T t u n n e l w i t h

a 20

apex a n g l ec o n e - c y l i n d e ri nt h e o f 0.008% and M = 0.7 t o 1.4. orificeslocated

a model blockage r a t i o

A c u r s o r ye x a m i n a t i o no ft h e s ed a t ai n d i c a t e s will

seven c a l i b r e s downstream o f t h e c o n e - c y l i n d e r j u n c t u r e ,

a l l o w a c c u r a t e measurements o f f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r a n s o n i c speed regime. number permeter The datawereunaffectedbyvaryingfreestreamReynolds

X

from 4.5 t o 12.7 mill i o n (1.36 x IO 6 < Re/ft < 3.87

be measured a t anyone

106 ).
location,

The f a c t t h a t f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c a n n o t

as M + 1.0, will b e e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n .

88

When t h e same c o n e - c y l i n d e r model was t e s t e d i n t h e tunnel,blockage was observed.

AEDC-PWT

1T

was 28, and i n t h i s c a s ec o n s i d e r a b l ew a l li n t e r f e r e n c e I nt h e Mach number range o f 0.95 t o 1 .OS, Estabrboks

c o n c l u d e dt h ed o m i n a n tw a l li n t e r f e r e n c ee f f e c t sonicexpansion

was r e f l e c t i o n s o f s u p e r back t o t h e model as

waves ( o r i g i n a t i n g a t t h e s h o u l d e r )

compression waves. g i v e nc o n c e r n i n gt o o

In o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t h i s

phenomena, a d i s c u s s i o n was plenum t o t h e

o a resistancetoinflowfromthe w l

testsecti,on.Unfortunately,Estrabrooksappeared transonicshockwhichformsneartheshoulder moves.rearward w i t hi n c r e a s i n g (generatedbyinflow) must account Mach number.

t o be unaware o f t h e

of this type of

body and waves

Althoughcompression

may have been p r e s e n t ,i n t e r p r e t a t i o no ft h i sd a t a when 0.90

M

shock f o r passage o f a transonic shockonthe

1.05.

Thus,

the effects of this

measured p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s

weremisa for

i n t e r p r e t e d as s o l e l yw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .F o r shockimnediately

example, t h ee x i s t e n c eo f

a f to ft h es h o u l d e ri sc l e a r l yi n d i c a t e d( F i g .

t h e 20 deg c o n e - c y l i n d e ra t

3.D.4)

0.95.

Data f o r t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n a t because o f a b i f u r c a t e d shock o r

M = 0.975 a r e l e s s d e f i n i t i v e p o s s i b l y

boundarylayerseparation,eitherofwhichreducesthepressuregradient
f:

produced by t h e shock.

As t h e Mach number i s increased t o one, t h e shock

moves rearward and o f ft h ei n s t r u m e n t e dp o r t i o no ft h ec y l i n d e r .T h i st y p e

*AlthoughtheReynolds
6 10 near x/d

number based o n w e t t e d l e n g t h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y

2.55 x

= 4, it i sn o tc l e a rt h a tt h e boundary l a y e r i s t u r b u l e n t because o f t h e s h o u l d e r e x p a n s i o n w h i c h t h i n s and s t a b i l i z e s t h e boundary layer. However, even i f the boundary layer i st u r b u l e n t ,t h et r a n s o n i c F shockcancauseseparation i f t h e l o c a l Mach number exceeds 1.3 (e.g., The measured p r e s s u r er a t i oa tt h es h o u l d e r does indeed Refs. 13 and 14). i n d i c a t e a l o c a l Mach number near 1.3. It i s a l s or e l e v a n tt oh e r en o t e 15) foundthe.laminarboundaryona.hemisphere-cylinder thatHsieh(Ref. separatednear M = 0.80.

89

H ,

0.950

- 0.0

0.975

- 0.0

1 .ooo

0.0

.I

.2

*3

.4

.5

.6

2 x/d,

10

Distance f o r m Nose i nC a l i b e r s

Figure 3.0.4
90

TRANSONIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS O A 20 DEG N CONE-CYLINDER WITH 0.008% BLOCKAGE, Ref. 12

of phenomena may be c l e a r l y seen i n t h e s c t i l l e r e n p h o t o g r a p h s p r e s e n t e d

by Page (Ref.

16) f o r a 14 deg apex cone-cy1 inder with

a blockage rat lo shock wl i l and/orsup-

o f 0.005%.

A r a t h e rg e n e r a lc o n c l u s i o ni st h a tt h et r a n s o n i c M +l,and merge w i t h t h e s t i n g

move o f f a c y l i n d r i c a l probeas p o r t shocks,providedthere

i s no w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e . now be c a l -

Movement o f a transonicshockonaxisymmetrlcbodiescan c u l a t e dv i at h e programprovides t r a n s o n l cf l o w . r e a lb o d i e st h e r e computer program

o f South and Jameson (Ref. 17). This

a solutiontothecompletepotentialequatlons Thus, i no r d e r

for steady

f o r t h e s es o l u t i o n s

t o be a p p l i c a b l e to

must be noboundarylayerseparation

(e.g.,

Ref.

15).

and i n t h e case o f windtunnelprobes,the interference.

body must be f r e e o f w a l l

The e x i s t e n c e o f b o u n d a r yl a y e rs e p a r a t i o no nc o n e - c y l i n d e r si n transonicflow has been investigatedbyRobertson and Chevalier(Ref.

18).

Cone-cylinder mode 1s w i t h a b l o c k a g e r a t i o o f w i t h M = 0 . 5 t o 1. 17 i nt h e
AEDC-PWT

0 . 5 % and 1.2% weretested

These i n v e s t i g a t o r s when cone

1T tunnel.

foundthattheboundarylayerseparatedatthecone-cy1inderjuncture t h e cone apex angle was 40 deg or more and tl < 0.85. apex angleincreased,the I ng e n e r a l ,a s

Mach number f o r boundarylayerattachmentincreased measured a d i s t a n c e o f f o u r c a l i b r e s was a t t a i n e d i n

Although surface pressures were only

downstream o f t h e s h o u l d e r , t h e f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e most cases w i t h i nl e s st h a nf o u rc a l i b r e s .T h i s models w i t h apex angles ranging from

was found t o be t r u e for

both sizes of

20 t o 60 deg.
when a transonic

The p r i m a r ye x c e p t i o n shock locatesnear

t o t h i so b s e r v a t i o no c c u r s

an o r i f i c e .

I f t h e shock i s f o r w a r d o f t h e o r i f i c e ,

91

t h e measured s t a t i cp r e s s u r e exact amountdepends

wl t e n dt o il

be higherthanfreestream.

The

on s t r e n g t h o f t h e

r m orifice. shock and d i s t a n c e f o

Correspondingly,thepressure

w l be low i f t h e shock i sl o c a t e dn e a r ,b u t il
moves rearward w i t h

downstream o f ,t h eo r i f i c e .S i n c et h et r a n s o n i cs h o c k i n c r e a s i n g Mach number, a l l s t a t i o n s a l o n g

a probe's stem a r e a f f e c t e d . by RobertsonandChevalier

For example, schlierenphotographsobtained

show thetra'nsonicshock
near t h es h o u l d e ra t
as Mach number by model

ona20deg

cone-cy1inder model i n i t i a l l y forms and moves rearward shock i s a f f e c t e d g i v e n model. shock

M = 0.8,

and i n c r e a s e s i n s t r e n g t h movement o f t h i s

increases.

The r a t e o f

blockage and t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s u p e r s o n i c

zone on a

The e f f e c t o f windtunnelblockage may be seen i n t h e

on movement o f t h e t r a n s o n i c By v a r y i n gt h e

M = 1 data Estabrooks of (Ref. 12).

sizeofcone-cylinder to

models t o o b t a i n w i n d t u n n e l b l o c k a g e r a t i o s moved forwardfromx/d may a l s o be seen

from 0.5%

4%,

thetransonicshock

= 5 t ol e s st h a n

at

M =i 1.

T h i se f f e c to fb l o c k a g e

i nt h es c h l i e r e np i c t u r e s on t h e same
of 0.25%

o f Page (Ref.

16) which compare t h et r a n s o n i cs h o c kl o c a t i o n s

w model i n t o d i f f e r e n t s l o t t e d - w a l l t u n n e l s w i t h b l o c k a g e r a t i o s

and 0.005%. d a t ao f example,

Furtherevidence

o f t h i s phenomena may a l s o be found i nt h e

Capone and Coates (Ref. t h es u r f a c ep r e s s u r ed a t a

19) and Couch and Brooks (Ref.

20).

For

of Capone and Coatesprovideanexcellent

i l l u s t r a t i o no ft r a n s o n i c case,the

shock movement on a 20 deg c o n e - c y l i n d e r .I nt h i s and a had 3.0.5.

model was testedintheLangley16-FootTransonicTunnel 0.198%.

b l o c k a g er a t i oo f

A sample o ft h i sd a t ai sr e p r o d u c e di nF i g .
move fromx/d

Here we see the transonic shock 10.5 a t M = 1.025. i n d i c a t e dt h e

= 3.25 a t M = 0.90 back t o x / d

Mach number, M

Measurements a tt h en e x th i g h e r

1.04,

shock had moved p a s t t h e i n s t r u m e n t e d p o r t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r .

*R e f l e c t i o n o f t h e
M

bow shockbackontothecylinder

was notobserved

until

1.10.

92

M = 0.90

M = 0.95 0

M = 1.00 0

M = 1.0250

x/d

Figure 3.0.5

TRANSONIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS CONE-CYLINDER, REF. 20.

ON A 20 DEG

93

.. .

. . . . ..." ... .. . . . .

S i m i l a r measurements f o r a 40 degcone-cy1inder, showed theshock was a t x/d

with the Thus,

same blockage, t h el a r g e re x p a n s i o n

10.5 when M

= I

1 .Ob.

atthecone-cylinderjuncture sonicflowresultedin

and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l a r g e r p o c k e t o f s u p e r -

a r e t a r d e d movement ofthetransonicshock.
i t appearsthat

Based o n t h e s e v a r i o u s r e s u l t s ,

a 20 deg apex cone0.01% o ft h et u n n e la r e a

c y l i n d e r must have a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a la r e al e s st h a n inordertoavoidretardingtherearward i n c r e a s i n g Mach number. t u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e s . even smaller sizes would asymmetry o f t h e menttechnique,such T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni s

movement o f a t r a n s o n i c s h o c k w i t h based on measurements made o n l y a t a wall, some measure-

When theprobe

i s moved o f fc e n t e r l i n e ,c l o s e rt o
f

be necessary t oa v o i dw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .A l s o , Thus, a

shock may be expected. as a

n o n - p e r t u r b i n gf l o w

laserDopplervelocimeter,appearsto

be v e r y

d e s i r a b l ef o rt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n si nt h er a n g e Recently, Neman and Klunker (Ref.

0.95 < M < 1.05.

2 1 ) and South and K e l l e r (Ref. 22)
and axisymThese

h a v ep e r f o r m e dc a l c u l a t i o n sf o rt r a n s o n i cf l o w sa b o u ta i r f o i l s m e t r i cb o d i e sw h i c hi n c l u d ew i n dt u n n e lw a l l si nt h eb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s . c a l c u l a t i o n s show theshock isapplied,i.e.,

Pw

moves forward when t h e o p e n - j e t b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n

Poo

Similarly,the

shock moves rearward, compared boundary c o n d i t i o n i s a p p l i e d .

tothefree-airsolution,

when t h e s o l i d w a l l

I nl i g h to ft h ef o r e g o i n gd i s c u s s i o n ,t h i si m p l i e st h a te i t h e rs l o t t e do r p e r f o r a t e dw a l l sa c t increased. This more l i k e o p e n - j e t s as t h e s i z e o f t r a n s o n i c models i s

phenomenon i sa p p a r e n t l y

a r e s u l to fl a r g e rp o c k e t so fs u p e r draws i n model f l o w p a t t e r n

s o n i cf l o ww h i c hi m p r e s sl o w e rp r e s s u r e sa tt h ew a l l s .T h i si nt u r n more a i r fromtheplenum chamber and a p p a r e n t l y s h i f t s t h e

towardtheopen-jetboundarycondition.

T h i s may p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e some o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n t s .

Mach number g r a d i e n t s r e p o r t e d

by

94

A s r e g a r d ss t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b ed e s i g n ,s m a l la n g l e t om i n i m i z es t r e n g t ho ft h et r a n s o n i c pansionangle shock.

cones can

be used

I na d d i t i o n ,t h es m a l l e re x a givenprobediameter

will g e n e r a t e l e s s w a l l i n t e r f e r e n c e f o r

il and t h e boundary l a y e r w l r e m a i na t t a c h e da tt h ec o n e - c y l i n d e rj u n c t u r e .

A separatedboundarylayer
whichareconvecteddownstream

i su n d e s i r a b l e

because it i n t r o d u c e sd i s t u r b a n c e s additionalerrorsinstaticpresThus, i nt h ep a s tt h e

a-nd cancause p. 9 8 ) .

sure measurements (see Eq. 3.D.1, anglecone-cylinderprobehasservedas transonic performance

IO deg apex

a convenientcompromisebetweenoptimum

and ease o f c o n s t r u c t ion.;:

The problem o f o r i f i c e - t r a n s o n i c shock interference,which isticofcone-cylinder small-angle cones. probes, may be a v o i d e d b y l o c a t i n g o r i f i c e s

i s characteron v e r y

T h i s was demonstrated by Sutton (Ref.

24) who compared

t h et r a n s o n i cs u r f a c ep r e s s u r e s

on a 3 deg included-angle cone w i t h a conven0.021% tunnel blockage.

t i o n a l IO deg c o n e - c y l i n d e r a v i n g h shown i nF i g .

These probes a r e shown i n F i g . 3.D.7. on t h e However , a srna 1 1

3.D.6.

The correspond i n g s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e s a r e

f o r 0.9 c M < 1.02.

"

The o s c i l l a t i o n i n c a l c u l a t e d Mach number, based caused by passage o ft h et r a n s o n i c

c y l i n d e rs u r f a c ep r e s s u r e ,i s

shock.

i t isrelevanttonotethattransonic

shock e f f e c t s can be c o n f i n e d t o when u s i n g a c a r e f u l l yd e s i g n e d

Mach number

range(e.g.,

c y l i n d e rp r o b e

a t

AM = 0.02)

10 deg cone-

t u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e .I nc o n t r a s t ,t h e

3 deg cone p r o v i d e s

a m o n o t o n i c a l l yi n c r e a s i n gp r e s s u r e transonicrange. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,t h e

and decreasing Mach number throughoutthe

3 deg cone i sr e p o r t e d by Gracey (Ref.

9) t o be

sensitive to flow misalignment. For angles of attack

between - deg, pressure +I

The AGARD needleprobedescribedinReference 23 has a approximately 12 deg and f o u r 0.3 mm o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d stream o f t h e s h o u l d e r .

cone apex a n g l e o f

11.3 c a l i b r e s down95

4 HOLES, 0.061 DIAMETER

d = 0.305
(a) CONE-CYLINDER STATIC HEAD

3"
T I P DIAMETER

3 HOLES 0.036 DIA.

1.3'

DIMENSIONS ARE tN (XN'TmERS

0g015

(b)

3" CONE STAT1 C HEAD

Figure 3.0.6.

DIMENSIONS OF THE R.A.E. STATIC

PRESSURE PROBES

+o .02 AM
= M -M

'

0'.90 0.b2

0.44

0.96
"

0.'98 1.60 1.b2

MR

0H C

R e = 15.7 x 10

''
MH

= MACH NUMBER DEDUCED FROM PLENUM CHAMBER STAT I C PRESSURE

per meter
I

155 cm F O RM
THROAT.
I
I

-0.02

(a)

'01

CONE-CYLINDER
I
I

STATIC HEAD
I
I

+o .02
An
= fl -M H C

0.90 0.92 0.94

0.96

0.98 1.00

1.02

= MACH NUMBER DEDUCED FROM S T A T I C HEAD PRESSURE

R e = 1 . x 10 06

per meter
I
I

-0.02

(b)

3"

CONE S T A T I C HEAD

Figure 3.D.7.

TRANSONIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE

TWO R.A.E.

PROBES

measurements on

deg cone I n t h e L a n g l e y

8 - f t . TransonicTunnelindicate
These r e s u l t s were t h e same 12.7 o r

v a r i a t i o n so fa p p r o x i m a t e l y

0.02 qinear

M = 1.

for a 0.033 cm (0.013

f r o mt h et i p . Thus, a

i n . )o r i f i c el o c a t e de i t h e r small-angle cone can

17.8 cm (5 o r 7 in.)

be used t o c a l i b r a t e w i n d t u n n e l s can make i t d i f f i c u l t 0.001.n

near M = 1 , b u t i t s s e n s i t i v i t y t o f l o w a n g u l a r i t y t o r e s o l v e Mach number v a r i a t i o n s a s s m a l l a s

Effects of Various Parameters on Static Pressure Probes

Size:
As foundby Couch and Brooks(Ref.

2 0 ) , cone-cy1inderbodieswith

a tunnel

blockage ratio of only

0.03% canhave

cylindersurfacepressureswhichdepart
M = 1.

s i g n i f i c a n t l yf r o mf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i cn e a r tunnelcalibrationsalongthecenterline

T h e r e f o r e ,f o ra c c u r a t e

and near M = 1, s t a t i c p r e s s u r e p r o b e s recommended. The w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e and Jameson

w i t h b l o c k a g er a t i o sl a r g e rt h a n
f r e ep e r f o r m a n c eo f computer program (Ref. suchprobescan

0.01% a r en o t

be c a l u c l a t e d u s i n g t h e S o u t h

17).

I f f o r some reason a l a r g e rp r o b ei sr e q u i r e d ,
can be estimated by t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s , e.g., by having

c e n t e r l i n eb l o c k a g ee f f e c t s Refs. 21, 22 and 26.

W a l lr e f l e c t e dd i s t u r b a n c e sc a na l s ob ed e t e c t e d and checking monotonicity Pope and Goin (Ref. a s c h l i e r e n system.

o r i f i c e s a t more t h a n o n e s t a t i o n i n c r e a s i n gd i s t a n c e

of the data with

from t h e nose.

6) suggest moving the

model o f f c e n t e r l i n e and/orusing

Once t h e p r o b e d i a m e t e r i s s e l e c t e d , a t l e a s t f o u r o r i f i c e s d i a m e t e v o f 0.051 cm (.02 in.)shouldbelocated

w i th a

IO o r more c a l i b r e s downstream
by o r i f i c e s i z e a r e

o f t h en o s e - c y l i n d e rj u n c t u r e .F i n a l l y ,e r r o r si n d u c e d
discussed i nS e c t i o n

lll.D.4.

A d d i t i o n a l t r a n s o n i c measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y w i t h probe reported are by W r i g h t , t l . R e f . ea ( 25).

3 deg c o n i c a l

98

Reynolds .Number:

' A t Reynolds numbers c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s ( i . e . ,

million),staticpressureprobesareusuallyunaffected p r o v i d e dt h ep r o b eb o u n d a r yl a y e ri sa t t a c h e d .

Re/m >

by t h i s v a r i a b l e ,

: Tu r b u 1 ence In contrast to the Pitot

a f f e c t e db yt u r b u l e n c e . c i a t e dw i t ht h e probe, s t a t i c p r e s s u r e probedatacan be

The d e s i r e dq u a n t i t y

1s t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a s s o 27) n o t et h a t when t h e

mean f l o w .B r y e r

and Pankhurst (Ref.

turbulencescaleislarge,

compared t o t h e p r o b e d i m e n s i o n s , t h e be low and i s p r o p o r t i o n a l an o r i f i c e .

measured

s t a t i c p r e s s u r e will t e n d t o

t o t h e dynamic

p r e s s u r eo ft h et u r b u l e n c en o r m a lt o s m a l l ,t h e measured s t a t i cp r e s s u r e

I f t h et u r b u l e n c es c a l ei s
The f o l l o w i n ge q u a t i o n measured,mean

will be high.

has been d e r i v e d by Siddon (Ref. staticpressuretothe

28) t o r e l a t e t h e e r r o r i n

dynamic pressuregeneratedby 2

a turbulentflow.

Pm

Pt = A p ( U

(ut)')+

(3.D. 1)
supportstem-induced measured

If t h e o r i f i c e s a r e l o c a t e d
e r r o r s ,t h e n
A = 0.

so t h e r e a r e no noseand/or

B is a measure

o ft h ec r o s s f l o w - i n d u c e de r r o ri n

s t a t i cp r e s s u r e .

When a probe i s i n c l i n e d a t w r i t t e n as 2

an angle a i n a steadyflow,

Eq. (3.0.1)

may be

Pm

Pt = 2q(Acos

a + B s i n a)

Thistypeof

measurement was performed i n subsonic flow by Siddon w i t h The probe had: in.),

a standard, classical probe. a diameter o f 0.305 cm (0.12

(1) a n l l i p s o i d a l e

nose,

(2)

and (3) s i x o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d

8 1/2 diam-

e t e r s downstream f o r m t h e nose.

For t h i s probe, B was found t o be - 0 . 5 5 .

99

A specialprobe,designedto
s t a t i cp r e s s u r e , was a l s ot e s t e db y

measure unsteadycrossflow Siddon. T h i s probe, which

and f l u c t u a t i n g had a circum-

f e r e n t i a l s l i t forsensingstaticpressure,

was found . t o have a

B v a l u eo f
caused by

-0.23.

A c c o r d i n gt oS i d d o n ,t h ed i f f e r e n c ei n

B values i s p r i m a r i l y

t h ed i f f e r e n c ei no r i f i c e i n c l f n e dn o z z l e ,

arrangement.Additional and a

measurements i n a r o t a t i n g r o u n dt u r b u l e n tj e ti n d i c a t e d

a t u r b u l e n tc h a n n e lf l o w ,

variedovertherange

-0.46

t o -0.35.

Thus, t h em a g n i t u d eo fc r o s s f l o w and t u r b u l e n c e s c a l e and i n t e n s i t y .

inducederrorsvarieswithprobedesign Bryer and Pankhurst (Ref.

27, p.

43)

suggestthatprobes

be c a l i b r a t e d i n

flowswithturbulencecloselymatchingthoseinwhichtheprobe Thisisobviously Yaw: When s e v e r a l o r i f i c e s anareawhich needs f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .

wl be il used.

(4 o r

more) arelocatedaroundtheprobeclrcumbe low. This

ference, flow a n g u l a r i t y causes t h e measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e t o can be r e a d i l y seen fo r m thepressuredistributionabout normal t o a f l o w (e.g., see Appendix I I I ) .

a circularcylinder

Bryer and Pankhurst (Ref.

27)

notethattheyaw-inducedstaticpressureerrorofthistypeofprobeis t y p i c a l l y 0.01 PaDwhen yawed dependent nose on geometry and

deg.

The e r r o r , i n

a p a r t i c u l a r case,

is

o r i f i c el o c a t i o n .R i t c h i e( k e f . Mach number. Thus,

10) r e p o r t e d
f o r a given

yaw-induced e r r o r sg e n e r a l l yi n c r e a s ew i t h allowederrorin

measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , t h e p e r m i s s i b l e v a r i a t i o n i n f l o w

misalignment decreases. Gracey (Ref.

91,

R i t c h i e (Ref.

101, and Rittenhouse

t o minimize yaw

(Ref. 29) have r e p o r t e d on s t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e sd e s i g n e d sensitivity. These probes u t i 1 i z e o n l y two orificeslocated

30 to 40 degrees

fo r m thewindward-meridian.Althoughtheseprobes
t r a n s o n i c speedsand yaw angles up t o

h a v es m a l le r r o r sa t knowledge o f t h e

28

deg, t h e y r e q u i r e

s t r e a md i r e c t i o n .S i n c et h i si sn o tu s u a l l y t i o n s ,t h i st y p eo fp r o b ec a n n o t

known d u r i n gw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a Hence, theconventional

be recommended.

100

probe with four or more orifices preferred. Particularly since the flow is
many contemporary transonic and supersonic angularity in the central core of

tunnels is less than one degree, the conventional probe will usually have negligible error due to yaw.* For example, Ritchie (Ref. IO) found a two

degree angle o f attack caused less than 0.2% error in measured static pressure through-out the transonic Mach number range. with a probe having an ogival nose (f (These results were obtained

r = 12) and orifices located 12 1/2 calibres from the nose.) However, this is another reason for minimizing flow angularity
in the empty tunnel, i.e., not only will model testing results be more representative of free-flight phenomena, but the tunnel calibration will be more accurate. Lakes and Support Interference: The effects of a support flare on base pressures have been investigated
by Chevalier (Ref. 30) over a Mach number range of 0.70 to 1.60.

Based on

the experimental resultsat M = 1 , a flare located approximately I 5 flare diameters downstream of the orifices will not interfere with static pressure probe readings.

A n I I deg flare (semiangle) located at t h i s distance from the

orifices will have negligible effect on the flow at the orifices throughout the transonic speed regime. The required distance for no interference deand creases with smaller flare angles increasing Mach number.

has Interference caused by a cylindrical strut normal to the probe axis

been investigated by Krause and Gettelman (Ref. 31) for M = 0.3 to 0.9. These authors foundthat a distance of 14 strut d iameters between static liqible interference at probe orifices and the strut was required for neg these speeds

* It

is conceivable that a static pressure probe could calibrated for yaw be errors. Static pressure readings could then be corrected for measured flow angles. However, most tunnels do not have sufficient flow angularity to would consider i t practical. warrant this procedure, and few operators 101

Perhaps t h e most s t r i n g e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r d i s t a n c e and a s t r u t have been reportedbyNichols(Ref. mountedon

between o r i f l c e s

32).

Forthecase

of a

staticpressureprobe

a double wedge s t r u t s u p p o r t , t h e t r a n s o n i c belocated 3.0.8.

measurements o f N i c h o l s i n d i c a t e o r i f i c e s s h o u l d ahead o f t h e s t r u t . These d a t aa r e shown i nF i g .

32

strutdlameters

General c r i t e r i a f o r p r o b e s u r v e y r a k e s (Ref.

have been suggestedbyGray The s e p a r a t i o nc r i t e r i o nf o r

33)

and a r ep r e s e n t e di nF i g .

3.D.9.

a d j a c e n ts t a t i c

and p i t o t probes i n s u b s o n i c f l o w

i s based o nt h ed a t ao f
Gray reconmends spacing

Krause and Gettelman (Ref. adjacentprobes sureprobe

31).

In supersonic flows,

so t h a t t h e n e i g h b o r i n g

bow shock i n t e r s e c t s a s t a t i c p r e s oftheorifices. The o b j e c t i v e is inter-

15 probediametersdownstream

t op r e v e n td i s t u r b a n c e s

caused by shock-wave/laminar-boundary-layer measured a t t h e o r i f i c e s . S i n c e t h e

a c t i o nf r o ma f f e c t i n gt h ep r e s s u r e

c r i t e r i o n becomes i m p r a c t i c a l when M a c r o s st h eP i t o t shock be k e p tl e s st h a n

2, Gray reconmends t h ef l o wd e f l e c t i o n

3 deg a t i t s i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e
be spaced so t h e l n t e r of the orifices. be used w i t h c a u t i o n waves. Also,rakesare

s t a t i c probe, and furthermore,theprobesshould section is

5 o r more s t a t i c probediametersdownstream
il
rakesmust

For Mach numbers between 0.9 and 1.2, because o fi n c r e a s e db l o c k a g e

and near-normal shock

notoriousforinducingcrossflowintheplaneoftherakeathighsubsonic Mach numbers, see Section I I 1 . E . a l t e r n a t i v ei s recommended: I nt h i s Mach number r a n g et h ef o l l o w i n g

employ a s i n g l e ,s t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e( o r
f o r v a l i d a t i n gt h ei s e n t r o p i ce x p a n s i o n

c o m b i n a t i o nP i t o t - s t a t i cp r o b e * assumption) with
(x

a s l e n d e ro g i v a l and a

(L

= ad) or v e r ys m a l la n g l ec o n i c a l

5 deg)nose

stingtypesupportwhichsatisfiesthecriteria

suggestedby
.L

Gray.

Here i t i s r e l e v a n t t o n o t e B r y e r and Pankhurst (Ref. 27, p. 41) a r e o f t h e o p i n i o nt h a tc o m b i n a t i o np r o b e sa r ei ng e n e r a ll e s sa c c u r a t et h a ns i n g l e purpose instruments.

102

04 .

03 .

w q

-P

0.2

H 0- m a - 0.90

1.00

01 .

-0.1

12

16

20

24

28

32

36

I /S, DISTANCE FROM O R I F I C E To STRUT SHOULDER

d

0
W

Figure 3.D.8

EFFECT OF ORIFICE LOCATION U T Z I Z I U G DOUBLE- WEDGE SUPFORT STRUT, REF. 32

.. ,. ..-

I_ .. .. .. .

_,, , ,

. . . . I . , I .

lo

11 d for M > l e 6 16 for 1.6

Cylindrical support

For negligible support interference: l / D - 14, all valuesof M > For negligible adjacent probe interference: M < 0.9: dd1> 6 M - 1.2: > Determined by the intersection of bow wave with static probe

Figure 3. D. 9

GENERAL CRITERIA FOR PROBE RAKES, Ref. 33

SURVEY

104

lll.D.3.
AlthoughBarry t i o n s based on

Supersonic Static Pressure Probes has shown t h a ts u p e r s o n i c Mach number c a l c u l a as accurateas

(Ref. 34)

P i t o t and f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a r e n o t i nS e c t i o n

t h e Mach probesdescribed because of i t s f a m i l i a r In addition,

I I I . C , t h i s approach i s o f t e n used

use i n subsonic flows and i t s ease o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . for calculating

i t does p r o v i d e a method

H wh i c h does n o t depend

on theassumption section.

o f an i s e n t r o p i c e x p a n s i o n

fo r m s t i l l i n g chamber t o t e s t

Walter and Redman (Ref. 35) measured p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s includedanglecone-cy1inderat Mach numbers 1.55 and 2.87."

on a

deg

These data

indicatethesurfacepressureonthecylinderreturnstofreestreamstatic beyond IO c a l i b r e sf r o mt h es h o u l d e r .I ng e n e r a l , theoverexpansionincreases quired. ncreasing I as Mach numher increases

and longerdistancesfromtheshoulderareres i m i l a re f f e c t .

cone angle has a

Pressuredistributiondata speeds up t o

on c o n e - c y l i n d e r - f l a r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a t

M = 4.5 have been r e p o r t e d by Washington and Humphrey (Ref.36).

10.3 deg c o n e - c y l i n d e r a t
M =

Data o b t a i n e d on a b l u n t nosed,

4.5 and zero

yaw i n d i c a t e t h e s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e r e t u r n s t o w i t h i n static at nine calibres Inthecaseof averagedpressure downstream o f t h e s h o u l d e r .

two percent o f freestream

yaw, t h e d a t a o f

Reference 36 show t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y a g i v e n yaw a n g l e ,t h e i n c r e a s e s .I ng e n e r a l ,

i s b e l o wf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i c .F o r as Mach number

averagepressuredecreasesfurther increasingthe sensitivity.

number o f o r i f i c e s about the circumference

wl decrease yaw il

However, Gray (P.ef. 37) and o t h e r s have n o t e dt h a ts u r f a c e

T h i sd a t ai sa l s op r e s e n t e di nR e f e r e n c e

6.
105

pressure on long cy1 inders, measured approximately

240

deg c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y

fo r m t h e windwardlocation,provides
s t a t i c for M lessthan

a c l o s ea p p r o x i m a t f o nt of r e e s t r e a m can used be

4.0.

Thus, t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e

to e l i m i n a t e

yaw-induced e r r o r s i n s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . As discussedpreviously,sincemosttunnelshavesmallflowangularity inthe empty t e s t s e c t i o n ,

it isunlikelythat

yaw induced e r r o r s wl be il

significant.

But t h i s must be determined the by user., accuracyof

I f s t a t i cp r e s s u r e
0.1% i s d e s i r e d , a static

i s b e i n g used t o c a l i b r a t e Mach number and an then small yaw-induced errors

may be important.Inwhichcase,

probe w i t h two o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y a more accurate measurement.

70

80 deg a p a r t canprovide

Thiscanbeaccomplishedbyrotatingtheprobe

t ol o c a t et h e

windwardgenerator(highestpressure)andthenrotatingthe two o r i f i c e s agree."

probe u n t i l t h e

Inordertoavoidsupport-interference,Gray(Ref. cylinderdiameter orifices. be c o n s t a n t f o r a t l e a s t

37)

recomendsthe of the

8 diametersdownstream

Any subsequent enlargement

i nd i a m e t e rs h o u l d

be r e s t r i c t e d t o

no more than a 10 deg f l a r e ( s e m i a n g l e ) .A d d i t i o n a lc r i t e r i af o rr a k e arrangementsaregiven i nF i g .

3.D.9.
and surfacepressures on conicalprobes Mach number,

I nt h ep a s t ,P i t o tp r e s s u r e s

have f r e q u e n t l y been used i n s u p e r s o n i c f l o w s t o c a l c u l a t e e.g., Refs.

38 and 39.

A l s o , an e x t r e m e l ya c c u r a t ec o n i c a ls t a t i cp r e s s u r e

(Ref. probe i s briefly discussed by Pope and Goin has a s h o r t (1.78 cm) 8 deg c o n i c a lt i pf o l l o w e d i n c l u d e d - a n g l ec o n e .O r i f i c e se n c i r c l et h e

6).

This probe design cm) 1 deg

by a long (16.26

1 deg cone a t t h r e el o c a t i o n s .

"T h i s
106

assumes no o r i f i c e - i n d u c e d e r r o r s .

The e r r o r i n

measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s r e p o r t e d t o when

be o f t h e o r d e r o f

0.1%

o ft r u ef r e e s t r e a mp r e s s u r e

M = 1.8 t o 3.5.

Thus, thesedatarepresent

some o f t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e However, Gray (Ref.

measurements i n supersonic flow. and l i m i t a t i o n s cone, and planar

37)

has r e c e n t l yr e v i e w e dt h em e r i t s probes. Cone-cy1 inder,sharp

o fs u p e r s o n i cs t a t i c - p r e s s u r e probeswereconsidered.

Based on t h e e f f e c t s

of Mach number, a n g l e o f a t t a c k ,

and Reynolds number, G r a yc o n c l u d e dt h a tt h ec o n e - c y l i n d e rp r o b ei s ,i ng e n e r a l , s u p e r i o r for use a t Mach numbers below 4. I n t h i s Mach number range, t h e Reynolds numbers o f most supersonictunnels a r el a r g e enough f o rv i s c o u sc o r r e c t i o n st o be n e g l i g i b l e .T h i se f f e c t can be

e s t i m a t e db yc a l c u l a t i n gt h ee q u i v a l e n ti n v i s c i dp r e s s u r e suggestedbyGray(Ref. lessthan

from anexpression
i n flowswith Mach number

37) for cone-cyl

indersprobes

5.

(wmeas (w) i n v i s c i d where

0.25

(3.0.3)

E M 3

/ (Rel /C) 1 /2
0

C Z ( p /p ) (T /T ) , Chapman-Rubesin v i s c o s i t yp a r a m e t e r . w e w

For a g i v e n c o n f i g u r a t i o n , t h e v i s c o u s i n t e r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t d e c r e a s e s w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g Mach number.

For example, thehypersonicexperiments

o f Peterson

* and George (Ref.

40) i n d i c a t e a c o e f f i c i e n t o f

0.08 i sa p p r o p r i a t ef o r

20 deg cone-cylinder probe at

M = 7.2 and 14.0.

*These

i n v e s t i g a t o r s , among o t h e r s , ,havenotedthatstatic-pressureprobes s h o u l dn o t be used inflowswithlargeaxial or transversepressuregradients.

I no r d e r

t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l ym i n i m i z et h ee f f e c t so fv i s c o u si n t e r a c t i o n
a t supersonic speeds,
it i s recommended t h a t o r i f i c e s

and noseoverexpansion be l o c a t e da tl e a s t

16 c a l i b r e s downstream o f theshoulder.Incases

where

c o r r e c t i o n i s judged t o be n e c e s s a r y , t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r (Ref. G r a y ' s d i s c u s s i on

may r e f e r , t o measured

37) o f a procedure for c o r r e c t i n gt h e

p r e s s u r e f o r v i scous i n t e r a c t i o n and o b t a i n i n g a b e t t e r e s t i m a t e o f t h e i n v i s c i d ,s t a t i c pressure. havesmall

S i n c ec o n e - c y l i n d e rp r o b e sa r er e l a t i v e l yl o n g ,t h e yn o to n l y r i g i d i t yb u ta l s o a r es e n s i t i v e cannot used be i np r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t s .I na d d i t i o n ,t h e y

t o yaw.

F o rt h i sr e a s o n ,s h o r t e rs u p e r s o n i cs t a t i cp r e s s u r e e.g., Refs. 41, 42, and 43. This work has

probes have been investigated, focused on t h e i d e a o f d e s i g n i n g

a probe t o have a t l e a s t

one s t a t i o n where

t h ec i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l ya v e r a g e ds u r f a c ep r e s s u r er e m a i n s

a constantfraction

of freestreamstaticregardlessof
The probes designed Donaldson by (Ref.

Mach number

or a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e .

and Richardson(Ref.

41) and Pinckney

42) a r ec o n v e n t i o n a , lb o d i e so fr e v o l u t i o n ,

whereas theprobesofSmith Measurements a t M = 0.2

and Bauer (Ref.

43) have n o n c i r c u l a rc r o s s - s e c t i o n s .

i n d i c a t et h en o n c i r c u l a rp r o b e so fS m i t h to flow angles of

and 3auer a r e c o m p l e t e l y i n s e n s i t i v e ranqe,boundary layer

+6

deg.Beyond

this angle of attack

s e p a r a t i o n becomes a

f a c t o r , a n de r r o r si n c r e a s er a p i d l y .S i n c et h e

yaw sensi-

tivityofconventional,circularprobesincreasewith may or may n o t o f f e r an advantage

!lath number, theseprobes

f o rs u p e r s o n i ca p p l i c a t i o n s .P i n c k n e y c a nb ed e t e r m i n e dw i t hh i sc a l i b r a t e dp r o b e

reportsfreestreamstaticpressure

t o w i t h i n 2 p e r c e n tf o ri n c i d e n c ea n g l e so f

2 deg 7

and M = 2.5 and 4.0.

Better

Using r e s u l t s have been r e p o r t e d by Dona ldson and Richardson. cluded angle cone-cylinder probe w' 4 t h 24 or i f i c e s l o c a t e d

a 50 deg i n -

0.88 diameters

108

downstream o f theshoulder,theseinvestigatorsfoundtheprobe 0.793 POD,and t h e f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c o u l d

measured

be determined to w i t h i n These r e s u l t s were

1.2 p e r c e n to v e rt h e

Mach number

range 1 . 1 t o 2.5.

By o b t a i n e d f o r z e r o yaw. s t r e a ms t a t i cc o u l d

a d j u s t i n gt h e i rc a l i b r a t i o nf a c t o rt o

0.763, f r e e -

be c a l c u l a t e d t o w i t h i n 3 p e r c e n t f o r incidenceangles yaw s e n s i t i v i t y o f

up t o 18 deg i n anyplane.Thisrepresentsthesmallest a n ys u p e r s o n i cs t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e known t o t h e a u t h o r s . *

As i s w e l l known, t h e o r e t i c a ls o l u t i o n sf o rs u r f a c ep r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u tionsonprobescanassisttheplacementoforifices s t a t i cp r e s s u r e . pressureson Based on comparisons o f measured and t o measure f r e e s t r e a m p r e d i c t e ds u r f a c e

a hemisphere-cylinderprobe,Hsieh(Ref. can be

44)

concludedthe

South and Jameson program (Ref. 17)

used s u c c e s s f u l l y up t o M = 1.3. recommended a r ec u r r e n t l y

Beyond t h i s Mach number, a method o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a l g o r i t h m i s foraxisymmetricprobes. available. by Hsieh (Ref.

For examples,

A r a t h e rl a r g e

number o f such programs

t h ei n t e r e s t e dr e a d e r

may r e f e rt ot h ep a p e r a number offinitedif-

44).

For non-axisymmetric probes,

f e r e n c es o l u t i o n sf o rt h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l ,s u p e r s o n i c ,i n v i s c i df l o w sa r e a v a i l a b l e , e.g., Marconi, F i n a l l y ,t h e e ta l . (Ref. 4 5 ) . arrangements f o rs u r v e y i n g to

use o fm u l t i p l ep r o b e si nr a k e known. Rakes

s u p e r s o n i c u n n e l ss e l l t iw c a l i b r a t es u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s

can be s u c c e s s f u l l y employed

by a p p l y i n g t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a o f

Gray, F i g .

3 . 0 . 9 , and a v o i d i n g r e f l e c t i o n s o f how shock waves o f f t h e t u n n e l w a l l s .

DonaldsonandRichardsonalsofound a c o n v e n t i o n a l ,s i n g l eb o r e ,i n t e r n a l plenum p r o v i d e d less yaw s e n s i t i v i t y t h a n an a n n u l a r plenum.

109

lll.D.4.

Orifice-Induced tatic ressure rrors S P E measurements, caused by a number o fs t u d i e s , variationsinorifice Refs. 46-52. The

E r r o r si ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e geometry, have

been i n v e s t i g a t e di n

r e l e v a n tg e o m e t r i cv a r i a b l e sa r e : t od i a m e t e r , hole,

(1)

hole iameter, d

(2) r a t i oo fh o l ed e p t h

(3) therelativesizeofthecavityortubeconnectingtothe
(5) t h e

(4)

i n c l i n a t i o no fh o l ea x i sr e l a t i v et ot h es u r f a c en o r m a l , i.e.,whethertheedgesaresquare,rounded,

conditionoftheholeentry, chamfered, o r have b u r r s .

I d e a l l y ,t h em e a s u r i n gh o l es h o u l d n o td i s t u r bt h ea d j a c e n tf l o w .

be i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y s m a l l

so as t o

Shaw (Ref. 47) n o t e dt h a tt h eb a s i ce r r o r

caused by f i n i t e - s i z e do r i f i c e sc o n s i s t e do ft h r e ec o n t r i b u t i o n s .F i r s t l y , dippingofthestreamlinesintotheorifice l i n e sw h i c hr e s u l t si n eddy (or system causes a d i v e r g e n c e o f s t r e a m -

a higher pressure subsonic in flow. Secondly, an (An approximate such an eddy

o fe d d i e s )i sg e n e r a t e dw i t h i nt h eh o l e . 51) has shown how t h e t u r n i n g o f

a n a l y s i s by N e s t l e r( R e f .

can generate increased pressures.) downstream edge o ft h eh o l e . s u r et o

And f i n a l l y , a P i t o te f f e c to c c u r sa tt h e These t h r e e phenomena causethe measured pres-

be t o oh i g h .A l t h o u g ht h es e v e r i t yo ft h e s e

phenomena decrease w i t h

h o l es i z e ,R a i n b i r d( R e f .

49) o b s e r v e dt h a th o l e sw i t hd i a m e t e r sl e s st h a n
difficult to produce w i t h sharp edges and negligible

0.038 cm (.015in.)are

b u r r s .A l s oi ns h o r td u r a t i o nt u n n e l s ,t h et i m er e q u i r e df o rp r e s s u r e e q u i l i z a t i o ni nt y p i c a l Based on a measurement systems becomes excessive. Shaw (Ref. 47)

s t u d yo fo r i f i c ee r r o r si nt u r b u l e n tp i p ef l o w ,

and F r a n k l i n and Wallace(Ref. s c a l e sw i t ht h el o c a lw a l l c o s i t y (p), v i z . ,

50) have v e r i f i e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f h o l e s i z e
(p)

shear s t r e s s ( T ~ )and f l u i d d e n s i t y

and v i s -

110

'meas
T
W

- 'true

do

, -) ?w
P

(3.0.4)

In add i t i o n , t h e a c t u a l m a g n i t u d e o f e r r o r s a r e
other parameters. For example, Shaw (Ref.

a funct ion of a number

of

47) and Livesey, e t a l .

(Ref.

48)

f o u n dt h er e l a t i v ed e p t ho ft h e ,h o l et oa l s o general,the

be a s i g n i f i c a n tp a r a m e t e r .I n

measured p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s t o w a r d s t h e t r u e v a l u e a s t h e r a t i o

o f h o l el e n g t h
decreasesbelow behind he ole t h t r a s t ,R a i n b i r d d i a m e t e ro fo n l y

t o diameter decreases.
2 , L i v e s e y ,e ta l .n o t e d

However, as holelength/diameter a relativelylargeCavity measured s t a t i cp r e s s u r e .

(14 do)

caused a n e g a t i v ee r r o ri n (Ref. 2d0.

I n cona

49) and Shaw b o t h used

W i t ht h i sa r r a n g e m e n t ,

a c a v i t yb e h i n dt h eh o l ew i t h

Shawls d a t ai n d i c a t e

a decreasing

statlcpressureerror 0 . 5 do. Shaw

as t h e l e n g t h o f t h e h o l e d e c r e a s e s

from 1 . 5 do t o and d i s as o c c u r 3.0.10.

**

a l s os y s t e m a t i c a l l ys t u d i e dt h ee f f e c t so fb u r r s
of do/127cancause

coveredthatburrsoftheorder w i t hv a r i a t l o n si n Rayle (Ref.

errorsaslarge

smooth h o l es i z e ,i . e . ,t h es o l i dc u r v ei nF i g .

46) found, expected, as

i n c l i n i n gt h ea x l so fh o l e st o w a r d
By i n c l i n i n gt h eh o l e

t h e oncoming f l o wi n c r e a s e st h e downstream, a reduced pressure

measured pressure. i s measured.

R a y l ea l s os t u d i e dt h ee f f e c t s edges r e s u l t e d As not

o f v a r y i n g edges o f an o r i f i c e .I ng e n e r a l ,r o u n d i n go ft h e
i nh i g h e rp r e s s u r e ;

whereas, chamfering produced small negative errors.

observedbyBenedict(Ref.

53),

t h ef l o wo v e r

a rounded edge does

i m e d l a t e l ys e p a r a t eb u ti n s t e a d

i s g u i d e di n t ot h eh o l ew i t h
I nt h ec a s e

a resulting

recovery o f p a r t o f t h e dynamicpressure. countersunkhole,theflow

o f a chamfered or

will separateattheupstreamsharp

edge, b u t

* **

S i m i l a r l y ,L i v e s e y ,e ta l .a l s on o t et h a t (e do) w l cause a higherpressure. il R a i n b i r d used a f i x e d r a t i o o f h o l e l e n g t h

a c o n t r a c t i o ni nt u b i n gd i a m e t e r to o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r

o f 3.

111

it a l s o a c c e l e r a t e s a l o n g t h e s l o p i n g

downstreamedge a 0.076 cm (0.030

whichresultsin

reduced pressure.Rayleconcluded (0.015 va 1ue.

in.)

h o l e w i t h a 0.038 cm

in.)deep

c o u n t e r s i n ks h o u l dp r o v i d e

a staticpressurenearthetrue and a i r f l o w s c o v e r e d o r i f ce-induced a

Finally,Rayle'sexperiments.withwater range o f 0 t o 0.8. Mach number.

Mach number

Thisdatademonstrates

errorsincreasewith

A summary o f subsonic data obtained hy Frank1 in

and thesupersonicdataobtained i s p r e s e n t e di nF i g . 3.0.10. on a 25'

and W lace a (Ref.

50)

apex-angleconebyRainbird(Ref.

49)

R a i n b i r d s u g g e s t e dt h es c a t t e ri nh i sd a t ac o u l d
o f holediameter

be attributed to variations in the ratio displacement thickness. f a i l e dt oi n d i c a t e

t o boundary l a y e r and Wallace

However, t h es u b s o n i cd a t ao fF r a n k l i n

any e f f e c to ft h i sr a t i o .F u r t h e r m o r e ,N e s t l e r( R e f . be c o r r e l a t e d by t h e r a t i o

51)
of hole

d e m o n s t r a t e do r i f i c e - i n d u c e de r r o r sc o u l dn o t diametertoboundarylayer f u r t h e r by thehypersonic Inthis case,thediameters momentum t h i c k n e s s .

The problem i s compounded by Cassanto (Ref. 52).

w ind tunneldatadiscussed

of square-edgedandchamfered

(60) o r i f ices on

an 18 degconewere and 0.152 ('local

v a r i e d , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,f r o m

0.076

0.635 crn ( 0 . 0 3
Mach number

0.25 in.)

0 . 6 3 5 cm (0.06

0.25

i n . )F o r .

a freestream

of 8

= 6.37),the

measured p r e s s u r e was i n s e n s i t i v e t o o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r

( d e c r e a s i n gs l i g h t l y theeffects

less than

3 percent

w i t hi n c r e a s i n gd i a m e t e r ) .

Thus, needs

o f Mach number

on o r i f i c e - i n d u c e d e r r o r s i n s t a t i c p r e s s u r e

a d d i t i o n ar e s e a r c h . l Q u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t si n d i c a t es t a t i co r i f i c ed i a m e t e r st y p i c a l l yr a n g e

from 0.025 cm (0.01

in.)

on small-angle cones

t o 0.228 cm (0.09

in.)onwind

t u n n e lw a l l s .I no r d e rt om i n i m i z es t a t i ch o l ee r r o r s * ,
t

i t i s recommended

O f course, a flush-mountedpressuretransducer

i s p r e f e r a b l e whenever p o s s i b l e .

112

0
I

0 0 .

0
0

A
d

d
0
0

d
4

Franklin : M < @ 5
8s

Wallace

W / V

M of Rainbird ' 8 Cone Data

t h a t a square-edge o r i f i c e w i t h a diameter o f 0.051 cm (0.020 as industry an standard.

in.)beadopted thissize
it

S inceRainbird(Ref.

49)

has demonstrated a blow-down

o f o r i f i c e canbeused

with s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s i n

tunnel,

can be used.- i n most f a c i l i t es. restricted to the order of t h i nw a l lo r i f i c e sa r ef r a g i l e (Ref.

I d e a l l y ,t h el e n g t ho ft h eh o l es h o u l d Ref. 47. damage.

be However, such

/2 o f an o r i f i c ed i a m e t e r ,
and, t h u s ,s u b j e c tt o

Hence, Gray

33)

recomnends t h e h o l e l e n g t h

be g r e a t e r t h a n t w o o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r s . be r e s t r i c t e d t o

The diameterof theorderof

a c o n n e c t i n gl i n e ,b e h i n dt h eh o l e ,s h o u l d Refs. 47, 49, 50 and

two o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r s ,

33.

O f c o u r s e ,t h e s el a s tt w oc r i t e r i ap r e s u p p o s ea ni n s t a l l a t i o nw h i c hi s

r m thebackside, a c c e s s i b l e fo

e.g.,

a t u n n e lw a i l .I nt h ec a s eo f

a long, swaged or

staticpressuresurveypipe,tubingoftheappropriatesizeis sweat s o l d e r e d i n a r e c e i v i n gh o l e and thenground Hereagainan

or machined down f l u s h
orificediameterof may

w i t ht h eo u t s i d es u r f a c eo ft h ep i p e .

0.051 cm (0.020

in.)can

be used, and l a r g e rd i a m e t e rc o n n e c t i n gl i n e s

be used to reduceresponsetime. Inthecaseof a conventionalstatic-pressureprobe, a ratio of hole

d e p t ht oo r i f i c ed i a m e t e ro fl e s st h a n t h e case.

one i s n o t o n l y p o s s i b l e b u t 0.033 cm (0.013

i s frequently
i n . )i st y p i c a l recommended

For example, a p r o b ew a l lt h i c k n e s so f
in.)

f o r 0.318 cm (1/8

OD s t a i n l e s ss t e e lt u b i n g .T h e r e f o r e ,t h e
a h o l el e n g t ht od i a m e t e rr a t i oo f may be reducedbydesigning

o r i f i c e s i z e wouldprovide

0.65.

Also,

staticpressureerrorsofprobes

them t o have

laminarflowattheorifices.Althoughtheexistingcorrelationsoforifice errorsare

f o r t u r b u l e n tf l o w s ,

i t appearsprobablethat

a l a m i n a rf l o w

will

O f course, a flush-mountedpressuretransducer sible.

i s p r e f e r a b l e whenever pos-

d i p into an orifice less than a turbulent flow.

A laminar flow probe can

and polishing the external surbe obtained by properly sizing the probe
face to 0.25 microns (1011 in.). For example, a 0.318 cm (1/8 in.) diameter

probe, with orifices located 10 calibres downstream, would have a local Reynolds number of 1.25 million for a freestream unit Reynolds number of

39.4 million per meter.

In general, if noise data is available for a given

facility, the correlation of Benek.and High (Ref. 54) can be used to estimate Reynolds numbers at which boundary layer transition occurs in order to judge whether a laminar flow probe is feas ible. Since the data of Shaw (Ref. 47) indicate static pressure measurements are very sensitive to burrs, considerable care must taken to assure a be smooth, sharp-edged orifice. This may be done by beginning the hole with

drill bits several sizes smaller than the desired final hole size and
progressively increasing the hole size. Also, short flute drill bits should be used to minimize flexing and a drill guide (of the same metal) clamped over the orifice location can be of considerable help. Finally, slower rates

of dri 1 1 feed will produce smaller burrs, and pressurizing the hole, during

final drilling, with compressedair will aid the removal o f burrs.

Finishing

o f the orifice can be done with a d r i l l shank and an appropriate polish.

The finished orifice should be inspected for burrs with a microscope, and when possible, measured objectively, e.g., a Talysurf instrument. Consideration should be given to the possibility using an electrical of discharge machine or a laser to manufacture smooth orifices. To the authors'

for knowledge, no comparative study of different processes production of

orifices has been made.

115

lll.D.5.

A General Purpose
III.D.l,

S t a t i cP r e s s u r eP r o b e thelong,staticpressuresurveypipe,

As d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n

w i t h nose l o c a t e d i n t h e s e t t l i n g

chamber, i s p r e f e r r e d

for c e n t e r l i n e c a l i b r a amount shock over number o f use advantage

t i o n so ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s .T h i sa r r a n g e m e n tn o to n l yp r o v i d e sal a r g e

o f simultaneousdatabutalsopreventsthe
t h eo r i f i c e s .

passage o f a t r a n s o n i c

However, t h eq u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t si n d i c a t eal a r g e

t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t o r s( p r i m a r i l ys m a l l e rf a c i l i t i e s )c o n t i n u et o conventional probes. As m e n t i o n e dp r e v i o u s l yi nS e c t i o n 111.0.2, an

o f i n e x p e n s i v e ,c l a s s i c a lp r o b e si st h e i rm o b i l i t y
o f performingflowsurveys

and theconsequentease

o f f centerline.

For t h eb e n e f i to ft u n n e lo p e r a t o r s

who w i s h t o c o n t i n u e u s i n g t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e , t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o b e d e s i g n i s suggested for c a l i b r a t i n g t r a n s o n i c and supersonictunnels. The basicprobedesign a ne f f e c t i v ef i n e n e s sr a t i oo f expansion a t t h e nose i s m i n i m a l

i s presented i nF i g .

3.0.11.

An o g i v e nose w i t h

12 i s suggested f o r two reasons: over(1) (e.g., see Fig. 3.0.3) w h i c ha l s om i n i m i z e s t h u sw a l l ogive

theextentofthesupersonicpocketatsupercritical i n t e r f e r e n c e , (2) a ts u p e r s o n i c nose shape (e.g., Ref.

speeds and

speeds, the bow shock i s a t t e n u a t e d by an

1 9 ) ;t h u s ,t h i sd e s i g na l s or e d u c e sw a l li n t e r f e r e n c ea t

supersonic speeds.

It s h o u l d a l s o

be n o t e d t h a t t h e

n o s ed e s i g ns p e c i f i e sad i s t r i b u t e d The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s f e a t u r e i s t o a t a l l speeds. number. Examples

An a d d i t i o n a l

roughness f o r b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r i p p i n g .

prevent shock-induced, boundary layer separation b e n e f i ti sr e d u c e ds e n s i t i v i t yt oR e y n o l d s t r a n s i t i o n s t r i p on t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e (Ref. 10).

o f aboundarylayer by R i t c h i e

may be found i n t h e r e p o r t

The s i ze o f g r i t and l e n g t h o f s t r i p r e q u i r e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r designed v i a t h e c r i t e r (Ref.

i a o f Braslow and Knox (Ref.

a p p l i c a t i o n canbe and

55)

Braslow, e t a 1.

56).

116

PROBE DIAHETER SHOULO BE SELECTED OBTAINTUNNEL TO A APPLICATIONS BLOCKAGE < 0.005% FOR TRANSONIC

RECOPAENOEO O R I F I C ES I Z E

0.051 CPl (0.020 IN.)

D l STR I BUTED ROUGHNESS

L / C +
A
3 0 '
30'
VIEW VIEW 8-14 O R I FSCN G L E I C E S I I E RIF 6 O B-B VIEW

PATTER& WE3VIWUED BACK TO 30d FROM OGIVE-CYLINDERJUNCTURE

C-C
O R I FS COG LF I C E S 6I I N R I E E ROTATED 3 0 FROM VIEWA-A '

VIEW 0-0 ROTATED 3' 0 FROM VIEW 8-8

60'

APART

F i g u r e 3.0.11

VRAWSONIC/SUPERSONlC S T A T I C PRESSURE PROBE

An orifice diameter of 0.051 cm

(0.020 cm) is recomnended for static pres-

sure ports along the cylinder.* The probe is designed t obtain primary static o pressure data at stations having six orificesin order to average out the effects of any probe asymmetries,orifice errors, and small flow inclinations. The purpose of the single orifices is t assist in locating the position of o either a transonic shock and/or the reflection a bow shock (or any other of disturbances) back onto the probe. The additional data will aid determination

of where surface pressure equals freestream static. This feature will allow
the probe to be used off centerline where wall interference increases. Finally, the flare angle should be 10 deg or less in order to minimize interference near Mach one. The effectsof this flare, as we11 as the wallinterference-free transonic performance of this probe, can be calculated via the South-Jameson computer code (Ref.17).
I n the Mach number range of

0.95 t 1.00, it is necessary to keep probe blockage <O.Ol% o

in order to

realize wall-interference-free performance ata tunnel centerline.

I f the

probe is used with higher blockage and/oroff centerline, wall proximity effects on shock locationand surface pressure distribution canbe estimated using the computer program of South and Keller (Ref. 2 2 ) .

In the case o f

supersonic applications (H > 1 . 3 ) . probe blockage can be two ordersf magnio tude larger without any deleteriouseffects. It is only necessary t apply o

the criteria of Gray (Fig.3 . 0 . 3 ) and avoid wall reflections o f bow shocks. The interference-free performance can computed w i t h a number of existing be asisymmetric method of characteristics codes.

ij

A hardened, stainless steel is recommended for durability and corrosion

resistance in order to maintain orifice integrityand minimize long-term abrasion by particles in the flow.

1II.D.
1.
Dlck, R . 5 . :

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"The I n f l u e n c e o f Several Cable-Type Supports

PressuresAlongtheCenterline Feb. 1955.

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2.

Jackson,

F. M . :

"Supplemental C a l i b r a t i o n e s u l t s o r h e R f t

AEDC P r o p u l s i o n

Wind Tunnel (16T)

," AEDC-TR-70-163, Aug.

1970.

3.

Jacocks, J.

L.

and H a r t l e y , M. 5 . :

" C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e AEDC-TR-69-134,

AEDC-PWT 4-Ft.
June 1969. at

TransonicTunnelwithModifiedWails,"

4.
5.

Jackson, F. M.:

" C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e

AEDC-PIJT 16-Ft Transonic Tunnel

TestSectionUallPorositiesof Isaacs. 0.: " C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e

2 , 4, and 68." AEDC TR-76-13,

Jan.

1976.

R. A. E. Bedford 8 ft. x 8 f t . Wind Tunnel

to
andBlockage

a t Subsonic Speeds,

I n c l u d i n g a D i s c u s s i o n of t h e C o r r e c t i o n s A p p l i e d

t h e Measured P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n t o A l l o w f o r t h e D i r e c t E f f e c t s Due t o t h e C a l i b r a t i o n Probe Shape."

ARC R. t M. No. 3583, Feb. 1968.

1965.

6.

Pope, A.

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K. L . :

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7.

Gunn, J. A. and Maxwell, H.: Tunnel (4T) Sept. 1972. North, R . J.; Mach Numbers

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AEDC-TR-72-Ii1,

1.6 and 2 . 0 NozzleBlocks."

8.

Holder, 0. W . ;

and Chinneck,

A.:

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Tubes i n a SupersonicAirstream,Parts J u l y 1950.

i and 1 1 , " A.R.C.

R. t

M.

No. 2782,

9.

Gracey, W . : Nov.

"Measurement o f S t a t i cP r e s s u r e

on A i r c r a f t , "

NACA TN 4184,

1957, and NACA Report 1364, 1958.

5.:
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10.

R i t c h i e , V.

P r e s s u r eS e n s i n gE r r o r sf o rA i r c r a f ta tS u b s o n i c ,N e a r - S o n i c Supersonic Speeds,"

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11.

Davis, J . W.

and Graham,

R. F.:

"blind-Tunnel b l a l i I n t e r f e r e n c e f f e c t s E and Rockets, Oct.

for

2 0 '
12.

Cone-Cylinders,"

A l A A Jour.Spacecraft
"Wall-Interference ffects E

1973.
in

Estabrooks. B. B.:

on Axisymmetric Bodies

Transonic Wlnd Tunnels w i t h P e r f o r a t e d W a l l T e s t S e c t i o n s , " June 1959.

AEDC-TR-59-12,

1I9

13. Gadd, G. E.:

"Interactions Between Normal Shock Llaves and Turbulent

Boundary Layers,'' ARC R & t4 No. 3262, Feb. 1961.

14. Albers, E. E . ; Bacon, J.

June 1971.

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and Nason, B . 5 . :

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gation o f Turbulent Viscous-Inviscid Interactions," AIAA Paper No. 71-565,

15. Hsieh, T.: "Hemisphere-Cylinder in Transonic, M_ Oct. 1975.

1 . Page, 6
W. A . :

0.7-1.0," AlAA Jour.,

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about Slender Cone-Cylindersof Circular and Elliptic Cross Section," NACA TN 4233, Apri 1 1958.

17. South, J. C., Jr. and Jameson, A.:

"Relaxation Solutions for Inviscid

Axisymmetric Transonic Flow Over Elunt Pointed Bodies," Proc. AlAA or Computational Fluid Dynamics Conference, J u l y 1973.
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Robertson, J. E. and Chevalier, H. L.: Speeds," AEDC-TDR-63-104, Aug. 1963.

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Pressures on the Cylindrical Portlon of Cone-Cylinder Bodies Transonic at

19. Capone, F. J. and Coates, E .

0-4153, Sept. 1967. 20.

M.,

Jr.:

"Determination of Boundary-Reflected-

Disturbance Lengths in the Langley 16-Foot Transonic Tunnel," NASA TN

Couch, L. M. and Brooks, C. W., Jr.: NASA TN 0-7331, NOV. 1973.

"Effect of Blockage Ratio on Drag and

Pressure Distributions for Bodies Revolution at Transonic Speeds," of

21. Nebman, P. A. and Klunker. E. E.: "Numerical Modelina of Tunnel-\.la11 and BodyShape Effects on Transonic Flow Over Finite Lifting Wings," Aerodynamic
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22.

South, J. C . , Jr. and Keller. J. D : . Part 1 1 , NASA SP-347, Mar. 1975.

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Wind-Tunnel Wall Effects,'' AerodynamicRnalyses Requiring Advanced Computers,

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Sieverdling, C.;

Maretto, L.;

Lehthaus, F . ; and Lawaczeck: "Design

and

Calibration of Four Probes for Use the TransonicTurbine Cascade Testlng," in Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Tech. Note 100, May 1974.

120

I
24. Sutton, E. P.: "The Development of Slotted Working-Section Liners for Bedford 3-Ft. Wind Tunnel," A.R.C.

R.A.E. Transonic Operation of the R.

25.
E;

M. No. 3085, Mar. 1955.

Wright, R. H.; Ritchie, V. S.; and Pearson, A. 0.: "Characteristics of NACA the Langley 8-Ft. Transonic Tunnel with Slotted Test Section,''
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26. Keller, J. D. and Wright, R. H.: "A Numerical Method o f Calculating the Boundary-Induced Interference in Slotted or Perforated Wind Tunnels o f Rectangular Cross Section,'' NASA TR R-379, Nov. 1971. 27. Bryer, D. W. and Pankhurst, R. C.: Pressure-Probe Methods for Determining Wind Speed and Flow Direction, National Physical Laboratory, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1971. 28. Siddon, T. E . :

"On the Response of Pressure Measuring Instrumentation in

Unsteady Flow," UTIAS Report No. 136 (AD-682 2961, Jan. 1969. 29. Rittenhouse, L. E.: March 1962. 30. Chevalier, H. L.: "Calibration of the PWT 16-Ft. Transonic Circuit with a "Transonic Wind Tunnel Results for Five Pressure

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Aug. 1960.

31.

Krause, L. N. and Gettelman, C. C.:

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in Supports, Duct Walls and Jet Boundaries on Pressure Measurements Ducts

and Jets , ' I

32.

I . S.A.

Jour., Vol

. 9, Sept.

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Nichols, J. H . : 56-1, Feb. 1956.

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33.

Gray, J. D.:

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W.:

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"Needle Static-Pressure Probes Insensitive

to Flow Inclination in a Supersonic Stream,'' NAVORD Report 3694, March 1954. 121

36.

Washington, W.

D.

and Humphrey, J. A.:

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(AD 699 3591,

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Gray, J.

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"Calfbration f onicaPressure oC l a t Mach Numbers

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o f Local Flow Conditions

fo r m 3 t o 6," NASA TN 0-3076,

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Vahl, W.

A. and Weirich, R. L . :
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" C a l i b r a t i o no f

30

Included-Angle Cone

forDeterminingLocalFlowConditions 3.51.,"

i n Mach Number Range

of 1.51 t o

1968.
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Peterson, C . W.

0 . L.:

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New Geometries and FlowEnvironments,"

A I A A Jour.,

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Donaldson,

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A.R.C.

Good

I n c i d e n c eC h a r a c t e r i s t i c s No. 1099, 1970. 42. Pinckney, Flow,"

a t Supersonic Speed,''

Current Paper

S. Z.:

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for Supersonic

NASA TU

0-7978, J u l y

1975.

43.

Smith, A. H. 0 . and Bauer, A.

D.:

"Static-Pressure

Probes t h a ta r e J o u r .F l u i d

TheoreticallyInsensitivetoPitch, Mech.,

Yaw and Mach Number," 1970.

Vol. 44, P a r t

3,

pp. 513-528,

44.

Hsieh, T.: Dec. 1975.

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Low Supersonic Flow,"

A l A A Jour.,

45.
46.

Marconi, F.;

Yaeger, L. and Hamilton, H.: H.

"Computation o f High-

Speed I n v i s c i d Flows About Real Rayle, R. ments,"

Configurations,"

NASA SP-347, 1975. Mar.

Measure-

E.:

" I n f l u e n c eo fO r i f i c e

Geometry on S t a t i cP r e s s u r e Dec.

ASME Paper No. 59-A-234,

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1959.
S t a t i cP r e s s u r e Measure-

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Shaw,

R.:

Dimensions on

ments,"

7, P t . 4, A p r i l 1960.

122

48.

Livesey, J. L.; E r r o r Problem:

Jackson, J. D.; and Depths,''

and Southern, C.

J.:

"The S t a t i cH o l e

An E x p e r i m e n t a lI n v e s t l g a t i o n

o f E r r o r sf o r

o f VaryingDiameters

A i r c r a f t Engr.,

Holes Yo1 34, Feb. 1962.

a

49.

Rainbird, W. No. 1967 (3)

J.:

" E r r o r si n

Measurement o f Mean S t a t i c P r e s s u r e o f DME/NAE Q u a r t e r l y B u l l e t l n Oct.

Moving F l u i d Due t o Pressure Holes,"

, Nat ' 1 .

Res. Counc. Canada,

1967.

50

, F r a n k l i n , R. June 1970.

E. and Wallace, J. M.:

"Absolute Measurements o f Static-'Hole Mech., Vol 42, P t . 1,

Error UsingFlushTransducers,"Jour.Fluid

N e s t l e r , D. E.: Flow,"

" S t a t i cP r e s s u r eP o r tE r r o r si nH y p e r s o n f cT u r b u l e n t Mar. 1971. AlAA

A l A A Paper No. 71-270,

Cassanto, J. M . : Paper No. 75-150, Benedict, R. P . : Measurements, Benek, J. A.

"An Assessment ofPressurePortErosionEffects," Jan.

1975.
and Flow

Fundamentals o f Temperature, Pressure, Wiley, New York,

1969.

and High, M. D . :

"A Method F o rt h eP r e d i c t i o no ft h eE f f e c t s
T r a n s i t i o n,I' AEDC-TR-73-158,

o f Free-Stream D i sturbances on Boundary-Layer Oct. 1973, a l s o A l A A Jour.,

P.

1425, Oct.

1974.

55.

Braslow, A. L. and Knox, E. C.: CriticalHeight T r a n s i t i o n a t Mach Numbers

"Simp1 i f i e d Method f o rD e t e r m i n a t i o no f Boundary-Layer 1958.

NACA TN 4363,

o f D i s t r i b u t e d Roughness P a r t i c l e s f o r

from 0 t o 5,"

56.

Braslow, A .

L.;

Hicks, R. M . and H a r r i s , R. V.,

Jr.:

"Use ofGrit-Type

Boundary-Layer-Trans it i o n T r i p s on Wind-Tunnel

Model s ,I1 NASA TN 0-3579,

1966.

57

Parker, R. L.,

Jr.:

l t F l 0 w GeneratipnPropertiesofFiveTransonic

Wind

funnelTestSection

Mal 1 Configurations,'' AEOC-TR-75-73,

Aug- 1975.

I l l . E.

MEASUREMENT OF FLOW ANGULARITY herein' to denote probes designed to measure

The term yawmeter w i 1 1. beused f l o wa n g u l a r i t yi ne i t h e r yawmeters have been used

two o rt h r e ed i m e n s i o n a lf l o w s .

A w i d ev a r i e t yo f
The ones

r'

o v e rt h ey e a r sf o rd i f f e r e n ta p p l i c a t i o n s . i nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s

whish have been used types: pressure (1) probes, i n s t r u m e n t e dw i t h probes i s g i v e n f i r s t

may be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g e n e r a l

(2) h o tw i r eo r
and i s f o l l o w e d b y yawmeter.

film probes, force (3)

I

models two examples

a v e r ys e n s i t i v ef o r c eb a l a n c e . "

A d i s c u s s i o no fp r e s s u r e

a brief description of

of thelattertypesof

A r e c e n tr e v i e wo ft h ev a r i o u st y p e so fp r e s s u r ep r o b e s
o ft h ep r o s and cons o f each a r eg i v e n

and a d i s c u s s i o n

by Bryer and Pankhurst (Ref.

2).

These

authors lassify ressure robe c p p c o n s i s t i n go f

yawmeters i n t o two categories: those (1) a body

an arrangement o f open-ended tubes, and ( 2 ) thosehaving

w i t hp r e s s u r es e n s i n go r i f i c e s . t o measure f l o wa n g l e si n

These may be subdivided into probes designed

one plane (2-D) o r two (3-D). D i f f e r e n t i aP r e s s u r e l Yawmeters: 2-D yawmeter

III.E.l.
F o rf l o wd i r e c t i o n geometriesare a wedge

measurements i n oneplane,threetypesof

most common, v i z . ,

twopressuretapsonthesurfacesofeither w i t hs l a n t e di n l e t s .

o r a c i r c u l a rc y l i n d e r

and two tubes

A large
The because

v a r i e t yo f

such probes available are from commercial manufacturers. yawmeters a r en o t recommended f o r t r a n s o n i c f l o w s

circularcylinder

o ft h e i rc o m p a r a t i v e l yl a r g ei n t e r f e r e n c ew i t ht h ef l o w s e n s i t i v i t yt o Mach number, Ref. 2. B o t ht h ec y l i n d e r

and c o n s i d e r a b l e and wedge have,greater

susceptibilitytoerror

i n thepresence

of velocitygradients

because o f t h e

l a r g e rs e p a r a t i o no fo r i f i c e s .A l s o ,S i e v e r d i n g ,e ta l .( R e f . t h a t a 30 i nt h e ( t o t a la n g l e ) wedge-shaped yawmeter t o 2.2.

3 ) have found
yaw-

i s Reynolds number dependent

Mach number

range 0.8

In c o n t r a s t ,t h et w o - t u b et y p eo f provides:

m e t e r ,g e n e r a l l yr e f e r r e d

to as a Conrad probe,

( 1 ) minimum f l o w
o f Mach number

d i s t u r b a n c e ,( 2 )a d e q u a t es e n s i t i v i t yw h i c hi sr e l a t i v e l yf r e e and Reynolds number e f f e c t s (Refs. togetherfornearlypoint

and

5).

and

( 3 ) o r i f i c e sw h i c ha r ec l o s e

measurement o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y .

124

References

3 and 5 c o n t a i n c a l i b r a t i o n r e s u l t s f o r s m a l l t u b e t y p e
to investigate the flow out of transonic The o b j e c t i v e o f S i e v e r d i n g , e t a l .
k.

yawmeterswhichweredesigned

t u r b i n e cascades and compressors. (Ref. couldbe used t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y

3) was t oi n v e s t i g a t es e v e r a lp r o b eg e o m e t r i e s
measure t o t a l , s t a t i c , shown i nF i g . The two-tube yawmeter,

and arrangementswhich and d i r e c t i o n a l

.

pressures.

3.E.1,

.. was mounted on a r a k e

ofrectangularcrosssection p a r a 1l e 1t of l o w ) . normal t ot h ep l a n eo ft h er a k e . t o t a l apex-angle cone probe t i p s werelocated ment,were

(2.3 mn thicknessnormal

t o f l o w and 6.0 m

The yawmeter was a r r a n g e d t o

measure f l o w a n g u l a r i t y

A smalldiameter
was a l s o mounted on

(1.7 mm), truncated,2S0'.'

The s e p a r a t i o n was 16 mm and bothnose

therake.

d i s t a n c e between t h e yawmeter and theconicalprobe

22 mm ahead of therake.

The probes, w i t ht h i sa r r a n g e -

calibratedinthe

DFVLR/AVA Transonic Wind Tunnel ( I m x l m ) . yawmeter i s presented i n F i g .

The r e s u l t i n g s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e

0.8

"

2.2.

3.E.l.

A combinationPitotprobe
one case, companion the probe measuring s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , probe (1.5
mm OD).

and yawmeter was a 15

0

was a l s o c a l i b r a t e d w i t h used.

s i m i l a r arrangement, two but different

companion probes were cone needle probe (1.5

In cone

mm OD) f o r

and t h e second companion

probe was a 30'

The s e n s i t i v i t yo ft h en e e d l ep r o b e yaw (%loo).

was found t o be The corresponding

l i n e a ro v e rt h el a r g e s tr a n g eo fa n g l e so f s e n s i t i v i t yd a t aa r ea l s o sensitivityofthetwo-tube shown i nF i g . yawmeter and

3.E.1.

The d i f f e r e n c ei nt h ea n g l e may be

thecombinationprobe

a t t r i b u t e dt ot h ed i f f e r e n c ei nt h ei n l e ta n g l e . S i e v e r d l n g ,e ta l .( R e f .3 )a l s ot e s t e dt h ey a m e t e r c o m b i n a t i o ni nt h es m a l l Staticpressure whereas, a and needle probe

(135 rnm x 50 mm) V K I High Speed Cascade Tunnel C-2.

of t h i s f a c i l i t y , w i t h
when Mach number and w i t h exceeded 0.30;

measurements a l o n g t h e w a l l (12.3O

o u tt h ep r o b e s ,i n d i c a t e ds i g n i f i c a n tb l o c k a g e s i n g l e AGARD needleprobe

cone and 1.5 mm OD) w i t h a standard showed (and/or

elbow support type negligible lockage. b o t h e rp r o b e s )a r et o

(3 mn OD) l o c a t e d 48 probe diameters downstream

Hence, these authors conclude:

i f yawmeter a

be used i nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h ep r o b e s

and support

A l t h o u g ht h e s ea u t h o r sd i dn o ts t a t et h ei n s i d ed i a m e t e r o f t h et u b i n g ,. t h e 0.6 i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e r a t i o o f I . D . t o 0 . 0 . should be keptgreaterthan loss o r change o f s e n s i t i v i t y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f l o w a n g u l a r i t y , e.g., p. 19 o f Ref. 2.

125

0.06

0.05

1J

0.04
S :t Y

1-

Probe,Ref.3 Combination

0.03

. ,J a\ .
\
- Tubing

3 Tubes 0.8

mm OD

0.02

0.01

1.575 mrn OD x 0.254 rnm Wall

L= pj

Two Tube Probe, Ref. 3

6 = 80"

2 Tubes 1 .O mm OD
0 0.8 0.6 0.4
I

1 .o

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

M
Figure

3 . E. 1

TWO D I MENS I ONAL YA\JMETERS

mechanism_sh.oy.jd. .~ . ... .be.c,a!ib_r_ated i n a t u n n e l of size similar to which i t i s

~

to

be used.

And most i m p o r t a n t l yf o rt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n s ,e x t r e m ec a r e
"

must be

taken , i n d e s i g n i n g ya.wmeter s u p p o r t s i n o r d e r t o a v o i d i n d u c i n g e x t r a n e o u s . . ...~ flowangularity. The f l o wa n g l es e n s i t i v i t yd a t ao fB u z z e l l( R e f . n a t i o nP i t o tp r o b e and 0.8. tion

5 ) , o b t a i n e dw i t h a combiand yawmeter, i s a l s o shown i n F i g . 3.E.1 f o r M = 0.4, 0.6,

a c o b r a - s t y l e dr a k ew i t ht h r e e cornbinato change

* probes lternating ith our ingle itot ubes. gain, hisnvestigator a w f s P A t i

5 M 5 0.81.
number of 0.6. Afterthis

These d a t aw e r eo b t a i n e dw i t h

f o l l o w e dt h ea c c e p t e dp r a c t i c eo fl o c a t i n gt h ep r o b et o t h ep l a n eo ft h er a k e . rakesweretested a r e shown i nF i g . V i d a l ,e ta l . i n yawmeter s e n s i t i v i t y f o r 0 . 4 1 a t a mean Mach

measure anglesnormal was a s c e r t a i n e d ,e i g h t

Mach number s e n s i t i v i t y checks i n d i c a t e dn e g l i g i b l e The r e s u l t i n gs p r e a di nd a t a

3.E.1.
(Ref. have 6) recently reported using a smal a two-tube yawmeter The and
a

t o measure f l o wa n g u l a r i t yi n o b j e c t i v eo ft h e s et e s t s

1 (30.5 cm) t r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e l .

i s t o compare measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y

s t a t i cp r e s s u r ew i t hc a l c u l a t e di n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e et r a n s o n i cf l o ws o l u t i o n sf o r givenmodel, and t h e r e b yp r o v i d e a c r i t e r i o nf o ra d j u s t i n gt u n n e lw a l lp o r o s i t y
A p l a n a r yawmeter was used because

t oa t t a i nw a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e ef l o w . a i r f o i l , which spans t h e u n n e l , t yawmeter i s s i m i l a rt ot h e was c o n s t r u c t e do f a t 45".

an The

i s being used f o r developmental testing.

one shown i nt h el o w e rr i g h tp o r t i o no fF i g .3 . E . l . a n d each i n l e t chamfered

i s such t h a t w i t h

0.0635 cm (0.025 i n . ) O D t u b i n gw i t h

These a u t h o r sc l a i mt h a tt h e i rf l o wa n g l es e n s i t i v i t y 0.0007 N/cm2 (0.001 p s i )t h e y

a p r e s s u r er e s o l u t i o no f

can " i n p r i n c i p l e "

r e s o l v ea n g l e st ow i t h i n0 . 0 3 "i nt h e

Mach number range 0.55 t o 0.725. yawmeter s e n s i t i v i t y i n

*+
low

As noted by Bryer and Pankhurst (Ref. 2),

speed f l o w s has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been d e f i n e d as

A

S" Y

a(AP/q)/a$ yawmeter. However, these

(3.E.1)

where AP i st h ep r e s s u r ed i f f e r e n c ea c r o s st h e

**S i n c e t h e o r i g i n a l w r i t i n g

+These rakesweredesigned s t a t o rd i s c h a r g ep l a n eo f

toplacesixof a compressor.

them C i r C U m f e r e n t i a l l Yi nt h e

of this section, the calibration anduse o f a new yawmeter design has come t oo u ra t t e n t i o n ,L i n d (Ref. 28). T h i s 2-D y a m e t e r c o n s i s t s o f a two-hole, d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e p r o b e p l a c e d a t t h e v e r t e x of a forward-sweptwing. A y a m e t e r s e n s i t i v i t y o f 0.163 and anaccuracy o f 0.01 deg i s claimed f o r low-speedflows (M, < 0.17).

127

a u t h o r sn o t et h a t ,f o rc o m p r e s s i b l ef l o w s ,l e s sv a r i a t i o ni ns e n s i t i v i t yw i t h Mach number i s o b t a i n e db yu s i n gt h ef o l l o w i n gd e f i n i t i o n .

found An example o f t h i s may be t h e i re x p e r i m e n t sw i t h

i nt h e

paper by Spaid, e t a l .

(Ref.

7).

In

a m i n i a t u r e ( 1 mm t o t a l span)combination Eq. (3.E.21,

P i t o t probe

and yawmeter, s e n s i t i v i t y , as d e f i n e d i n 1.0 and -30" 5

d i dn o tv a r yw i t h

0.8 5 M s
show

3,

5 30".

I na d d i t i o n ,t h es u p e r s o n i cd a t ai nF i g . Mach number when

S

3.E.1

much l e s sv a r i a t i o nw i t h d e f i n i t i o no f

yawmeter s e n s i t i v i t y , Eq.

i s used. Thus, the compressible Y i s p r e f e r r e df o rt r a n s o n i c and (3.E.2),

supersonicapplications.

!ll..2.
Forthegeneralcase sonic and/or supersonic), has two primaryadvantages thepyramidprobeperformance Secondly,

Differential ressure P

Yawmeters:

3-D
an empty t u n n e l( t r a n -

of f l o w a n g u l a r i t y c a l i b r a t i o n i n

a pyramid yawmeter i s recommended.

The pyramid geometry ~ i r s t l ~ ,

compared t o a c o n i c a l or hemispherical yawmeter.

i s l e s ss e n s i t i v et op o s i t i o n i n go ft h eo r i f i c e s .

i t i s r e l a t i v e l yf r e eo fi n t e r f e r e n c e

between simultaneous measuremeasurements o f

ments o f p i t c h B r y e r ,e ta l . sitiveto

and yaw.

I na d d i t i o n ,t h ei n c o m p r e s s i b l ef l o w
d .

probe i s comparatively insen(Ref. 8) i n d i c a t e S" f o r a pyramid Y Reynolds number and i n c r e a s e ss l i g h t l y( " 6 % )w i t hi n c r e a s e dt u r b u -

1 ence.
A typicapyramid l

yawmeter i s shown i nF i g .
i s 0.16.

3.E.2. Here,

t h er a t i oo fo r i f i c e

diameter probe to stem diameter t h i sr a t i o be kept less than

I ng e n e r a l

i t i s recommended t h a t
is

0.20.

An a d d i t i o n a l , u g g e s t e d o n s t r a i n t s c be no smallerthan 0.508-mm ( 0 . 0 2i n . )i n
. 9 -

t h a tt h ed i a m e t e ro ft h eo r i f i c e s o r d e rt oa v o i dc l o g g i n g

and excessive time problems. lag o fB r y e r

The apex angle and Pankhurst (Ref.

was chosen t o conformwiththerecommendation These authorssuggestthat remainsdetached a yawmeter be

2).

designed s o t h a t t h e

bow shock wave

o ra t t a c h e dt h r o u g h o u tt h er a n g eo f be made. Thus, an apex angle Mach numbers up t o 1.6.

Mach numbers w i t h i n w h i c h o f 66" will m a i n t a i n a

( A Mach number o f 1.6

measurements a r e t o detached shock

f o rt r a n s o n i c

* S m a l l e ro r i f i c e s (0.25 m ) have been used a t low speeds (Ref. 9) and m superHowever, no s i g n i f i c a n t improvement i np e r f o r s o n i c speeds (Ref. 2, P. 57). mance i s gained, and c l o g g i n g and decreasedresponsetime can make theprobe more e x p e n s i v et o use. 128

D = 0.3175crn

, /
/ /

330

&

0.16 D

"

Figure 3.E.2.

P Y R A M I D YAWMETER

I s chosen because

t h i sr e p r e s e n t st h eu p p e r

limit o f o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e m a J o r l t y

o ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s . ) and the probe can

Beyond t h i s speed regime, the

bow shock will be a t t a c h e d ,

be used i ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w s .

The p u r p o s eo ft h i sd e s i g n i nt h ep r e s s u r er e s p o n s e Furthermore, most p o i n t e d

f e a t u r ei st oa v o i dt h e

sudden changes t h a t canoccur

o f sharp-nosed probes near shock the attachment Bryer and Pankhursthavenotedthatthe ymeters is obtained with

Mach number. maximum s e n s i t i v i t y o f

an apex a n g l e between 60 and 70 degrees. stemshouldextend down-

F l n a l l y ,f o ru s ei nt r a n s o n i cf l o w st h ep r o b e streamfor a d i s t a n c eo fa tl e a s t be enlargedby

16 diameters.

Downstream of t h i s s t a t i o n , mate w i t h t h e a v a i l -

thestemcansafely

a IO

c o n i c a lf l a r et o

ableprobesupport.Provided t h i sd e s i g n speeds.

a massive,transverseprobesupport between probe

i s n o t used,

wlll a v o i di n t e r f e r e n c e

and support a t t r a n s o n i c

The f w a n g l e s e n s i t i v i t y , o l probeshave 0.025 a t M

a(AP/HS)/aY,

o fc o n i c a l

and hemispherical-nose

been found t o i n c r e a s e w i t h

Mach number and reach a maximum ofabout 2 ) .F u r t h e ri n c r e a s e si n example, d a t af o r Mach number

1.5 (e.9.. Ref.

IO and Ref.
45'

r e s u l ti nd e c r e a s i n gs e n s l t i v i t y .F o r meter w i t h o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d a t H = 2.7, Fig. 35 o f Ref.

a hemispherical yawa 50% loss i n s e n s i t i v i t y

from thenoseindicate

2.

S i m i l a r l y ,t h e o r e t i c a lc a l c u l a t i o n sf o r F i g . 3.E.3.

c o n i c a ly a m e t e ri n d i c a t e s i m i l a rb e h a v i o r

a 70% loss a t M = 3.5,

a 6 0 '

I f we assume 0.025,

for thepyramidprobe

and a maximum s e n s i t i v i t y o f

the

s m a l l e s t change inflowanglewhichcan
system w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n f o

be detected by a pressuremeasuring N/cmZ (0.005 p s i ) i s

3.45 x

I nt h e

case o f a t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lw i t h t h es e t t l i n g

= 37.8OC. Re/m = 19.7 x 10

6,

and

= 1.0,

chamber pressure i s 13.79 N/cm (3). we f i n d t h a t

(20 p s i a ) . u b s t i t u t i n g S

t h i sv a l u ef o r

H S i n Eq.

a f l o wa n g l eo f

0.01 degree can

t h e o r e t i c a l l y be r e s o l v e d . n r a c t i c e , h e f f e c t s f r o b e n d f o r u p p o r t I p t e op a s d e f l e c t i o n s ,n o n i d e n t i c a li n t e r n a l geometry o f t h e t u b i n g and passages which

* For

the of t h i s reason, Barry (Ref. 11) and Zumwalt (Ref. 12) explored use P i t o t probeslocatednearthesurfaceof wedges and cones t op r o v i d ei n c r e a s e d s e n s i t i v i t ya th i g hs u p e r s o n i c Mach numbers. However, f o r most a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h ec o n v e n t i o n a ls u r f a c ep r e s s u r ey a m e t e r sp r o v i d ea d e q u a t es e n s i t i v i t y up t o H = 3.5.

I30

.030

.025

/
,020

-I

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

(Ref. 25

- CURVE FROM R e f . 10

-I

.005

0 0

I .o

2.0

3.0
MACH NUMBER

4.0

5.0

Figure

3.E.3.

S E N S I T I V I T Y OF 60" CONICAL YAWMETER

connect two o r i f i c e s t o a d i f f e r e n t i a lp r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r ,v i b r a t i o n ,t u r b u l e n c e , etc., may p r e v e n tt h ea t t a i n m e n t

o f such accuracy.

However, the pyramid probe

of mostwindtunnels.

can p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e a n y l e r e s o l u t i o n f o r c a l i b r a t i o n

E s p e c i a l l yi nl i g h to ft h ef a c tt h a tt h em a j o r i t yo ft u n n e lo p e r a t o r sa r e s a t i s f i e d with a c a l i b r a t i o n o f ( t u n n e l - e m p t y ) f l o w a n g l e s a c c u r a t e t o w i t h i n 0.1 degree.

If l e s s - a c c u r a t e , f l o w a n g u l a r i t y

measurements a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y

and a

simultaneous measurement o f P i t o tp r e s s u r ei sd e s i r e d ,t h e

nose o f the
of the

pyramid yawmeter may be t r u n c a t e d a n d a n o r i f i c e p l a c e d i n t h e c e n t e r nose,;: e.g., Ref.

9.

I nt h ec a s eo fs u b s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h i sw o u l dp r o v i d e

convenient check

on the u n i f o r m i t yo ft o t a lp r e s s u r e .

I n the case o f u p e r s o n i c s

t u n n e l s ,t h i sp e r m i t s

Mach number

t o be determined simultaneously, e.g., Refs.

1 4 and 15.

Such a p r o b en o to n l ym i n i m i z e sc a l i b r a t i o nt i m eb u t

also eliminates
measured.

any u n c e r t a i n t y i n l o c a l

Mach number a tw h i c hf l o wa n g l e sa r e

I n summary, the suggested dimensional s h o u l dr e s u l ti n a probewhich:

c r i t e r i a for a pyramid yawmeter

I.

has a flow a n g l es e n s i t i v i t yw h i c hi sr e l a t i v e l yi n s e n s i t l v et o extraneous flow v a r i a b l e ss u c h

as Reynolds number and turbulence,

most t u n n e l sw i t hh i g h

2.

i s small enough t o map f l o w a n g u l a r i t yi n r e s o l u t i o n and minimum i n t e r f e r e n c e , " "

3.
4.

has f a s t enough pressure response has adequate s t r u c t u r as t i f f n e s s , l

for m o s t a p p l i c a t i o n s ,

and and supersonic tunnels.

5.

can be used t o c a l i b r a t eb o t ht r a n s o n i c

* I t i s recommended t h a tt h el i pt h i c k n e s s be k e p tt h i n ( 0.005 cm) and the 1 5 " or more i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e s e n s i t i v i t y o r i f i c e be beveled a t an angleof of t h e P i t o t probe t o f l o w a n g u l a r i t y .

;:n :I

& f t ) where h i g hr e s o l u t i o n o f t h e f l o w a n g u l a r i t y f i e l d 3 l a r g et u n n e l s i sn o tr e q u i r e d ,t h e recommended pyramid probe may be scaled up t o l a r g e r 0.1 p e r c e n tf o r than s i z e s .I n any event, probe blockage should be less g e n e r a lc a l i b r a t i o n so ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s . However, near M = I values an orderofmagnitudesmaller may be necessary i n o r d e r t o a v o i dp r o b e - w a l l i n t e r f e r e n c e , see Ref. 13.

YaKmgJer C a l i b r a t i o n , Rake Interfer-ence, and Blockage . . . .

" " "

As notedby asymmetries and

AP a t $ = 0 .

Pope and Goin (Ref. i m p e r f e c t i o n sw h i c h

it is to

10, P.

134), a1 1 r e a l yawmeters have

a nonzero
flow c o n d i t i o n s

cause t h ep r o b et oi n d i c a t e be used.

Thus, a yawmeter s h o u l d l w a y s e a l i b r a t e d n a b c i

s i m i l a rt ot h o s ei nw h i c h d i f f e r e n t i a lp r e s s u r e
not be repeated here.

The c a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r ef o r 10, 14, and 15 and will

t o sound a n o t e o f c a u t i o nh e r e .

yawmeters i s d e s c r i b e di nR e f s . However,

i t i sr e l e v a n t

When c a l i b r a t i n g a yawmeter, t h e c e n t e r o f r o t a t i o n s h o u l d b e a t t h e n o s e t i p . A l s o ,c a r e f u l measurements o ft h ea n g l e sb e t

W een yawmeter

a x i s and t u n n e la x i s

a r ee s s e n t i a ls i n c et h e s em u s t theprobe

be s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e f l o w a n g l e s r e l a t i v e t o

i no r d e rt od e t e r m i n ef l o wa n g u l a r

i t yw i t hr e s p e c tt ot h et u n n e l

center1 ine. I no r d e rt or e d u c et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n use probes i n rakes o r r r a y s . a

t I me, most o p e r a t o r sp r e f e rt o

However, H a r t l e y and Nichols (Ref. a 2.44 m . ( 8 f t ) wide rake.

16)

c o n d u c t e dt e s t si nt h e

A E D C 16T Tunnel w i t h f i v e

7.62 cm (3 i n . )d i a m e t e r The rake base and

m

hemispherical yawmeters mounted on c o n s i s t e do f a 22" ( t o t a l - a n g l e )

wedge w i t h a 7.62 cm ( 3 i n . )w i d e The yawmeters were mounted 0.61

was c e n t e r mounted on (2 f t ) a p a r t w i t h t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e approximately 1%.

a s t i n gs u p p o r t .

nose locatedapproximatelyfourdiameters wedge. The t o t a lw i n d - t u n n e lb l o c k a g eo ft h er a k e

ahead o f t h e was

These i n v e s t i g a t o r s o u n d h a t h e a k e n d u c e d i g n i f i c a n t f t r i s The i n d u c e df l o wa n g u l a r i t y ,a tt h et i p s
0 . 5 " a t M = 0.6 t o over 1 " a t M = 1 . 1 .
As

o u t f l o wt o w a r dt h et i p so ft h er a k e . o ft h er a k e ,i n c r e a s e df r o ma b o u t

Mach number increased f r o m 1 . 1 t o 1.2,theinducedflowangularitydecreased s h a r p l y and e x h i b i t e d n e a r - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r 1.2 5 M

5 1.5.

A w a l l - m o u n t e ds t r u ts u p p o r t ,w i t ht h e

same wedge a n g l e o f

22", was a l s o t e s t e d

and found t o induceevenlargeroutflowfromthe

w a l l t o w a r dt h et i p .

In bothcases,thesupport-inducedflowangularity
mounting a s i n g l ep r o b eo n a d i a m e t e ro f diameters. a l o n gs t i n g .

was ascertainedby had

The f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h e s t i n g

5.715 cm (2.25in.)

and a l e n g t ho fa p p r o x i m a t e l y

16 probe
a conical

The second s e c t i o n o f s t i n g had a diameter o f 7.62 cm (3.0in.) 20 probediameterswhichsubsequentlyjoined ing upport s mechanism.

and a l e n g t h o f o v e r

f l a r e and t h e r e s t o f t h e s t e n a b l e dv e r t i c a lt r a v e r s e s t h eb l o c k a g e
o f t h es i n g l e

The s t i n g u p p o r t y s t e m s s
of a t t a c k .I na d d i t i o n ,

w i t h t h es t i n ga tz e r oa n g l e
p robe was o n l y 0.013%.

Thus, t h e arrangement assured

133

as near-interference-free,flow a windtunnel.

a n g u l a r i t y measurements can as

be expected i n

An a d d i t i o n a lc o n c l u s i o nr e a c h e db yH a r t l e y t h er a k e (;.e., had n e g l i g i b l e e f f e c t withtherakevertical,the were Val

and N i c h o l s (Ref.

16) i s t h a t

on flowanglesnormal yaw datawereVal id).

totheplaneoftherake i d and w i t h t h e r a k e

h o r i z o n t a l ,t h ep i t c hd a t a results,
i t i s p o s s i b l et o

Thus,basedontheseandothersimilar i n a c a r e f u l l yd e s i g n e dr a k ea r r a n g e f o rg r e a t e s ta c c u r a c y ,

use yawmeters

ment t o make two dimenslonal a s i n g l ep r o b ej o i n e dt o t h et u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e

measurements." However,

a l o n gs t i n g
i s recommended.""

w i t h a supportwhichissymmetricalabout

F i n a l l y ,w i t hr e g a r dt ow i n dt u n n e lb l o c k a g ea t t h ed a t ao f small values Couch and Brooks (Ref.

Mach numbers near 1 .O, even w i t he x t r e m e l y Thus,

13) i n d i c a t et h a t

o f model blockage (<0.0003)

walinterference ccurs. l o

yawmeters f o r measurements near Mach one must viz.,smallprobes f o r any sudden and l o n gs t i n g s ,

be d e s i g n e dw i t ht h eu t m o s tc a r e , be s c r u t i n i z e d

and t h er e s u l t i n gd a t as h o u l d

o r unexpectedvariationsaround

M = 1.0.

III.E.3.
Two h o t - w i r e s i n c l i n e d a t mean f l o w havelong

Hot-Wire/Film ameters Y a na n g l ew i t hr e s p e c tt oe a c ho t h e r and t h e

been used i n low speed flows t o measure f l o w a n g u l a r i t y

t o simultaneously

(Ref. Three-wire 17). probes have also been used extensively measure p i t c h and yaw i n h r e e i m e n s i o n a l l o w s . n h e a s t , o t - w i r e s t d f I t p h n o t been used i nt r a n s o n i cf l o w s because they are

have However,

so e a s i l yb r o k e n .

Hortsman and Rose (Ref. 18) have r e c e n t l yd e m o n s t r a t e dt h a tl o wa s p e c tr a t i o (,f/d-lOO) tungstenwireprobes can be used i nt r a n s o n i cf l o w sw i t h o u t Johnson and a

p r o h i b i t i v e breakage problem. Also recently, r e p o r t e du s i n g an X - a r r a yh o t - w i r et o

Rose (Ref. 19) have s t r e s si n a supersonic

measure Reynolds

boundary l a y e r and i n a shock-wave/boundary-layer Thus, a l t h o u g h m a t c h i n g t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s o f

i n t e r a c t i o n (Ref.

20).

two o r more w i r e s f o r a c c u r a t e

4 ) p o i n to u tt h a t a r a k ew i t hc i r c u l a r arms i s ;bDudzinski and Krause (Ref. u n a f f e c t e d by a n g l e so fa t t a c k . Whereas when nonzero yaw a n g l e se x i s ti n s u b s o n i ca n d / o rt r a n s o n i cf l o w s ,n o n c i r c u l a r arms c a ni n d u c el a r g e rf l o w angularityatthe nose o f t h e yawmeter and a l s o c r e a t e u n d e s i r a b l e s i d e f o r c e s on therake.
**Another a l t e r n a t i v e wouldbe Ref. 16.
t o c a l i b r a t e a rakefollowingthe procedure of

m a n flow measurements can be

a problem,

thereappears

t o be no p r o h i b i t i v e I no r d e r

reason why two and three-wireprobescannot

be used as yawmeters.

t o avoid the problem

(Ref. has 22)

o f matching sensitivities of

more than one w i r e , Rosenberg mounted i n a r o t a t a b l e h o l d e r . stem and t a k i n g d a t a

s u c c e s s f u l l y used a s i n g l e w i r e p r o b e

By r o t a t l n g an i n c l i n e d - w i r e a b o u t t h e a x i s o f t h e p r o b e s
w a t t o distinctorientations,thethree

components o f v e l o c i t y and mass f l u x

can be

determined a t a p o i n t i n a generalthree-dimensionalflow.
In a studyoftheeffectsofcontouringslottedwallstoreducetransonic-

w a l l - I n t e r f e r e n c e , Weeks (Ref.23)hasused

a h o t - f il m p r o b e f o r a c c u r a t e The

mea-

surement o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y . T h i s w o r k i n v o l v e d t h e u s e o f a i r f o i l spanned t h e t e s t s e c t i o n o f t h e required planar AFFDL T r i s o n i c Gasdynamics F a c i l i t y . wereobtainedwlth

modelswhich

measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y

a split-film,

22O t o t a l - a n g l e wedge which was manufactured by Thermo Systems,

to an AFFDL design.Thisprobeconsists d i a m e t e rw i t ht h et i p therodextendsforward support tube. o f a q u a r t zr o d ground t o a symmetrical wedge. 1.27 cm (0.5 apex o f t h e in.)from a 0.3175

Inc.,according i n . )i n

0.152 cm (0.06

As i n d i c a t e di nF i g . cm (0.125

3.E.4,

in.)diameter

A p a i r o f p l a t i n u m f i l m s , 0.102 cm (0.04
wedge. anemometer b r i d g e c i r c u i t s . shown i n F i g . 3.E.4

in.) long, deposited are used t o complete

on each s i d e o f t h e t h e twoseparate of this probe is

Four g o l d - f i l m l e a d s a r e

The c a l i b r a t e d yaw s e n s i t i v i t y

f o r 0.85 < M < 0.95.

Weeks c l a i m s t h a t The

t h i s probe will r e s o l v ef l o wa n g l e st ow i t h i n primarylimitationisstatedto mentally to induce errors

42 minutes o f a r c (0.03O).

be p r o b ev i b r a t i o nw h i c h
0.5 minutes o f arc.

was d e t e r m i n e de x p e r i -

I n summary, s i n c eh o t - f i l mp r o b e sa r e

(1)

less d e l i c a t e , (2) lesssuscepand

t i b l e t o contamination because o f t h e i r l a r g e r s i z e , r e s i s t a n tc o a t i n g s ,h o t - f i l m

( 3 ) canhave

corrosion may

yawmeters a r es u p e r i o rt oh o t - w i r e

yawmeters. Both equipmentwhich

h o t - w i r e s and h o t - f i l m s r e q u i r e s p e c i a l i z e d d a t a p r o c e s s i n g be considered a d i s a d v a n t a g eb yp o t e n t i a lu s e r s . obtained by Weeks, h o t - f i l m yawmetersappear yawmeters.

However, based

on t h e r e s u l t s

to offer a viable alternative to

d i f f e r e n t i a lp r e s s u r e

The uses o f h o t - w i r e s

and h o t - f i l m s a r e d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n

Appendix 1 .

** A l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s a r e n o t

Reference 21 a l s o d i s c u s s e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c a l i b r a t i o n of a h o t - w i r e i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o change w i t h t i m e because o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n . T h i s may r e q u i r e f r e q u e n t c a l i b r a t i o n checks.

aware o f any t r a n s i e n t measurements o f f l o w a n g l e s why t h i s t y p e o f yawmeter can n o t be used i n a c o n t i n u o u s - t r a v e r s e mode. Thiswouldprovidetheadvantage of r e d u c e dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o nt i m e , e.g., see d i s c u s s i o n o f f o r c eb a l a n c e yawmeters.

w i t h a h o t - w i r e / f i l m ,t h e r ei sn oi n h e r e n tr e a s o n

135

D I MENS IONS I N CENT IMETERS

To Separate Anemometer Bridge C i r c u i t s

Figure 3 . E . 4S P L I T .

136

HOT F I L M , 20" WEDGE PROBE CALIBRATION BRIDGE VOLTAGE DIFFERENCE vs FLOW ANGLE, REF. 23

ForceBalanceYaweters The basicprocedure o fr u n n i n g a windtunnelforce model u p r i g h t and known and i s standard However, the use o f a small a measure o f tunnel-empty r e c e n t l yr e p o r t e dt h e p r o b ec o n s i s t so f in.) span, mounted

invertedtodeterminetheaveragepitchangleiswell p r a c t i c ei np r o f e s s i o n a lw i n dt u n n e lt e s t i n g . wedge mounted on a s e n s i t i v e f o r c e b a l a n c e t o o b t a i n f l o wa n g l e si s a 20' new. Maxwe1.1 and Luchuk (Ref. have 25)

r e s u l t s o f t r a n s o n i ct e s t sw i t ht h i st y p eo f

yawmeter. The

included-angle wedge, w i t h a 14.73 cm (5.80 two-component force balance, Fig.

on a

specially-designed,

3.E.5.

The f o r c e

balance was designed t o measurenormal t h i n ,s t r a i n - g a u g e ds e c t i o n sf o r The probe was t e s t e d i n t h e Mach number range o f 0.6 t o 1.3.

f o r c e and p i t c h i n g moment w i t h v e r y

maximum s e n s i t i v i t y . AEDC Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel (4T) o v e rt h e The c a l i b r a t e d f l o w a n g l e s e n s i t i v i t i e s ,

based on v a r i a t i o n s o f Althoughthe

normal f o r c e and p i t c h i n g moment, a r e shown i n F i g . t h a tf l o wa n g l e

3.E.6.

yaw s e n s i t i v i t y o f thepitching-moment

mode i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50%

l a r g e r , Maxwell and Luchuk found e i t h e r mode were o f equalaccuracy.

measurements obtained f o rm

The wedge was supported by t h e 4T s i x - d e g r e e - o f - f r e e d o m , c a p t i v e t r a j e c t o r y system. T h i sp e r m i t t e dt h ep r o b et o be moved c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h a v a r i e t y o f be

movements.

Maxwell and L u c h u kc o n c l u d et h a tf l o wd i r e c t i o nd a t ac a n an a b s o l u t e a c c u r a c y t h a t i s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t based on comparisons

o b t a i n e d" w i t h

from theaccuracy
o fd a t a and r a p i d measurements
flow a n g l e was

w i t hw h i c ht h ep r o b ei sa l i g n e d . "F u r t h e r m o r e , obtainedwiththeprobeatrest motion.

I

and i n m o t i o n , r e l i a b l e

can be made w i t h t h e p r o b e m o v i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h The estimated rms d e v i a t i o n s f r o m However, and +0.25',

combined l i n e a r and r o l l i n g

a mean v a l u e o f

0.023O a t a l l measured p o i n t s .

2 4 '

sweeps i n p i t c h and yaw produced These data were

larger variations, viz., obtainedwithpitch

+O.O8O

respectively.

and yaw r a t e s w h i c h v a r i e d , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

from 1.16 t o 1.28

and 1.01 t o 1.36 deg/sec.

137

t
L

DIMENSIONSCENTIMETERS IN

14.73
"

\I'

1.67 D i a .
I
" " " " " " "

7
I

"_

- "

""_

2-COMPONENT BALANCE INSTALLED HERE

\ J

"_

LOCATION OF GAGE SECTIONS

I I

20

Figure 3 . E . 5 .

GEOMETRY OF AEDC BALANCE FORCE

YAWMETER

0.5

0.14

n -0.12 U z
V W
. I

I CJ W

n
A
0

irr

n .

0.3

i0:lO

LL

LL
V

CNa

~0.08
W

rr

0
LL

z 0.1 I
0

0.04

L 5

0.6

0.7

0.8
FREE STREAM

0.9

1 .o

1,1

1.2

1.3

MACH NUMBER,

M
YAmETER

Figure 3 . E . 6 .

S E N S I T I V I T Y OF THE AEDC FORCE BALANCE

Unfortunately,theReynolds investigated.

number dependence o f t h i s

yawmeter was n o t

However,.some v a r i a t i o no ft o t a lp r e s s u r ea t

M = 0.6 i n d i c a t e d
A t t h i sp o i n t ,

a d e c r e a s i n gs e n s i t i v i t yw i t hi n c r e a s i n gu n i t the re'ader may r e c a l lt h a tS i e v e r d i n g ,e ta l .( R e f .

Reynolds number.

3 ) a l s or e p o r t e dt h e i r
T h i si m p l i e s Mach number t e d i o u st o

wedge shaped yawmeter

e x h i b i t e d a Reynolds number dependence.*

t h a t wedge shapedyawmetersshould and Reynolds use. number. Hence,

be c a l i b r a t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f more yawmeter will be

t h i st y p eo f

A d d i t i o n a ld i s a d v a n t a g e so ft h e

wedge f o r c eb a l a n c e

yawmeter i s h i g h e r However, a model and

initialcosts f o r c eb a l a n c e s u p p o r tt o

and p i t c h and yaw must measured be can be

separately.**

c a l i b r a t e dt or e l a t ea n g u l a rd e f l e c t i o no f

changes i nl o a d i n g .T h i sp r o v i d e s

a d i s t i n c t advantage over

d i f f e r e n t i a lp r e s s u r e

and h o t - w i r e / f i l m yawmeters.

I nc o n c l u s i o n ,t h ef o r c e measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y

balanceyawmeter'sadvantageofrapid,continuous appears tooutweighthedisadvantages.

**A

N e i t h e r o f these yawmeters had a b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r a n s i t i o ns t r i p . Thus, dependence o f wedge-yawmeter s e n s i t i v i t y on Reynolds number c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y bereducedby u t i l i z i n g a g r i t - t y p e , b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r i p .

d o u b l e ,i n t e r s e c t i n g wedge probe w i t h four component f o r c eb a l a n c e has more r e c e n t l y been c o n s t r u c t e d and t e s t e da t AEDC (Summers, Ref. 26). T h i s y a m e t e re n a b l e sp i t c h and yaw d a t a t o be o b t a i n e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n even less time. An improved design, which i sl e s ss e n s i t i v e t o unsteady transonic f l o w , s p e c i f i e s a small,symmetricalcenterbodywith f l a t p l a t e wingsattached yawmeter i no r t h o g o n a lp l a n e s , Ref. 27. R e c e n te x p e r i e n c ew i t ht h i st y p eo f i n t h e AEDC 4T Tunnel indicatessimultaneous measurements o f p i t c h and yaw 225 p o i n t s i n l e s s t h a n s i x m i n u t e s and w i t h anaccuracy c a nb eo b t a i n e da t of 0.01 degree.

140

I l l . E.
1.
Lennert, A.
E.;

References " A p p l i c a t i o n o f Laser

Hornkohl, J. 0. and Kalb, H. T.: Flow Measurements,"

V e l o c i m e t e r sf o r

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o nf o r and Aeronautics,

A i r b r e a t h i n gP r o p u l s i o n ,P r o g r e s si nA s t r o n a u t i c s

A I M Vol. 34, M I T Press, 1972.

2. Bryer, D. W. and Pankhurst, R.
C.:

Pressure-Probes Methods f o r e t e r m i n i n g D

Wind Speed and Flow D i r e c t i o n , Her M a j e s t y ' s S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , London, 1971.

3.

Sieverding, C.;

Maretto,Lehthaus, L; Four Probes

F. and Lawaczeck, 0.:

"Design and

Calibrationfor

f o r Use i n t h e T r a n s o n i c T u r b i n e

Cascade T e s t i n g , I ' VKI TN 100 (AD 922 286)

May 1974.

4. 5.

Dudzlnski, T. J. and Krause, L. F i x e d - P o s i t i o n Probes," B u z z e l l , W. A . :

N.:

" F l o w - D i r e c t i o n Measurement w i t h Oct. 1969. Rakes Sensing ARL TR 75-0104,

NASA TM X-1904,

" C a l i b r a t i o n e s u l t so S t a t i o n a r y r e s s u r e R f r P

Yaw Angle Downstream o f an A x i a l Compressor Stage," A p r i 1 1975.

6.

V i d a l , R. J.;

Erickson, J. C . and C a t l i n , P . A . :
"
~~

"Experiments w i t h a S e l f -

C o r r e c t i n g Wind Tunnel," Windtunnel ." .

AGARD-CP-

Deslgn and Testing Techniques,

174, Oct. 1975.

H.:

7.

Spaid, F. W.;

Hurley, F. X . and Hellman, T.

" M i n i a t u r e r o b eo r P f

T r a n s o n i cF l o wD i r e c t i o n Feb. 1975, P . 253.

Measurements," A l A A Jour.Vol.

13, No. 2,

8.

Bryer, D. W . ;

Walshe, D . E . ;

and Garner, H. C . : Measurement,"

C.;

"Pressure Probes Selected

R.&M.

f o r Three-Dimensional Flow

No. 3037, 1958. "Several Combination and F l o wD i r e c t i o n , "

9.

Schulze, W.

M.;

Ashby, J r . ,

G.

and Erwin, J. R . : and T o t a lP r e s s u r e

Probes f o r S u r v e y i n g S t a t i c
NACA TN 2830, Nov. 1952.

10. Pope,

A.;

and Goin, K. L:

. "

High-speed Wind Tunnel Testing, Wiley, ~ ~

"

1965.

11.

Barry, F. W.:

"Comparison o F l o w - D i r e c t i o n f Sept.

Probes a t Supersonic Speeds,"

J. Aero. S c i . ,

1961, P. 750-752.
141

12.

Zumwalt, G. W.:

"Conical Probes

for etermination D

of Local Mach Numbers

and Flow D i r e c t i o n i n S u p e r s o n i c Sandla Corp., Nov. 1960.

Wing Tunnels,"

SCTM 355-60(71),

14.

Vahl, W.

A. and Weirich, R.

L.: Calibration f " o

30" Included-Angle Mach Number Range of

Cone

f o rD e t e r m i n i n gL o c a lF l o wC o n d i t i o n sI n

1.51 t o 3.51," 15.

N o r r i sJ . ,
D.:

NASA TN

D-4679, August 1968.

" C a l i b r a t i o n C o n i c aP r e s s u r e r o b e so D e t e r m l n a t i o n of l P f r Cond i t i o n s a t Mach Numbers from 3 t o 6,"

o f LocalFlow Nov. 1965.

NASA TN

D-3076,

16.

H a r t l e y , M.

S.;

and N i c h o l s , J. H.:

" E f f e c t so f

Rake Blockage Flow on i n t h e AEDC-PWT Assoc.

A n g u l a r i t y Measurements a t T r a n s o n i c

Mach Numbers

16-FootTransonicTunnel,"Twenty-FifthSupersonicTunnel Meeting, NASA Langley Research Center, a u t h o r ' sp e r m i s s i o n ) .

May 1966 (referenced w i t h ,

19.

Johnson, D. A. and Rose, W.

C.:

"Laser Velocimeter

and Hot-wire Anemometer A i A A Jour. (Tech. Notes),

Comparison I n a Supersonic Boundary Layer," Vol. 20. Rose, W.

C.

13, No. 4, A p r i l 1975.

and Johnson, D. A . : "Turbulence i n Shock-Wave a Boundary-Layer

Vol. I n t e r a c t i o n , " A i A A Jour., 21. Hot Wire-Hot Film-Ion inc., 22. Rosenberg, R.

13, No. 7, J u l y 195

CAT/FORM 6560375, Thermo-Systems

Anemometer Systems,

1975.
E.:
"A Three Dimensional Hot-wire

Anemometry Technique March 1971. by Means

Employing a S i n g l eW i r e 23. Weeks, T. M.:

Probe,"

ARL 71-0039,

"Reduction o T r a n s o n i c l o t t e d a l il n t e r f e r e n c e f S W AFFDL-TR-74-139, March 1975.

o f S l a tC o n t o u r i n g , "

142

24.

Maxwell, H. and Luchuk, as a Flow Angle

W.:

"Evaluation o f a Wedge on a Force Balance AEDC-TR-74-110, Feb.

Probe,"

1975. 1956.

25. Raney,

D. J . :

"Flow D i r e c t i o n Measurements i n Supersonic Wind Tunnels," Lond.

Aero. Res. Coun.

Current Papers No. 262,

26.

Summers, W. Luchuk, W.: N.M.,

E.; personal comnunication,

AEDC,

Feb. 1976.

27.

"Flow Angle Measurements Using a 2-Inch Span Cruciform-Wing presented at 45th Semi-Annual STA meeting,Albuquerque, A p r i l 1976 ( r e f e r e n c e dw i t ha u t h o r ' sp e r m i s s i o n ) . Probe," KTH Aero Memo

Force Model,"

28.

Lind, I . A. : "A S e n s i t i v eF l o wT r a n s i t i o n TRITA-FPT-019, J u l y 1975.

FI 175,

l n s t i t u t l o n e nf o rF l y g t e k n i k

Stockholm, Sweden,

1II.F.

MEASUREMENT OF UNSTEADY FLOW DISTURBANCES

The need S e c t i o n ll.C.6.

f o r measurements o f f l o w u n s t e a d i n e s s was b r i e f l y reviewed i n

The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f n o i s e c a l i b r a t i o n

o f a windtunnel

i s t o o b t a i n a measure o f t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s laritythatexistinthe o ft h ei n s t r u m e n t a t i o nt h a t ever,beforediscussingsensors, empty t e s ts e c t i o n . has been used

it

in s t a t i c p r e s s u r e and flow anguHere a r e v i e w wl be g i v e n il

to obtainthistypeofdata.

Howand

is germain t on o t et h ea m p l i t u d e s

frequencies o f unsteadystaticpressurewhichcharacterizetransonictunnels. Inthecenteroftransonictestsectionsthefluctuatingpressurecoeff i c i e n t ,d e f i n e d as

AC

- <PI> = - x 100
q

percent, Mach number, a v a l u e o f 0.45%

may range from 0.5% t o 5% dependingonthetunnelconfiguration, and Reynolds number. Dougherty, e t a l . (Ref.

1) have noted

corresponds t o a l e v e l o f sound which i st y p . i c a I l yr a d i a t e df r o mt u r b u l e n t boundaryayers n olid est ection alls. l o s t s w have p o i n t e do u tt h a t ranges from However, H a r t z u i k e r ,e ta l . (Ref. 2) number and

AC
X

0.5% a t Re

= 5.7 x IO

a c t u a l l yd e c r e a s e sw i t hi n c r e a s i n gR e y n o l d s

t o anestimated (Ref.

0.2% a t Rex = 1.1

8 1.7 x IO ,

see F i g . 3.F. I .

McCanless and Boone

3) have reviewed noise

measurements

made i nb o t hp e r f o r a t e d

and s l o t t e dt e s ts e c t i o n s .

These a u t h o r sn o t et h a ti n tend t o be lower (40-609;) P i s found i n s l o t t e d - w a l l t u n make

p e r f o r a t e d - w a l lt u n n e l sc e n t e r 1i n e t h a nw a l l measurements; whereas,

measurements o f AC t h eo p p o s i t et r e n d

nels. Generally, edgetones the generated perforated-wall by tunnels tend to t h e s eu n n e l s o i s i etrh a n l o t t e d - w a ltlu n n e l sF o r t n s . twelveperforated-walltunnelsrange slotted-wall unnels t show a
M

from 1% t o 7.4%;

d a t ao r f P whereas, d a t a f o r f i v e

example, AC

range of 0.5% t o 2%) Ref.

3.

A peak i n AC

u s u a l l y measured between tunnels.

= 0.70 and

0.80 f o rb o t hp e r f o r a t e d M

is P and s l o t t e d - w a l l 3.F.2

The f r e q u e n c y p e c t r a f o i s e t s on a Ref:2.

= 0.80

i s presented i nF i g .

f o rn i n ed i f f e r e n t ,c o n t i n u o u st u n n e l s , o fs o l i d ,p e r f o r a t e d ,

These d a t aa r er e p r e s e n t a t i v e and arepresentedinterms

and s l o t t e d - w a l lt u n n e l s

of t h e

Mabey spectrumparameterwhich

i s discussednext.

*Recentresearchindicatesthereare
noise qenerated edgetones, by Refs.

a number o f ways t o r e d u c et h el e v e lo f 1 and 4..

1 44

6
.OM

.m

F i g . 3.F.1 FREQUENCY SPECTRA BOUNDARY LAYER

OF N O I S E FROM TURBULENT A ON A S O L I D A L L R e f . W , 2

,014

,010

.w1 .ffl

F i g . 3.F.2

NOISE FREQUENCY SPECTRA FOR CONTINUOUS WINDTUNNELS AT

SOME E X I S T I N G HaD= 0.80, R e f . 2

As n o t e d b y H a r t t u i k e r , e t a l . r e s u l t s o f t e s t s on: (1) dynamic

(Ref.

2)

*, flowqual

it y can a f . f e c t t h e
and moments,

stability,

(2) s t a t i cf o r c e s

(3)

b u f f e t , and

(4) f l u t t e r .T e s t so ft h e s eq u a n t i t i e sg e n e r a l l yi n v o l v e
I n t h eo r d e rl i s t e d .A p p a r e n t l y ,l i t t l e
and c o r r e l a t e However, Mabey (Refs. e f f e c t so n t o measure f l u c t u a t i o n s i n f l o w a n g u l a r i t y

i n c r e a s i n g l yh i g h e rf r e q u e n c i e s work hasbeendone

t h e s ew i t hp r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n s . etal. (Ref. have 2) found the

5-7) and H a r t t u i k e r ,
and

model t e s t so fb o t hp r e s s u r e

incidencefluctuationscan as f o l l o w s :

be c o r r e l a t e d by u s i n g a s p e c t r u m f u n c t i o n d e f i n e d

Here AC2

i s t h e mean-squared v a l u e o f t h e f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t l c p r e s s u r e c o e f 2 f i c i e n t , and F(n) i s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o AC p e ru n i tb a n d w i d t ha tt h er e d u c e d

frequency n. Mabey

has suggested

canbeused

t o measure windtunnelflowunsteadiness a naturalfrequencyofthe

i f t h e reducedfrequency
model, e.g., fundamental have shown t h e t

i s chosen t o c o r r e s p o n d t o wingbending

mode, t o r s i o n mode, etc.

A varietyoftests

g r e a t e r model e x c i t a t i o nf o l l o w si n c r e a s e si nn F ( n ) . acceptableflowquality canbe

Thus, c r i t e r i a for bysuc-

establishedforvarioustypesoftests anasymptoteandcease

c e s s i v e l yr e d u c i n gn F ( n )u n t i lt h er e s u l t sa p p r o a c h v a r ys i g n i f i c a n t l yw i t ht u n n e lf l o wq u a l i t y .F o r

to
Mabey

example, a n a l y s e so fb u f f e t

measurements on a i r c r a f t models w i t h d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s l e d (Ref.

7) t o c o n c l u d et h a t

an a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l o f f l o w u n s t e a d i n e s s f o r t h e
e 0.002.

d e t e c t i oo ifg h tu f f e t i nig l n b s have confirmed the usefulness of v a r i e t y o f dynamic model a preciseboundarycannot

T e s ta tt h e a c i l i t i e s o s fr for correlating a (Ref. 2 ) . Unfortunately,

Mabey'sspectrumparameter H a r t z u i k e r ,e ta l .

t e s t s , e.g., bedrawn

toseparateacceptable

f o unacceptable rm

l e v e l so ff l o wu n s t e a d i n e s s .R a t h e r ,t h e r ei s qualitiesthatareeitheracceptableornotfor

a " g r a yr e g i o n "s e p a r a t i n gf l o w a giventypeoftest.

*Reference 2
146

i s mainlyconcernedwithestimatingtheflowqualitythat necessary t o make t h e LEHRT c o s t - e f f e c t i v e i n l i g h t o f t h e p l a n n e d t ime.

wl be il 10 sec r u n

However, the utility of including fluctuating pressure measurementstunnel in calibration i s now well established.

IO Condenser microphone measurements on the AEDCdeg transition cone,in

six different transonic tunnels, indicate percent of the energy back98 of
0-20 KHz, Ref. 8. ground pressure fluctuations are contained within

However,

on since there i s presently no criterion for an upper limit frequency beyond which boundary layer transition is unaffected, Westley (Ref. 9) recommends that the frequency range noise measurements extend of at least up to 30 KHz. Thus, acoustic calibration of transonic tunnels requires instrumentation that can measure dynamic pressures with these ranges of amplitudes and frequencies. The sensors employed should also be relatively insensitive to vibrations
not by of the mounting surface and durable enough to be easily damaged either

particles in the ,flow or overloading.

III.F.1.

Dynamic Pressure Measurements

A rather wide variety of instrumentation has been used to measure unsteady

flow disturbances in wind tunnels. Condenser microphones, strain gage,and piezoelectric dynamic pressure transducers have been employed for noise measurements in stilling and plenum chambers, dlffusers, and on test section walls, and models and probes located on the centerline, Refs. 10-15. (e.g., Ref.

In addition, hot-wire

in anemometers have been used to measure flow disturbances stilling chambers

13) and in the test section of transonic tunnels(e.g., Refs. 9 and 16) and supersonic tunnels (e.g., Ref. 17). Also, laser Doppler velocimeters

(LDV) are being used to measure turbulence by an ever increasing number of tunnel operators, Ref. 9.
Unfortunately, this lack of standardization makes difficult to compare it measured levels of flow disturbances. For example, Lewis andDods (Ref. 18) noted significant variations in the frequency response of 12 different microphones and dynamic pressure transducers. In general, Lewis and Dods found

small diameter transducers (0.1 to 0.3 cm) gave higher power-spectral-density values, at all frequencies, than larger diameter transducers (0.5 to 1 cm). of Also, the high frequency portion of the spectrum pressure fluctuations varles
with the particular sensor, and as is well known, the rms values will be underestimated when a significant portion of the high frequencies are attenuated.

In

1 47

a d d i t i o n , when measuring v o r t i c i t y w i t h h o t - w i r e s , h o t - f i l m s , o r data may a l s o v a r y because o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n f r e q u e n c y response.

an LDV, the

The comparisonproblem mounting.

i s compounded f u r t h e r b y t h e c h o i c e o f s e n s o r be measured w i t h no r e l a t i v e

Ideally,acousticpressuresshould

motion between sensor and t h et e s t n e i t h e rp r a c t i c a ln o rr e l e v a n tt o tivelocation on aprobe,

medium, Ref. windtunnel

19.

However, s i n c et h i s

is

model t e s t i n g , some representamust be selected.

model or t u n n e lw a l l

The f i r s t measurements o f w a l l p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s b e n e a t h t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r s i n W i l l m a r t h (Ref. 21) a wind tunnel were reported by W i l l m a r t hi n

1956 (Ref. 20).

has recentlyreviewedtheproblemsof and n o t e s t h a t most o f t h e s e

dynamic pressure measurements have has r e c e n t l ys t u d i e d measurements a t measurements a r e

measurements a t t u n n e l w a l l s

been made with flush-mounted transducers. Hanly (Ref. 22) the effect of M = 1.68, 2.0, sensor flushness on fluctuating-surface-pressure and 2.5. These t e s t s show spectralpressure

extremelysensitivetoflushnesswithprotrusioncausinggreatererrorthan submergence. Hanlyconcludesthat more repeatabledata can be o b t a i n e dw i t h orifice.

transducers mounted approximately 0.0254 cm (0.0l"in.).beneathasurface Thus,

it

is r e c m e n d e dt h a ta c o u s t i c

measurements a tt u n n e lw a l l sc o n f o r mt o

this criterion. Also, can used be e x i s ti n (Ref.

it i s r e l e v a n t t o n o t e h e r e t h a t

two or more wall-mountedtransducers between disturbanceswhich I na d d i t i o n , may

t od e t e r m i n eu s e f u lc o r r e l a t i o n s a tunnel, e.g., Refs.

1 1 and 25.

Boone and McCanless M = 1,

1 I ) have n o t e d t h a t w a l l d a t a
shocksand/or

can used be

t oe x t r a p o l a t e ,t h r o u g h probes o r modelswhich

measurements o b t a i n e d a t t h e c e n t e r l i n e w i t h subjecttooscillating one. indicates ( 1 ) sensor i s t h a t used a as permanent unsteadiness. Concerninginstallationof (Ref. 24)

may be Mach

othermodel-inducedunsteadinessnear

However, experience (Ref. thisisnot

8 ) w i t h microphone measurements on
and ( 2 )t h er e a la d v a n t a g eo f

a 10 deg cone awall-mounted

a problem

i t can be c a l i b r a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o c e n t e r l i n e m o n i t o rf o ra s s e s s i n g any subsequent

measurements and

changes i n t u n n e lf l o w

sensors i n p e r f o r a t e d w a l l s , C r e d l e i n . )p i e z o e l e c t r i c

and Shadow

mounted a 0.635 cm (1/4

microphone i n t h e c e n t e r r a d i u so ft h ea r e a was

o f anareawhich

was f i l l e d and sanded smooth. The

148

approximately 40 microphone diameters.

These i n v e s t i g a t o r ss t a t e d :

"Thisinstallationtechniqueprecludedthe measurement o f p u r e l y n e a r field influence of the mostadjacentupstreamholes and a l l o w e d f o r t h e measurement o f what m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e r a d i a l l y i n t e g r a t e d averagevalue o f p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s a t t h e w a l l s u r f a c e . " Credle and Shadow a l s o i n s t a l l e d an i d e n t i c a l ,b u ts h i e l d e d ,m i c r o p h o n ei nt h e

w a l li no r d e rt om o n i t o rm i c r o p h o n er e s p o n s et ow a l lv i b r a t i o n .I ng e n e r a l ,
it i s c o n s i d e r e d good t e s t i n g p r a c t l c e t o a s c e r t a i n t h e

component o f a m i c r o -

phone's output which

i s due t ov i b r a t i o n .F i n a l l y ,q u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t s most o f t e n used f o r a c o u s t i c measuremost

i n d i c a t e dt h a ts t r a i n - g a g et r a n s d u c e r sa r e ments a t w i n dt u n n e lw a l l s .P r e s u m a b l y ,t h i si s r e q u i r e dt op r o c e s st h es i g n a lf r o m wind tunnel s. I na d d i t i o nt ot u n n e lw a l l

because t h ei n s t r u m e n t a t i o n

a s t r a i n gage i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e a t

measurements, t u n n e ln o i s ec a l i b r a t i o n sr e q u i r e Some o f t h e f i r s t by C h e v a l i e r and Todd were mounted measurements

dynamic p r e s s u r ed a t an e a rt h ec e n t e ro ft h et e s ts e c t i o n . such measurements i n a transonictunnelwerereported (Ref. 25). on a I nt h e s ei n i t i a lt e s t s ,

dynamic pressure transducers

wedge, a wing probe,

and an o g i v e - c y l i n d e r .L a t e ra c o u s t i c

i n t h e AEDC-PWT 16T and 165 t u n n e l s wereperformed

w i t h condensermicrophones 10.

and s t r a i n gage transducers mounted on a 10 deg included-anglecone,Ref.

A v a r i e t yo fo t h e rp r o b eg e o m e t r i e s

have a l s o been used. example, For have been used i n some o f t h e has been As p a r t o f
NASA Ames

an o g i v e - c y l i n d e r and a tunnels, Ref. 23.

flat plate

A 10 deg cone-cylinder probe 26.

used i nt h e

8 x 6-ft.

Supersonic Wind Tunnel a t NASA Lewis, Ref. f o ra c o u s t i cc a l i b r a t i o n , wedges, f l a t p l a t e s , ders.

a r e v i e wo fp r o b e s

Boone and McCanless (Ref. 1 1 ) consideredslendercones,

hemispheres, and s h a r p - t i p p e d ,f l o w - t h r u ,c i r c u l a rc y l i n -

These a u t h o r s recommended a 10 deg apex-angleconicalprobeforwind measurements because: cones a r e n o t plates, 2. t h et r a n s o n i c occur, Mach number range, where unstable shock waves i ss m a l l e rf o rs l e n d e r cones t h a n f o r f l a t p l a t e s , f l o w as s e n s i t i v e t o t i p f l o w as wedges and f l a t

t u n n e la c o u s t i c

1.

t h r u c y 1 inders , and hemi spheres,

3.
b u t a 10 deg

a s l e n d e rc o n ei n t r o d u c e sm i n i m a ld i s t u r b a n c et ot h ef l o w . 24), a s m a l l e ra n g l e cone i s p r e f e r r e d ,

As noted by Credle and Shadow (Ref. cone i s aboutthe

il minimum anglewhich w l a l l o w i n s t a l l a t i o n of

instrumentationunder portedthat

a laminar boundary layer. These

same a u t h o r sa l s or e -

by 1970 t h e

IO deg cone had become a s t a n d a r d d e v i c e a t

AEDC f o r

c a l i b r a t i n gw i n dt u n n e lf l o wd i s t u r b a n c e s . Up t o t h i s t i m e t h e

AEDC a c o u s t i c c a l i b r a t i o n

cone had t o f l a t s , l o c a t e d w cone

180 deg a p a r t ,f o rf l u s hm o u n t i n go fs e n s o r s .
indicatedsatisfactorynoise symmetrical cone t h es u r f a c eo ft h e and two 0.635 cm

By 1970 e x p e r i e n c ew i t ht h i s

measurements could probably

be made w i t h a c o m p l e t e l y

(1/4

in.) condenser microphones. Furthermore, an rms f i n i s h o f

cone was p o l i s h e dt o

3 microns
asthe

and a

traversingPitotprobe t r a n s i t i o ns t u d i e s ,R e f .
t i o n cone andhas

mechanism was mounted a f t o f t h e

cone f o r boundarylayer AEDC t r a n s i -

27.

Thissubsequently

became known

now been used t o measuredynamic Refs. 8, 28 and 29.

f l o w qua 1 it y i n over I8

domestic and f o r e i g nt u n n e l s ,

The work o f Dougherty w i t h t h e o f Pate and Schueler (Ref. a d i r e c tr e l a t i o n s h i p toproviding

AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone and t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s

30) and Benek and High(Ref.

31) have e s t a b li s h e d

and b o u n d a r y a y e r r a n s i t i o n . n d d i t i o n l t I a P a common measure o f dynamic f l o w q u a l i t y , Treon, e t a l . (Ref.32) between AC

reporteddatafromthe o b t a i n e di n

AEDC t r a n s i t i o n coneenabledbetteragreement

t o be

a s e r i e so ft e s t s

on a t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t
AEDC-PWT

model.

I nt h e s et e s t s , Transonic

t h e same model was t e s t e d i n t h e Wind Tunnel, and theCalspan

16T, t h e NASA Ames 1 1 - f t .

8 - f t . TransonicTunnel,

and d i f f e r e n c e s i n d r a g be l e s s when a number e f f e c t s and Ames a common,

c o e f f i c i e n t s , measured atzero-normal-force,werefoundto correctionfactor was used t o a c c o u n tf o rr e l a t i v eR e y n o l d s

between f a c i l i t i e s . tunnels,relativetothe

An e f f e c t i v e Reynolds number f o rt h eC a l s p a n

AEDC 16T t u n n e l , was d e f i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f

Thus, t h e u t i l i t y o f

b o u n d a r y - l a y e r - t r a n s i t i o nl e n g t h . c a l i b r a t i o nd e v i c e has been

a standard acoustic t o a planned f l i g h t and f r e e - f l i g h t

demonstrated. Subsequent

c a l i b r a t i o n ,t h i sd e v i c e conditions.

will a l s o be u s e f u l i n c o r r e l a t i n g t u n n e l

Because ofthedemonstrated pastuse

utility of the

AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone and i t s

i n a number o fm a j o rf a c i l i t i e s ,W e s t l e y( R e f . be measured

9) recommends n o i s e and
w i t h two 10 deg cones f i t t e d ,

t u r b u l e n c el e v e l si nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s r e s p e c t i v e l y ,w i t h :

*A p p a r e n t l y ,t h es u r f a c ef i n i s h
I50

was l a t e r improved t o 0.25 microns,Ref.

8.

1.

s k i n - f r i c t i o n gages t od e t e r m i n et r a n s i t i o nR e y n o l d s and flush-mountedmicrophones test section centerline, t o measure n o i s e l e v e l s

numbers onthe

2.

a c r o s s e dh o t - w i r e design)

anemometer mounted on

t h et i p

(an ONERA

The p r o p o s a l t o e l i m i n a t e t h e t r a v e r s i n g p r o b e induced noise n o ts p e c i f i c ,

mechanism will reduceprobe is

and wind tunnel blockage. Although Westley's recommendation

it i s assumed t h a t he i s n o t

recommending f l o a t i n g - e l e m e n ts k i n such as t h i n - f i l m s or thermoW i t hr e g a r dt o

f r i c t i o n b a l a n c e sb u tr a t h e rh e a tt r a n s f e rd e v i c e s couples for t r a n s i t i o nd e t e c t i o n , e.g., Refs. 11, h o t - w i r e measurements,Westleyexpresses a r ei d e a lf o rm e a s u r i n gd i s t u r b a n c e si n ofthis

34

and 35.

a concensus t h a tt h e s ei n s t r u m e n t s a w i n dt u n n e lt e s ts e c t i o n . Because

importance and t h e f a c t t h a t r e c e n t r e s e a r c h

has demonstratedhot-wires

can be used e f f e c t i v e l y i n

some t r a n s o n i ct e s ts e c t i o n s( R e f . 1. Probes

161, t h e ya r e

discussedseparatelyinAppendix
-= .

AlternateAcousticCalibration Not o n l y w o u l d t h e n o i s e measurements on Credle and Shadow (Ref.

AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone be expensivetoreproduce,but

it a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o

a number o f probe-inducederrors. a cone

24)

o b s e r v e dt h a tp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t se x i s to n

a t subsonic and t r a n s o n i c speeds, and hence enced b yb o t hs t a t i c Ref.

a c o u s t i c measurements a r e i n f l u -

and t o t a lp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t s . passthrough

A laminar boundary layer

i t t o an underlyingsensor,

may

modulateacousticdisturbanceswhich

9. Also, Siddon (Ref.

e r r o r si n

36) has shown t h a tb o t ha x i a l

measurements o f AC
P

and l a t e r a lf l u c t u a Hence, other probe

t i o n s can cause

w i t h probes.

a l t e r n a t i v e s may o f f e r some advantages f o r a c o u s t i c c a l i b r a t i o n o f w i n d t u n n e l s . The f o l l o w i n gc o n c i s e Willmarth'sarticle summary ofSiddon'swork(Ref.

36) i s e x t r a c t e d from
calibra-

(Ref. 21).

---" Siddon

has r e p o r t e dc o n s t r u c t i o no fa n measurements, and hehas caused by t h ei n t e r a c t i o n

e x c e l l e n tp r o b ef o ru n s t e a d ys t a t i c - p r e s s u r e

ted i t i n v a r i o u s c o n t r i v e d f l o w s t o r e m w e t h e e r r o r s

*Credle(Ref.

33) n o t e de a r l i e rt h a tt h et r a v e r s i n gp r o b es u p p o r ts t r u c t u r e appeared t o g e n e r a t e a d d i t i o n a l n o i s e , based on comparisons w i t h a c o u s t i c data obtained on an ogive-cylinder and t h e AEDC 10 deg cone w i t h f l a t s .
151

o f t h e body o f t h e p r o b e

with streanwiseandcross-flowvelocityfluctuations.
t o thediaphragm

The p r e s s u r e i s t r a n s m i t t e d phone (0.25 d diam.) m

o f a miniaturecondensormicrothroughanannular wood, t i p o f thebalsa

i n s i d et h ep r o b e

(0.305 cm diam.)

s l i t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 diametersdownstreamfromthe ve nose.

A 0.318 cm (1/8

i n . )c o l l a ra r o u n dt h ep r o b e ,

downstream o f t h e

s l t, was c a r e f u l l y p o s i t i o n e d t o t h ef r e e - s t r e a ms t a t i cp r e s s u r e

t o make t h e s t e a d y p r e s s u r e a t t h e s l i t e q u a l when t h e r e i s n oc r o s sf l o w . The probe-

co l a r compensation was checked a t z e r o a n g l e o f a t t a c k i n

so d a l a x i a l v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s

a flowwithsinu-

and was foundadequate. isthe development o f a compensation scheme

"Siddon'suniqueachievement

t o c a n c e lt h ep r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n sp r o d u c e db yc r o s s - f l o wf l u c t u a t i o n s . scheme i s based upon an elementswereused

His

e a r l i e rt r a n s d u c e ri nw h i c hp i e z o e l e c t r i cf o r c e - s e n s i n g a smallairfoil,whichare when t h ea n g l e - o f -

t o measure l i f t f l u c t u a t i o n s o f

p r o p o r t i o n a lt ov e l o c i t yf l u c t u a t i o n s a t t a c kf l u c t u a t i o n sa r es m a l l .I nt h ep r e s e n t

normal t o t h e a i r f o i l

case Siddon used arrangement an an I-beam configurationto

o f f o u rp i e z o e l e c t r i c

Bimorph p l a t e e l e m e n t s i n

measure theorthogonalbending probe. f o r c e s on t h e nose o f the

moments producedbycross-flow-inducedtransverse

I f quasi-steady, slender-body, aerodynamic

t h e o r yi sa p p l i c a b l e ,t h et r a n s v e r s ef o r c e t a n e o u st r a n s v e r s ev e l o c i t ya tt h en o s e . theorthogonal

will be p r o p o r t i o n a lt ot h ei n s t a n The two e l e c t r i c a ls i g n a l sr e p r e s e n t i n g wereeachsquaredand summed of

components o f t r a n s v e r s e v e l o c i t y

withanalog-computerelements t h et r a n s v e r s ev e l o c i t y . measured by

t o o b t a i n a s i g n a lp r o p o r t i o n a l

t o thesquare

A f r a c t i o no ft h i ss i g n a l

was added t ot h ep r e s s u r e

the condensor microphone

t og i v e( a p p r o x i m a t e l y )t h et r u es t a t i c absence o f t h e p r o b e . by a j e t o f a i r passed

p r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n st h a tw o u l d "Siddon c a l i b r a t e dt h ep r o b ei n through a r o t a t i n g i n c l i n e d n o z z l e . where t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s c o n s t a n t t h ea x i so fr o t a t i o n ) . condensormicrophonewere theprobe.

have e x i s t e d i n t h e
a flow produced

The probe s l i t was p l a c e d a t t h e p o i n t (theintersectionofthenozzleaxis any f l u c t u a t i n g p r e s s u r e s i g n a l s f r o m t h e and

A t t h a tp o i n t

assumed t o b e p r o d u c e d b y c r o s s - f l o w i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h by a d d i t i o n o f t h e p r o p e r f r a c t i o n o f

These s i g n a l s werecancelled

thesquareofthetransversevelocity.

" S i d d o nc o n c l u d e dt h a tt h ee r r o ri nt h ep r e s s u r ep r o d u c e d i n t e r a c t i o ni nt u r b u l e n c e was less than

20 p e r c e n t .

by c r o s s - f l o w Thus, reasonably accurate

of

measurements o f f l u c t u a t i n g p r e s s u r e c o u l d quasi-steadyflow signalfromtheprobe was n o t v i o l a t e d noseand

be made as l o n g as theassumption

and t h et i m el a g

between t h et r a n s v e r s e - f o r c e was

thepressure

measured a t t h e a n n u l a r s l i t

n o ti m p o r t a n t .g e n e r a l l y ,t h . i sr e q u : i r e st h a tt h es p a t i a ls c a l eo ft h ep r e s s u r e
"

f l u c t - u a t i o n s be much larger than the probe dimensions.* was a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t i n

As a r e s u l t o f h i s where

workSiddon

many p r a c t i c a lc i r c u m s t a n c e s measured w i t h p r o b e s

o n l y root-mean-squarepressurefluctuationswere Strasberg's(Ref. be s m a l l . mustuse

1i k e 1 kelyto
even same."

37), t h e . c o r r e c t i o n f o r c r o s s - f l o w i n t e r a c t i o n i s
when instantaneous values are desi red

Owing t od i f f e r e n c e si nt h ec o r r e c t e d thecorrectedpressure

and uncorrected wave forms, one

when t h ec o r r e c t e d

and uncorrectedroot-mean-squarepressuresarethe o f aerodynamics and acousticreasons,

Thus, f o r a number

as w e l l as o f opera o r s o f and p i be deve tot oped and

s i m p l i c i t y and economy, Westley(Ref.

9) n o t e st h a t

a number

t r a n s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s a r e m e a s u r i n g f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c pressures. He recommends that these types acoustic of probes Dynamic s t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e ss h o u l d

standardized.

be developed f o r h i g h

speed f l o w s and probablyshouldfollowtheSiddontypedesign. Inthe case o f dynamic P i t o t probes, a s e r i e s o f d e s i g n s t u d i e s a t t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r

NASA

Langley has culminated i n a designwhichappears a c o u s t i cc a l i b r a t i o no fw i n dt u n n e l s , p r o b er e p o r t e di nR e f . two 0.318 Refs.38,

35 and 14.

A schematic o f t h e

14 i s shown i nF i g .

3.F.3.

B r i e f l y , i t c o n s i s t so f mounted i n tandem.

cm ( 1 / 8i n . )d i a m e t e rp i e z o e l e c t r i ct r a n s d u c e r s

The probediameterof

0.635 cm (1/4 i n . ) was s e l e c t e d because mean pressure a

is

measurements i n d i c a t et h ep r e s s u r ei sn e a r l yc o n s t a n ta c r o s st h ec e n t e ro f f l a t - f a c e dd i s ki ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w . c o v e r e dw i t h a thin coating of The diaphragm o f t h e exposed transducer RTV rubber t o reduce v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o

damage by

p a r t i c l e si nt h ef l o w . i ss u b t r a c t e df r o mt h e

The purpose o ft h es h i e l d e dr e a rt r a n s d u c e ri st o The s i g n a lf r o mt h i st r a n s d u c e r exposedtransducer inordertoaccountfortheeffects

serve as an a c c e l e r a t i o n( o rv i b r a t i o n )m o n i t o r .

nThe u n d e r l i n i n g was i n s e r t e d by t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r s t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e s i z e o f t h e AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone may i n d u c e e r r o r s i n n o i s e measurements.

153

A U Dimensions in Centimeters

r E m s e d tnnrduccr

Figure

3 .F. 3 .

SMALL PIEZOF&EC!i'RIC DYNAMIC

PRESSURE PROBE, Ref. 14

o f p r o b ev i b r a t i o n . *I no r d e rf o rt h i st e c h n i q u et o (Ref.14)notedthatthetwotransducers outputsforgivenaccelerationlevels. Inconjunctionwiththeprobe, chamber and t e s t s e c t i o n o f must be

be v a l i d , Anders, e t a l . matched t o g i v e i d e n t i c a l

a h o t w i r e was a l s o used i n t h e s t i l l i n g

a small Mach 5 w i n d t u n n e l a t

NASA Langley.
was used t o

Assuming p u r e l y a c o u s t i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n

relatethefluctuatingstaticpressuresobtainedfromthehotwiretofluctuatingPitotpressures.

Here < H I 2 > i s t h e

rms f l u c t u a t i n gt o t a lp r e s s u r eb e h i n d

a normal shock, and u

S

<PIoD> i s the rms f l u c t u a t i n g , r e e s t r e a m t a t i c r e s s u r e , f s p

i st h e equae.g., see

sound-source v e l o c i t yd e t e c t e d

by t h eh o tw i r e .

The r e s u l t sf r o mt h i s

t i o n gave e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h t h e f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r o b e d a t a , Appendix I , Fig. Anders, e ta l .

7.

It i sr e l e v a n t

t o note here conclusion the reached by

(Ref. 14).

"The h o t w i r e and P i t o t p r o b e g e n e r a l l y i n d i c a t e t h e same t r e n d and l e v e lw i t hr e s p e c tt ot h e Reynolds number. T h i s agreement i s o f g r e a t p r a c t i c a li m p o r t a n c es i n c et h ep i e z o e l e c t r i cP i t o tp r o b ei s a much more ruggedinstrumentwithsimplerdatareductionproceduresthanthehotw i r ep r o b e .F o rd i a g n o s t i cs t u d i e s ,t h eP i t o tp r o b e ca,n provideessent i a l l y t h e same i n f o r m a t i o n as t h eh o t - w i r ep r o b e. w i t h much l e s s e f f o r t . However, t h eh o tw i r e does have one p a r t i c u l a r advantage i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n .T h a ti s ,i n a pure sound f i e l d t h e h o t w i r e can d i s t i n g u i s h between moving sources and f i x e d sources."

A s i m i l a r comparison o f h o t w i r e d a t a w i t h f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r o b e d a t a
has been r e p o r t e d by Grande and
< 2.25.

Oates (Ref.

39).

However, a

1.78 rnm (0.070 i n . )

a

diameterstrain

gage transducer was employed and d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d f o r Nondimensionalized power s p e c t r a ld e n s i t i e so b t a i n e di n

1.1 <

t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r and inthefreestreamwerefoundtoagreeremarkably *Dougherty and S t e i n l e( R e f . 8) r e p o r tt h a tt h ea c c e l e r o m e t e r used i n t h e AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone has n o td e t e c t e d any s i g n i f i c a n t v i b r a t i o n e f f e c t s d u r i n g 35) d i dr e p o r t t e s t s i n a number o ft u n n e l s . However, S t a i n b a c k ,e ta l .( R e f . significant probe vibration effects.

155

we1 1.

These a u t h o r sc o n c l u d et h a t" t h ef r e q u e n c yr e s p o n s ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of

t h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r es e n s o ra r ei d e n t i c a lt ot h o s e

of t h eh o tw i r e ,i . e . ,

it c a nb ec o n s i d e r e da ni d e a lp o i n ts e n s o rf o rf l u c t u a t i o n sw i t hs p a t i a ls c a l e s

somewhat largerthantheprobediameter.''

To summarize theadvantages
thefollowingpointsarenoted.

and disadvantages o f f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t

probes,

D isadvan tages :
1.
c a n n o ts e p a r a t et h et h r e ep o s s i b l ef l o wd i s t u r b a n c e entropy,vorticity and p r e s s u r e . modes o f

2.

cannot deduce w h e t h e rd i s t u r b a n c es o u r c e sa r es t a t i o n a r yo r movi ng.

3.

s h o c km o d u l a t i o no fd i s t u r b a n c e s (e.g.,see Ref.

may be unknown i n some cases

39 ) .

Advantages :

1.

r e l a t i v e l yi n e x p e n s i v e are readi ly available.

and o f f - t h e - s h e l f ,

commercial transducers

2.

speedandease

o f measurement.

3.

s i m p l e rd a t ar e d u c t i o n . durable, ;.e., to hot wires. f a rl e s ss u s c e p t i b l et op a r t i c l e damage compared

4.
5.

h i g hs i g n a lt on o i s er a t i o . reduced i n f l u e n c e o f f l o w p e r t u r b a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f i n i t e p r o b es i z e (compared w i t h t h e

6.

AEDC t r a n s i t i o nc o n e ) .

7.
8.

minimum w a l l - p r o b e i n t e r f e r e n c e . e a s i l y moved about t o s u r v e y e n t i r e t e s t s e c t i o n .

I nc o n c l u s i o n ,r e c e n tr e s e a r c hw i t hf l u c t u a t i n gP i t o tp r o b e si n d i c a t e s theseinstruments i nt r a n s o n i c may be adequate f o r i n i t i a l c a l i b r a t i o n o f f l o w d i s t u r b a n c e s measurement couldserve as

and s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s .T h i st y p eo f

a convenient
AEDC plansto

and inexpensive standard to Dougherty of

compare tunnel noise levels. thePropulsion Wind Tunnel group

I t 1s at

a l s or e l e v a n tt on o t et h a t

use af l u c t u a t i n gP i t o tp r o b et om o n i t o rf r e e s t r e a md i s t u r b a n c e AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone.

l e v e l sd u r i n gf l i g h tt e s t sw i t ht h e

1 57

1II.F. References

1.

Dougherty, N. S. ; Anderson, C. Tunnel W 1 1 s , I ' AEDC-TR-75-88, a

F.; and Parker, R.

L. : "An Experimental
Wind

I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Techniques t o SuppressEdgetonesfromPerforated Aug

. 1975.
March 1976. i n Transonic Wind

2.

Hartzuiker,

J. P. ; Pugh, P. G . ; Lorenz-Meyer, W. ; and Fasso, G . E. : "On

for theLargeEuropeanHigh-Reynolds-Number
LEHRT,"

theFlowQualityNecessary TransonicWindtunnel

AGARD-R-644,

3.
4.

McCanless, Tunnels
,I1

G.

F. and Boone, J. R.:

SOC.

J. Acoust.

Am.,

Vol

. 56,

"Noise Reduction

No. 5, Nov. 1974. "Suppression o f Background Noise

Schutzenhofer, L. A.

and Howard,

P. W. :

i n aTransonicWind-TunnelTestSection,''

A l A A Jour.,
V i b r a t i o ni n

Nov. 1975. Wind Tunnels a t

5.

Mabey, D.

G.:

"Flow Unsteadiness

and Model
C.P.

Subsonic and Transonic Speeds,"

No. 1155, Aero. Res. Coun.,

1971.
of

6.

Habey, D. G . :

' # A nH y p o t h e s i sf o rt h eP r e d i c t i o no fF l i g h tP e n e t r a t i o n Wind Tunnel Models,"

Wing B u f f e t i n g from Dynamic Testson Oct. 1970.

RAE TR 70189,

7.
8.

Mabey, D. G . :

"The I n f l u e n c e o f Flow Unsteadiness Speeds," RAE Tech. Memo. Aero.

on Windtunnel Measure-

ments a tT r a n s o n i c

1473, 1973.
Number

Dougherty, N. S . and S t e i n l e , F. J u l y 1974.

W.:

"Transition eynolds R

Comparisons i n SeveralMajorTransonicTunnels,"

A I A A Paper No. 74-627,

9.

Westley,

R.:

"Problems o f Noise Measurement i n Ground-Based F a c i l i t i e s Wind TunnelNoise)

,I1

w i t h Forward-Speed Simulation(High-speed o f AGARD-AR-83, Sept.

Appendix

1975.
Free-Stream luctuating ressuresn he F P i t Wind Tunnel F a c i l i t y , "

IO.

R i d d l e , C.

D.:

" I n v e s t i g a t i o no f

16-Ft.
Aug.

Tunnels o f t h e P r o p u l s i o n

AEDC-TR-67-167,

1967.
and McCanless, G . F.: " E v a l u a t i o no ft h eA c o u s t i cS o u r c e so f

11.

Boone, J. R.

Background Noise

i n Wind Tunnel F a c i l i t i e s , ' # NASA CR-98155.

12.

Boone, J. R. and McCanless, E v a l u a t i n gt h eA c o u s t i c Facilities," Mar.

G . F.:

" A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Techniques for C h r y s l e rH u n t s v i l l eO p e r a t i o n s ,

Sources o f Background Noise i n Wind Tunnel

Tech. Rept. HSM-R05-69,

1969.
"An E v a l u a t i o no ft h eF l u c t u a t i n gA i r b o r n eE n v i r o n m e n t si n Tunnel," AEDC-TR-69-236, Nov.

13.
14.

Credle, 0 . P . :

t h e AEDC-PWT 4-Ft.Transonic Anders, J. R. ; Stainback, Section o f a Small, Mach

1969.
I . E. : "Sound

P. C. ; Keefe,

L.

R. ; and Beckwith, ICIASF '75,

and F l u c t u a t i n g D i s t u r b a n c e Measurements i n t h e S e t t l i n g

Chamber and Test

Wind Tunnel,"

I n t ' l Congress on Ottawa, Canada,

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n i n Aerospace S i m u l a t i o n F a c i l i t i e s , Sept. 22-24,

1975, publishedby
Stainback, P. C.;

IEEE, 345 E. 47th S t r e e t , New York.

15.

Anders, J. B.;

Keefe, L. R.; June 1976.

and Beckwith, 1 . E . :
AIAA 9th

"FluctuatingOisturbancesin

a Mach

5 Wind Tunnel,"Proc.

Aerodynamics TestingConference,

16.

Horstman, C. C.

and Rose, bl. C.:

"Hot Wire Anemometry i nT r a n s o n i c

Flow,"

NASA TM X-62495, Dec.

1975.
"Flow F l u c t u a t i o n Measurements a t

17.

Donaldson, J. C. Mach Number

AEDC TR-71-143,

and Wallace, J. P.: Aug.

4 i nt h eT e s tS e c t i o n
1971.
J. B.:

o f the12-InchSupersonicTunnel

(D)

,I'

18.

Lewis, T. L . and Dods, F l u c t u a t i o n sa t Transducers,"

"Wind-Tunnel Measurements o f 1.6, 2.0, Oct. 1972.

o f Surface-Pressure

Mach Numbers

and 2.5 Using 12 D i f f e r e n t

NASA TN D-7087,

19.

Fuchs, H. V . : TurbulentJets,"

"Measurement o f Pressure Fluctuations Within Subsonic

J . Sound & Vib.,
:

Vol. 22, No. 3, 8 June 1972.

20.

W Imarth, W. i1 W.

"Pressure Fluctuations

Beneath Turbulent BoundaryLayers,"

Annual Review Cal if., 21.

o f F l u i d Mechanics,Vol.

7, Annual Review Inc.,Palo

Alto,

1975.
"Unsteady Force and Pressure Measurements , I ' Annual Review

WImarth, GI. W. : i1

o f F l u i d Mechanics, Vol. 22. Hanly, R. D.:

3 , Annual Review Inc.,

P a l oA l t o ,C a l i f . ,

1971.

"EffectsofTransducerFlushnessonFluctuatingSurface Mar.

Pressure Measurements, A I A A Paper No. 75-534, 23. Dods, J. B. and Hanly, R. D . : TunnelBackgroundNoise Measurements,"

1975.

"Evaluation o f Transonic and Supersonic WindSept. 1972.

and E f f e c t s o f S u r f a c e P r e s s u r e F l u c t u a t i o n

A l A A Paper No. 72-1004,

159

24.

Credle, 0. P. and Shadow, T.

0.:

"Evaluation of t h eO v e r a l l

Root-Mean,I'

Square F l u c t u a t i n g P r e s s u r e L e v e l s i n t h e AEDC-TR-70-7, 1970. Feb.

AEDC PWT 16-Ft.TransonicTunnel

25

Todd, Chevalier, H. L. and intheTestSectionofthe from 5 t o 1000 cps,"

H. E.:

"Measurement o f t h eP r e s s u r eF l u c t u a t i o n s Range

16-FootTransonicCircuitintheFrequency

AEDC-TN-61-51

(AD 255 7631, May 1961.

"Measurements o fF l u c t u a t i n gP r e s s u r e s o f 0.56 t o

26.

b r a b i n u s , R. J. and Sanders, B. W. : i n 8-by6-FootSupersonic 2.07,'' NASA TM X-2009,

Wind Tunnel f o r Mach Number Range May 1970.

E.:

27

Credle, 0. P. and Carleton, W. Number i n t h e T r a n s o n i c

"Determination o f T r a n s i t i o n Reynolds Oct. 1970.

Mach Number Range," AEDC-TR-70-218,

28.
1

Dougherty, N. S . ,

Jr.:

'IPrepared Comment on Cone T r a n s i t i o n Reynolds June 1975. Reynolds

Number Data C o r r e l a t i o n Study,'l AGARD-CP-187, W h i t f i e l d , J. and Dougherty, N. S . , Number Work a t AEDC," Jr.:

29.

"A Survey o fT r a n s i t i o n

t o be p r e s e n t e d a t

AGARD F l u i d Dynamics Panel Copenhagen, Denmark, May 1977. on

,'I

Symposium onLaminar-TurbulentTransition,

30

Pate, S . R. and Schueler, C. J.:

"RadiatedAerodynamicNoiseEffects and HypersonicMindTunnels

Boundary L a y e r T r a n s i t i o n i n S u p e r s o n i c A l A A Jour., Vol. 31

7, No. 7, Mar. 1969.

Benek, J. A. and High, M. Oct.

D.:
P.

"A Method f o rt h eP r e d i c t i o n
1425, Oct. 1974.
R.;

o f t h eE f f e c t s

o f Free-Stream Disturbances on Boundary-Layer Transit ion,"

AEDC-TR-73-158,

1973, a l s o A l A A Jour.,
S t e i n l e , F.

32

Treon, S. L.;

M.; Hagerman, J.

Black, J. A.,

and B u f f i n g t o n , a High-SubsonicAlAA

R. J . :" F u r t h e rC o r r e l a t i o no f
Speed T r a n s p o r t A i r c r a f t Paper No.71-291, Mar.

Data f r o mI n v e s t i g a t i o n so f Model i n ThreeMajorTransonic

Wind Tunnels,"

1971.
i nt h e

33

Credle, 0. P.:

"Perforated Wall Noise

Transonic Tunnel s , ' I AEDC-TR-7 1-21 6, Oct

. 197 1 .

AEDC-PWT

16-Ft.

and 4-Ft.

34.

H e l l e r , H. H. and Clemente, C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Slender Mach-Number Flow,"

A . R.:

" F l u c t u a t i n gS u r f a c e

Pressure and Hypersonic

Cones i n Subsonic, Supersonic,

NASA CR-2449, Oct.

1974.

160

35.

Stainback, P.

C. ; Wagner, R.

D. ; Owen,

F. K. ; andHorstman,
NASA TN

C.

C. :

"ExperimentalStudies

o f HypersonicBoundary-Layer

T r a n s i t i o n and

E f f e c t s o f Wind-Tunnel Disturbances,"

D-7453, Mar. 1974.

36.

Siddon, T.

E.:

"On t h e Response o f Pressure Measuring Instrumentation UTlAS Rept. No. 136, I n s t i t u t e for AerospaceStudies,

i n Unsteady Flow,"

Univ. of Toronto, Jan.

1969.
and Total-Head

37.

Strasberg, M.:

"Measurements o ft h eF l u c t u a t i n gS t a t i c DavidTaylor

Pressures i n a Turbulent Wake,"

Model Basin Rept.

1779,

(AD 428 7001, Dec. 1963 (a1 so AGARD Rept. 464).

38.

Stainback, P. C.

and Wagner, R. D.:

"A Comparison of Disturbance Levels

Anemometer anda 1972. Pitot

Measured i n HypersonicTunnelsUsingaHot-wire Sept. Pressure Probe,'' A l A A Paper No. 72-1003,

39.

Grande, E. and Oates, G.

C.:

I'Response o fM i n i a t u r eP r e s s u r eT r a n s d u c e r s
Flow,"

t oF l u c t u a t i o n si nS u p e r s o n i c

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o nf o rA i r b r e a t h i n g

' ". r o p u l s i o n P
MIT Press,

Progress 1972.

in

A s t r o n a u t iand Aeronautics, A l A A Vol. 34, cs

161.

. I .

.
111.6.

.. ..

. . ..

.. ... - .. . .. _..._ .

TRANSONIC TUNNEL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND WALL INTERFERENCE

I I I.G.l.

Conventional Ventilated Walls

The history of development of ventilated walls for transonic tunnels has been reviewed by Goethert (Ref. 1). this development wereas follows: The three primary milestones in

1.

Theoretical analyses in Germany, Italy, and Japan during the

1930's indicated tunnel walls with proper arrangement of longitudinal slots would provide wall-interference-freeflow simulation. This work wasinterrupted by World War 1 1 . 2 During 1946, Wright and Ward (Ref. 2) developed a "subsonic theory . for solid-blockage interference in circular wind tunnels with walls slotted in the direction of flow." Subsequently, a 12-in. diameter tunnel was designed with ten evenly spaced slots providing a total openness ratio of one-eighth. The tunnel was put into operation in 1947. This design d i d indeed prevent choking and enabled testing t h r u Mach one of a model with 8.5% blockage. 3. Unfortunately, the solid slats in slotted tunnels were found to and cause significant reflecticns of bow shocks expansion waves at supersonic speeds. Thus, around 1950 theoretical analyses at Cornel1 Aeronautical Laboratory* indicated better shock wave cancel lation could be achieved with small-grain porous walls, Goodman (Ref. 3).
Unfortunately, exploratory tests showed such walls clog easily, and even worse, the porosity needed to vary with each change in Mach number and/or shock strength. As an outgrowth of thiswork, the now familiar perforated wall was selected a convenient compromise. as The early mathematical models of tunnel-wall-interference were based on the governing differential equation for perturbation velocity potential in subsonic, compressible flow, e.g. ,'Baldwin, et

el. (Ref. 4).

The current name of this facility Calspan. is

162

I f the wa 1 1 is solid, the boundary conditionfor no flow through the wall is

wall.

a4 -=
an

0 at solid

(3-6.2)

In the case of an open-jet, there canbe no pressure difference across the boundary; thus

a4 -= ax

0 at open boundary.

(3.G.3)

The corrections to measured valueso f model lift and pitching moment, which result when solving Eq. (3.6.1) with either solid or open-wall boundary conditions, are discussed in detail by Garner, et al. (Ref. 5). The theoretical results generally agree with experiments. In order to facilitate applications of thls type of boundary-induced corrections, Heyson (Ref. has compiled solutions in 6) the form of curves and charts. In the case of ventilated walls, the boundary conditions become more complex.

In fact, the central problem of theoretical analysis of transonic-wall-interference is selection of the appropriate boundary conditions to use with (3.G.l). Eq. This is still an area of active research, and only a brief review of boundaryconditions for ventilated tunnels wi 1 1 be given here.

A n approximate boundary condition for porous walls was derived Goodman by (Ref. 3, Part I I ) , viz.,

1 -

at ideal, porous wall.

This boundary condition was derived assuming the average velocity normal to by

(a the wall is proportional to the pressure drop through the wall linearized
approximation to viscous flow through the wall), that the pressure outslde and the wall is equal to freestream static. The value of R, for a given wall, i s usually determined experimentally by measuring pressure drop and the associated mass flow througha wall sample (e.g. Ref. 71, i.e.

An a p p r o x i m a t e , u n i f o r m b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r s l o t t e d w a l l s by Baldwin, etal. (Ref. 4).

was d e r i v e d

-4 a ax

+ K - a20 axan

= 0

aitd e a ls l o t t e d a l l , w

(3. G.6)

where K i s r e l a t e d t o s l o t
DS lr

geometry by

K =
and

In

{CSC

(E

-wS 1 1
DS

Ds =
Ws
I n anattempt

d i s t a n c e between s l o c e n t e r s , t

width slots. of

t o account f o rv i s c o u se f f e c t s ,B a l d w i n ,e ta l .s u g g e s t e d
Eq.

a d d i n gt h ep o r o u sb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o nt o slotofinterest.

(3.6.6) and

measuring R f o r t h e

a+ ax
K e l l e r (Ref.

&
axan

- 1 a4
Rs
an

0 at viscous, slotted wall

(3.6.8)

8)

has r e c e n t l ys u g g e s t e dt h i sb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n by r e p l a c i n g l / R S w i t h l / R s

be extended t o

includevaryingslotwidth

aK/ax.

A f t e r more thantwodecadesoftesting e x p e r i m e n t a lr e s u l t s ,

and comparisons o f t h e o r y w i t h

i t i s now g e n e r a l l yr e c o g n i z e dt h a ta p p l i c a t i o no ft h e

l i n e a r b o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s ,w i t hc o n s t a n t

va l u e so f

K and/or

R, i s inadequate.

As an example o f t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y ,
presentedhere. Lowe (Ref.

a b r i e f summary o f a t y p i c a l case i s

9)

measured t h ew a l lp o r o s i

t y parameter f o r a w a l l w i t h

22.5%

p o r o s i t y and normal holes.

The standardporosityparameter,

R , was determined
a

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by m e a s u r i n g t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d r o p

and mass f l o w a c r o s s

164

9 - i n c hb y2 1 - i n c hs e c t i o no f

a s i d e w a l l o f theGeneral

Dynamics 4-footHigh

Speed Wind Tunnel.Datawereobtained and a corresponding unit Reynolds

for Mach numbers o f 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 number range o f 19.7 t o 37.7 ml ion (per il
R and t h e r e s u l t s o f

meter),Usingthe t h e o r yo b t a i n e d

measured v a l u e s o f by Lo and O l i v e r( R e f .

1 i n e a rp e r t u r b a t i o n
an model
I

IO), t h e upwash and stream1inecurvahave t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an a i r c r a f t f o r c e

turecorrectionsindicatedthewalldidnot

open j e t . T h i s c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t s w i t h which,when w i t ht h e correctedfor

open-boundaryinterference,agreed

withdataobtained

same model i nt h eL a n g l e y

8 ' TransonicPressureTunnel(Ref.

ll)*.

Thus, t h e r e s u l t s o f

Lowe, as w e l l a so t h e r s ,i n d i c a t et h e

measurement o f R and
I

use o f t h e c l a s s i c a l , l i n e a r p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y i s n o t v e r y u s e f u l f o r c a l i b r a t i n gt h ee f f e c t so ft r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e lw a l l s .I f , i ng e n e r a 1 , t h i sa p p r o a c ht o c o r r e c t i n gf o rw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e porous and s l o t t e dt u n n e l sw o u l d calibration. The c u r r e n t consensus i s :t h et r u e ,t r a n s o n i c - t u n n e lb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s a r e dependent on t h el o c a lf l o wc o n d i t i o n sn e a rt h ew a l l .T h i s ,i nt u r n , a dependence onbothtunneloperatingconditions@theparticular Newman and Klunker (Ref. model means had provensuccessful, measurements o f R f o r

have become a s t a n d a r dp a r to ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l

configuration, e.g., s t u d yo fv a r i a t i o n si n

14).

Recent e f f o r t st oo b t a i n Ref.

improvedboundaryconditionsforfixed(passive)wallconditionsincludethe
R between top and b o t t o mp e r f o r a t e dw a l l s ,

15, and
is

n o n l i n e a rb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n sf o rw a l l sw i t hn o r m a lh o l e s ,

Ref.

16, and s l o t t e d

walls, e.g., Refs.

17 and 18.

Of

c o u r s e ,t h eb a s i co b j e c t i v eo ft h e s es t u d i e s

t oa t t a i nd a t ac o r r e c t i o np r o c e d u r e sw h i c h real,ventilatedwalls.

can r e l i a b l y account f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f

111.6.2.

Adaptive Studies Wall

The d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a p p l y i n g t r a n s o n i c w a l l c o r r e c t i o n s , w h i c h reduce to s i m p l e m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f speed and angle o f a t t a c k , a r e w e l l

do n o t known.

A l s o , one o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l , l i n e a r t h e o r y

of

walleffectsistheimpossibilityofusinguniformporositytosimultaneously The r e c e n t , s u p e r c r i t i c a l a i r f o i l t e s t s o f E l a c k w e l l and Pounds (Ref. 12) i n d i c a t et h ea c t u a l boundary c o n d i t i o n s h i f t s t o w a r dt h ef r e e - j e ta sp o r o s i t y increases,i.e.,thetransonicshock moves f o r w a r d f o r a g i v e n Mach number. T h i s same t r e n d was alsoobserved as a r e s u l to fi n c r e a s e db l o c k a g ei nt h e s u p e r c r i t i c a lc o n e - c y l i n d e rt e s t so f Page (Ref. 1 3 ) . 165

eliminatetheeffectsofwallinterferenceonbothnormalforce moment, Ref.

and p i t c h i n g

16.
been suggested and a r e c u r r e n t l y by F e r r i and Baronti (Ref. more c o r r e c t .

Forthesereasons,otherprocedureshave beingnvestigated. i Sears (Ref. The theory developed

19) and
These a u t h o r s

20) seems t o o f f e rt h ep r o m i s eo fb e i n g

suggestedthatthepressuredistribution

and t h e s t r e a m l i n e d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e a model in

be

measured a l o n gt h et u n n e lw a l l s( o u t s i d et h eb o u n d a r yl a y e r )w i t h place. The scheme t h e ni n v o l v e sc a l c u l a t i o no f measured pressuredata

( I ) t h ef l o w - d e f l e c t i o na n g l e s
and (2) t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n The d i f f e r e n c e between

w h i c hc o r r e s p o n dt ot h e c o r r e s p o n d i n gt ot h e t h e measured and a r et h e n

measured flow d e f l e c t i o na n g l e s .

calculatedpressuredistributions

andstreamlinedeflections

used t o accomplish one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1.
2.

d e t e r m i n et h ew a l lp o r o s i t yw h i c he l i m i n a t e sw a l l i n t e r f e r e n c ef o r a g i v e ne x t e r n a lp r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o n ,

p r o v i d et h ec o r r e c tp r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o no u t s i d e oftheporouswallfor a givenporositydistribution,

3.
4.

d e t e r m i n ew a l lc o n t o u r st oc o n f o r mw i t hf r e e - a i r stream1 ines, o r c a l c u l a t et h ew a l lc o r r e c t i o n st o e x p e r i m e n t ar e s u l t s . l be a p p l i e dt ot h e

One o f t h e

advantages o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s t h a t

it o n l y r e q u i r e s t h e

l i n e a r i z e dp e r t u r b a t i o ne q u a t i o n st o

be v a l i d n e a rt h ew a l l .T h i s

means t h e

procedure may be v a l i d as long as supersonicpockets t u n n e lw a l l s . The primary advantage

do n o t e x t e n d t o t h e
i t uses d a t a

o ft h i sp r o c e d u r ei st h a t

t oe s t a b l i s ht h ea p p r o p r i a t e

boundaryconditions.

However, as noted

by F e r r i

and B a r o n t i ,t h ep r i m a r yd i s a d v a n t a g e sa r et h er e q u i r e m e n t sf o r" a c c u r a t e measurements o f f l o w d e f l e c t i o n s and p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n s a t s e v e r a l a n g u l a r

p o s i t i o n s and a t many s t a t i o n s a l o n g t h e t e s t s e c t i o n . " I nc o n j u n c t i o nw i t ht h et h e o r yo fF e r r i gram was begun i n t h e and Baronti,anexperimentalpro-

15" T r i s o n i c Gasdynamics F a c i l i t y a t t h e
be measured more

Air F o r c e F l i g h t
accurately and

Dynamics Laboratory.SinceStreamlineanglescan away from t h e w a l l , t h e t h e o r y s t a t i cp r e s s u r e s model and

was s u b s e q u e n t l y m o d i f i e d t o u s e f l o w a n g l e s between t h e

measured a t an i n t e r m e d i a t e" m i d f i e l d 1 'l o c a t i o n measurements, a new h o t - f i l m ,

w a l l .F o ra n g u l a r i t y

20 deg-wedge probe

166

was designed and f a b r i c a t e d .C a l i b r a t i o nt e s t s resolving flow angles to within togetherwith t h ei n p u tr e q u i r e d Results of this b yt h eF e r r i

show it t o be capableof

+2 - minutes o f a r c (Ref.21).Thisprobe,
and Barontitheory. f e a s i b i l i t y o f changing

a c o n v e n t i o n a l , cone-cylinder,static-pressure probe,provides

workhavedemonstratedthe

slotted-wallcontourtominimizetransonic-wall-interferencewiththeflow o v e r 6% t h i c k b i c o n v e x a i r f o i l s a t z e r o a n g l e - o f - a t t a c k . r e s u l t sf o rn o n z e r oa n g l e s - o f - a t t a c ki n d i c a t et h ew a l lc o n t o u r changed as changes i n l i f t and/or model c o n f i g u r a t i o na r e l i f t i n g a i r f o i l models i sc o n t i n u i n g . abletoconcludethatthisapproachoffers viousapproach o f measuringpressuredrop However, enough made. As expected,the

w l need t o be il
The s t u d yo f now a v a i l r e s u l t sa r e

a decidedadvantageoverthepreand mass flow through a w a l l sample t o e s t i m a t e wa1l-model

and t h e n t r y i n g t o

use l i n e a r boundaryconditions

interferencefactors. Work i s a l s o underway a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f and ONERA (France),Ref. f r e e - a i rs t r e a m l i n e s . V i d a l ,e ta l .( R e f . Southampton(England),Ref.

22,

23, on u s i n g a d j u s t a b l e , s o l i d w a l l s t o c o n f o r m w i t h

24) have reportedonrecentprogresswiththeCalspan

The c o n c l u s i o n s e g a r d i n g r a n s o n i c r o s s r t c The f o l l o w i n g

o n e - f o o t ,s e l f - c o r r e c t i n gt u n n e l . i s quotedfromtheirpaper. "The u s u a lt h e o r e t i c a la p p r o a c h

f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fp e r f o r a t e dw a l l sa r eq u i t eI n t e r e s t i n g .

i s t o assume t h a tt h e

normal v e l o c i t y

component i nt h ei n v i s c i ds t r e a mi sl i n e a r l yr e l a t e dt ot h ev e l o c i t y t h r o u g ht h ew a l l ,w h i c hi sl i n e a r l yr e l a t e dt ot h ep r e s s u r ed r o pa c r o s s t h ew a l l . Our r e s u l t s show t h a tn e i t h e rl i n e a rr e l a t i o ni sa p p l i c a b l e b o u n d a r yl a y e ra m p l i f i e st h en o r m a lv e l o c i t yi nt h e a f a c t o rr a n g i n ga tl e a s tf r o m

and t h a tt h ew a l l i n v i s c i ds t r e a mb y

1.15 t o 6.

I t does

n o t appear t o be f e a s i b l e t o c a l i b r a t e t h i s t i o n because t h e l a t t e r o ft h e boundary layer.

will depend,

boundary l a y e r a m p l i f i c a on t h eu p s t r e a mh i s t o r y

inpart,

The main advantage

t ot h ef l o w m e t e rt e c h n i q u ei s above.

t h a t it i s n o n i n t r u s i v e and does

n o tp r o d u c ed i s t u r b a n c e si nt h ef l o w f i e l d .

T h i s one advantage i s outweighed by t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s c i t e d

C o n s e q u e n t l y ,t h ef l o w m e t e rt e c h n i q u ef o ri n f e r r i n gt h en o r m a lv e l o c i t y component been has discarded, and we a r e now u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l p i t c h

probes f o r t h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n . "

Thus, this i s another case which shows the linear boundary condition at ventilated, transonic walls is basically incorrect. The basic technique used to correct wall porosity is as follows. First, theoretical estimates of the unconfined, longitudinal, disturbance-velocities, are made at a chosen distance f r o m the tunnel wall. The wall porosities are initially set to provide these distributions monitoring the local static by pressures with a long survey pipe. Second, the normal velocity components, at this same distance, are measured with small pitch probes used as input for and solutions of thc transonic, small-disturbance equation which assume unconfined flow. The resulting solutions provide new approximations for the longitudinal velocity distributions. The wall porosities and/or plenum pressures are then adjusted to provide this new velocity distribution. Next, the normal comand the process continuesuntil the differences ponents are again measured, between all the normal velocity components, measured successive iterations, at are less than 0.0005 Vm. At this point, unconfined flow conditions are assumed to be achieved. Experience with this iterative procedure shown that the convergence has criterion is unnecessarily stringent, and a better criterion is being considered. However, for the case of an NACA 0012 airfoil at M = 0.55, a = and
6O,

4O

and M = 0.725, a = 2O convergence was obtainedin five to seven

iterations. The significant result was the measured airfoil pressure distribution, obtained in the one-foot tunnel with wall control, agreed very well with data obtained with the same airfoil the 8-foot tunnel. in still a large Although the Calspan results are encouraging, there are number of problems to overcome before three dimensional models be similarly can tested, i.e., adequate theoretical modelso f 30 transonic flows and porosity adjustment of all four walls.

*The

perforated walls are divided into ten segments on the top and eight on the bottom. The four central segments in the top wall and the two central segments in the bottom wall are designed to provide a n adjustable porosity with linear variation in the streamwise direction. Each segment has a separate plenum for individual control of suction or blowing.

168

Recently, Kemp (Ref. 25) has suggested a h y b r i d scheme.

He has proposed

u s i n gl i m i t e da d a p t i v e - w a l lc o n t r o lt or e d u c ei n t e r f e r e n c et oa n a l y t i c a l l y
,

c o r r e c t a b l ee v e l s . n l I improveddata-correction and Europe.

sumnary, r e d u c t i o n t r a n s o n i c - w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e of methods a r e a r e a s o f a c t i v e r e s e a r c h i n t h e i sa n t i c i p a t e di nt h en e a rf u t u r e .

and

USA, Canada,

Considerable progress

111.6.3.

Boundary Layers etal. (Ref.

and Wall Generated Noise

As notedbyPindzola,
noisethan phenomena has been

161, s l o t t e d - w a l lt u n n e l sg e n e r a t el e s s

do p e r f o r a t e dw a l l s .

An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s

g i v e n by Cumning and Lowe (Ref.

11).

I nt h e i rt e s t s ,

an F-111

a i r c r a f t model was t e s t e d i n t h e Near-interference-free data

same tunnel w i t h bothporous

and s l o t t e d w a l l s . a Mach number

and minimum drag were obtained over

o f 0.60 t o 0.80 w i t ht h es l o t t e dw a l l s .W i t ht r a n s i t i o nf r e e ,t h i sc o r r e s p o n d e d t o anobservedrearward p o r o u sw a l lt e s t s . movement of boundary l a y e r t r a n s i t i o n t h i sp r o v i d e s on an

f

compared t o t h e

Thus,

a s p e c i f i c case o fw a l l - g e n e r a t e dn o i s e a i r c r a f t model.

a f f e c t i n g b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r a n s i t i o n

I n thesupersonic
(Ref. have 28) developed

and hypersonic speed regimes Pate (Ref. c o r r e l a t i o n st or e l a t et u n n e lw a l l

27) and Dougherty

boundarylayer

p r o p e r t i e st or a d i a t e dn o i s e . " " o fV i d a l ,e ta l .

And i nt h et r a n s o n i cr a n g e ,t h er e c e n tt e s t s r e a f f i r mt h ee s s e n t i a lr o l et h e These t e s t s ,

29) (Ref. 24) and S t a r r (Ref.

boundary l a y e rp l a y si nd e t e r m i n i n gw a l lc r o s s f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . among others,havealsodemonstratedthatmodel-inducedpressuregradientscan s i g n i f i c a n t l ya l t e rw a l l - b o u n d a r y - l a y e r si nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s .T h i s empty-tunnelboundary-layersurveysmust surveys models with i np l a c e( p a r t i c u l a r l y

means

be supplemented by t a k i n g a d d i t i o n a l

for h i g h l i f t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s ) .I n
a n e c e s s a r yp a r to fc a l i b r a t i n gb o t h

summary, w a l l boundarylayersurveysare t r a n s o n i c and supersonictunnels.

**Tunnelnoise

The new N a t i o n a l T r a n s o n i c F a c i l i t y a t NASA Langley will have s l o t t e d w a l l s 26. becausetheygeneratelessnoise and i n t e r f e r e n c e a t s u b s o n i c speeds, Ref. Parker(Ref. 30) a l s o found s l o t t e d w a l l s , as opposed t op e r f o r a t e dw a l l s , p r o v i d e d amore u n i f o r m c e n t e r l i n e Mach number d i s t r i b u t i o n up t o M 1.1.

measurements a r ed i s c u s s e di ng r e a t e rd e t a i li nS e c t i o n

I1I.F.

169

A review of various
l a y e r measurementsona

means f o r measuring boundary layer profiles has

been

g i v e n by Kenner Hopkins and (Ref.

31).

These investigatorsobtainedboundary (2.4 < HOD,<3.4)

supersonictunnelwail

with a s i n g l e

t r a v e r s i n g p r o b e ,t h r e ed i f f e r e n tr a k e s , theleading edge. The i n t e r e s t e dr e a d e r anda 32) has

and a 12 deg. wedge

with orifices in

may c o n s u l t t h i s r e f e r e n c e f o r d e t a i l s can be

o f boundary layerprobedesigns expected. Also, Allen (Ref. o f Mach number

discussionoftheresultsthat

g i v e na g e n e r a ld i s c u s s i o no ft h ee f f e c t s boundarylayers.

on P i t o t probe measurement e r r o r s i n t u r b u l e n t

111.6.
1.

References

Goethert, E. H : Transonic Wind Tunnel Testing, Pergamon Press, 1961. .

2.

Wright, R. H. and Ward, V. G.:

"NACA Transonic Wind-Tunnel Test Sections,"

NACA Report 1231 , June 1955 (supercedesNACA RH L8J06, 1948).

3 .

Goadman, T.. R: .

"The Porous Wall Wind Tunnel: Part I1

Interference Effect

on a Cylindrical Body in a Two;Dimensional Tunnel at Subsonic Speed," Rept. No. AD-594-A-3, 1950, "Part 1 1 1 Waves at Supersonic Speeds,I' Rept. Aug. 1951, Cornel1 Aero. Lab., inc.

- Reflection and Absorption of Shock No. AD-706-A-l , Nov. 1950, "Part IV "Wall Interference in

Subsonic interference Problems in a Circular Tunnel," Rept. No. AD-706-A-2,

4 .

Baldwin, B. S . ; Turner, J. 8.; and Knechtel, E. D.:

Wind Tunnels with Slotted and Porous Boundaries at Subsonic Speeds," NACA TN 3176, May 1954.

5 Garner, .

C. ; Rogers, E. W. E. ; Acum, W. E. A. ; and Maskel 1 , E. C. : "Subsonic Wind Tunnel Wall Corrections," AGARDograph 109,Oct. 1966.
H.

6 Heyson, H. .

H.:

"Rapid Estimation of Wind-Tunnel Corrections with Application

to Wind-Tunnel and Model Design," NASA TN 0-6416, Sept. 1971.

7 Pindzola, .

W. L.: "A Summary of Perforated Wall Wind Tunnel Studies at the Arnold Engineering Development Center,'' AEDC-TR-60-9, August 1960.
M. and Chew,

8 .

Keller, J. D.:

"Numerical Calculation of Boundary-induced Interference

in

Slotted or Perforated Wind Tunnels Including Viscous Effects in Slots,"

NASA TN 0-687 1 , Aug. 1 972.

9 Lowe, W. .
1973.
10.

H.:

"Subsonic Crossflow Calibration of a 22.5 Percent Perforated

Wall," HST-TR-355-3, General Dynamics, presented at 39th STA Meeting, Mar.

Lo, C. F. and Oliver, R. H.: "Boundary Interference in a Rectangular Wind Tunnel with Perforated \Jal 1s AEDC-TR-70-67, Apr 1 1 1970. ,I@
Cumming, D. P. and Lowe, W. H: . "Experimental Wall Interference Studies

11.

in a Transonic Wind Tunnel," AlAA Paper No. 71-292, Mar. 1971.

171

12.

Blackwell, J. A., Effects ona

Jr. and Pounds,

G . A.:

"Wind Tunnel Wall Interference Speeds,'' Paper No. 1,

SupercriticalAirfoilatTransonic

Proc. A I M 9 t h Aerodynamic TestingConference,June

1976.

13.

Page, W. A.:

"Experimental Study

o ft h eE q u i v a l e n c eo fT r a n s o n i cF l o w and E l l i p t i c CrossSection,"

aboutSlenderCone-Cylinders

of Circular

NACA TN 4233, A p r i 1 1958.

14.

Newman, P. A. andBody-Shape

and Klunker, E. B.:

"Numerical Modeling

o f Tunnel-Wall NASA SP-

E f f e c t s on TransonicFlow

Over F i n i t e L i f t i n g Wings," Advanced Computers,

P a r t 1 1 of Aerodynamic A n a l y s i s R e q u i r i n g

347, Mar. 1975.

15.
Mokry,

M.; Peake, 0. J.; and Bowker,

A.

J. : "Wall

I n t e r f e r e n c e on TwoMeasurements t o NRC-13894,

D i m e n s i o n a lS u p e r c r i t i c a lA i r f o i l s ,U s i n gW a l lP r e s s u r e D e t e r m i n et h eP o r o s i t yF a c t o r sf o r Nat'l. Aero. Estab., Ottawa,

Tunnel F l o o r and Ceiling,"

Canada, Feb. and C h e v a l li e r ,

1974.
J. P.: "Design o fT r a n s o n i c

16.

Pindzola, M. ; Binion, T. W.; WorkingSections," theDesign App.

8 o f A F u r t h e r Review o f Current"Research Aimed a t

AGARD-AR-83,
Sept.

and Operation o f Large Wind Tunnel-s.,

1975.

17.

Berndt, S . B. and Sorensen, TransonicTestSections," Techniques, AGARD-CP-174,

H.:

"Flow P r o p e r t i e s o f S l o t t e dW a l l sf o r

Paper No. 17, WindtunnelDesignandTesting Mar. 1976. Boundary Conditions,''

18.

Barnwell, R. W. :

"Improvements i nt h eS l o t t e d - W a l l

Paper No. 3, Proc. A l A A 9 t h Aerodynamic Test-ing-Conference, June 1976.

19.

F e r r i , A.

and B a r o n t i , P.: Jan.

"A Method f o rT r a n s o n i c

Wind-Tunnel Corrections,''

AIM Jour.,

973.
AeronauticalJour.,Vol.

20.

Sears, W. Feb.-Mar.

R. : "Se f C o r r e c t i n g Wind Tunnels,"

78,

1974.
"Re du c t i o n o f T r a n s o n i cS l o t t e dW a l lI n t e r f e r e n c e AFFDL-TR-74-139, Mar. 1975. Paper No. Mar. 1976by Means

21. Weeks,

T. M. :

o f SlatContouring,'' 22.
Goodyer, M. J.:

"The Low Speed

Self Streamlining Windtunnel,"

13, WindtunnelDesign

and TestingTechniques,

AGARD-CP-174,

23

C h e v a l li e r ,

J. P. :
~ ~

" S o u f f l e r i eT r a n s s o n i q u e

A ParoisAuto-Adaptable,"

Paper No, 12, \ J i n d t~- e s i g nand TestingTechniques, u n n e l ~D Mar. 24.

AGARD-CP-174,

1976.

25

Kemp, W.

B., Jr.:

"Toward t h eC o r r e c t a b l eI n t e r f e r e n c eT r a n s o n i c
~~ ~

Wind

Tunnel , ' I Proc. A l A A 9 t h Aerodynamic- Testing Conference, June 1976. " "

26.

HcKinney, L. W. June 1976.

and Howell,

R. R . :

"The C h a r a c t e r i s t i c so ft h eP l a n n e d

N a t i o n a lT r a n s o n i cF a c i l i t y , ' '

A Proc. - l A A 9 t h Aerodynamic TestingConference, "

27.

Pate, S. R.:

"Measurements and Cones a t H i g h

C o r r e l a t i o n s o f T r a n s i t i o n Reynolds Numbers Speeds,"

onSharpSlender 28. Dougherty, N. Jour., 29. Starr,

S.:

A l A A Jour.,Sept.

1971.

" C o r r e l a t i o n of T r a n s i t i o nR e y n o l d s i n a Wind Tunnel a t Mach Numbers

.

Number w i t h Aero-

dynamicNoiseLevels Dec. 1975.

2.0

3.0,"

AlAA

R. F.:

"Experiments t o Assess t h eI n f l u e n c e

o f Changes i n t h e

Tunnel

WallBoundaryLayeronTransonicWallCrossflowCharacteristics,'' Tunnel Design Testing and Techniques,

AGARD-CP-174,

Mar;

1976Wind

30

Parker, R. L.,

Jr.:

"Fiow G e n e r a t i o nP r o p e r t i e s

o f F i v eT r a n s o n i c

TunnelTestSectionWallConfigurations,''

AEDC-TR-75-88,

Aug.

1975.

31.

Keener, E . R. and Hopkins, TurbulentBoundary-Layer

E. J.: "Accuracy

o f P i t o t - P r e s s u r e Rakes f o r

Measurements i n SupersonicFlow,"

NASA TN D-6229,

Mar. 1971.
32. A l l e n , J.

M.:

" E f f e c t so f
,I'

Mach Number

on Pitot-ProbeDisplacement

in a

T u r b u l e n t BoundaryLayer
PP. 949-590,

NASA TN D-7466,

June 1974 ( a l s o see A l A A Jour.,

J u l y 1975).

173

1II.H.
III.H.l.
Theneed and Model

STANDARD MODELS

AGARD Force Models

was r e c o g n i z e d e a r l y b y t h e

f o r standardmodels

AGARD Wind Tunnel

T e s t i n gP a n e l .I n

1952, t h i sp a n e la d o p t e d

AGARD Models A and B for

thepurpose Ref.

o f b u i l d i n g and t e s t i n g c a l i b r a t i o n models i n supersonictunnels,

b e" e x t r e m e l yu s e f u li ne s t a b l i s h i n g
It w o u l da l s o

1.

I t was t h o u g h tt h a tt h i sw o u l d

standards o f comparison between wind tunnels." s t u d y i n gt h ee f f e c t s

be u s e f u l i n

o f changes i n Reynolds number, t u r b u l e n c e , model s i z e and

model f a b r i c a t i o nt o l e r a n c e s .

AGARD Model A was an e x i s t i n g r o c k e t

by NACA and had t h ep r i o rd e s i g n a t i o n c o m b i n a t i o nw h i c hc o n s i s t so f m e t r i c a l , 4% c i r c u l a r - a r c a i r f o i l . I n

body w i t h f i n s w h i c h

had been designed

o f RH-IO.

AGARD Model B i s a wing-body

deltawingwitha sym-

an o g i v e - c y l i n d e r anda

1954, t h e AGARD Model B was m o d i f i e d

was desigand c a l i b r a t i o n i n

t o i n c l u d ev e r t i c a l

and h o r i z o n t a lt a i ls u r f a c e s .T h i sc o n f i g u r a t i o n

nated AGARD Model C and was d e s i g n e d " p r i m a r i l y f o r t e s t i n g t h et r a n s o n i c wouldbe speed range.'' The purpose o f t h e t a i l

was t o have a model which

more s e n s i t i v e t o flow c u r v a t u r e and wall r e f l e c t i o n s o f shockand/or

expansion waves. The g e o m e t r i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e v a r i o u s References 1 , 2 and

AGARD models a r e g i v e n i n
i s presented i n Reference
AEDC d a t ao b t a i n e df o r

3.

The associated wind tunnel data some o f t h e e a r l y

4.

Goethert (Ref.

5) a l s od i s c u s s e s

AGARD Models B and C.

tests. inthe

The f o l l o w i n gc o n c l u s i o n

was d e r i v e df r o mt h e s ee a r l y

Based on comparisons

o f d a t af o r

models h a v i n g 1.15% and 0.01% blockage

P T 16T TransonicTunnel, W

i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s

c o u l d beachieved

i nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s

i f a i r c r a f t models d i d n o t

exceedabout

1% b l o c k a g er a t i o .

Responses t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n d i c a t e t h i s r u l e

o f thumb

has been a d o p t e d l m o s t n i v e r s a l l y . a u (Ref.

However, f o rp r e c i s i o nt e s t i n g ,G o e t h e r t be keptassmallas
0.5% and w i t h awing

5) recommended b l o c k a g er a t i o s

span n o te x c e e d i n gh a l ft h et u n n e lw i d t h . These e a r l y c o n c l u s i o n s were based on The more r e c e n t t e s t i n g o f t h e p a s t measure p r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o n s . the results of testing force models.

Few years has employed models I t i s now known t h a t a i r c r a f t

designed t o models w i t h 1%

t u n n e lb l o c k a g ec a ne x p e r i e n c ec o n s i d e r a b l ew a l li n t e r f e r e n c e ,e s p e c i a l l yn e a r

174

Mach one,

even i n t h eb e s tv e n t i l a t e dt u n n e l s .

Thus, c u r r e n ts t u d i e s

of tran-

sonicwallinterferencerequiretheuse necessary data.

of pressuremodels

to providethe

lll.H.2.
Inthepast, w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e . employed r e c e n t l y . Weeks (Ref. w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e a number

Transonic Pressure Models:

2-D

o f a i r f o i l s have been used i n s t u d i e s o f t r a n s o n i c

a brieflistofairfoils which have been

What f o l l o w s i s

6) has used
has been used

a s y m n e t r i c a l , 6% c i r c u l a r - a r c a i r f o i l

t o study

64 A010

* airfoil

i n a contoured, lotted-waltunnel. n rance, n s l I F a

NACA of

a t ONERA (Ref. 7) f o rt w o - d i m e n s i o n a ls t u d i e s Whereas, C a l s p a ns t u d i e so fw a l l s

s o l i d ,a d j u s t a b l ew a l l si nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s . w i t ha d j u s t a b l ep o r o s i t y
A 15.2 cm

have u t i l i z e d t h e s y m m e t r i c a l

NACA 0012 a i r f o i l , Ref.

9.

(6 in.) chord model been has

has been

t e s t e di nt h eC a l s p a n

8 - f t Tunnel t o

p r o v i d eb a s e l i n ef o r c e this airfoil

and p r e s s u r ed a t aw h i c ha r ew a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e e .A l s o , found t o be l e s s s e n s i t i v e t o (Ref. Reynolds number and tunnel

flow q u a l i t y .

Thus, P i n d z o l a ,e ta l .

10) have recommended t h e NACA 0012

a i r f o i l be adopted as

a standard 2-D model i n o r d e r t h a t t r a n s o n i c w a l l d e v e l o p -

ment work have a c m o n basis.

I I l.H.3.
A 20 deg

Transonic Pressure Models: in a number

3-0 of transonic facilities

c o n e - c y l i n d e r has been used

( p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r M > 1) t o s e l e c t o p e r a t i o n a l v a l u e s o f w a l l p o r o s i t y , w a l l a n g l e and plenum pumping. Davis and Graham (Ref.

1 1 ) have described

a typical

c a s ew h i c hi l l u s t r a t e st h i sp r o c e d u r e .

They have a l s or e v i e w e dt h ew a l l model geometry. to

i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e e ,t r a n s o n i cd a t aw h i c hi sa v a i l a b l ef o rt h i s

A t onetime,

i t was t h o u g h tt h a t

if thewallparameterswereselected
a number ofaircraft

g i v e minimum i n t e r f e r e n c e on t h i s model,through f a c t o r y for t e s t i n g a l l t y p e s o f t e s t s have shown t h i si sn o tt h e t e s t sw i t ha n

AGARD Model B

Mach one, t h i s w o u l d b e s a t i s model

models. However,

case. example, For Davis' (Ref. transonic 12) i n d i c a t e db e t t e r agreement w i t h t h e AGARD r e f e r e n c e

datacouldbeobtainedwithdifferentwallsettings.

Thus, c a r e must b ee x e r c i s e di ns e l e c t i n g ular,

it i s now r e c o g n i z e dt h a t

a c a l i b r a t i o n model.

I np a r t i c -

a c a l i b r a t i o n model mustbe

' % i m i l a r l l t o models how s i m i l a r have more than one type

w h i c ha r et o n o ty e t

be t e s t e d .U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,p r e c i s ec r i t e r i af o r

been defined.

A l l t h a t may be s a i d a t t h i s t i m e i s :

o fs t a n d a r dc a l i b r a t i o n

model i s necessary f o r v a l i d t e s t i n g o f m i s s i l e , a i r f o i l ,

and a i r c r a f t models i n e x i s t i n g t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s . The t e s t s o f n e l s .I nt h i ss t u d y , theCalspan Treon, e t a l . (Refs.

13 and 14) e s t a b l i s h e dt h e

need f o r

i d e n t i c a l models and i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n when comparing r e s u l t s f r o m d i f f e r e n t t u n a 0.0226-scale model o ft h e Lockheed C-5A was t e s t e di n (16T) t r a n -

8-ft.,

t h e NASA Ames 11-by 1 1 - f t . ,

and t h e AEDC 1 6 - f t .

sonicwindtunnels. forcebalance

The same c o m b i n a t i o no fm d e l - s u p p o r ts t i n g

and i n t e r n a l
of s m a l l d i f -

was used i n each o f t h et u n n e l s .T h i sa l l o w e da n a l y s e s

ferences i n blockage,buoyancy

and Reynolds number e f f e c t s w h i c h w o u l d n o t I na d d i t i o nt of o r c e s and

have

been p o s s i b l e i f d i f f e r e n t models had been used. moments, seven o r i f i c e s onthefuselagewereused sure. This enabled comparisons e f f e c t i v ef r e e s t r e a m and e f f e c t i v eR e y n o l d s

t o measure l o c a l s t a t i c p r e s changes i n buoyancy

o f buoyancy model-induced and

Mach number.

The r e s u l t i n g c o r r e c t i o n s f o r r e l a t i v e inaxialforce by

numberk reducedthespread

75 percent
inthethree

f o r Mach number b e l o w t h e d r a g r i s e v a l u e ? F i n a l l y , t h e s e t e s t s p e r m i t t e d estimatesofthe"bestexpectancyagreement"betweendataobtained facilities. The u t i l i t y o f t h e i nS e c t i o n AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone (Refs.

15-17) has been discussed

However, it should be noted o nb o u n d a r yl a y e rt r a n s i t i o n by Treon, e t a l . Namely,

1 I I . F . and will n o t be repeated here.

t h a tt h i ss t u d yo ft h ee f f e c t so ft u n n e le n v i r o n m e n t was a l s o based on the same model, results. the fundamental premise employed

i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , and support mechanism a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r m e a n i n g f u l

A s i m p l i f i e d ,b u tv e r s a t i l e ,a i r c r a f t
and 4T t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s by Binion (Ref.

model been has

t e s t e di nt h e c o n s i s t so f wings.

8).

The model

AEDC 16T two geo-

m e t r i c a l l ys i m i l a r ,c e n t e r b o d i e sw i t hr e c t a n g u l a r - p l a n f o r m bodieshavepointed,ogive-typenoses p r o f ile. The smal l e r body servedas and thewingshavethe

The c e n t e r -

NACA 63 A006 a i r f o i l
separateforce

a t a i 1 and was mounted a on

*
A*

See p.

150.

Subsequent t o t h i s work,Binion and Lo (Ref. 15) showed, i n some cases,wall i n t e r f e r e n c e canovershadow t h e e f f e c t s o f R e y n o l d s number v a r i a t i o n s .

balance and sting.

Four different model arrangements were tested in both tunnels,

viz., the wing by itself, the tall by itself, and the wing with tail mounted close
behind and at a more aft position.

and After the force tests, the tests were repeated pressure distributions
were measured on the centerbodies and the wings. Angles of attack were repeated by duplicating the pressure difference across the model forebody which was initially calibrated as a functlon of a in the 16T. The conclusions reached by Binion include the following.

1.

Flow angulari.tY can be induced into the tunnel flaw which is a function

of model configuration, model attitude, and tunnel configuration. This flow angularity i s distinct from theusual upwash correctionand varies nonlinearly with Mach numberand model incldence. No existing theoretical corrections can account for this phenomena.

2 .

The movable tail feature confirmed the expected dependence of wall interference on model configuration in the transonic regime. Also, the more-aft tail position encountered wall-reflected disturbances
at supersonic Mach numbers.

3. The attainment of an interference-free value oflift does not ensure

an interference-free flow field.

4. There i s no value of porosity, with the present AEDC 4T walls, which

this aircraft will yield interference-free pressure distributions for
model (0.9% blockage) when extensive regionso f supercritical flaw exists. The magnitude o f wall interference appears tobe a function of size and extent of supersonic pockets and the model-induced pressure gradient at the wall.
A transonic transport model has been designed and developed at ONERA and

has been offered as a standard for transonic tunnel calibrations. A family

of five different sizes has been fabricated so that an appropriate s i z e i s available for even small tunnels. However, only the largest model provides for measurements of wing pressure distributlons. An equivalent body of revolution i s also available for the large model. A description of the model in geometry may be found Reference 19.

177
- .

Two s i z e s o f t h i s been t e s t e d i n t h e

model ( l a r g e M 5 and 1/4 s c a l es m a l l e r

H3) have r e c e n t l y

AEDC 16T and 4T t u n n e l s and t h e NASA Ames 1 1 - f t t u n n e l as ONERA.

The statedpurposes

p a r t o f a c o o p e r a t i v ep r o g r a mw i t h

of thisstudy

were ' ' t o p r o v i d e an experimentaldatabase

for (1) t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e o r e t i c a l
and ( 2 ) t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

or e m p i r i c a l w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s
i nt h et r a n s o n i c by B i n i o n (Ref. 19). An unexpected r e s u l t o f t h e s e t e s t s number. I nf a c t ,t h e models were found speed regime.'' The t e s tr e s u l t s

guidelinestoallowreasonableselectionofwind-tunnel-to-modelsizeratios and e v a l u a t i o na r er e p o r t e d

was t h e o b s e r v e d s e n s i t i v i t y t o R e y n o l d s t o be more s e n s i t i v et o Reynolds number

when boundary l a y e r t r a n s i t i o n

was f i x e dt h a nw i t hf r e et r a n s i t i o n .A l s o ,

greatervariationofthedatafromtunnel-to-tunneloccurredwithfixedtransition. Wing pressuredata d i f f e r e n c e si n

from t h e l a r g e r

model showed t h e s ed i f f e r e n c e sw e r e and t r a i l i n g edge

caused by

shock-boundarylayerinteractions

s e p a r a t i o n .F i n a l l y , were used

even t h o u g h t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t a n u f a c t u r i n g o l e r a n c e s s m t be s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t a i l

t of a b r i c a t e ,t h em o d e l s ,t h e r ea p p e a r st o

incidence between t h e two models. sons o f p i t c h i n g moment.

This precluded useful model-to-model comparit o be o v e r l y

were found I n summary, t h e ONERA models

s e n s i t i v e t o Reynolds number and t u n n e l f l o w q u a l i t y model s i m i l a r i t yf o ra c c u r a t es t u d i e so fw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e . objectivesofthesetests were notachieved.

and e x h i b i t e d i n s u f f i c i e n t Thus, t h e

Based o n e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e models, t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a interferenceproblems.*

AEDC s i m p l i f i e d a i r c r a f t
haveevolved for a model

model and

t h e ONERA

tostudytransonicwall-

1.

The a i r c r a f t model should have

a s m a l lc y l i n d r i c a lc e n t e r b o d yw i t h a forcebalance and p r o v i d e

an o g i v e nose ( t h e c e n t e r b o d y musthouse a passage f o r s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e 2. Surfacepressures

1 ines).
and c a l i b r a t e d

on thecenterbodyshouldbeselected

t o d i r e c t l y measure Mach number and a n g l e o f a t t a c k .

3.

The wingshouldhave

an NACA 0012 a i r f o i l , z e r o t a p e r ,

and should be be

a l i g n e dw i t ht h ec e n t e r b o d ya x i s .

A v a r i a b l e sweep f e a t u r ew o u l d

desirableinordertostudytheeffectof gradients.

l i f t o na x i a 1 , i n t e r f e r e n c e

*Binion,
~ ~~ ~~~

T. W.,

Jr.,

personalcommunication,

AEDC, March 1977.

178

4 The horizontal tail should be separately ins.trumcnted andgeometrically .

similar to the wing.

5 Standardization of instrunentationand sting configuration i s essential. . 6 Both model forces and pressure distributionson wings and centerbody .
should be measured. Work is continuing at AEDC to develop a model with these features.

In sunwnary, a satlsfactory aircraftmodel for calibrating transonicwind Until wall interference effects are clearly defined tunnels does not yet exist.
a simplified aircraft and separable from Reynolds number and flow quality effects,

model is required. models, e.g.,

Once this objective i s realized, more realistic aircraft

the ONERA transport models, can be utilfzed much more effectively

for tunnel-to-tunnel comparisons.

179

1II.H.
1.

References 1958.
. .

"AGARD Wind Tunnel C a l i b r a t i o n Models,!' AGARD S p e c i f i c a t i o n 2, Sept.

F a i l , R. and Garner, H. C.:

2.

" C a l i b r a t t o n Models f o r Dynamic Stabi 1 i t y Tests ,I'

AGARD Report 563,: 1968.

3.
4.

Curry, W.

H . , ed.:

"The F i r s t F i f t e e n ' Years o f t h e

Supersoni c Tunnel

Association,'' Sandia Laboratories, Sept. H i l l s , R., ed.:

1969.
AGARD C a l i b r a t i on Model s ,'I

"A.Review o f Measurements on

AGARDograph 64, Nov. 1961.

5.
6.

Goethert, B. H.: Weeks, T. M.:

Transonic Wind Tunne.1

Testing, Pergamon, 1961. by Means

"Reduction o f TransonicSlottedWallInterference AFFDL-TR-74-139, March 1975.

o fS l a tC o n t o u r i n g , "

7.

C h e v a l li e r ,

J. P. : "SoufflerieTranssonique

a' ParoisAuto-Adaptables,"

Wind TunnelDesign

and T e s t i n g ~ Techniques, AGARD-CP-174, "An I n v e s t i g a t i o no f

March 1976. Interference Oct. 1974.

8.
9.

Binion, T. W . ,

Jr.:

Three-Dimensional Wall
,'I

i n a VariablePorosityTransonic V i d a l , R. J.; Erickson, J. C.,

Wind Tunnel

AEDC-TR-74-74,

Jr.;

and C a t l i n , P. A.:

"Experiments w i t h

a S e l f - C o r r e c t i n g Wind Tunnel,'' AGARD-CP- 174, March 1976. 10. Pindzola,

Wind TunnelDesign

and TestingTechniques,

M.; Binion, T. W . , J r . ; and C h e v a l li e r , J. P.

A F u r t h e r Review o f C u r r e n t

"Design o f Tran-

sonicWorkingSections," theDesign

Research Aimed a t Sept.

and Operation o f Large Wind Tunnels, AGARD-AR-83, W. and Graham, R. F.: "Wind-Tunnel Wall

1975

11.

Davis, J.

Interference ffects E
5 Rockets, Oct.

f o r 20 Cone-Cylinders,"

A l A A Jour.Spacecraft

1973

(a 1 so see NASA TN 0-7432).

12.

Davis, J. W.:

"AGARD Model B Transonic Blockage Investigation,"

NASA Semi-

Marchall Space F l i g h tC e n t e r ,H u n t s v i l l e ,A l a . ,p r e s e n t e da t3 9 t h Annual STA Meeting, Mar. 13. Treon, S.

1973 ( r e f e r e n c e dw i t ha u t h o r ' sp e r m i s s i o n ) .
W.

L.;

Steinle,

F. W.; H o f s t e t t e r ,

R.; and Hagerman, J. R . :

Speed Transport A l A A Paper No.

"Data C o r r e l a t i o n f r o m I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f A i r c r a f t Model i n ThreeMajorTransonic

aHigh-Subsonic Wind Tunnels,"

69-794, J u l y 1969.
180

14. Treon, S. L. ; Steinle, F. W. ; Hagerman, J. R. ; Black, J. A. ; and Buffington, R. J.: "Further Correlation of Data From Investigations of a High-SubsonicSpeed Transport AircraftModel in Three Major Transonic Wind Tunnels,"

A I M Paper No. 71-291, March 1971.

15.

Binion, T. W., J r . and Lo, C. F.:

"Appl fcation of Wall Corrections to

Transonic Wind Tunnel Data," AlAA Paper No. 72-1009, Sept. 1972.

16. Dougherty, N. S., Jr. and Steinle, F.

W.:

"Transition Reynolds Number Tunnels AlAA Paper No. 74-627, ,I'

Ccnnpari sons in Several Ma Jor Transonic July 1974.

17.

Dougherty, N. S., Jr.:

"Prepared Comment on Cone Transition Reynolds

Number Data Correlation Study,'' AGARD-CP-187, June 1975.

18. Whitfield, J. and Dougherty, N. S., J r . :

"A Survey of Transition Reynolds Number Work at AEDC," to be presented as Paper No. 25 at AGARD Fluid
Dynamics Panel Symposium on Laminar-Turbulent Transition, Copenhagen, Denmark, May 2-4, 1977.

19. Binion, T.

Jr.: "Tests o f the ONERA Calibration Models in Three Transonic Wind Tunnels," AEDC-TR-76-133, Novo 1976W.,

181

111.1. 111.1.1.

OPTICAL METHODS
Supersonic Tunnels

The use of s c h l i e r e n and shadowgraph flow-visualization-methods t o d e t e c t unwanted shocks i n a n empty t e s t - s e c t i o n i s w e l l

may be designated a c l a s s i c a lt e c h n i q u e i nt h e

*.

known (Ref.

1 ) and, i n f a c t ,
a shock These means o f

Obviously,theobservanceof

e m p t y - t u n n e li n d i c a t e sc o r r e c t i v ea c t i o ni sn e c e s s a r y .

flowvisualizationarealsohelpfulinassessingtheperformance rakes and

af probesand

t h e i ri n t e r a c t i o nw i t hn e a r b yb o u n d a r i e s .H i g hq u a l i t yp i c t u r e sa l s o and t h e r e b y p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l

enable flow separation on probes to be observed datatoguideimproveddesigns.

A third,classical
interferometer.

method f o r f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n i s t h e

Mach-Zehnder

However, these instruments seldom are

used f o rw i n dt u n n e l and a l i g n -

c a l i b r a t i o n because o f t h e i r c o s t ment e r r o r s . D e t a i l e dd i s c u s s i o n so ft h e s e number ofreferences.References

and h y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o v i b r a t i o n

methods may befound

i n a r a t h e rl a r g e

2 thru

a r er e p r e s e n t a t i v eo fb o t ho l d e r methods o f f l o w v i s u a l i z a -

and newer l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h d e a l s w i t h t h e s e t h r e e tion.

111.1.2.

Transonic Tunnels

A s p r e v i o u s l yd i s u c s s e di nS e c t i o n on a

III.D.,

movement o f a transonicshock byblockage and w a l lc h a r a c t e r -

staticpressureprobeisstronglyaffected For example, t h es c h l i e r e np h o t o g r a p h so f on a probecaused

istics.

Page (Ref.

5)

a r eq u i t e

i n s t r u c t i v e as t o t h e e f f e c t s 0.25% t o 0.005%.

by v a r y i n gt u n n e lb l o c k a g ef r o m

In thecase of s u p e r c r i t i c a l f l o w a b o u t
shadowgraphs o f Hsieh (Ref. s e p a r a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e

a hemisphere-cylinderprobe,the boundarylayer

6 ) w e r ev e r yh e l p f u li nd e t e c t i n g
measuredpressure

distributions.

*Most

o ft h er e s p o n d e n t st ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r ei n d i c a t e dt h e yr o u t i n e l y one or b o t h o f thesetechniques.

used

182

A t lowsupersonicspeeds,schlierens
Ref.

and shadowgraphs

a r ev e r yu s e f u l e.g., used s c h l i e r e n when ex-

in studiesoftheshock-cancellationpropertiesofventilatedwalls,

7.

Also, Dougherty,

e ta l .

(Ref.

8) h a v ev e r ye f f e c t i v e l y

photographs t o s t u d y t h e

sound f i e l d g e n e r a t e d by p e r f o r a t e d w a l l s

posed t oh i g h - s u b s o n i cf l o w s .

111.1.3.

Newer Methods

Newer o p t i c a l methods f o r f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n i n c l u d e l a s e r D o p p l e r v e l o c i m e t e r s (LDV)

, h o l o g r a p h i cv e l o c i m e t e r s

(HV)

, and

h o l o g r a p h i ci n t e r f e r o m e t r y o f LDV's HV's and istheir

( H I ) f o rd e n s i t y
As we one.

measurements.

The primaryadvantage

p o t e n t i a l t o m e a s u r et h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a lf l o wf i e l d sw i t h o u td i s t u r b i n gt h e have seen, t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s

flow.
near Mach

The c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t o f c a l i b r a t i o ni s tems i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.4

LDV's and

theirapplicationtotunnel

reviewed i n Appendix I I .

Since accuracy current the of 0.1%.

LDV s y s -

0.5%, t h e ya r en o ty e ts u p e r i o rt oc o n v e n t i o n a l

probeswhichprovidecomparableaccuraciesof

The fundamentals o f h o l o g r a p h i c v e l o c i m e t r y a r e r e v i e w e d b y S h o f n e r , e t a l . (Ref.

9).

A verycomprehensivereview
compiled by

ofthe

use o f holography i n windtunnel Progress (up t o 1975) i na u t o (Ref. Since 11).

t e s t i n g has been

Havener (Ref. IO).

mating H I d a t a e d u c t i o n r this is still

i s reported by

Hannah and Havener

a developingtechnology,applicationsofholographytoempty-tunnel

c a l i b r a t i o n appears t o be i n t h e f u t u r e . Sparks Ezekiel and (Ref. LaserStreakVelocimetry

12) have r e c e n t l yd e m o n s t r a t e dt h eu s e f u l n e s so f

(LSV) f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e measurements o f low-speed v e l o c i t y has the advantage o fp r o v i d i n g ,s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , measurements r e q u i r e d w i t h

f i e l d s near models. This technique v e l o c i t i e s on a planeas

opposed t o t h e p o i n t - b y - p o i n t

LDV's.

However, the accuracy

o f LSV's i sc u r r e n t l yi n s u f f i c i e n tf o re m p t y - t u n n e l (Ref.

c a l i b r a t i o n s .F i n a l l y , certechniques

Sedney, e ta l .

13) have g i v e n a r e v i e wo ff l o wt r a -

and t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n s i n s u p e r s o n i c - f l o w f i e l d d i a g n o s t i c s .

183

111.1.
1. pope, A.and Ladenburg, Goin, K. L.:

References

High-speed Wind Tunnel Testing., Wiley,

1965. (editors):

2.

R.

W.;

Lewis,

B.;

Pease, R. N.;

and T a y l o r , H.

S.

P h y s i c a l Measurements i n Gas Dynamic and Press, 1954.

Combustion, P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y

3.
4. 5.

Vasil'er,

A.

L.:

S c h l i e r e n Methods, Transl. by

A.

Baruch, I s r a e l Program

forScientificTranslations, Merzkirch, \J.: Page, W. A.:

Jerusalem, New York and London,

1971.

F l o w V i s u a l i z a t i o n , Academic Press, 1974.

"Experimental Study

o f theEquivalenceofTransonicFlow

AboutSlenderCone-Cylinders

o f C i r c u l a r and E l l i p t i c CrossSection,''

NACA TN 4233,Apr

i 1 1958.
i n Transonic Flow,

6.

Hsieh, T.: Jour., Oct.

"Hemisphere-Cylinder

Mm = 0.7 1.0,"

AlAA

1975 ( a l s o A l A A Paper No. 75-83, Jan. 1975).

Transonic Wind Tunnel Testing, Jr.; Anderson, C. Pergamon, 1961. L., Jr.: "An From

7.
8.

Goethert, B. H.: Dougherty, N. S . ,

F.;

and Parker, R.

E x p e r i m e n t a lI n v e s t i g a t i o no fT e c h n i q u e s P e r f o r a t e d Wind Tunnel Mal Is,"

to SuppressEdgetones
Aug.

AEDC-TR-75-88,

1975.

9.

Shofner, F. M . ; Velocimetry,"

Menzel, R . ;

and R u s s e l l , T. G.:
Nov. 1968.

"Fundamentals o f Holographic

AFFDL-TR-68-140,

10.

Havener, A. Testing,"

G.:

"A UsersGuild

on Pulse Laser Holography 1975.

G.:

f o r Wind Tunnel

ARL TR 75-0213,June

11.

Hannah, B.

W.

and Havener, A.

" A p p l i c a t i o n so f

Automated Holographic AerospaceSimulation

I n t e r f e r o m e t r y , "I n t ' l Faci 1 i ties, 12. Sparks, G.

Congress on I n s t r u m e n t a t i o ni n

I EEE Pub.

75 CHO 993-6 AES , Sept. 1975.

"Laser Streak Velocimeter for

W.,

J r . and E z e k i e l , S . : i n Gases,"

Two-

Dimensional Flows

A l A A Jour., Vol.
Jr.; and Bush, C.: C.

15, No. 1, Jan. 1977.

"The Marriage o f O p t i c a l , BRL R-1763,

13.

Sedney, R.;

Kitchens, C. W . ,

Tracer and S u r f a c eI n d i c a t o rT e c h n i q u e si nF l o wV i s u a l i z a t i o n , "

USA B a l l i s t i c ResearchLaboratories,

Feb. 1975.

184

1II.J.

Humidity Measurements air drying

The e f f e c t s of moisture condensation and t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r have been discussed i nS e c t i o n m o i s t u r ec o n t e n to ft h et u n n e lf l o w c a l i b r a t i o n and operation. The m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f

Il.C.7.

Measurement and m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e

1s t h e r e f o r e an e s s e n t i a l pa r t o f t u n n e l

a gas i s expressed i n a number o f ways; r e l a t i v e dew

humidity(ratioofmoisturepartialpressuretosaturationpressure), p o i n t (or f r o s tp o i n t )t e m p e r a t u r ea ta t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e ,s p e c i f i ch u m i d i t y
(MSS

o f water per

mass o f d r y g a s ) ,

and volume r a t i o ( p a r t s o f w a t e r

vapor

permillionpartsofair).

The dew p o i n to ri c e - p o i n ta ta t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e o fe x p r e s s i o nf o rw i n dt u n n e lo p e r a t i o n s .

i s t h e most commonly usedform

A number o f measurement systems a r e u t i l i z e d by f a c i l i t i e s r e s p o n d i n g

t ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e ,e x t e n d i n gf r o mt h ev i s u a lo b s e r v a t i o no ff o gi nt h e t u n n e lf l o w t o completelyautomatic,continuouslyrecording dew p o i n t system5 . bas i c

A dew p o i n t measurement instruments can be c a l s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l l

p r i n c i p l e s used. One o f t h e more basicnon-continuous

dew p o i n t measurement instruments

operatesontheprincipleofallowing a t known pressure and temperature,

a hand-pump p r e s s u r i z e d sample o f gas, t o expand t o room temperature (Ref. t o or belowthe visuallythrough

1).

If

theexpansionreducesthesampletemperature tures,fogiscreatedwhich may beobserved

dew p o i n t temperaa viewing window. sample presa known r e l a t i o n -

A t r i a l and e r r o r p r o c e d u r e i s r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n i t i a l
surewhich

wl expand t o c r e a t e a j u s t - v i s i b l e f o g - S i n c e il

s h i p e x i s t s between pressure and t e m p e r a t u r e r a t i o s , t h e d e t e r m i n e du s i n ga m b i e n ta st h ef i n a lp r e s s u r e . cost, reasonably accurate

dew p o i n t canbe

These i n s t r u m e n t sa r el o wi n

and a r e w i d e l y used b o t h as p r i m a r y dew p o i n t m o n i t o r s

185

and for m o n i t o r i n gt h ea c c u r a c y

o f l e s sb a s i ci n s t r u m e n t s .

They p r o v i d e o n l y

p e r i o d i c or spot checks and are therefore not satlsfactory where r e l a t i v e l y sudd,en changes i n dew p o i n t canoccur.

for f a c i l i t i e s
A 1 1 readings must

be manuallyrecorded.Heasurementsbelowabout
C o n t i n u o u si n d i c a t i n g typewhich

-4OC a r e d i f f i c u l t t o make.

and r e c o r d i n gh u m i d i t ys e n s o r si n c l u d et h eD u n m r e

changes r e s i s t a n c e i n a n o n - l i n e a r f a s h i o n w i t h r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y . dew po'int(Ref.'

A modifiedformrespdndsto
range,

2).

Each sensor has a1i m i t e d

so t h a ts e v e r a la r er e q u i r e d

i f thehumidltyrange

i s large.

The range

extends downward t o about-40

C.
These sensors u t i l i z e andoxygen,causingan

An e l e c t r o l y t i c h u m i d i t y s e n s o r i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e . an element which electrolyzes water into hydrogen e l e c t r o l y s i sc u r r e n tt o inpartspermillion,

flow.

The e l e c t r o l y t i ci n s t r u m e n ti su s u a l l yc a l i b r a t e d aslowas can be

with fullscaleranges

0 to 100 p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n .
c o n f i g u r e dt ob o t hi n d i c a t e

T h i si n s t r u m e n t ,l i k et h er e s i s t a n c ed e v i c e , h u m i d i t y and p r o v i d e an e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l f o r

an e x t e r n a lr e c o r d i n gd e v i c e .

Dew point t e m p e r a t u r e s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y c o n t r o l l i n g a u t o m a t i c a l l y thetemperatureofapolishedmetalmirrortothepointthatatrace condensation or rost)s aintained. everainstruments ( f im S l p r i n c i p l e have been developed. therm-electriccoolingeffect r e f r i g e r a t i o n If necessary). byfeedbackcontrol

fl im o f
based on t h i s

More r e c e n tt y p e sa r es i m p l i f i e di nt h a tt h e

i s used t o c h i l l t h e

mirror ( w i t h a u x i l i a r y

The condensation film i sa u t o m a t i c a l l ym a i n t a i n e d

ofthemirrortemperature,utilizinganopticalsource

reflectrylightfromthecooled bridge circuit.

mirror t o a p a i r o f p h o t o - d e t e c t o r s f o r m i n g a
i s measured by athermocoupleor

The dew pointtemperature

186

r e s i s t a n c e - t e m p e r a t u r ed e t e c t o ra t t a c h e dd i r e c t l yt ot h em i r r o r . pointisindicated byameter o ro t h e rI n d i c a t o r ,

The dew

and thetemperaturesensor

o u t p u t may a l s o berecorded,suppliedtothewindtunneldatasystem,etc. The rangecanextend t o aslow as 200

OK

(-100 OF).

A continuous-recording, dew p o i n t m o n i t o r has obviousadvantagesboth

w i t hr e g a r dt om o n i t o r i n g and c o n t r o l o f - t u n n e l ineasurements. They can also

p r o v i d e Information ontheperformance

of dryersand.othertunnelequipment.

I I I . J. References
1.
Pope, A. ; and Goin, K. L.: High Speed Wind Tunnel TesTing., pp. 223-226,

John Wiley and Sons, New York.

2.

Doeblin, E. 0 . :

Measurement Systems;

A p p l i c a t i o n and Design, pp. 596-'598,

McGraw-Hi 1 1 , New York.

3.

Fraade,

I). J.:

"Measuring M o i s t u r e n i

Gases,"

Instruments and Control

Systems, Apri 1 1963.

188

IV.

ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY I N CALIBRATION MEASUREMENTS

oferrorinexperimentaldatainvolves each branch of

Treatment o f accuracyandsources p r i n c i p l e so fs t a t i s t i c s sciencetends

and p r o b a b i l i t y .U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,

t o d e v e l o ps p e c i a l i z e dt e r m i n o l o g y ,w h i c h

impedes understanding An attempt w l thereil may be used t o

and communication i n comparing measurement r e s u l t s .

f o r e be made t o d e f i n e and r e c m e n d b a s i c t e r m i n o l o g y w h i c h advantage i n e v a l u a t i n g , d e f i n i n g As a f i r s t s t e p , a d e f i n i t i o n

and c o m n u n i c a t i n gc a l i b r a t i o na c c u r a c y .

and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f e r r o r s

w l be stated. il

1V.A.
E r r o r s may be c l a s s i f i e d i n

Random E r r o r two generalcategories: random and f i x e d .

Random e r r o r i s f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o as"scatter,""noise,"etc., y i e l dt h e

by t h ee n g i n e e ri nl e s sp r e c i s et e r m s measurements do n o t

a l li m p l y i n gt h a tr e p e a t e d

same value. Most processes such are that

i f a s u f f i c i e n t l yl a r q e
each v a l u e i s

number o f measurements a r e made and the frequency with which measured i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e bilitydensityfunction)

measured v a l u e ,t h er e s u l t i n gp l o t( t h ep r o b a -

will a p p r o a c ht h ef a m i l i a rb e l l - s h a p e dn o r m a ld i s t r i -

b u t i o nc u r v e .I nt h i sc a s e ,t h ea r i t h m e t i c

mean v a l u e ,o r

average,

N
i=l
o c c u r sa tt h e underthecurve

xi N
When p l o t t e di nn o r m a l i z e df o r m ,t h ea r e a

(4.A .1)

peak o ft h ec u r v e . i su n i t y .

The p r e c i s i o n ,w h i c hi sa bythestandarddeviation,

measure o f t h e s c a t t e r

o r random e r r o r , i s s p e c i f i e d

a =
i=l

(4.A.2)

N-1
189

if,the distribution is

based on a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e

number o f measurements,

68 p e r c e n t o f t h e
w i t h i n +2

measurements w l l i e w i t h i n t h e il

range - u +1

, 95.4

percent

u and 99.7 p e r c e n t w i t h i n 23 u

A wide!. f l a t d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e r e a large

f o r ec o r r e s p o n d st o amount o f s c a t t e r , w h i c hr e f e rt ot h e

measurements w i t h a l a r g e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n ,

a l a r g e random e r r o r , or a l a c k o f p r e c i s i o n , a l l o f same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e measurement. The random e r r o r

isquantativelystatedin should always

terms o f t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n

and e r r o rs t a t e m e n t s

be s p e c i f i e d as 1 u
1V.B.

,2

, etc.

Fixed Error a ss y s t e m a t i ce r r o r ,f i x e d

A second f o r m o f
e r r o r or b i a s .T h i s measurements. thesecan quantity. ment such as

measurement e r r o r i s r e f e r r e d t o component o f e r r o r

will be t h e same i n each o f many repeated

may n o t be known a p r i o r i s i n c e measured an i n s t r u -

The magnitude and s i g n o f t h e b i a s

be determinedonly

by comparison w i t h t h e t r u e v a l u e o f t h e

A s one example, an undetected change i n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n o f

a pressuretransducer

will i n t r o d u c e a f i x e d b i a s o f or f i x e de r r o r

unknown magniby

tude and sign.

Upon d e t e c t i o n ,t h i sb i a s

can be removed

r e c a l i b r a t i o n .S i n c e t h e i rm i n i m i z a t i o n

unknown f i x e de r r o r sa r en o tc o r r e c t a b l e ,u n l e s sd e t e c t e d , depends (1) upon c a r e f u l mon t o r i n go fr e s u l t s ,

o f instruments,

(2) r o u t i n e

p r e - a n dp o s t - t e s tc a l i b r a t i o n s t i o n s o f i n s t r u m e n t sp r i o rt o be a p p l i e d t o

n place, etcThis .

(3) end-to-end c a l i b r a same philosophy can

and d u r i n g t e s t s , such as

a basicinstrument

a pres S u r e t r a n s d u c e r be t oe l i m i n a t ea l ll a r g e ,

or t o t h e t u n n e l unknown

f l o wc a l i b r a t i o n . f i x e de r r o r s . Some t y p e s o f c a l ib r a t i o n . v a l u ei s

The o b j e c t i v es h o u l d

unknown f i x e d errors cannot be r e a d i l y e l i m i n a t e d a standardmodel,where

by no " t r u e "

An example m i g h t be t h e d r a g o f

known.

F a c i l i t y - t o - f a c i l i t y comparisonsallowonly

an e s t i m a t eo ft h e

probable maximum magnitude o f t h e b i a s . C o r r e c t i o n extentthatthecomparisontestsallowdeterminationof cause(orcauses)ofthebias(or The f i x e d e r r o r a p o r t i o nt h e r e o f ) .

may b e p o s s i b l e o n l y t o t h e and c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e

l m t whichnormallymust i i,

be e s t i m a t e d ,i st h eu p p e r

lmt o n t h e f i x e d e r r o r o r b i a s , i i i.e.,
i t may be 0,

and may be symmetrical o r non-symmetrical, rather than

o r 0,

+.

1V.C.
The t o t a l u n c e r t a i n t y i n t e r v a l f o r

Uncertainty a measurement r e p r e s e n t st h el a r g e s t ,

r e a s o n a b l y - e x p e c t e de r r o r( i . e . ,t h et r u ev a l u es h o u l df a l li nt h eu n c e r t a i n t y i n t e r v a l ) and i s a combination o ft h ep r e c i s i o n( s t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n ) estimatedbias. and t h e

A method described by Abernathy, e t a l .

(Ref.

1) and recornended the by

N a t i o n a l Bureau o f Standardsexpressestheuncertaintyastherangecentered aboutthe mean value and d e f i n e d as

U p + (B+tg5u)

(4.C.l)
B t h eb i a s

Where U i st h eu n c e r t a i n t y ,

or f i x e de r r o r

1 imit, and t

95

i st h e
t

9 5 t hp e r c e n t i l ep o i n tf o rt h eS t u d e n t depends onthe number o fv a l u e s

"t" d i s t r i b u t i o n .

The v a l u eo f

used i n computing u ; f o r a l a r g e number o f normal d i s t r i b u l m t when small i i

d

measurements theStudent tion. The use o ft h e

t

t d i s t r i b u t i o ni si d e n t i c a lt ot h e

95

factorncreases he ncertainty i t u

samples a r e used t oc a l c u l a t e( o r , e ta l . recommended t h a t a v a l u eo f

more a c c u r a t e l y ,t oe s t i m a t e )

Abernathy,

2.0 be used f o r t

95

f o r 3 1 o r more samples

(compared t o 1.96 f o r an i n f i n i t e number). Reference t e x t s (e.g., Ref.

( 1 ) and most s t a t i s t i c s

2 ) c o n t a i nt a b l e so fS t u d e n t ' s

t d i s t r i b u t i o n sf r o mw h i c h

t g 5 can be o b t a i n e df o rl e s st h a n

30 samples.

S t a t i s t i c a l methods employing methods f o r o b v i o u s

the t distribution are frequently called small-sample

191

r e a s o n s .A l t h o u g ht h i s othererror terms.

example I ss i m p l i f i e d ,

it can extended be

t oI n c l u d e

An a d d i t i o n a l p r o b l e m i n a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
n t discussedabove, o

measurement e r r o r , have small-

isthatthe

measured p r o p e r t i e s n o r m a l l y

a m p l i t u d ev a r i a t i o n sw i t ht i m e .I na d d i t i o nt oo b t a i n i n g

a statistically

adequate number o f samples, t h e sample i n t e r v a l must span a t l e a s t p l e t e c y c l e o f thelowest-frequency

one com-

component o f tunnelunsteadiness,as

discussed by H u h l s t e i n and Coe, (Ref.

3).

1V.D.
In essentially all b a s i cp r o p e r t i e sw h i c ha r e

E r r o rr o p o g a t i o n P

cases, c a l i b r a t i o np a r a m e t e r sa r ed e t e r m i n e df r o m measured and a known f u n c t i o n r e l a t i n g t h e An obvious example would measured pressures. measured

q u a n t i t i e s and thedesiredparameter. t i o n o f Mach number

be thedeterminaRandom error

i nt h et e s ts e c t i o nf r o m

s o u r c e sw o u l di n c l u d et h ep r e c i s i o n( s t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n s )o ft h ep r e s s u r e measurements. S t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b eu n c e r t a i n t yl i m i t s may be estimated as be

a f i x e db i a si nt h e

absence o f a c a l i b r a t i o n .A n o t h e rf i x e db i a sc o u l d

t h ee s t i m a t e du n c e r t a i n t y

in y

As an i l l u s t r a t i v e example, t h e random error

i n Mach number can be c a l c u l a t e d f r o m

(4.D.1)

where t h ev a r i a t i o n si n

and

P a r et a k e nt o

be u n c o r r e l a t e d .

The f i x e d

e r r o r or b i a s limit can s i m i l a r l y be c a l c u l a t e d from

(4. . ) D 2
192

where

and Bp a r e h e s t f m a t e d n c e r t a i n t y t e u 1 i m i t sf o rt h er a t i o Y s p e c i f i c h e a t s and f o r t h e s t a t i c p r o b e e r r o r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The r e s u l t s can be combined a c c o r d i n gt o t o t a lu n c e r t a i n t yi n t e r v a lf o r

of

Eq. (4.C.1)

t od e t e r m i n et h e

a s p e c i f i c( p o i n t )

Mach number measurement.

(4.D.3).

The u n c e r t a i n t y i n t e r v a l

o f an i n d i v i d u a lp r o p e r t y
, .

measurement, such as

a pressure,canalso

be estimated as above; where

i n d i v i d u a le r r o rs o u r c e ss u c h power supply,the

as t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i n s t r u m e n t a t i o na m p l i f i e r

o f t h et r a n s d u c e r ,t h ee x c i t a t i o n

and t h e a n a l o g - t o - d i g i t a l c o n v e r t e r a r e a l l t a k e n

i n t o account. Normally, however, calibration performed the is end-to-end u t i l i z i n g a l l components so t h a t a l l o f t h e above f a c t o r s a r e t a k e n i n t o accountand a t t r i b u t e dt ot h ep r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r .

193

IV.

Ref erences

1.

Abernathy, R.

B.,

e ta l

and Thompson, J. W.,

Jr.:

"Handbook;

Uncertainty

i n Gas Turbine Heasuremcnts," AEDC-TR-73-5,

February

1973 (also C P l A No. 180).

pp 402-403, John

2.

b e l , P. G . :

I n t r o d u c t i o nt oH a t h e m a t i c a lS t a t i s t i c s , Inc., New York, 1966.

Wiley and Sons,

3.

H u h l s t e i n , L. Jr., AccurateStatic Paper 75-142,

and Coe, C.

F.:

" I n t e g r a t i o n Time Required

tG

Extract

and Dynamic Data From Transonic Wind TunnelTests," Pasadena, Cal i f . , Jan.

AlAA

1975.

194

V. V.A.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS and

Summary o fS t a t e - o f - t h e - A r to fT r a n s o n i c Supersonic Wind Tunnel C a l i b r a t i o n

Reference hasbeen toinformation,obtained personal contacts.

made t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s o f t h i s r e p o r t

from t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s u r v e y , l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h
has been has been summarized
,

and,

A condensat.ion o f t h i si n f o r m a t i o n

presented i n an attempt

where a p p r o p r i a t e .P r i m a r i l y ,i n f o r m a t i o n

to define "best state-of-the-art" calibration accuracy. focusedontheprimaryproblemswhichwereconsideredto s t a g n a t i o n and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e sumnary o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s u l t s i s p r e s e n t e d h e r e Based onajudgment t h eb e s t ,c u r r e n t , d e v i a t i o n )r a n g e s f o rb o t h

A t t e n t i o n has been be measurements

of

and c a i c u l a t i o n o f Mach number.

A concluding

for convenience.

evaluationofdatareportedinthequestionnaires,

pressure-measurementaccuracy(onthebasisofstandard

fo r m 0.025 t o 0.10 percent.

continuoustunnels.

These accuracies were r e p o r t e d

blowdown and

The survey showed t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w i c e plenum chamber b o t hr e q u i r e p r e s s u r ef o r a r e f e r e n c et om o n i t o r t e s t - s e c t i o n w a l l pressure.

as many transonictunnelsuse Mach number, as opposed to measurements a r e used and

However, b o t ht y p e so f

a calibration(s)torelatetheassociateddatatostaticpressure

measurements a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e . The most p o p u l a r s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e - p r o b e i s static orifices located ten The ten-deg-coneappears disturbanceoftheflow enough t o be used t o bea a 10 deg c o n e - c y l i n d e r w i t h downstream o f t h e s h o u l d e r .

or more c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r s

t r a d e - o f f between t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s t o m i n i m i z e be e a s i l y f a b r i c a t e d and durable athigh

and, simultaneously,
on t h e c y l i n d e r

r e p e a t e d l y i n a windtunnelenvironment.Although

subsonic speedsashockforms

and accurate measurement o f t h e a few

staticpressurerequiresorifices

a t severalstations,only
have t h i sf e a t u r e .

o f theprobe
a

d e s i g n ss u b m i t t e dw i t ht h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e s
o a cone n t o n l y has

A smaller-angle

lower,shock-attachment

Mach number b u t i t a l s o g e n e r a t e s

195

weaker t r a n s o n i c s h o c k o n t h e c y l i n d e r streamconditions. tothequestionnaire,

and t h u s s m a l l e r d e v i a t i o n s f r o m f r e e -

O f t h ev a r i o u ss t a t i cp r o b ed e s i g n sd e s c r i b e di nr e s p o n s e
a two-degree ( t o t a l - i n c l u d e da n g l e )c o n e was t h e s m a l l e s t .

An a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f e r r o r i n c a l i b r a t i n g t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s n e g l e c to fv a r i a t i o n st r a n s v e r s et ot h ef l o w .A l m o s tw i t h o u te x c e p t i o n ,i n caseswheremeasurements

is t h e

had been made, t,he q u e s t i o n n a i r e s i n d i c a t e d g r e a t e r

Mach number g r a d i e n t so c c u ra c r o s st h ef l o wt h a na l o n gt h et u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e . T h i s may be most s i g n i f i c a n t . i . n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f d r a g d i v e r g e n c e a n d / o r b u f f e to n s e tf o rt r a n s o n i ca i r c r a f t a r t o f wind'-tunneltesting models. However, t h ep r e s e n ts t a t e - o f - t h e a diag-

i s t o use o f f - c e n t e r l i n e d a t a e x c l u s i v e l y a s

n o s t i ct o o lt od e t e c tu n a c c e p t a b l yl a r g ev a r i a t i o n s .I nw h i c hc a s en o z z l ea n d / o r test section configurations are altered. The most p o p u l a rf l o w - a n g u l a r i t y - p r o b e sa p p e a rt o o f p i t c h and yaw. Wedges be t h e 30-deg-cone f o r o fv a r i o u sa n g l e sa r eo f t e n

simultaneous measurements

used for p l a n a r measurements.

I t a p p e a r sf e a s i b l et od e s i g np r o b e so ft h i s

type (i.e., differential-pressure) which can resolve ( T h i s o b j e c t i v e was proposed i n 1970 bythe TransonicTestingTechniques.)

flow angles t o +0.01 degree.

for f l o w a n g l e measurements
o f +1/4
deg was f r e q u e n t l y

ad hoc A i r Force-NASA Committeeon

The quotedaccuracy

r m 0.01 deg t o 0.04 deg. ranged f o

mentioned.

A spatialvariation

Quoted stagnat ion-temperature accuracy usual The m a j o r i t y o f r e p o r t i n g f a c i l i t i e s Inordertoachieve continuously. Nearly 50% o f t h e t u n n e l s a Mach number

l y ranged from 1 t o 2

OC.

do n o t c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r h u m i d i t y . 0.001, h u m i d i t y must be monitored

accuracyof

have made n o i s e measurements i n e i t h e r t h e plenum chamber. I n most cases,

s t i l l i n g chamber, t h e e s e c t i o n n d / o r h e t s a t either miniature strain t o measure thenoisedata.

gauge transducers or condensermicrophoneswereused The f o l l o w i n gt e c h n i q u e s have been employed to

measure f r e e s t r e a m d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t r a n s o n i c a n d / o r s u p e r s o n l c w i n d t u n n e l s .

1.

High-frequency-response pressure transducers the tip of

mounted near

cones t o measure f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s

beneath a laminarboundarylayer.

I I

II

2.

Pressuretransducers

mounted on wedges w i t h t h e

measurement

surfacealignedwiththe

flow.
of

3.
4.
5.

Pressuretransducers ogive-cylinders.

mounted o nt h ec y l i n d r i c a lp o r t i o n

.
mounted i n P i t o t probes t o measure

Pressure transducers

f l u c t u a t i o n si nP i t o tp r e s s u r e . Hot-wire and h o t - f i l m measurements. made h o t - w i r e o r h o t cases o n l yv e r y

Approximately 25% o f t h e t u n n e l s r e p o r t e d h a v i n g

film measurements o ft u r b u l e n c e .
Only afew' t u n n e l sr e p o r t e d

However, i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f

l i m i t e d c e n t e r l i n e and/or w a l l boundarylayer

measurements have been made.

measurements o f f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r e s s u r e . systemswere of

The m a j o r i t y o f t h e t u n n e l s r e p o r t e d t h a t S c h l i e r e n v a l u ei nd e t e c t i n g withhigh ness. Most o f t h e r e s p o n d i n g f a c i l i t i e s models d u r i n gc a l i b r a t i o n . usuallyonlyqualitative characteristics. The w e l l known r u l e o f thumb t h a t t h e unwanted d i s t u r b a n c e si nt h et e s ts e c t i o n . speed photography, t h i s method a l s op r o v i d e sd a t a

When combined
on f l o wu n s t e a d i -

have used one or more s t a n d a r df o r c e

However, comparisons w i t hr e f e r e n c ed a t aa r e and a r e o f l i m i t e d use i n p i n p o i n t i n g u n d e s i r a b l e f l o w

model c r o s ss e c t i o ns h o u l dn o t be u n i v e r s a l l y fewtunneloperators an

exceed 1% o ft h et u n n e la r e af o rt r a n s o n i ct e s t i n ga p p e a r st o accepted.
A consequence o f t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s t h a t v e r y

a t t e m p tt oc o r r e c tf o rw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .T h i sa l s or e f l e c t st h el a c ko f a c c e p t e dt h e o r yf o rc o r r e c t i n gf o rt r a n s o n i cw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e . F i n a l l y ,t h e tunnelshould consensus frequency on o f w i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni st h a t checked whenever:

be r e c a l i b r a t e d o r a t l e a s t s p o t changes occur,

1.
2.

t u n n ec o n f i g u r a t i o n l

s i g n i f i c a n ti n s t r u m e n t a t i o nm o d i f i c a t i o n sa r e erroneous data i nt h e i s being btained, r o o above, once each year.

made,

3.
4.

absence o f any o f t h e

S t a t i c - p r e s s u r eo r i f i c e ss h o u l da l s o

be i n s p e c t e db e f o r er e c a l i b r a t i n g .

197

V.B.

TRANSONIC

TUNNELS
to

The goal o f Mach number achieveanaccuracy o f +O.OOl, Foran

c a l i b r a t i o n s i n t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l ss h o u l db e particularlyinthetransonicdragriseregime:

0.75- < M < 1.0. .

"

airtest

medium, t h i s r e q u i r e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s t r a i n t

o nt o t a le r r o r s

i n t o t a l and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e measurements.

""<L AH AP

P -

2 3
5 + M
v a r i a t i o n ss e v e r a lt i m e sl a r g e rt h a n betaken 0.001.

However, changes

i n Reynolds number ( S e c t i o n 1 1 . 8 . 2 ) or h u m i d i t yl e v e l( S e c t i o n

Il.C.7)

can e a s i l y cause Mach number

For t h i s reason,considerablecareshould o v e rt h ee n t i r er a n g eo f d u r i n gr o u t i n eo p e r a t i o n s . h u m i d i t yl e v e l s , r e c o r d e rf o r total pressure

to c a l i b r a t ea ne m p t y - t u n n e l
f o r t y p i c a l ,o p e r a t i n g
e.g., a strip of

Reynolds number and

h u m i d i t yl e v e l sn o r m a l l ye n c o u n t e r e d

Once t h et u n n e li sc a l i b r a t e d

a c o n t i n u o u sm o n i t o r i n go fh u m i d i t yi sp r e f e r r e d ,

subsequent reference.

I na d d i t i o n ,e x c e s s i v es p a t i a lv a r i a t i o n s

( i.e.

, AHS/HS

> 0.001) a c r o s s t h e s t i

1 1 i n g chamber may r e q u i r e
chamber t o t h e t e s t on

c o r r e c t i v ea c t i o n ,

e.g.,

a d d i t i o n as c r e e n s , l

honeycombs, e t c .F i n a l l y ,t h e

assumption o f an i s e n t r o p i c e x p a n s i o n f r o m t h e s t i l l i n g sectionshouldbeevaluated and o f f - c e n t e r 1 i n e . The long,static-pressure,surveypipe f o ro b t a i n i n gc e n t e r l i n e measurements.

by d i r e c t measurements i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n , b o t h

i sw e l le s t a b l i s h e d

as thestandard nose

B e s tr e s u l t sa r ea c h i e v e dw i t ht h e chamber; t h i s i s

o ft h ep i p el o c a t e dw e l lu p s t r e a mi nt h es e t t l i n g o r d e rt op r e v e n t

necessary i n

passage o f a t r a n s o n i c s h o c ko v e rt h el e n g t ho ft h ep i p e .I n be c a r e f u l l y i n s p e c t e d f o r o r i f i c e - i n d u c e d i'sdetermined t o befreeoforificeerrors

a l l c a s e s ,t h er e s u l t i n gd a t as h o u l d errors. Once t h ec e n t e r l i n ed a t a

( S e c t i o nI I I . D . l . ) ,s t a n d a r dp r o c e d u r ei st ou s et h es t a t i cp r e s s u r ed a t at o c a l i b r a t ee i t h e r plenum chamber p r e s s u r e or w a l ls t a t i ct a p s . control, the possibi

I f plenum presl a r g e (> 1%)

sure i s used f o r Machnumber t u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n ss h o u l d

1 it y o f d e p a r t u r e s fromemptyMach number

be c a r e f u l l y examined i n cases o f (1) speeds and ( 2 ) r a p i d l y v a r y i n g

l i f t i n g models a th i g h - s u b s o n i c c o n d i t i o n s such occur as during rapid statictapsare

changes i n model o r i e n t a t i o n . control,atleast oneshould

If wall

used f o r Mach number

be l o c a t e d on

198

each w a l l , ahead o ft h e

model l o c a t i o n , and averaged with a "piezometerring"; a singlewallstaticpressure. move a b o u t t h e t e s t s e c t i o n and o f f -

t h i s average i s p r e f e r a b l e t o u s i n g o n l y Since a l o n g p i p e i s d i f f i c u l t t o

c e n t e r l i n ed a t ai si m p o r t a n tf o ra i r c r a f t - m o d e lt e s t i n g , t h a ts u p p l e m e n t a r y ,o f f - c e n t e r l i n ed a t a pressure probe Sincethewing

i t is recommended

be o b t a i n e d w i t h a c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a t i c when
M is

or r a k e o f suchprobes,

not near

one (Sec.

I I I .D. 2 ) . 60 per-

span o f m o s t t r a n s o n i c a i r c r a f t

models i s r e s t r i c t e d t o and h o r i z o n t a lp l a n e s .

c e n t ,o rl e s s ,o ft h et u n n e lw i d t h ,b o t h s h o u l db eo b t a i n e do v e rt h i s Off-centerline o fe r r o r s timewith caused by

Mach number and f l o w a n g u l a r i t y d a t a

span i n t h e v e r t i c a l

measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y a r e s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r s n o z z l ec o n t o u r ,w a l ls e t t i n g s ,s e a l e a k s ,e t c . can be o b t a i n e d i n t h e l e a s t two,orthogonal,symmetricalwings The most amount o f and a f o r c e

a c c u r a t e measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y a p r o b ec o n s i s t i n go f

balance housed i n a small centerbody." In addition to datashould measurinq Mach number and f l o w a n g u l a r i t y o f f - c e n t e r l i n e , and a f t s t a t i o n s i n a mean o f

be taken a tr e p r e s e n t a t i v ef o r w a r d ,c e n t e r ,

t h eu s e a b l et e s ts e c t i o n . g i v e ns t a t i o n , t h ec e n t e r l i n e

I t i s suggested t h a tt h er e s u l t i n gd a t a ,a t

be expressed i n terms o fs t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o nf r o mt h e measurements. T h i st y p eo fd a t a

will p r o v i d e more complete

informationonflowquality sity,wallangleor

and should be considered when s e l e c t i n g w a l l p o r o -

amount o f plenumevacuation. as t o what a r ea c c e p t a b l e

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no g e n e r a l c o n s t r a i n t s e x i s t o f f - c e n t e r l i n ev a r i a t i o n s . f o r ''good" un i f o r m i t y i n c e n t e r 1 i n e Machnumber :
2 aM 5 0.005

Jackson ( A E D C ) has s u g g e s t e d h e o l l o w i n g r i t e r i a t f c

for M < 1

2
Inthepast,

UM

2 0 . 0 1 for M > 1

a criterionforacceptableflowangularityalongthecenterline because a g i v e n model i s u s u a l l y r u n u p r i g h t and i n v e r t e d a v a l i d and

has n o t been needed

i no r d e rt oe s t a b l i s ht h ee f f e c t i v ea n g l eo fi n c i d e n c e .T h i si s

*Acceptableaccuracycanalso
pressureprobes,seeSection

be o b t a i n e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l , d i f f e r e n t i a l 1II.E.

199

w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e dt e s t i n gp r a c t i c e ; i sf r e q u e n t l yi g n o r e d .

however, f l o w a n g u l a r i t y

i n t h e yaw p l a n e

To summarize, standard c r i t e r i a f o r f l o w u n i f o r m i t y in
and flow

need t o be developed f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e( p r e f e r a b l ys t a n d a r d )m o d e l s v a r i o u sk i n d s

o f t e s t s , =.g.,

f o r c e ,b u f f e t ,f l u t t e r ,e t c .

These c r i t e r i a Mach number

shouldincludestandards angularity,both

for a c c e p t a b l e v a r i a t i o n s i n

on and o f f - c e n t e r l i n e .
measurements i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s s h o u l d Recent use be a

Unsteadydisturbance s t a n d a r dp a r t

o f t u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n .

o fh o t - w i r e si nt h et e s t may be u s e f u l f o r

s e c t i o n o f a t r a n s o n i ct u n n e la t u n s t e a d y - f l o wc a l i b r a t i o ni na tl e a s t sureincreaseshot-wires

NASA Ames i n d i c a t e st h e s e

some t u n n e l s .

However, as dynamic pres-

become more v u l n e r a b l e t o breakage and p r o b a b l y will new high-Reynolds-number f a c i 1ities(except

in

be i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e i n t h e t h es e t t l i n g chamber).

Based on e x t e n s i v ee x p e r i e n c ew i t ht h e oftheUnitedStates

AEDC t r a n s i t i o n

cone i n twenty-onemajorwindtunnels t h i sd e v i c e

andWesternEurope, model and is

has become an " u n o f f i c i a l " t u n n e l a c o u s t i c c a l i b r a t i o n

c u r r e n t l yc o n s i d e r e dt o However, t h e r e i s e a s i l yr e p r o d u c e d

be t h eb e s ta v a i l a b l ed i s t u r b a n c ec a l i b r a t i o ni n s t r u m e n t can be

a d e f i n i t e need f o r a lessexpensiveinstrumentwhich and used i n a l l s i z e s o f f a c i l i t i e s .

The development o f f l u c t u T h i st y p e

a t i n gP i t o tp r o b e sa p p e a r st o instrumentcan

meet t h i s need ( S e c t i o n I 1 I . F ) .

of

be used t o measure c e n t e r l i n e n o i s e and t o c a l i b r a t e w a l l - m o u n t e d ,

dynamic pressuretransducers. manent m o n i t o ro ft u n n e ln o i s e . m a t e l y 0.025 cm (0.01 should have t a ined

A w a l lt r a n s d u c e r ( s )c a nt h e n
The w a l lt r a n s d u c e r ( s )s h o u l d

be used as be mounted

a perapproxi-

i n . )b e l o wt h ep l a n eo ft h et u n n e l

w a l l and, p r e f e r a b l y , By u s i n g two o r more w a l l o f disturbancescan

a frequencyresponseoutto

30 kHz.

mounted t r a n s d u c e r s , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p r o p a g a t i o n

be a s c e r -

A l t h o u g ht h e r ea r e steadiness, Mabey (RAE) f r e ef l u t t e r

no g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a f o r a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s o f f l o w has developed some n o i s eg u i d e l i n e sf o ri n t e r f e r e n c e -

un-

and b u f f e tt e s t s( S e c t i o n

I I1.F.).

The g o a lo ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l ,

n o i s e - r e d u c t i o nr e s e a r c hi st or e d u c eu n s t e a d i n e s st ol e v e l sc h a r a c t e r i s t i c t u r b u l e n t boundary layers solid on walls, i.e.,

< 0.005. P An accepted measure o f w a v e - c a n c e l l a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f v e n t i l a t e d
AC

of

wallsistoobtainpressuredistributiondata p a r et h er e s u l t sw i t hw a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e ed a t a .

on a 20 deg c o n e - c y l i n d e r and comIt i s now a p p a r e n tt h a tt h e

200

t r a d i t i o n a la s s u m p t i o n w a l l si s erroneous.

o f a l i n e a r boundary c o n d i t i o n a t v e n t i l a t e d , t r a n s o n i c

Thus, t h i se x p l a i n st h ef a i l u r e
o f w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e

o f p a s ta t t e m p t s
on madel t e s t i n g .

t o theoMeasure-

r e t i c a l l yc a l c u l a t et h ee f f e c t s ments o f t e s t - s e c t i o n - w a l l a r eb e i n g

b o u n d a r yl a y e r s ,b o t hw i t h

and w i t h o u t models i n s i t u ,

made i n e f f o r t s t o g a i n a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

of ventilated walls
on t r a n s o n i cw a l li n t e r -

and t h e i rc r o s s - f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .C u r r e n tr e s e a r c h f e r e n c ei sf o c u s i n go nt h r e ea r e a s : conditions,

( I ) t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f more exactboundary
and

(2) t h e development o f a s e l f - c o r r e c t i n g w i n d t u n n e l w l t h a u t o m a t i c

c o n t r o l of l o n g i t u d i n a l l yv a r y i n gv e n t i l a t i o n , to attain wall-interference-free

(3) v a r y i n gw a l lc o n t o u r s

f l o w aboutmodels.

The NACA 0012 a i r f o i l i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g i n two-dimensionaltests. in a number

t o f l o wq u a l i t y .

used as

a standardpressure models have

model

The ONERA t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t

been t e s t e d model.

oftransonictunnels

and have been found t o be e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e adopted a s t a n d a r d ,t r a n s p o r t - a i r c r a f t

AGARD has n o ty e t

There i s c u r r e n t l y a genuine need f o r a s t a n d a r d ,a i r c r a f t ,p r e s s u r e models) t oa i dt r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n tunnel s. LaserDopplerVelocimetersare f o rw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n . p e r t u r bt h e addition,an a l s oc a n one.

flow.

model ( o r between

and data comparisons

an i m p o r t a n t a d d i t i o n t o t h e t o o l s a v a i l a b LDV i s it does n o t

le

The obvious advantage an of

A t Mach numbers near one,

notonlyfor

t h i s i s an important advantage.

In

LDV canbeused

mean-flow v e l o c i t y measurements b u t

measure f l o w a n g u l a r i t y and t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s g r e a t e r t h a n a b o u t

LDV measurements o f v e l o c i t y and f l o w a n g u l a r i t y a r e c u r r e n t l y o n l y However, near Mach one an LDV i sn o tb e i n g LDV i s expected t op r o v i d es u p e r i o r used t o r o u t i n e l y c a l i b r a t e i nt h ef u t u r e .

1/4 t o

115 as a c c u r a t e a s thebestconventionalprobesathighsubsonic
s o n i c speeds. data. A t t h i st i m e ,t h e

and low superempty-

tunnels.

However, we a n t i c i p a t e such use

201

V . C.

SUPERSONIC TUNNELS
be c a l i b r a t e d bymeasuringtwo can be o b t a i n e d bow shock o f a

Mach number i n s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s s h o u l d independent pressures bymeasuring wedge.

i nt h et e s ts e c t i o n .A c c u r a t er e s u l t s andbehindthe

Pitot pressures in the freestream

However, f r e e s t r e a mP i t o t and theassumption

and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s a r e p r e f e r a b l e t o o n l y chamber.

Pitot data

of isentropic flow from the settling

S i n c et r a n s v e r s eg r a d i e n t si n variations,

Mach number a r e t y p i c a l l y l a r g e r t h a n a x i a l Mach number and f l o w be surveyed

it i s c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l t o c a l i b r a t e b o t h

a n g u l a r i t yo f f - c e n t e r l i n e . neartheforward,center type of data

A t l e a s tt h r e ec r o s s - s e c t i o n ss h o u l d

and a f t p o r t i o n s o f t h e u s e a b l e t e s t s e c t i o n . T h i s and s t a t i c proberakes

can be o b t a i n e d m o s t e a s i l y w i t h P i t o t

or

a r r a y s mounted on a t r a v e r s i n gs t i n g .T h i sd a t as h o u l d a permanent Mach number f o rf r e q u e n t ,r o u t i n e probewhichshould

be used t o c a l i b r a t e

be i n s t a l l e d i n s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s :n general, a c a l i b r a t e d Mach need t o

checks on c a l i b r a t i o n .

number accuracy o f 0.5 t o 1% i sc o n s i d e r e d be developed which define acceptable flow qual t e s t i n g , e.g., f o r c e and p r e s s u r e t e s t s

good.

Industrystandards

ity for particular kinds

of

o f m i s s i l e s and a i r c r a f t models.
measurements shouldbeobtained

As i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s , c e n t e r l i n e n o i s e
and used t o c a l i b r a t e

one or more, wail-mounted,dynamic-pressuretransducers.

The AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone i s c u r r e n t l y t h e o n l y f l o w d i s t u r b a n c e c a l i b r a t i o n devicewhich has been t e s t e d i n a l a r g e number o ft u n n e l s . needed t os e r v e as a

A smaller and l e s s
standard. Probes

e x p e n s i v en o i s ec a l i b r a t i o nd e v i c ei s

designed to measure f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r e s s u r e s s h o u l d purpose. TraditionaPitot urveys f unnel-wal l s ot and geometry o f t h e i n v i s c i d

be c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h i s

1 b o u n d a r yl a y e r sn o to n l y

establishthesize o f f a c i 1 it y n o i s e .

f lowbutalsoaidcorrelations

I na d d i t i o nt ok e e p i n gt h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r eh i g h factionofthetest t e s t gas should

enough t o a v o i d l i q u e -

gas, t h e e f f e c t s o f t y p i c a l l e v e l s o f w a t e r v a p o r i n t h e As i s w e l l known, t h ep r i m a r ye f f e c t riseinstaticpressure. more s e n s i t i v e t o

be c a r e f u l l y c a l i b r a t e d .

o f watercondensation

i s a loss o f t o t a l p r e s s u r e haveobserved

and a

Also, v a r i o u s o p e r a t o r s

thatpressuretestsare

h u m i d i t yl e v e l st h a nf o r c et e s t s . The number o f surveys o f s u p e r s o n i c f l o w f i e l d s w i t h c i m e t e ri si n c r e a s i n g as some e a r l i e r problems have t h i s new t o o l may enabie more a c c u r a t e c a l i b r a t i o n s a iaser Doppler veio-

been r e s o l v e d .I nt h ef u t u r e
of supersonictunnels.

202

APPENDIX I

Hot Wires and Hot Films

Introduction

'

A hot-wire anemometer is a means of measuring fluctuationsin localized

areas of the flow at frequencies up to 200 KHz.

The sensor may be a small-

thin metallic film diameter wire suspended between needle-like prongs a or

on an insulative substrate that may be shaped in various geometries. It responds to cooling effects and thus measures both kinematicand thermodynamic fluctuations of the flow.
The hot-wire has been a generally accepted standard for measuring fluctuations in wind tunnel flow since the work of Drydenand Kuethe in 1929 (Ref. l), Its use can be very tedious and thus has often been avoided. However, it has not been replaced because of its advantages that include: small sensor size,

high frequency response and sensitivity to pressure, vorticity, and entropy

fluctuations. Dr. Kovasznay (Ref. 2) opinioned in 1968 that the hot-wire has not been replaced by other methods becauseof its unique characteristics. Furthermore, significant developmentsin hot-wire methodology in the 1970's indicate continued use of this instrumentin both specialized experiments and in wind tunnel calibrations. Reference 3 is a recent textbook on hot-wire technology. References 4 and 5 provide further background and extended lists of references relative to measurements of fluctuating propertiesin wind tunnels. Reference summaries o f the early history and the technology to 1968. up Useful application of hot-wires to incompressible flow is commonly dated as 1929 (Ref. 1). mid 1940's. Experiments with hot wires in supersonic flows began in the 6, 7, and 8 ) . Applications to transonic However, equipment and analysis techniques were not considered 2 provides

adequate until the mid 1950's (Refs.

in flows encountered particular difficulty separating the components of the

output signal (Refs. 3 and 8). Recent reports of progress (Refs. 9 and 1 ) 0 have outlined approaches for practical applications the high-subsonic and in transonic test regime.

*This

section has been contributed by C . J. Stalmach, Jr., Vought Corporation.

Equ ipment Descr ip t i o nand Operat-ion

The sensor i s e l e c t r i c a l l y h e a t e d t o m a i n t a i n e i t h e r a constantcurrent compen-

or c o n s t a n tt e m p e r a t u r e( r e s i s t a n c e ) .I nt h ec a s e
s a t i o nf o rt h et h e r m a ll a g

o f c o n s t a n tc u r r e n t ,

of thewireisobtainedbyanoutputamplifier
a square wave h e a t i n gi n p u t ) to

whose g a i n w i t h f r e q u e n c y i s a d j u s t e d ( d u r i n g
> r a t i o s ( U d - 150) t h e w i r e e x h i b i t s

compensate f o r decay o ft h eo u t p u tw i t hi n c r e a s i n gf r e q u e n c y .

For l a r g ea s p e c t

a f i r s t o r d e r response that is simple to compensating a m p l i f i e r sensor.

compensate e l e c t r o n i c a l l y .A d j u s t m e n to ft h en o n - l i n e a r , isrequiredfor each change i n mean f l o w c o n d i t i o n o r

Inthecaseof

a constanttemperature

anemometer, a high-gainfeedback to f l u c t u a t i o n s i n c o o l i n g

system p r o v i d e s power t o t h e w i r e i n r e s p o n s e

c a u s e db yt h ef l o ws u c ht h a tt h ew i r er e s i s t a n c e( t e m p e r a t u r e )r e m a i n se s s e n t i a l l yc o n s t a n t . The square o ft h ev o l t a g er e q u i r e dt om a i n t a i nc o n s t a n tw i r e between thesensor and i t s compared

r e s i s t a n c e i s a d i r e c t measure o f t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r environment. The constant temperature

anemometer has several advantages

t o a c o n s t a n tc u r r e n ts y s t e mi n c l u d i n g :

1.'
2.

thermallagnot

a problem since sensor temperature

i sc o n s t a n t ,

a u t o m a t i ca d j u s t m e n tt ol a r g e whichreducesaccidentalburnouts d u r i n g mean f l o w changes,

changes i n mean f l o wc o n d i t i o n s and c o n t i n u e s d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n

3. 4.
5.

d i r e c t DC outputas c o m p a t i b l ew i t h

a f u n c t i o no f

mean v e l o c i t y , have

fl im and low R/d w i r es e n s o r st h a t

and

complexfrequencyresponsecharacteristics,

o u t p u t may be l i n e a r i z e d and temperature compensated. was i n i t i a l l y p r e f e r r e d because i t p r o v i d e d

The constantcurrentapproach

higher-frequency-response and s i g n a l - t o - e l e c t r o n i c - n o i s e a t i o . o l i d t a t e r S s e l e c t r o n i c s , however, have comparable performance p e r m i t t e dt h ec o n s t a n tt e m p e r a t u r e systems t o have An excepand

and a r et h e

systems now g e n e r a l l yp r e f e r r e d .

t i o n i s measurement o f t e m p e r a t u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n d e p e n d e n t o f v e l o c i t y d e n s i t ye f f e c t s . a c h i e v e dw i t h Here a minimum w i r et e m p e r a t u r ei sr e q u i r e dt h a t Modern commercial

i s best
u n i t sg e n e r a l l y

a c o n s t a n tc u r r e n to p e r a t i o n .

i n c o r p o r a t eb o t hc i r c u i t s .R e f e r e n c e ment s u p p l i e r s p r o v i d e f u r t h e r d e t a i l s sensor s t y 1 es.

3 and l i t e r a t u r ef r o m

commercial equip-

on t h e power systems and commonly used

204

Response t o Mean Flow

A wire or

film sensorresponds

t o changes i n f l o w c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a f f e c t s

t h eh e a tt r a n s f e ro ft h es e n s o rt oi t se n v i r o n m e n t .F o rs t e a d yf l o wt h es e n s o r response may be expressed a s Nu -A+B or

E2

&
( P U ) ~ ] (Tw

(1.1)

[C+D

Te)

(1.2)

where x=0.5 F i g u r e A.I.l flow,

f o rc l a s s i c a la n a l y s i s( K i n g ' sl a w )o ff l o wa r o u n dh e a t e dc y l i n d e r s . shows theresponse o f a h o tw i r et ot h e mean flow.Forsupersonic shock (Ref.

theNussel t number i s evaluatedbehindthenormal Flow

6).

Response t o F l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e

The s i m u l t a n e o u s r e a c t i o n o f t h e h e a t e d s e n s o r t o d e n s i t y , v e l o c i t y temperature i s thekeybothtotheadvantages

and

and d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e h o t - w i r e I t i s an advantage t o

anemometer approach t o m e a s u r i n gf l o wf l u c t u a t i o n s . have sensor one measure both kinematic comparison, a l a s e rD o p p l e rv e l o c i m e t e r

and thermodynamic f l u c t u a t i o n s .I n can o n l y measure t h e f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i sound o r

t i e s and a microphone o rp r e s s u r es e n s o rr e s p o n d so n l yt ot h en e t p r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n s .S e p a r a t i o no ft h e heated sensor i sn o ts i m p l e

modes composing t h eo u t p u to ft h e a p r i o r i knowledge o f t h e

and, i ng e n e r a l ,r e q u i r e s sampled.

f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c sb e i n g

The c h o i c eo ft e c h n i q u e sf o rs e p a r a t i n gt h e w i r es i g n a li s t h et e s t .
A S i n d i c a t e di nt h e

modes of a f l u c t u a t i n g h o t and Reynolds number o f w i r er e s p o n s et o incorn-

somewhat dependent on t h e Mach number

summary curve of Fig. A . I . l ,

mean f l o wi sw e l ld e f i n e df o rt h ei n c o m p r e s s i b l e p r e s s i b l ef l o w , F i g . A.I.1. a h o t - w i r er e s p o n d so n l yt ov e l o c i t y The sensor output, put i s w e l l behaved f o rs u p e r s o n i c

Of

case. isothermal, For changes.

The sensor Out-

Mach numbers asindicatedbythelowercurve however i s Mach number dependent between

thesetwobounds

f o rt h el o w e rr a n g eo fw i r eR e y n o l d s

number. to and a n a l y s i s in

Testequipmentanddataanalysistechniquesaresufficientlydeveloped p e r m i tu s e f u la p p l i c a t i o n sf o rt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n so v e rt h e i n t e r e s ti nt h i sr e p o r t (0.4 Mach range o f needs t o be done

5 3.5).

Research t o improve equipment

s h o u l dc o n t i n u eh o w e v e r .I np a r t i c u l a r ,a d d i t i o n a lw o r k t h ea r e a so ft r a n s o n i cf l o wa p p l i c a t i o n s component modes.

and s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l i n t o i t s

205

(Ref. 2.0

3)

1.8 1.6

1.4
1.2
I

1 .o
t

.8
.6
.4
.2

0
0 .2

.4

.6

.8

1 .O

F i g u r e A. 1.2

206

FLUCTUATION DIAGRAM FOR 1 PER MASS CENT FLOW FLUCTUATIONS AND 1 PER CENT STAGNATION TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS WITH VARYING DEGREES OF CORRELATION. (Ref. 7)

Separation ofModes in Fluctuating Flow

In supersonic flow the fluctuating voltage a heatedI wi re placed normal of to the flaw can expressed in terms of the fluctuating ve be locity, density and
total temperature (Refs. 3, 7, 8, and

lo),

ion o f Ref. 10): (using the notat

The sensitivity coefficients for constant temperature sensor operation are:

Rn Nu
T

1
wr

Rn Ret

Rn N u t
T

wr

a R n ~

(I .5)

Tt

=-

2 Asw

1 +2

(K

1 - nt) + rn

t P

1 s + - (sU 2

sP)

( I .6j

For supersonic flow (M > 1.2), the heat loss is insensitive to Mach number,
and sensitivity to velocity and density are essentially equal (Refs.3, 6, 8).

: su = .

PU

Thus for supersonic flow, Eq.(1.3)

may be simplified to (Ref.

7):

The root-mean-square of the sensor outputm a y be expressed as:

where the correlation coefficient f mass flux and temperature is defined by: o

Sensor o u t p u t , o b t a i n e d a t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s e n s o r t e m p e r a t u r e s , s e n s i t i v i t y ,o b t a i n e df r o mc a l i b r a t i o n ,c a np r o v i d es o l u t i o n s unknowns <(pu)*>, <Ttc> and RpuT

and sensor

f o r t h et h r e e

The normal p r a c t i c e i s t o p l o t d a t a , modal diagramsasdevelopedby

o b t a i n e da ts e v e r a lw i r eo v e r h e a tr a t i o s ,i n Kovasznay (Ref.

7) and Morkovin (Ref.

8).

A f l u c t u a t i o nd i a g r a mf o rv a r y i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c modal diagrams and sound a r e shown i n

degrees o f c o r r e l a t i o n i s g i v e n i n F i g .

A.1.2. The

o f Kovasznay f o rf l u c t u a t i o n si nv e l o c i t y ,t e m p e r a t u r e , Figs. A.1.3,

A.1.4,

and A.1.5.

Independent f l u c t u a t i o n s w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e f l o w f i e l d a r e t h e v o r t i c i t y ( t u r b u l e n c e ) ,e n t r o p y( t e m p e r a t u r es p o t t i n e s s ) , modes. The l a t e dt ot h e v o r t i c i t y ,e n t r o p y , and p r e s s u r e( n o i s eo r sound)

and p r e s s u r es e n s i t i v i t yc o e f f i c i e n t sa r er e and t o t a l t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s i t i v i t y

measured d e n s i t y , v e l o c i t y ,

c o e f f i c i e n t s as f o l l o w s( R e f .

8):
(1.10)

Su + 8 ST
t

sU = s P

+ U S T
t

(1.11)

- Su X M

+ a (y-1) (l+nxM) ST
t

(I.12)

Where nx i s t h e d i r e c t i o n c o s i n e o f t h e n o r m a l t o r e l a t i v et ot h ef l o wd i r e c t i o n . d i s t i n c to r i e n t a t i o ne x i s t ,t h e n quiredfor

a p l a n e sound wave f r o n t

I f two o r more measureable sound s o u r c e sw i t h a sound s e n s i t i v i t yc o e f f i c i e n t would be r e -

each sound wave d i r e c t i o n . diagramtechnique

i s an accepted means o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e

The modal flows.

Pri-

mary c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e n s o r s i g n a l i n s u p e r s o n i c An i m p o r t a n ta p p l i c a t i o no ft h e tionistodistinguish o rh o l e si nt h ew a l l ) sound from a fixedsource(suchas as opposed

and c e r t a i nh y p e r s o n i c caused roughness by

modal diagram t o w i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a -

t o a moving sound source(suchaseminating

from a t u r b u l e n t boundary layer the on tunnel wall). This technique effectiveonly

for f l o w s where thetemperaturespottedness

is isnegligible.

The diagram f o r a f i x e d s o u r c e o f and t h ed i a g r a mf o r a movingsource

sound an has o f sound has

origin-intercept(seeFig.

A. 1.5)

a positiveordinate-intercept

s i m i l a r to thetemperaturediagramofFig.

A.1.4.

See Refs.

11,

12, 13, and 14 f o r examples.

208

//
<E' > -

STt

-1
F i g u r e A. I . 3

't T

FLUCTUATION DIAGRAM FOR 1 PERCENT TURBULENT VELOCITY FLUCTUATIONS (VORTICITY MODE). (Ref.

7)

Figure A.1.4

FLUCTUATION DIAGRAH FOR I PER CENT TEMPERATURE (Ref. 7) SPOTTINESS (ENTROPY M O D E ) .

-I

~l~~~~. ~ FLUCTUATION A . I DIAGRAM

WhVES HAVING 1

FOR WAVES SOUND THAT ARE ALMOST MACH PER PRESSURE CENT FLUCTUATIONS ( R e f . 7)

.3

.2

-1

-.5

0
sPusT

.5

F i g u r e A.1.6

21 0

FLUCTUATION DIAGRAM FOR UNCORRELATED MODES AT M = 1 . 7 5 ; TEMPERATURE SPOTTINESS 0.1 PER CENT; TURBULENT VELOCITY WAVES (DETECTABLE) 0.1 FLUCTUATIONS 0.2 PER CENT; SOUND PER CENT OF MASS FLOW FLllCTllATIONS. (DOTTED LINES SHOW SEPARATE CONTRIBUTIONS.) ( R e f . 7)

When thedominate betweenpressure,density

mode i s sound, t h e f o i l c w i n g l s e n t r o p l c r e l a t i o n s and t e m p e r a t u r ea r ea p p r o p r i a t e (Ref.

11):

(1.14)

The r e s u l t a n t h o t - w i r e e q u a t i o n i nt h ef r e e s t r e a ma r eg i v e ni n

and c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e f l u c t u a t i o n q u a n t i t i e s References 11 and 12. shown which

I n Reference 15. an a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e d i a g r a m a p p r o a c h i s i d e n t i f i e st e m p e r a t u r ef l u c t u a t i o n si nt h e where t h ea d j o i n i n gf r e e s t r e a ms i g n a l e v e li s

wake of a wedge i n h y p e r s o n i cf l o w low.

I f both temperature
(Ref.

f l u c t u a t i o n s and moving sound s o u r c e sa r el i k e l yp r e s e n t r e t a t i o n o f thedlagrams o u t p u t , i n a case where becomes more d i f f i c u l t .

161, t h eI n t e r p -

An example of a h o t - w i r e
shown I n F i g u r e A . 1 . 6 . mode, s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e

a l l t h r e e modes,are p r e s e n t i s absence o f onedominant

I t i s r e a d i l y seen t h a t i n t h e
component modes can be

a problem. References

7. 8, and 12 may be consulted

f o r more d e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g t h e TransonicFlows

modal diagramtechnique.

The m d a l diagramapproachcannotbegenerallyappliedforcompressible subsonicandtransonicflows(seeFig.

A.l.1)

where t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e Mach number a r e n o t z e r o , and IO). Transonic opera-

Nusselt number and r e c o v e r y f a c t o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o and su

# s

forail

o v e r h e a tr a t i o s

(Refs.

3 , 8,

tion at high

dynamicpressuresalsoincreasesproblemswithwirebreakage. helpexplainthelimited usage o f h o t - w i r e

The aboveproblems

systems i n

transonic wlnd tunnels. Recent developments, however, provide examples for overcoming these difficulties. The sensor f a i l u r e problem may be a l l e v i a t e d

withtheuseofshorterwires(Ud
film sensors (Ref.

IOO),

wireswithinsulativebackingor end s u p p o r t s r u b s t r a t e os each sensor be calibrated Sp and Su

IO, 17, and 18).

Heat l o s s e s o t

and p o s s i b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s n e c e s s i t a t e t h a t

i n a representativeflowenvironment.

The s e n s i t i v i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s

21 1

have been

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y measured i nt r a n s o n i cf l o wb yi n d e p e n d e n t l yv a r y i n g These r e s u l t se s t a b l i s ht h a t

d e n s i t y and v e l o c i t y ( R e f s . 9 and I O ) .
Su a r ea p p r o x i m a t e l ye q u a lf o ra l l

Sp and

Mach numbers (includingthetroublesome

transonicrange)

i f t h ew i r eo v e r h e a tr a t i oi sg r e a t e rt h a n

0.5 and t h e w i r e

Reynolds number i sg r e a t e rt h a n

20.

O p e r a t i o nw i t h i nt h e s er e s t r i c t i o n sa g a i n

p e r m i t st h eu s eo ft h es i m p l i f i e de x p r e s s i o n

o f Eq. (1.7). For

many t r a n s o n i c to

w i n dt u n n e l st h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r ef l u c t u a t i o n sa r ex g i i g i b l er e l a t i v e the mass-flux term.

In t h i s c a s et h eh o t - w i r ed i r e c t l y

senses t h ef l u c t u a -

t i o n s o f the mass-flux. a f a c i l i t y (such as a new sensoroperated

I f t h el e v e lo ft e m p e r a t u r ef l u c t u a t i o n
c r y o o e n i ct u n n e l )t h el e v e l

Is unknown I n
a

may b ea s c e r t a i n e dw i t h

a tc o n s t a n tc u r r e n t

and neartherecoverytemperature.

R e d u c t i o no fm a s s - f l u x requiresfurtherassumptions,
o r an independent

measurements i n a t r a n s o n i c f l o w i n t o i t s e l e m e n t s e.g., possibleapplicationofthe modal diagrams

measurement w i t h a l a s e rv e l o c i m e t e r ,p r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r

or
above

a s p e c i a l h o t - f i l m geometry. boundary-layer For flow. pressure the fluctuations c a ng e n e r a l l yb en e g l e c t e dr e l a t i v e t o v o r t i c i t y .O p e r a t i n gw i t h i nt h e layerprofiles

d e s c r i b e d w i r e and f l o w domain,boundary and Reynolds shear Hach number of 0.8.

of v e l o c i t y . d e n s i t y

s t r e s s weresuccessfullyobtainedinRef.10

for a nominal
it appears hat t

For o p e r a t i o ni nt h et r a n s o n i cf r e e s t r e a m ,

t h e p r i n c i p l e of modal diagramscanbe

a p p l i e d t o high-Reynolds-number

flow

b yo b t a i n i n gd a t aa ts e v e r a lo v e r - h e a tr a t i o s ,a l lb e i n gg r e a t e rt h a n Straightlinefairings

0.5.

OF t h ed a t a ,e x t r a p o l a t e d

t o theordinate,wouldthen case. Another

provide information the on dominate

mode a si nt h es u p e r s o n i c

approach for s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e f l u c t u a t i o n

modes i s t o employ a yet-to-be t h a t one

defined f i I m sensor t h a t has two (or more) f i l m s and a geometrysuch

film responds t o themass-flux

and a second f i l m responds t o pressure (geoAn a p p l i c a t i o n o f special sensor geometry,

m e t r i c a l l ys h i e l d e d

from velocity).

fordirectcorrelation l a y e r flow (Ref.

measurements,has been

r e p o r t e d for hypersonic,boundary-

17).

Comparison o f Hot Wire t o Other Systems Hot-wiredata otherdevices. have, i ng e n e r a l , compared w e l l w i t h measurements from

Agreement o f v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s o b t a i n e d w i t h

hot w i r e and

l a s e r systems w i t h i n a shock-wave/boundary-layer i n t e r a c t i o n( R e f . credence t o b o t h systems and tends t o v a l i d a t et h ea s s u m p t i o n s

19) g i v e s

employed i n

21 2

d a t ar e d u c t i o n .I nt h ef r e e s t r e a mo f t u n n e l st h e ment been has ments (Refs.

many t r a n s o n i c and supersonic wind and i n suchcases good agreemeasure-

sound mode generallydominates,

o b t a i n e d between h o t - w i r e and pressuretransducer 14 and 20). An example comparison

o f P i t o t and h o t - w i r e

measurements a t M = 5 i s shown i n F i g . may sensesuch

A.1.7.

F o rd i a g n o s t i c

measurements

o f f l o w sw i t hn o i s ed n m i n a t e dd i s t u r b a n c e s ,
A dynamic P i t o t p r e s s u r e s u r v e y
requirements.Anotherwidely pressure-instrumented IOo cone.

a dynamic pressuretransducer a h o t - w i r e system.

f l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h much l e s s e f f o r t t h a n

may s a t i s f y many w i n d t u n n - 1 c a l i b r a t i o n used C a l i b r a t i o n model i s t h e (See S e c t i o n 1 I I . F . 1

.).

AEDC developed,

I n summary, t h eh o t - w i r ec a np r o v i d e pressuretransducer, e.g.,

more i n f o r m a t i o nt h a n

a dynamic

it can d i s t i n g u i s h between moving

and f i x e ds o u r c e s

o f sound w i t h a s i n g l e sensor. sponse and, i ng e n e r a l ,

The w i r e a l s o p r o v i d e s

a higherfrequencyre-

has a more omnidirectionalresponsetonoisesources.

The smallersensorof frequencyaspect)

a h o t - w i r e system i s i m p o r t a n t ( i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e

i f l o c a lf l u c t u a t i n g

measurements i n a shock o r boundary sensor may be l o c a t e di na r e a s

l a y e ra r er e q u i r e d .F u r t h e r ,t h ew i r e / f i l m hidden from t h e v i e w o f

a laserDopplervelocimeter.

OtherDataAnalysisTechniques O t h e rd a t a - r e d u c t i o nt e c h n i q u e sf o rt h ef l u c t u a t i n qs i g n a li n c l u d et i m e ( a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n ) and s p a t i a l( l o c a t i o n and d i r e c t i o n ) c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e each frequency. equipment a r e f a i r l y common and a r e

s i g n a l .S p e c t r a la n a l y s i sp r o v i d e st h ee n e r g yc o n t e n ta t These techniques and a s s o c i a t e d e l e c t r o n i c described i nt h el i t e r a t u r e .

(Suggested r e f e r e n c e s n c l u d e i

3 , 12, 14, and 21).

Sensor Choice and C a l i b r a t i o n Reouirements Inthepast,thewire-breakageproblem t i o n time. Minimum c a l i b r a t i o n r e q u i r e s had encouraged m i n i m i z i n g c a l i b r a maximum use o f c o r r e l a t i o n s o f e x i s t a

ingcalibrationdata w i r e (Refs. 8, sensors. 12, 22,

and e n d - l o s s c o r r e c t i o n s t o p r e d i c t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f and 23).

A more recent approach, promises that improved

datagatheringefficiency

and dataaccuracy,

i s t h e use o f more durable,rugged (E/d

A rugged sensor

may i n c l u d e a f i n e - d i a m e t e rs h o r tw i r e a l a r g e rd i a m e t e r

loo),

a w i r e backed an by

i n s u l a t o r ,o r

f i l m sensor (Refs.

IO, 17,
w i t h such

18 and 24).

The complex heat loss

and p o s s i b l es u p p o r ti n t e r f e r e n c e s and theuse

sensors r e q u i r e i n d i v i d u a l s e n s o r c a l i b r a t i o n s p e r a t u r e system.

o f a c o n s t a n t tem213

Fully turbulent nozzle wall baundary layer

-+

I
3

-turbulen -First

aTa*nce s t Oi m
I t

Figure A. I

.7

COMPARISON OF PITOT PROBE AM, HOT-WIRE WSUREMENTS OF FREE-STREAM PRESSURE FLUCTUATIONS IN A CONVENTIONAL, MACH 5

NOZZLE, Ref. 14.

214

C a l i b r a t i o n o f a heatedsensor m a i n t a i n i n g a constant Mach number

may, i n general, be o b t a i n e d i n s i t u b y and temperature and v a r y i n g t h e t o t a l and f o r R > 20 mean f l o w

pressure (and thereby Reynolds number). supersonic For flow in ransonic low, t f

= Su = S

PU

Further discussions such on

approaches t o c a l i b r a t i o n and more-refined dynamic c a l i b r a t i o n s a r e g i v e n

i n References 3 , 8,

9, 14, 18, 25, and 26.

s u c c e s s f u l l y used t h er u g g e dc l a s so ft u n g s t e n

Rose and Horstman have h o t - w i r e si n

a t r a n s o n i cf l o wf o ro v e r

16 hours without breakage. Commercially

because o f t h e f o l l o w i n g

Y k

(such as a v a i l a b l e f i l m sensors

0.002 t o 0.006-inchdiametercylinders)should

a l s or e c e i v ec o n s i d e r a t i o nf o rw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n advantages :

. . .

s u p e r i o rr e s i s t a n c et op a r t i c l e

damage, and s t r a i ng a g i n g ,

s u p e r i o rr e s i s t a n c et os u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a t i o n higher sensor Reynolds flow).

numbers ( p a r t i c u l a r l y m p o r t a n t n r a n s o n i c i i t

Compared to t h e rugged c l a s so ft u n g s t e nw i r es e n s o r ,t h eP l a t i n u m - f i l m Sensor has comparable c a p a b i l i t i e s i n frequency response

maximum o v e r h e a tr a t i o

(-one)

and

150K Hz).

*Privatecommunication

Summary o f AdvantagesandDisadvantages The advantagesanddisadvantages thefluctuatingflowpropertiesduring marized as f o l l o w s . Advantages

o f HotWire

System t o measure sum-

o f u s i n g a hot-wiresystem a w i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o na r e

1.
2.

Small sensor size High frequency response Higsensitivity h S e n s i t i v et ob o t hk i n e m a t i c and thermodynamic f l u c t u a t i o n s

3.
4. 5.
6.

D i s t i n g u i s h between moving and s t a t i o n a r yn o i s es o u r c e sw i t h a s i n g l es e n s o r( i nf l o w s where temperaturespottedness i sn e g l i g i b l e ) Re1 i a b l e systemsandsensorscommerciallyavailable Rugged s e n s o r s v a i l a b l e , a r t i c u l a r l y a p film type

7.

D i sadvan tages"
1.
P o s s i b l ef r e q u e n tb r e a k a g eo ff i n e - w i r es e n s o r( d u et oa i rl o a d s , v i b r a t i o n s ,p a r t i c l e impingement, b u r n o u t o x i d a t i o n a c c i d e n t s e t c . ) , , , P o s s i b l e a l s e i g n a( u s u a l l y p p a r e n t l d u e o t r a i n u a g i n g , o n t a m i n a f s l a t s g c t i o n ,o rv i b r a t i o no fp r o b e . C a l i b r a t i o n may be r e q u i r e di ns i t u( f a c i l i t yt i m e may be expensive).

2.

3.

4.
5.

Separation o f s i g n ailn t on d e p e n d e n t i modes requires assumptions c o n c e r n i n gf l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so ri n d e p e n d e n t measurements Analyses o fs i g n a lp a r t i c u l a r l yd i f f i c u l tf o rc o m p r e s s i b l es u b s o n i c o rt r a n s o n i cf l o w ,u n l e s sr e s t r i c t e dt oh i g h e rR e v n o l d s numbers and w i r et e m p e r a t u r e s .

f:

Sincetheoriginalwritingofthissection, by Comte-Bellot has been published (Ref. a d d i t i o n a ld i s c u s s i o no fp r o b l e ma r e a s .

a r e v i e w o f h o t - w i r e anemometry 27). T h i sr e f e r e n c ep r o v i d e s

216

NOMENCLATURE

constants overheat parameters, w i r e d iameter 1/2

a a

En En

R~

E
K2
h
I

wire voltage time-averaged, t o t a lp r e s s u r eb e h i n d a normal shock

heat-transfer coefficient wire current d i n Rw/d En Tw Knudsen number, n/d w i r el e n g t h d Rn p/d Rn Tw Mach number d En k/d Rn Tw d i r e c t i o nc o s i n eo f normal t o sound plane wave f r o n t r e l a t i v e t o f l o w d i r e c t i o n Nusselt number, staticpressure resistance Reynolds number, p u d h correlation coefficient fluctuations,

k Kn

R
m

M
n
"X

Nu

hd k

of mass-flux and t o t a l temperature

sensor s e n s i t i v i t y c o e f f i c i e n t temperature a x i a lv e l o c i t y exponent i n e q u a t i o n 2

217

B
ratio of specific heats,1.40 used for air recovery factor,
r'T t

x
U
P

molecular mean freepath

vi scos i ty
dens i ty temperature overheat, CTW root mean square

'w r

- Tr)

Tr

Superscripts
(

1'

fluctuating value time averaged

( 7

Subscripts e
r

environment recovery o f adiabatic wall total or stagnation conditions stagnation correction behind normal shock temperature velocity wire sound dens i ty mass flux entropy vorticity

t2
T
U
W
U

PU
0

218

A. REFERENCES 1.
1.

H. L. Dryden and A. M. Kuethe:

Measurements,"

" E f f e c to fT u r b u l e n c ei n

Wind Tunnel

NACA Tech, Rep. 342, 1930.

Anemometry, Proceedings o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Anemometry," E d i t e d by W.

2.

"Advances i n HotWire Symposium onHotWire

Weske, U n i v e r s i t y o f Maryland, AFOSR No. S c i e n t i f i c Research, J u l y , 1968.

68

L. M e l n i k and J. R.
1492, USAF O f f i c e o f

3.

V. A.

Sandborn:

Resistance Temperature'fransducers, Metropology Press, 1972.

Fort Call ins, Colorado,

4 .
5.

V. A.
Flow,"

Sandborn:

"A Review o f Turbulence Measurements i n Compressible

March 1974. Measurements I n Ground-Based F a c i l i t i e s

NASA TH X-62,337,

R. Westley: "Problems

o fN o i s e

w i t h Forward-SpeedSimulation,"Appendlx Research Aimed a t t h e D e s i g n Report o f t h e M i n i l a w s

5 o f "A F u r t h e r Review o f Current

Wind Tunnels,'' Sept. Second

and Operation of Large

Working Group,'AGARD-AR-83,

1975.
Jour.

6.

L. S. G . Kovasznay:
Aero.

"The Hot Wire Anemometer i n Supersonic Flow,"

Sci.,

Vol.

17, No. 9, September, 1950.

"Turbulence 1953. and Hot Wire Anemometry i n Compressible i n Supersonic

7.
8.

L. S. G.

Kovasznay:

Flow," Jour. Aero. Sci.,

Vol. 20, No. 10, October,

M.

V.

Morkovin:"Fluctuations AGARDograph, 24,

Flows,''

November, 1956. "Turbulence Measurement i n Transonic Flow," June 1976.

9.
10. 11.

W.

C.

Rose and E. P. McDaid:

Proc. A l A A 9 t h Aerodynamic TestingConference, C. C. Horstman and W. C. Rose:

,

"HotWire

Anemometry i n Transonic Flow,"

NASA T X-62,495, M J. Laufer:

December 1975. Wind Tunnels," Jour. Aero.

"Aerodynamic Noise Supersonic in 28, No.

Sci., Vol. 12.

9,

September 1961. Measurements a t (D)

,'I

J. C. Donaldson and J. P. Wallace: "Flow Fluctuations

Mach number

intheTestSectionofthe August 1971.

12 InchSupersonicTunnel

AEDC-TR-71-143,
13. M. C.

F i s c h e r and R. D. Wagner:

" T r a n s i t i o n and Hot

H i r e Measuremen.ts i n

Hypersonic He1 ium Flow,"

A l A A Journal,Vol.

10, No. 10, October 1972.

14.

J. B. Anders, P. C.
Test Section,"

Stainback, L. R.

Keefe; and

1.

E. Beckwith:

"Sound

and F l u c t u a t i n g D i s t u r b a n c e ICIASF

Mea'surements i n t h e S e t t l i n g

Chamber and in
,

'75 Record, I n t ' l Congress,onInstrumentation Aerospace Simulation Faci 1 i t i e s , Ottawa, Canada Sept.22-24,: 1975, published by IEE, 345 E. 4 7 t hS t r e e t , New York.
15.
R. D. Wagner and L. M. Weinstein: NASA TN 0-7465,June

"Hot Wire Anemometry i n Hypersonic

He1 iumFlow,"

1974.
Boundary

16.

P. C.

Stainback, e t a l :

"Experimental Studies Hypersonic of

Layer Transition

and E f f e c t s o f Wind TunnelDisturbances," 1974. "Turbulence Stress

NASA TN D-7453,

NASA LangleyResearchCenter,March

17.

V.

M i k u l l a and C . C.

Horstman:

Measurements i n a Non-

adiabaticHypersonic December 1975.

Boundary Layer,"

A l A A Journal,Vol.

13, No. 12,

18.

W.

C.

Rose: "The

Behavior o f a Compressible Turbulent AdversePressureGradient,''

Boundary Layer

in

a Shock-Wave-Induced

NASA TN D-7092, NASA

Ames ResearchCenter,March

1974.
"Turbulence i n a Shock-Wave Boundary-Layer

19.

w.
E.

C.

Rose and D. A.

Johnson:

Interaction," 20. Grande and

A l A A Journal,Vol.
G. C.

13, No. 7, J u l y 1975.

Oates:

"Response o f i n i a t u r e r e s s u r e r a n s d u c e r s M P T Flow," Instrumentation for A i r b r e a t h i n g i n A s t r o n a u t i c s and Aeronautics,

t oF l u c t u a t i o n si nS u p e r s o n i c Vol. 34, 21. R.

Propulsion, A I A A Series onProgress 1972.

K. Otnes and L. Enochson:

D i g i t a l Time Series Analysis, Wiley,

New York,

197222. W. Behrens: "Total Temperature Thermocouple Probe J. Heat and Based on Recovery Mass Transfer,

Temperature o f C i r c u l a rC y l i n d e r , "I n t . Vol. 23. C.

14, 1971.
"Hot Wire Measurements i n Low Reynolds Number Hypersonic

F. Dewey, J r . :

Flows," 24.

ARS Journal,Vol.

28, No. 12, December

1961.

E. L. Doughman:

"Development o f a Wire Hot

Anemometer for Hypersonic

Turbulent Flows," Review The August 1972. 220

o f S c i e n t i f i cI n s t r u m e n t s ,V o l .

43, No. 8,

25.

R. F. Rosenberg:

"Some Aspects Hot on Wire Method f o r HotWire

Anemometry Leading t o a Probes," 1971. ARL 71-0038, USAF

SpecialCalibration

AerospaceResearchLaboratories,March 26.

R. H. K l r c h h o f f and R. R.
Anemometer,"

S a f a r i k ," T u r b u l e n c ec a l i b r a t i o no f 12, No.

a Hot Wire

A l A A Journal,Vol.
G.:

5,

May 1974.

27.

Comte-Bellot, Mechanics, Vol.

"Hot-Wire Anemometry,"

Annual Reviews o fF l u i d

8 , Palo Alto, C a l i f . 1976.

22 1

APPEND I X I I LASER DOPPLER VELOCIMETER MEASUREMENTS

The development

ofthelaser

was q u i c k l y f o l l o y e d b y i t s a p p l i c a t i o n a moving o b j e c t b y o b s e r v i n g t h e D o p p l e r

to

t h e measurement o f t h e v e l o c i t y o f frequency s h i f t i n the were measured by

o f t h ei n c i d e n tl a s e rl i g h t .L i q u i d

flow v e l o c i t i e s

Yeh and Cummins (Ref.

1) i n 1964, u t i l i z i n g D o p p l e rr a d i a t i o n

f r o ms m a l lp a r t i c l e se n t r a i n e di nt h ef l o w .I n and measurements were (Ref. Since 2). made i n seeded gas flowby

1965, t h et e c h n i q u e
Foreman, George advances have been

was r e f i n e d

andLewis made b o t h i n

t h a tt i m ev e r ys i g n i f i c a n t

t h et h e o r e t i c a lu n d e r s t a n d i n go ft h et e c h n i q u e , ments and signal processors. been a p p l i e d t o

and i n improved o p t i c a la r r a n g e (LDV) technique has and f l o w By 1970

The Laser Doppler Velocimeter

measurements o f mean v e l o c i t y , t u r b u l e n t i n t e n s i t y and i n b o t h l i q u i d s and gases.

d i r e c t i o n i n a v a r i e t y o f f l o wf i e l d s t h ev e l o c i t yr a n g eo v e rw h i c h cm/sec t o 1000 m/sec (Ref. L i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t i s

measurementshadbeen

made extended from 10 4 development continues.

3).

T h i sr a p i dr a t eo f

now e x t e n s i v e ; a b i b l i o g r a p h y (Ref.

4) p u b l i s h e d

i n 1972 c o n t a i n s 190 r e f e r e n c e s . Laservelocimeter e.g., Refs. systems have been operated i ns e v e r a lw i n dt u n n e l s ,

3 , 5, 6, 7, 8, and t h e i ru n i q u ec a p a b i l i t i e s ,e s p e c i a l l y
and turbulencesurveysaroundmodels and a p p l i c a t i o n .A l t h o u g h

for

non-intrusivevelocity

i n t h et u n n e l ,

should insure their continued development present,the

to the

LDV has n o t been w i d e l y a p p l i e d t o b a s i c t u n n e l c a l i b r a t i o n has been demonstrated and t h e i r a v a i l a b i l i t y t o

t o t h i s use. The

measurements, t h i s c a p a b i l i t y the wind tunnel operator

will probably lead

discussion here-

i n will be r e s t r i c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n application to basic facility flow calibration

o f t h e LDV t e c h n i q u e f o r
measurementssuchas mean

v e l o c i t y (Mach number) d i s t r i b u t i o n , t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y B a s i cP r i n c i p l e s C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f theadvantages t e c h n i q u e sr e q u i r e

and f l o w a n g u l a r i t y .

and disadvantages o f l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r system. and

some d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e

The p r i n c i p l e o f t h e b ya ni n t e r f e r e n c e - f r i n g e equations discussed

LDV can be descr,ibedbyboththeDopplereffect model. Since both approaches y i e l dt h e

same b a s i c s i n c e it

i nt h i sr e p o r t ,t h ef r i n g e

model will be used

a i d sv i s u a l i z a t i o no ft h ep h y s i c a lp r i n c i p l e si n v o l v e d .S e v e r a lo p t i c a l arrangements a r ep o s s i b l e ,b u tc o n s i d e r a t i o n s 222

will be l i m i t e d t o t h e d u a l -

beam or d i f f e r e n t i a l - D o p p l e r systemmost ments.

commonly used for wind tunnel

measure-

For a single-component, dual-beam system, Fig. s e p a r a t e di n t o

A.II.l, a l a s e r beam i s
a distance

two p a r a l l e l beams o f e q u a li n t e n s i t ys e p a r a t e db y

A.

These beams e n t e r a lens which causes where themeasuringorprobe

them t o c r o s s a t t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f I nt h i sr e g i o n ,t h e

t h el e n s

volume i s formed.

wavefrontsinterfereconstructively a l t e r n a t ed a r k and b r i g h tr e g i o n s

and d e s t r u c t i v e l y to form s t a t i o n a r y , or f r i n g e s ,F i g . A.11.2.

A p a r t i c l e moving
and focused by a
r

throughthemeasuringvolumecausesvariations s c a t t e r e db yt h ep a r t i c l e . second l e n so n t o a p h o t o d e t e c t o r ,u s u a l l y

intheintensityofthelight a p h o t o m u l t i p l i e rt u b e .

The s c a t t e r e dl i g h ti sc o l l e c t e d

The r e c e i v i n g o p t i c s

and p h o t o d e t e c t o r may be l o c a t e d on t h e same s i d e o f and t r a n s m i t t i n g o p t i c s o r same s i d e ,t h e may be l o c a t e d on mode). volume, t h e mode).

themeasurinqvolumeasthelaser t h eo p p o s i t es i d e . s c a t t e r e di nt h e

If l o c a t e do nt h e

svstem u t i l i z e s l i g h t

backward d i r e c t i o n by p a r t i c l e s i n t h e f l o w ( b a c k s c a t t e r on o p p o s i t es i d e so ft h em e a s u r i n g

I f l a s e r and r e c e i v i n g o p t i c s a r e

system u t i l i z e s 1 i g h t s c a t t e r e d i n t h e f o r w a r d d i r e c t i o n ( f o r w a r d - s c a t t e r Obviousoperationaladvantagesareassociatedwiththebackscatter u l a r l yf o rw i n dt u n n e la p p l i c a t i o n . i nt h ef o r w a r dd i r e c t i o n ,F i g . h i g h e rw i t ht h ef o r w a r d - s c a t t e r

mode, p a r t i c -

However, s i n c e much more l i g h t i s s c a t t e r e d

A.11.3,
system.

t h es i g n a l - t o - n o i s er a t i o

i s significantly

The p h o t o m u l t i p l i e rt u b eg e n e r a t e s d i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o n a lt ot h ev e l o c i t y spacing,Fig.

an e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l a t

a frequency

and i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f r i n g e

A.11.4,

a c c o r d i n qt ot h er e l a t i o n

where f di st h eD o p p l e rf r e q u e n c y ,

U t h ev e l o c i t y

component normal t o t h e is the

f r i n g e s and p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e b i s e c t o r f r i n g es p a c i n g . The f r i n g e s p a c i n g wavelength o ft h el a s e ra s

o f t h e beam angle, and 8 f

can be determined from t h e systemgeometryand shown i n F i g s .

the

A.II.l and 2,

i.e.,

( I I .2)

&

Ream

Collecting

/ i\

L
I

Processor

imatomutiplier Tube (Backscatter Mode) Figure A . I 1 . 1 .

DUAL BEAM LASER DOPPLER VELOCIMETER, WITH CPPIOPIAL FORWARD AND MCKSCA!M!ER MODES

A-

Figure A. I I . 2

GENERATION OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES I N MEASURING VOLUME OF DUAL BEAM LASER DOPPLER VELOCIMETER

Forward Scatter Scatter

Electrical

signal

Incident

Light

_c

Time

Figure A I I 3

LIGHT SCATTERED BY
A SMALL PARTICLE

Figure A. I I . 4

LASER ANEMOMETER SIGNAL F O l PHGT0DE;TECTOR RE

where X i s t h e w a v e l e n g t h o f t h e l a s e r s e c t i n g beams. From

and 0 i s t h e a n g l e

between t h e i n t e r -

t h e above r e l a t i o n s :

The measured v e l o c i t y i s t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e p a r t i c l e which i sn o tn e c e s s a r i l ye q u a lt ot h a t l a g will be d i s c u s s e di n

o f t h ef l u i d .

The problems o f p a r t i c ' l e The ambiguity be one of

more d e t a i ll a t e ri nt h i ss e c t i o n .

w i t hr e g a r dt of l o wd i r e c t i o n

becomes a problem i n t u r b u l e n t f l o w s a t l o w , may be encountered,butcan

mean-component v e l o c i t y where f l o wr e v e r s a l t h et w op a r a l l e l a s e r frequencyshiftinto a s t a t i o n a r yf r i n g e beams. one o f t h e system. Zero

overcome by i n t r o d u c i n g an a c o u s t o - o p t i cm o d u l a t o r( B r a g gc e l l )i n t o The Bragg c e l li n t r o d u c e s beams, w h i c hr e s u l t s

an a c c u r a t e l y known

i n a moving r a t h e rt h a n

p a r t i c l ev e l o c i t yt h e nc o r r e s p o n d st ot h e

f r e q u e n c ys h i f t ;h i g h e ro rl o w e rv e l o c i t i e sg e n e r a t eh i g h e ro rl o w e ro u t p u t s i g n a lf r e q u e n c i e s .I nt h i s and r e v e r s i n gf l o w s manner t h ed i r e c t i o n a la m b i g u i t y can be e l i m i n a t e d

can be measured.

For main-stream, empty-test-section

will n o tn o r m a l l y

measurements i n a w i n dt u n n e lt h ed i r e c t i o n a la m b i g u i t y a problem,buttheBraggcell d o w n - s h i f tt h es i g n a lf r e q u e n c yt o by t h ee l e c t r o n i cs i g n a lp r o c e s s o r .

be
'

may s t i l l be u s e f u la th i g hf l o wv e l o c i t i e st o a range t h a t can be more r e a d i l y measured

The measuring o r p r o b e
t h ec o n t o u r i n t e n s i t ya tt h ec e n t e r t h e volume Fig. A.11.2

volume is an e l l i p s o i d w h i c h may be defined by decreases t o l / e t i m e s t h e Ref. 9. maximum The w i d t h and l e n g t h o f

where t h e l i g h t i n t e n s i t y

o f the probevolume,

may be d e f i n e d by

where do i s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g l a s e r p o i n t o f t h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n s . initiallaser beam diameter, Do, by

beams a t t h e f o c a l t ot h e

The focused diameter,do,is related

227

(I 1.6)
where F i st h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n sf o c a ll e n g t h .O t h e rr e l a t i o n s f o rt h ed i m e n s i o n so ft h ep r o b e volume,dependinq may be d e r i v e d

upon how t h e " e f f e c t i v e " The above e q u a t i o n demon and a shortfocal

geometricboundariesaredefined(Refs. s t r a t e st h a t a l a r g e ,o r i g i n a l( o r f o c a l - l e n g t hl e n sy i e l dt h e l e n g t hi sa l s od e t e r m i n e d point of the flow

3 , 10, 1 1 ) .
expanded)

laser-beamdiameter

minimum sizemeasuring by t h e d i s t a n c e

or probe volume. The

from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g l e n s t o t h e

where measurements a r e d e s i r e d . measuringvolume must be balanced. i s a designproblemduringwhich The i n i t i a lr e s t r i c t i o n sa r e

The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t i n gr e q u i r e m e n t s u s u a l l yd e t e r m i n e d p r o c e s s o rt o

by t h e minimum number o f f r i n g e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s i g n a l

measure thefrequencywithadequateaccuracy.Also,theDoppler must n o t exceed t h e maximum whichcan be measured by the

signalfrequency

p r o c e s s o r :t h i sf r e q u e n t l yi s

a f u n c t i o no ft h ef r i n g es p a c i n g

and t h e m x i -

mum v e l o c i t y t o be measured, asdefinedby

number of u s a b l e f r i n g e s canbeas somewhat l a r g e r number i sn o r m a l l yp r e f e r r e d , determined from the width of the measuring spacing, bf, as defined by Eqs.

Eq. (11.1).

The r e q u i r e d minimum a be

o as e i g h t w i t h a countersystem,but l w
The number o f fringescan volume, wv,

d i v i d e d by t h e f r i n g e i.e.,
.

(I1 . 2 ) ,

( I 1.4) and (i1.6),

8F s i n
TI

0 (F)

(I 1.8)

Do

From t h e o p t i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n , F i g . angle (8/2) i s n o r m a l l y smal 1.

A.II.1,

i t may be n o t e dt h a tt h e

Here

A i s t h e beam s e p a r a t i o nd i s t a n c ea tt h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n s . From Eqs. (II.8) and (II . 9 ) . the number o f f r i n g e s can be expressed i n terms o f
beam s e p a r a t i o nd i s t a n c e 4 A -TI

o n l yt h e

and t h e i n i t i a l

laser-beamdiameter.

Nfr
228

(11.10)

Do

A g a i nn o t et h a tt h e

number o f f r i n g e s

can be increased by r e d u c i n gt h e

unfocused beam diameter, Do, I n c r e a s i n gt h e length,

b u tt h i si nt u r ni n c r e a s e st h ep r o b ed i a m e t e r . number of f r i n g e s .

beam separation, A , f o r a f i x e d t r a n s m i t t i n g l e n s f o c a l means o fi n c r e a s i n gt h e

i s aneffective

Based on the preceeding equations, dimensions o f t h e measuringvolume system.ConsideranArgonlaserwith beam diameter o f 1.5 mm.

i t i so fi n t e r e s tt oc a l c u l a t et h e

and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

a velocimeter input

a wavelength o f 514.5 nm and an

I f t h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n sf o c a ll e n g t hi s

t h e beam spacing i s 100 mm, t h e beam a n g l ei s

3.818".

1.5 m and From Eq.' (11.6) t h e

focused beam diameter i s 0.65 mm which i s a l s o t h e volume. The l e n g t ho ft h ep r o b e

i s 7.7

maximum w i d t h o f t h e p r o b e

volume i s , from Eq. (11.5)

19.7 mm.
At a

The

fringe pacing s

and t h e maximum number o f r i n g e s

i s 84.

v e l o c i t y o f 300 m/sec., theDopplerfrequency (Eq. ( 1 1 . 1 ) w i l l be 38.96 MHz. Thissystem i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t y p i c a l , b u t i t i l l u s t r a t e sa p p l i c a t i o no ft h e system r e l a t i o n s h i p sd i s c u s s e dp r e v i o u s l y .

To t h i s p o i n t t h e

measurement of a s i n g l e v e l o c i t y has been described.

component (normal t o
o f a single-

t h ef r i n g ep a t t e r n )

The f r i n g ep a t t e r n

component LDV can be r o t a t e db yr o t a t i n gt h et r a n s m i t t i n go p t i c s .T h i sp e r m i t s t h e measurement o f v e l o c i t y components a t two or more anglessuchas

+45

degrees t o t h e n o m i n a l t u n n e l c e n t e r l i n e . beams can determined. be Thus,

From t h e t w o v e l o c i t y

component be

measurements, t h ev e l o c i t yv e c t o ri nt h et u n n e lp l a n e o ft h ei n t e r s e c t i n g

normal t o t h e b i s e c t o r
flow a n g u l a r i t yc a n

measured i n a d d i t i o n t o v e l o c i t y

and t u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t y . two-component measurements beams, u s u a l l yw i t ht h ep l a n e bythe

first

O p t i c a la r r a n g e m e n t st oy i e l ds i m u l t a n e o u s be r e a l i z e d by u s i n g two p a i r s o f i n t e r s e c t i n g d e f i n e d by t h e second p a i r o f beam p a i r .S e p a r a t i o no ft h e a l a s e r beam i n t o two p a i r s o f

can

beams normal t ot h a td e f i n e d two measurements can

be achieved by s p l i t t i n g

beams, each p a i r p o l a r i z e d

90" t o t h e o t h e r .
see o n l y beams a t t h e

P o l a r i z e d f i l t e r s on t h e two p h o t o d e t e c t o r sa l l o w t h el i g h ts c a t t e r e df r o mt h ef r i n g e s i n t e r s e c t i o np o i n t . component measurements. v e n i e n tf o rt h i s s c a t t e r e dl i g h t

each d e t e c t o r t o

formed by two o ft h ef o u r

Two wavelengths o f l a s e r l i g h t

can a l s o be used f o r two

i s p a r t i c u l a r l y con-

The use o f an Argon i o nl a s e r

t w o s t r o n gc o l o r

purposesince

hands, 488 nm ( b l u e ) and

o f the
of interest.

514.5 nm ( g r e e n )a r ea v a i l a b l e .O p t i c a lf i l t e r sa l l o ws e p a r a t i o n
so eachphotodetector
sees o n l y t h e l i g h t

A t h i r d v e l o c i t y component, p a r a l l e l t o t h e b i s e c t o r o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g
beams, can a l s ob e (Ref. measured simultaneously.Forexample,Orloffand Logan 12) havedescribedan LDV system f o r measuring a l l t h r e e v e l o c i t y and a reference-beam method.

components which employs backscattering Signal Processors

The o u t p u ts i g n a lf r o mt h ep h o t o m u l t i p l i e rt u b e ,

shown on F i g . A.11.4,

i s a f r e q u e n c y ' b u r s ta tt h eD o p p l e rf r e q u e n c yw i t ha m p l i t u d em o d u l a t e da c c o r d i n gt ot h ei n t e n s i t yd i s t r i b u t i o na c r o s st h ef r i n g e s .T h i sa m p l i t u d e - m o d u l a t e d envelope i s commonly r e f e r r e d t o asthe"pedestal" pass f i l t e r i n g o r o p t i c a l means beforeprocessing. t h ed o p p l e rs i g n a l and must be removed b yh i g h The number o f c y c l e s
of

and themodulationintensityaboutthepedestalenvelope

will v a r ya c c o r d i n gt ot h el o c a t i o na tw h i c ht h ep a r t i c l ec r o s s e st h ep r o b e

volume, t h e s i z e o f t h e p a r t i c l e

and t h e number o f p a r t i c l e s p r e s e n t a t

one and t h e

timewithintheprobevolume.Signalburstsofmeasurableamplitude minimum r e q u i r e d number o f c y c l e s o c c u r a t r e v e r s a l sd u r i n g present . Several methods f o rp r o c e s s i n gt h ed a t af r o mt h ep h o t o m u l t i p l i e r used. These include: spectrumanalyzers p h o t o nc o r r e l a t o r s f i l t e r banks
o
0

random t i m ei n t e r v a l s ,

and phase

a s i n g l es i g n a lb u r s t

will occur when m u l t i p l e p a r t i c l e s a r e

have been

f r e q u e n c yt r a c k e r s counters twotypes o f p r o c e s s o r sp r o d u c ee s s e n t i a l l yr e a l - t i m ev e l o c i t y used f o r m o s tw i n dt u n n e la p p l i c a t i o n s .

O n l yt h el a s t

i n f o r m a t i o n d i r e c t l y and a r e c u r r e n t l y The f r e q u e n c yt r a c k e r ,

as t h e name implies,convertstheDoppler a p r o p o r t i o n a l ,a n a l o gv o l t a g e . o rf r e q u e n c yl o c k e dl o o p s ,o r by comparing the

( V C O ) o r a v o lt a g e - t o -

f r e q u e n c yr e c e i v e df r o mt h ep h o t o d e t e c t o ri n t o The t r a c k e r c i r c u i t i s a combination o ft h e outputfrequencyof frequencyconverter implemented using phase two. Both types

o fl o o p sf u n c t i o n

a voltage-controlledoscillator (V/F) t ot h ei n p u ts i g n a lf r e q u e n c y ,

and b o t h u t i l i z e t h e

differenceinfrequencytomodifyoradjusttheacinputvoltagetotheint e r n a lf r e q u e n c yg e n e r a t o r . The dc v o l t a g e i s t h e np r o p o r t i o n a lt ot h ei n p u t

frequency. lternatively, henternally-generated requency an e onverted A t i f c b c to a digital signal by means o f a counter.

Trackerprocessorsarecharacterizedbythe capture bandwidth, dynamic range and s l e wr a t e .

maximum frequencyrange,

If t h e change i n v e l o c i t y

from one p a r t i c l e t o t h e n e x t
range,thetracker

exceeds thecapturebandwidthorcapture and n o t t r a c k t h e p a r t i c l e o r o t h e r range. d r o p - o u t ,t h el a s t

w l l o s el o c k il

particles which are outside the capture Where D o p p l e rs i g n a lt r a c k i n g o u t p u tv o l t a g el e v e li sn o r m a l l yp l a c e di n d u r i n gt h eh o l dp e r i o d ,t r a c k i n gi s t u r e dd u r i n gt h eh o l dp e r i o d ,t h es e a r c ho r t h es i g n a li sr e - a c q u i r e d .S i g n a l sc a n torecord

i s i n t e r r u p t e d by a "hold". resumed.

I f t h es i g n a lr e t u r n s
isactivateduntil systems e.g., Ref. Velocity mode t h e

I f t h es i g n a li sn o tr e c a p sweep mode

be p r o v i d e dt oe x t e r n a ld a t a

mean v e l o c i t y and ac o r t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s i g n a l s , be measured

13.

Doppler frequencies can

fo r m 2kHz t o 50 MHz.

changes over a 200: 1 rangecan frequencyslewratecan f o r 8 Dopplercycles o r d e rt o d a t ar a t e s

be f o l l o w e d , and i n t h e s e a r c h

be as h i g h as 400 MHz/ms.

D a t a - v a l i d a t i o nf e a t u r e s

a r ea l s on o r m a l l yi n c o r p o r a t e d .F o r and h o l d i n g f o r

example, one s y s t e mr e q u i r e st r a c k i n g
2 a d d i t i o n a lc y c l e sw i t h o u td r o p - o u ti n

be considered a v a l i dd a t ap o i n t .

Thus, f o rh e a v i l y

seeded f l o w s ,

up t o 1 x 106 per second can be processed. laser-anemometer s i g n a l s a c c u r a t e l y

The c o u n t e r o r b u r s t p r o c e s s o r f o r measures t h et i m er e q u i r e df o r f i x e d number o f f r i n g e s i n t h e t h e r e b yt h ep a r t i c l ev e l o c i t y .

a particleinthe

flow t o t r a v e l a c r o s s

a and

measuring volume, i.e.,

a known distance.

From these two q u a n t i t i e s , a counterdeterminestheDopplerfrequency

The counter may be i n h e r e n t l y a d i g i t a l i n may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

strument, so d r i f t and c a l i b r a t i o n problemswhich analog processors, such

as trackers, avoided. are Counter processors are a directdigitaloutput. by passing a l a s e rs i g n a lb u r s tt h r o u g h a thresh-

n o r m a l l yc o n f i g u r e dt oy i e l d

A c o u n t e rf u n c t i o n s
o l dl e v e ld e t e c t o rw h i c h , D o p p l e rs i g n a l s

when t h ea d j u s t a b l ea m p l i t u d e - t h r e s h o l di se x such as a Schmidt t r i g g e r . Those

ceeded, enables a z e r o - c r o s s i n gd e t e c t o r

above t h ea m p l i t u d e - t h r e s h o l dl e v e la r et h e nc o n v e r t e di n t o

a t r a i n o f square waves, w i t h a f r e q u e n c ye q u a lt ot h eo r i g i a n ls i g n a l frequency. Many e l e c t r o n i c f r e q u e n c y - c o u n t e r s f u n c t i o n ofthe unknown s i g n a l f o r by c o u n t i n g each c y c l e such as

0.1,

an a c c u r a t e l y - f i x e dt i m ep e r i o d ,

1.0 or IO seconds. The

r e a d i n g sa r et h e nc o n v e r t e dt ot h es i g n a lf r e q u e n c y

23 1

i nh e r t z .S i n c et h e

maximum number o f c y c l e s a v a i l a b l e

fo r m t h e passage o f
To a v o i d

a particleacrossthemeasuring

volume o f a LDV i s e x t r e m e l y s m a l l , t h e a c c u be t o t a l l y inadequate.

r a c yo ft h ed i r e c tc o u n t i n gp r o c e d u r ew o u l d t h i s problemcounterprocessorsareperiod

measurement devices,i.e.,pulses a

from an a c c u r a t e , h i g h - f r e q u e n c y o s c i l l a t o r o r c l o c k a r e a c c u m u l a t e d i n r e g i s t e rd u r i n gt h et i m ei n t e r v a lc o r r e s p o n d i n gt o

a f i x e d number o f p u l s e s can be converted

fo r m t h eS c h m i d tt r i g g e r .A l t e r n a t i v e l y ,t h et i m ei n t e r v a l s
t ov o l t a g ea m p l i t u d e sw h i c hc a n f o rt h e n periodrangesfrom e.g., be measured digitally.

The t i m er e s o l u t i o n upon t h e c l o c k The

2 t o IO x 10-9 seconds, depending

frequency,

500 MHz corresponds t o 2 x 10-9 seconds r e s o l u t i o n .

c o u n t e rp r o c e s s o ra l s on o r m a l l yi n c l u d e sc o m p u t a t i o n a lc a p a b i l i t i e st oc o n v e r t theperiodinformationintoeitherfrequencyorvelocityunitsfordigital display. The computation time i st y p i c a l l y about 1 x I O m 6 sec so t h a t , even i s IO t o 20 MHz, t h e t o t a l

athighvelocities

where theDopplerfrequency

a c q u i s i t i o n and c o m p u t a t i o nt i m ef o r

one i n d i v i d u a l measurement can be asshort

-6 sec. Data as 2 t o 3 x 10
t i o no fp a r t i c l e s , Ref.

acquisition ates f r o

100,000 readings/sec are

common) w i t h moderateconcentra-

t h e r e f o r et h e o r e t i c a l l yp o s s i b l e( b u tf a rf r o m

14.

Counterprocessorsincludeseveraldata-validationfeaturestoallowthe rejectionofnoisebursts,detectthe

loss o f a b i t o r c y c l e d u r i n g

a process-

i n gc y c l e ,r e j e c ts i g n a l sf r o ml a r g ep a r t i c l e s ,e t c . u t i l i z e d t o rejectdata

The primary technique

sequences i n which one o r more c y c l e s may be m i s s i n g

( c y c l ea m p l i t u d eb e l o wt h r e s h o l d )c o n s i s t s c l o c kp u l s e sa r eg a t e di n t ob o t h The c l o c k p u l s e s t o t h e h i g hr e g i s t e ra c c u m u l a t e s

o f u s i n g two o r m r e r e g i s t e r s .

The

l w a h i g h and o r e g i s t e r on t h e f i r s t c y c l e .
NL c y c l e s , w h i l e t h e

low r e g i s t e r a r e g a t e d o f f a f t e r
NH c y c l e s .

A comparater then
be e q u a l ,t ot h er a t i o

computes t h e r a t i o o f NH/NL.

t h e two time intervals, which should e r r o ri sw i t h i np r e - s e tl i m i t s ,t h e Asher (Ref.

If the

measurement i s v a l i d a t e d . o f an odd r a t i o , NL/NH, such

14) demonstratestheadvantage

as 5/8 or 10/16 o v e re v e nr a t i o s .

Odd r a t i o s such as

5/8 a r e commonly used.

has been used a t AEDC.

A c o u n t e rp r o c e s s o ru s i n gt h r e ed i f f e r e n tr e g i s t e r s

None o f thesesystemscompletelyrejectspurioussignals,buttheydogreatly r e d u c et h ep r o b a b i l i t yo f such d a t ab e i n gc o n s i d e r e dv a l i d .L a r g ep a r t i c l e s , anexcessivedegree,can be detected exceeds

which may be l a g g i n g t h e f l u i d f l o w t o

i f t h et o t a li n p u ts i g n a la m p l i t u d e( p e d e s t a lp l u sD o p p l e rf r e q u e n c y )

a p r e - s e t limit.

The a d j u s t a b l et h r e s h o l dl e v e l( r e q u i r e d

to enable a zerohand, c a nb i a s fromsmall

c r o s s i n gd e t e c t o r )c a nb e

used to r e j e c t s i g n a l s w i t h inadequate ~ i g n a 1 - t ~ -

n o i s er a t i o .S e t t i n gt h et h r e s h o l dl e v e lh i g h ,o nt h eo t h e r t h ed a t aa c q u i r e d particles. Mostcounterprocessorsalsoincludefunctions o fe i t h e rt h ed a t ar a t e( v a l i d a t e dd a t ap o i n t sp e r d a t a i g n a l s r o c e s s e dh aa r e a l i d a t e d . s p t t v i n d i c a t e each time outputcan such as

to l a r g ep a r t i c l e s

by r e j e c t i n gl o w - l e v e ls i g n a l s

a d i g i t a li n d i c a t i o n

second) o r p e r c e n t o f t o t a l p t An o u t p u t i s n o r m a l l y r o v i d e d o and processed.

'

a new d a t ap o i n ti sv a l i d a t e d

A digital
i s also

be made a v a i l a b l e t o a l l o w i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e d a t a d i r e c t l y i n t o system. An a n a l o gv o l t a g eo u t p u t

a computer o ro t h e rd i g i t a lr e c o r d i n g normally available.

Due t ot h ed i f f e r e n c ei no p e r a t i n gp r i n c i p l e s ,t h ec o u n t e r by slew band r a t eo rt r a c k i n gr a t ep e r f o r m a n c e . i n s t r u m e n tw h i l eh er a c k e r , t t

i s n o tl i m i t e d

The counter i s an extremelywideAssuming t h e

of t h et r a c k e r

i s i n h e r e n t l y narrow-band.

noisepresent

i s b r o a d b a n d ,t h en o i s er e j e c t i o nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

i s s u p e r i o rt ot h a to ft h ec o u n t e r .

However, s i n c et h et r a c k e ro p e r a t e si n

thefrequency

domain,

i t i s responsivetoDopplerfrequencyspectrumbroadening

r e s u l t i n gf r o mt h ef i n i t ed u r a t i o no ft h es i g n a lb u r s t .T h i sb r o a d e n i n gi s s i m i l a rt ot h em o d u l a t i o ns i d e b a n d sg e n e r a t e d amplitude modulated. a l s og e n e r a t e s when a c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y

is

The presence o f m u l t i p l ep a r t i c l e si nt h ep r o b e

volume

phase reversals which cause spectrum broadening. Since the mean v e l o c i t y i s a measure o f turbulence and i s
Eq.

s t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o na b o u tt h e

r e l a t e dt ot h ec o r r e s p o n d i n gD o p p l e rf r e q u e n c yd e v i a t i o nt h r o u g h s p e c t r a lb r o a d e n i n gc a ni n t e r f e r ew i t ht u r b u l e n c e measurements.

(ll.l),

-a r t i c l e S i z e and D i s t r i b u t i o n E f f e c t s P
The s i z e ,s i z ed i s t r i b u t i o n ,c o n c e n t r a t i o n , ofthe'particlesin and p h y s i c a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t r a n s o n i co rs u p e r s o n i ct u n n e lf l o wf i e l da r eo fg r e a t

i m p o r t a n c e ,w h e t h e rt h ep a r t i c l e sa r en a t u r a l l yp r e s e n ti nt h ef l o wo rt h e f l o wi s seeded. I nt h ep r e s e n c eo fv e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t so rt u r b u l e n c e , may e x i s t between t h e f l u i d m o t i o n most s i g n i f i c a n t a t h i g hf r e q u e n c i e s a signifi-

cantvelocitylag Lag e f f e c t s a r e

and t h e p a r t i c l e m o t i o n . and i n r e g i o n s o f r a p i d

fluid acceleration or deceleration, along a streamlineapproaching

as across a shock o r expansion wave o r These environments, of be encountered i n empty t e s t

a s t a g n a t i o np o i n t .

i n t e r e s ti nf l o wf i e l ds u r v e y s ,w o u l dn o tn o r m a l l y

o f t h e p a r t i c l e s to f o l l o w s e c t i o n c a l i b r a t i o n measurements, b u t t h e a b i l i t y r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l mean v e l o c i t y p e r t u r b a t i o n s and respond t o low-to-moderate

l e v e l so ft u r b u l e n c ea r eo fi n t e r e s t .

233

The upper l m t on p a r t i c l e s i z e i s d e t e r m i n e d i i and thelower limit, forhighspeed:flows,

by i n e r t i a o r l a g e f f e c t s .

may be determinedbythereduced an unacceptably

amount o f 1 i g h t s c a t t e r e d b y t h e p a r t i c l e w h i c h r e s u l t s i n lowsignal-to-noiseratio. Flowseeding may be r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n 'anadequate

number o f p a r t i c l e s o f measurements may be

c o n t r o l l e ds i z e ,e s p e c i a l l y u t i l i z e d , Refs- 6 and and r e s u l t i n time. no more

i f a t r a c k e rp r o c e s s o ri s

used. For

w i t h a counterprocessor,naturallyoccuringparticlesintheflow

7.

These p a r t i c l e sa r en o r m a l l ys p a r s e l yc o n c e n t r a t e d volume a t t h e same

than one p a r t i c l e i n t h e m e a s u r i n g

However, seeding may be employed w i t h a c o u n t e rp r o c e s s o rt oc o n t r o l and i n c r e a s et h ed a t ar a t e . Measurements i nt h e1 6 - f o o tt r a n s o n i c been made usingatomized o i l to

p a r t i c l es i z e t u n n e la t

NASA LangleyResearchCenterhave Ref.

seed theflow,

5.

Seeding i n a continuouswindtunnel

can c r e a t e contam-

inationproblemswhichencouragetheuse
t o unseeded flows.

o f measurement p r o c e d u r e s a p p l i c a b l e

The m o t i o n o f a s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e i n Hinze (Ref.

a fluid flow

has been

reviewedby

IS).

So0 (Ref.

16) also reviewed

and summarized

the quations e

d e s c r i b i n gp a r t i c l em o t i o n .

The completeequation,

as givenbyHinzeis:

dp2VT&

l t d t '
t0

[%r-7 ' d

%I+

Fe

The s u b s c r i p t g r e f e r s t o t h e oftheparticle In this

gas and p

totheparticle;

dp i s t h e d i a m e t e r

(assumed t o be s p h e r i c a l ) , and t ' i s a dummy v a r i a b l e . left of the equality sign is the force reThe f i r s t t e r mo nt h er i g h ti st h ed r a g

formthetermonthe

q u i r e dt oa c c e l e r a t et h ep a r t i c l e . f o r c e based on Stokes' law.

The second term accounts causedby

for t h ep r e s s u r eg r a -

dient in the fluid

aroundtheparticle

accelerationofthefluid.

The t h i r d term i s t h e f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e a p p a r e n t particlerelativetotheambientfluid.

mass o f t h e

234

The f o u r t ht e r m( d e s i g n a t e dt h e t h ef l o wp a t t e r n

"Basset"term)accounts The Vast term,

forthedeviationof Fe, represents body

from steadystate.

f o r c e s due t o g r a v i t y , L o r e n t z f o r c e field,aser hoton ressure, tc. l p p e drag (Oseen's law)

on a charged p a r t i c l e i n an e l e c t r i c Base (Ref. 17) reviews complete the a morecomplex expressionfor numbers* on t h e r i g h t o f

e q u a t i o n as g i v e n byHinzeabovebutemploys

t o accommodate h i g h e rr e l a t i v eR e y n o l d s second, t h i r d and f o u r t ht e r m s

According t o Hinze,the Eq. (11.11) may be neglected

if t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e f l u i d

i s significantly

l e s st h a nt h ed e n s i t yo ft h ep a r t i c l e ,w h i c hi sn o r m a l l yt r u e .I nt h er a n g e o f speeds encountered i n t r a n s o n i c a r en e g l i g i b l e
term on t h e r i g h t s i d e , Eq.

and s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s , g r a v i t y e f f e c t s may be w r i t t e n

compared t ot h ed r a gf o r c e .R e t a i n i n go n l yt h eS t o k e s 'l a wd r a g

(11.11)

( I 1.12)

T h i sd i f f e r e n t i a le q u a t i o n ,w h i c ha g r e e sw i t ht h a tg i v e n

by So0 (Ref.
form

16), may b et r a n s f o r m e di n t ot h es t a n d a r dt r a n s f e rf u n c t i o n

where S i st h eL a p l a c eo p e r a t o r , a n d

i st h et i m ec o n s t a n td e f i n e d

by (11.14)

The s t e a d ys t a t es i n u s o i d a la m p l i t u d e r e s p e c t t o t h e gas may beexpressed j w f o r S, where j =

and phaseresponse
i n thefrequency

of the particle with substituting

domainby

6.

Herew i st h ef r e q u e n c yo f

gas m o t i o ni nr a d i a n sp e r

second.

The phase angle,

4, bywhichtheparticlelagsthefluidmotionis
(11.16)

235

The aboveequations and Meyers (Ref. YantaandGates(Ref. e x c e p tt h a t

based o n S t o k e s ' l a w a g r e e w i t h t h o s e g i v e n b y F e l l e r Mazumder, Hoyle and K i r s c h (Ref.

18) and o t h e r s .

19) and
(II. 14)

20) use a t i m e c o n s t a n t e x p r e s s i o n s i m i l a r

t o Eq.

a c o r r e c t i o nt e r mi sa p p l i e dt ot h eS t o k e s 'd r a gc o e f f i c i e n tt o range o f f l o w c o n d i t i o n s where t h e Knudsen

extend i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o t h e

a. Epstein (Ref. number (Kn = - ) becomes appreciable.

Happel Brenner and (Ref. evolved.

21) d e r i v e d a c o r r e c t i o n dP t e r mt oS t o k e s 'l a wf r o mt h ek i n e t i ct h e o r yv i e w p o i n t ,a si sd i s c u s s e db y

22), butvariousforms
used Yanta by as

and e m p i r i c a lc o n s t a n t sh a v e and Gates (Ref. 201, results

One o ft h es i m p l e rf o r m s ,

i n a timeconstantexpressed

where k i s t h e Cunningham c o n s t a n t (1.8 f o r a i r ) , From Eq. ( l l . l 7 ) ,t h ee f f e c to fi n c r e a s i n g

and . i s t h e mean f r e e p a t h . 9

Knudsen number i s t o i n c r e a s et h e

timeconstant.

The e f f e c t becomes s i g n i f i c a n t (18%) f o r a r a t i o o f mean f r e e 0.1. Sincethetimeconstantincreasecan Eq. (11.17) be

p a t ht op a r t i c l ed i a m e t e ro f s i g n i f i c a n tf o r

low d e n s i t yf l o w s ,

i s more a c c u r a t ef o ri n v e s t i -

g a t i n gp a r t i c l er e s p o n s ei nt h e s e law t o be v a l i d . thelimitations flows.

cases.

T h i s , o f course, assumes Stokes' t o d i s c u s s some o f

Thus, a t t h i s p o i n t ,

it i sa p p r o p r i a t e

on t h e u s e o f S t o k e s ' l a w f o r p a r t i c l e d r a g i n c o m p r e s s i b l e

A more d e t a i l e d d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t e x p r e s s i o n f o r l a r g e - d i f f e r e n t i a l

Mach

and Reynolds Number i s g i v e n by Walsh (Ref. data. Walsh (Ref.

23) and i s based onexperimental

f o r a widerange

24) has compared

results btained sing tokesdrag oefo u S ' c

ficient equation with

morecomplexexpressionswhichaccount numbers.

o f d i f f e r e n t i a l Reynolds and Mach

normalshocks i ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w

Flow f i e l ds t u d i e si n c l u d e d

and v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s u p t o

365 sec".
and i t

He concludesthattheuse r e s u l t s compared t o t h e

o f S t o k e s 'l a wg e n e r a l l yy i e l d sc o n s e r v a t i v e more a c c u r a t e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t e x p r e s s i o n s ,

o v e r p r e d i c t st h ev e l o c i t yl a gb yl e s st h a n than

10% for p a r t i c l ed i a m e t e r sl e s s

microns and v e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t s

up t o

333 sec'l.

T h i so v e r p r e d i c t i o n de-

decreasesasthe

i n i t i a l gas v e l o c i t yi n c r e a s e s ,t h ev e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t decreases.Consideringotheruncertainties,

creases, and t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e

suchasthe

shape o f t h e p a r t i c l e , t h e

use o f S t o k e s ' d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t i s i s recommended.

considered t o beadequate l o wd e n s i t yf l o w s

for t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y ; t h e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g

f o r which Eq. (11.17)

Eq.

The t i m ec o n s t a n td e f i n e db y

(11.14)

i s an e x t r e m e l yu s e f u lq u a n t i t y

f o r s t u d y i n gt h ep a r t i c l el a gp r o b l e m .
definethefrequencyresponse timeconstantis v e l o c i t yl a g ,

A s i n Eq.

(I1.151,
response.

it canbeused
domain, t h e

to

o f t h ep a r t i c l e .I nt h et i m e

a measure o f p a r t i c l e t r a n s i e n t

A s t e p change i n

v a l u e i n onetime f o r example, i s reduced t o I / e o f i t s i n i t i a l 2 be c o n s t a n t , / en w o i m e o n s t a n t s , t c . I i t t c e The r e l a x a t i o n 1 ength can also d e t e r m i n e db yt h ep r o d u c to ft h et i m ec o n s t a n t i n onerelaxationlengththeparticlelag v e l o c i t y ,e t c . A c c o r d i n gt o Eq. ( I l . l h ) ,t h ef i d e l i t yw i t hw h i c hp a r t i c l em o t i o nr e p r e a specificflowcondition(test gas v i s c o s i t y known) can and t h e gas v e l o c i t y

As before,

will reduce t o l / e o f i t s i n i t i a l

s e n t sf l u i dm o t i o ni n

be improved reducing particle by the diameter

and density. Diameter reduction diame-

i sp a r t i c u l a r l ye f f e c t i v es i n c et h et i m ec o n s t a n ti n c r e a s e sa c c o r d i n gt o t e r squared. is limited As d i s c u s s e dp r e v i o u s l y ,

however, t h e minimum p a r t i c l ed i a m e t e r

bythe

minimum a c c e p t a b l e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o .

An average p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y t o

1 gm/cm3 i s commonly used f o r f l o w s e e d i n g a t

and supersonicwindtunnels. siliconeoil, and p o l y s t y r e n e
(DOP),

c o n d i t i o n st y p i c a lo ft h o s ee n c o u n t e r e di nt r a n s o n i c S e e d i n ga g e n t si n c l u d ed i o c t y lp h t h a l a t e l a t e x (Ref.

19).

A r e v i e wo ft h es e v e r a lt y p e so fg e n e r a t o r sf o ri n t r o d u c i n g

s e e d i n gp a r t i c l e so fc o n t r o l l e ds i z ei sg i v e n (Ref. For 25). seeding high temperature p o i n t sa r en e c e s s a r y .Z i r c o n i u md i o x i d e above 3000 K and a d e n s i t v o f used forseedinghightemperature

by Mazumder, B l e v i n s and K i r s c h gas f l o w s ,p a r t i c l e sw i t hh l a h e rm e l t i n g ( Z r Oz), which has a m e l t i n gp o i n t been

5.9 gm/cm, and aluminum o x i d e (A12 03)have

gas f l o w s , e.g., Ref. 26.

To d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s , t h e f r e q u e n c y
of p a r t i c l e s w i t h

response

a d e n s i t y o f 1 gm/cm3 and diametersrangingfrom

0.5 pm t o

Io

p m i s shown i n F i g .

A.11.5

f o r Mach one f l o w and a stagnationtemperatureof c l e a r l yd e m o n s t r a t et h ed e s i r a b i l i t y 0 . 5 urn. The time constants

40 C e l s i u s( I 0 4 ofusing

OF).

These response data

p a r t i c l e s w i t h a diameter of approximately

for p a r t f c l e s w i t h a dens it y o f 1 gm/cm3 a r e shown i n F i g .

A.11.6

as a f u n c t i o n

237

N.

Mach No. 1 0 . T = 40 Celsius , Pp = 1 g/cc

10 .

0.5

01 .

Figure A . 1 1 . 5

EFFECT OF FARTICLE DIAMETER

ON FREQUENCY PXSXINSE

of p a r t i c l ed i a m e t e r

and w i t h Mach numbers r a n g i n g fo r m 0.5 does n o t change s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h

t o 3.0,.

From temperaMore

thisFigure

it may be seen t h a t , for t h e assumed c o n s t a n ts t a g n a t i o n

t u r e ,t h et i m ec o n s t a n t effectwouldbeapparent ance w i t h Eq.

Mach number.
flow,

a t Mach 2.0 and 3.0 f o r l o w d e n s i t y

i n accord-

(11.17).
may bechosen todefinetherequireddegree
of f l d e l i t y

Various criteria of frequency response.

I f it i s assumed t h a t adequate measurements be can

no more than

made when t h e p a r t i c l e l a g s t h e f l u i d m o t i o n b y

5%, i.e.,

/V

f0.95 where f o

e -

0.0523 T

'
limit w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g

(11.18)
more than 5%

95 i s t h e upperfrequency

attenuat ion of the particle velocity response to fluid t h i sf r e q u e n c y number, a g a i nf o r a p a r t i c l ed e n s i t yo f

mt i o nI.n i g . o F

A.11.7
and 7,
it

lmt i s shown as a f u n c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r i i

and Mach

1 gm/cm3.

I nF i g s .
Urn

A.11.6

i s d e m o n s t r a t e dt h a td i a m e t e r so ft h eo r d e ro f measurements up t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y arenecessarytoextendaccurate a r e o b v i o u s l y dependenton 10 kHz,

o rl e s sa r er e q u i r e df o r

and t h a td i a m e t e r sl e s st h a n

0.5 pm

measurements t o 100 kHz.

These g u i d e l i n e s

f l o w c o n d i t i o n s and t h e d e f i n i t i o n of anacceptagreement w i t h t h e bothexperimental con-

a b l e amount o f p a r t i c l e l a g , b u t t h e y a r e i n g e n e r a l c l u s i o n so fs e v e r a li n v e s t i g a t i o n s , results. edigo P and Stevenson (Ref. based upon

and a n a l y t i c a l

27) s t a t et h a tf o r

a p a r t i c l et of o l l o w be lessthan 19) and Seasholtz

transonicflowswithreasonableaccuracy,thediametershould

1 vm.

Asher (Ref.

1 4 ) , Mazumder, Hoyle and Kirsch (Ref.

(Ref. 29) r e a c h s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s f o r r a t h e r w i d e l y v a r y i n g f l o w c o n d i t i o n s . With r e g a r d to t u r b u l e n c e measurements i n boundary layers, Yanta (Ref. f o u n dt h a t mean v e l o c i t y and t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n measurements 30)

w i t h b o t h 1 pm and 5 pm d i o c t y l p h t h a l a t e p a r t i c l e s
ment. These measurements were l a y e r flow, dominatedby v o r t i c e s and must respond made i n a Mach atmosphere stagnation pressure. Yanta points that out

were i n v e r y c l o s e a g r e e -

3 f l o wc h a n n e lo p e r a t i n ga to n e
i nt u r b u l e n t boundary moving moving w i t h t h e
t o changes i n v e l o c i t y

v o r t e xm o t i o n ,t h ep a r t i c l e sa r e t o changes i n v e l o c i t y i n

a frame o f r e f e r e n c e

w i t h theflow(Lagrangian).
w i t hr e s p e c t

A h o t ' w i r e must respond

t o a f i x e d( E u l e r i a n )

frame o f reference.

As a

consequence,

larger

p a r t i c l e s canbeused

forturbulence

measurements w i t h o u t p a r t i c l e l a g e f f e c t s . 239

h)

&

l x

l x

l x

lx
Parkj.de Diameter, p m
Figure A . 11.6

30

01 .

10 . P a r t i c l e Diameter,
Pm

10

TIME CONSTANT AS A FUNCTION OF PARTICLE DIAMETER FOR VARIOUS MACH NUMBERS, PARTICLE D E N S I T Y = 1 gm/cc

F i g u r e A. I I .7 MAXIMUM FREQUENCY FOR NO MORE THAN 5% ATTENUATION OF S I N U S O I D A LV E L O C I T Y V A R I A T I O N SP A R T I C L E , D E N S I T Y = 1 gm/cc

--

DataAnalysis

and Accuracy a l a s e rv e l o c i m e t e ri n c l u d et h e mean

The d a t a n o r m a l l y o b t a i n e d w i t h v e l o c i t y and t h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi n

w one, t o or t h r e e components.

By
be

s p e c i a la n a l y t i c a lt e c h n i q u e s ,t h es p e c t r u m derived

o f t h et u r b u l e n c ec a na l s o

.
Ui, i s taken t o volume and passage o f an i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e t h r o u g h t h e m e a s u r i n g occu'rence i s t y p i c a l o f high-speedflows

An i n d i v i d u a l measurement o b t a i n e df r o mt h ev e l o c i m e t e r , r e p r e s e n tt h e

( i n d i v i d u a lr e a l i z a t i o n )s i n c et h i s counter-typeprocessors.

The i n d i v i d u a l measurement can d e v i a t ef r o mt h et r u e and system resolution. The a c q u i s i t i o n

mean v e l o c i t y due t o t u r b u l e n c e ,n o i s e

o f a l a r g e number o f measurements a r e t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o i m p r o v e t h e

accuracy o f b o t h t h e

mean v e l o c i t y and t u r b u l e n c e measurements. a l a r g e number o f i n d i v i d u a l measure-

The mean velocityasdeterminedfrom ments i s

c ui
-

i= 1 N

(11.19)
9

where ti i s t h e number o f v a l u e s measured f o r a s i n g l et e s tc o n d i t i o n , a n d a s i n g l e v e l o c i t y measurement. The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n is

U. i s
I

( 1 I. 20)

If t h e e f f e c t s o f broadening o f theDopplerfrequencyspectrum
f i n i t e sample l e n g t h and phase apparentvelocityfluctuations r e v e r s a l s( t r a c k e rp r o c e s s o r )

due t o

o r , i n general,

due: t o n o i s e , e t c . , a r e n e g l i g i b l y s m a l l , root-mean-squareturbulence

thestandardvelocitydeviationisequaltothe velocity

cu = u '
where U
= U

;
7
U'

( I 1.21)

u ' , a n dt h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi s

24 1

Correction of the measured turbulence velocity for the effects of Doppler spectral broadening (as occurs with tracker processor) is discussed, for a example, by George in (Ref. 31)- The correction techniques for this type of bias are based on the white noise or broad-band characteristics of the intensity modulation of the Doppler frequency; whereas, the turbulence is band-limited. Flack and Thompson(Ref. 32) have identified ten different biases which influence individual-realization, velocimetry measurements mean velocity of and turbulence. Magnitudes of the individual biases range from less than
0.1% to

31% for the turbulence component and from 0.1% to about 12% for the
is due to the probability, in a turbulent flow,

mean velocity component. The larger errors are associated with high turbulence intensities. The largest bias that more high velocity particles will be measured than low velocity particles. This bias occurs because the individual measurements are not randomly distributed.

I f the scattering particles are uniformly distributed in the

flow, the rate at which particles pass through the measuring volume weighted is T h i s form o f statistical bias is discussed linearly with velocity, Fig. A . 1 1 . 8 .
by Barnett and Bentley (Ref. 33) and by HcLaughl in and Tiederman (Ref. 34).

N
N

c
i=l

1 ui

( I I .22)

Barnett and Bentley derive the correction to the biased (arithmetic] mean in terms of the turbulence intensity as

N
( I 1.23)

The correction to the arithmetic mean velocity for velocity bias i s therefore significant only when the turbulent intensity large; a turbulent intensity is of 10% would result in a 1% correction to the mean velocity. It should be emphasized that Eqs. 11.22 and 11.23 are based on a one dimensional analysis and may not be generally applicable to all flows.

242

Biased Average of Individual Measurements

Individual Measurements

The work t o d a t e o n i n d i v i d u a l r e a l i z a t i o n

or v e l o c i t y b i a s i n g has a l s o
suchasturbu-

been r e s t r i c t e d t o c o n s t a n t - d e n s i t y , v e l o c i t y - f l u c t u a t i o n f l o w s l e n t boundarylayers.Thiswork Furtherstudyis

assumes u n i f o r md e n s i t yo fs c a t t e r i n gp a r t i c l e s . where theunsteadinessisdominated

needed o f o t h e r f l o w f i e l d s

by unsteady shocks, acoustic sources, In etc. such cases, significant density v a r i a t i o n so c c u r , and d e n s i t y and v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s mean v e l o c i t y i n may be c o r r e l a t e d .F o r

e m p t y - t e s t - s e c t i o ns u r v e y so f

w i n dt u n n e l s ,t u r b u l e n c ei ss u f measure-

f i c i e n t l y low t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f v e l o c i t y b i a s i n g t o t h e t o t a l ment e r r o r wouldappear Yanta (Ref. d e t e r m i n i n gt h e t o be minor.

9) and Yanta and Smith, (Ref. 35) d i s c u s st h ep r o b l e mo f sample s i z e , N, r e q u i r e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n

measured value, such as mean v e l o c i t y , as a sity.

f u n c t i o no ft h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n -

For example,

(11.24)

When Z i s t h e

number o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o

a d e s i r e dc o n f i -

dence l e v e l (1.645, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , AU/U intensity.

1.96 and 2.58

f o r 90, 95 and 93-percentconfidence

1imits,

"

istheerrorinthe

mean value, and u l / r t h e t u r b u l e n c e

The c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t s f o r t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y p r o b abilitydistribution(the rms t u r b u l e n c e ,u l )i sg i v e n by

N =
Where Au'

22
~(Au'/u')~ and Z and N a r e a s

(11.25)

istheerrorinmagnitudeoftheturbulence,

previously defined. I nt h e case o f w i n d t u n n e l c a l i b r a t i o n s , t h e averagethelowestfrequency measurement periodshould component o f t u n n e l f l o w one

be s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g t o

unsteadiness. Therefore, required the t o morethan 10 seconds,which

il from measurement p e r i o d wl extend

same o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e a s t h e number o f l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r

may be o f t h e

t i m er e q u i r e dt oo b t a i nt h en e c e s s a r y

measurements,

244

dependingonthedatarate. s e v e r a lm i n u t e sp e rs t a t i o n .

Some measurements i n t h e

AEDC Tunnel 1-T r e q u i r e d

An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e
tunnels. Meyers, al., Ref. et. in ured i n t h e

agreementbetween

laservelocimeter

and c o n v e n t i o n a l ,

w i n d - t u n n e l - c a l i b r a t i o n measurements can be made f o r m testsinseveralwind

(5) f o u n dt h a tf r e e s t r e a mv e l o c i t i e s

meas-

4.9

m (16-foot)LangleyTransonicTunnel
be +I%.

compared t o t h e t u n n e l A l t h o u g ht h ep a r t i c l e s

'
t

c a l i b r a t i o n measurements w i t h i n 22%;where based o nt h et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni ss t a t e dt o used t o seed t h e f l o w r a n g e d i n s i z e notconsiderparticlelagto ficantlag

t h e u n c e r t a i n t y of t h e v e l o c i t y

fo r m 10 t o 15 m i c r o n s ,t h ea u t h o r sd i d

be a problem i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n ; a l t h o u g h s i g n i -

was p r e s e n t i n t h e f l o w a c c e l e r a t i n g s e c t i o n o f t h e t u n n e l .

Measurements i n t h e range from

0.3 m ( I - f o o t ) AEDC Tunnel 1T i n t h e Mach number

by Smith e t a l . i n Mach 1.5. Ref.

0.6 t o 1.5 a r er e p o r t e d Mach 0.6 t o 0.5

(8).

The e r r o r

e s t i m a t ef o rt h ec o n v e n t i o n a lc a l i b r a t i o nd a t a p e r c e n ta t p e r c e n ta t

rangesfromapproximatelytwo f l u l t i p l e - p o i n ta x i a ls u r v e y s

ofcenterlinecalibrationdata, only at Mach numbers 0.6 and 0.8, v e l o c i t y measurement ( a t t h e

based on

pressuremeasurements,wereobtained

w i t h a single-point,pressure-calibration,

same p o i n t o nt h et u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e )o f

2.5 t o

2.7 percent. Comparison

at

o ft h ea x i a ld i s t r i b u t i o n so b t a i n e d 216 rnps, and t h e u n c e r t a i n t y

by both techniques

M = 0.6 showed t h e b e s t agreement w i t h an a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e o f a b o u t

t h ed i f f e r e n c e s ranged from about 0.3 t o 2.0 p e r c e n t a t I n t e r e s t i n g l y ,a l l

1.4

percent for a mean v e l o c i t y o f

bands overlapped. a mean meas-

A t Mach 0.8,

v e l o c i t y o f approximately 280 mps.

o f t h ev e l o c i t i e s

u r e dw i t ht h el a s e rv e l o c i m e t e rw e r eh i g h e rt h a nt h ev e l o c i t i e sd e t e r m i n e d pressure and temperature measurements. d i f f e r e n c e ,b u to b v i o u s l yp a r t i c l el a g

No e x p l a n a t i o n was o f f e r e df o rt h e

fo rm

was n o t a f a c t o r .

Al measurements were l

made w i t h n a t u r a l l y - p r e s e n t , l i g h t - s c a t t e r i n g p a r t i c l e s i n t h e f l o w .
F l o w a n g u l a r i t y measurements were a l s o made w i t h t h e

2-component l a s e r

velocimeter,whichdemonstratedtheabilityto w i t hd e v i a t i o n sr a n g i n gf r o m a f u n c t i o no ft h e angularity data 2.015 degree

make a n g u l a r i t y measurements t o 2.25 degrees. The d e v i a t i o n s a r e

rms d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e

component v e l o c i t i e s .

No conventional

werepresentedforcomparison.

This test demonstrated the capability for measuring the flaw angularity and an average o f t h e f l o w f l u c t u a t i o n s i n b o t h m a g n i t u d e The two t e s t sd e s c r i b e ds h o u l d demonstrationsonly and s h o u l d n o t and d i r e c t i o n .

be regarded as o p e r a t i o n a l f e a s i b i l i t y be regardedasthebestaccuracycurrently compared t o conven-

a v a i l a b l e .F u r t h e r ,s i n c et h el a s e rv e l o c i m e t e rd a t aa r e

+2.0 t i o n a l c a l i b r a t i o n d a t a w i t h a s t a t e d a c c u r a c y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50.5 t o percent, an a b s o l u t e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r a c c u r a c y c a n n o t made f r o m t h e s e r e s u l t s . be

3 6 ) , Johnson and Rose (Ref. 371, Yanta and Lee (Ref. 38) and B o u t i e r and Lefevre(Ref. 391, p r o v i d ea d d i t i o n a le v a l u a t i o n s
Measurements by Johnson (Ref. ofthe agreement between

flow v e l o c i t y measurements b yt h el a s e rv e l o c i m e t e r
and s t a t i c probes. These f r e e s t r e a mv e l o c i t y measurescope s i n c et h e ya r eo b t a i n e d

and by c o n v e n t i o n a lP i t o t

ments a r e somewhat l i m i t e d i n

from boundarylayer 0.5% i s demonstra-

v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e measurements; nevertheless,agreementwithin ted. The l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r y i e l d s ment, the stagnation temperature, t i o n ,t h el o c a ls t a t i ct e m p e r a t u r e velocity

a d i r e c t measurement o f f l o w v e l o c i t y , w h i l e

t h e Mach number i s r e q u i r e d f o r c a l i b r a t i o n

o f windtunnels.

A second measureequa-

i s therefore required. Using energy the

canthen .be determinedfromthemeasured

Where Tw i st h et e s ts e c t i o nt e m p e r a t u r ec o r r e s p o n d i n gt o nation temperature,

C

Vm,

To i st h es t a g -

i st h es p e c i f i ch e a ta tc o n s t a n tp r e s s u r e , R i st h e P heats. The l o c a l Mach number gas c o n s t a n t , and y i s t h e r a t i o o f s p e c i f i c can then be determined from
VW

am

"W

"m

( I I .28)

246

Sensitivity coefficients for temperatureare From thesedata, shown i n F i g .

measurements o f b o t h v e l o c i t y

and s t a g n a t i o n

A.II.9

f o r a s t a g n a t i o nt e m p e r a t u r eo f o f +_O.OOl

40 Celsius.
requires

measurement o f Mach numbers t o anaccuracy

a v e l o c i t y measurement accuracyofabout Thisaccuracy Conclusions i sn o tb e l i e v e dt o

0.1% i n t h e t r a n s o n i c

speed range.
v

be w i t h i nt h es t a t e - o f - t h e - a r ta tp r e s e n t .

i
may be summarized

The advantages and disadvantages of t h e l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r as f o l l o w s : Advantages

1.
2.

No p r o b eo ro t h e rd e v i c ei n t r o d u c e di n t ot h e

flow,

i .e

., non-

pertubing. P r o v i d e sd i r e c t ,l i n e a r no ti ns; measurement o fv e l o c it y and ve l o c i t y f l u c t u a -

calibrationrequired.

3.
4.

Ab l i t y t o measure r e v e r s i n g f l o w s . Ab l i t y t o separate mean and f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i t i e s i n t o components.

5. 6.

Po n t measurements can be approached by p r o p e r c o n t r o l o f m e a s u r i n g

vo ume. Ca be r e a l i z e d as an i n h e r e n t l yd i g i t a li n s t r u m e n t .

-isadvantages D
1.
2.
Complex, expensiveequipmentrequired Measurement o f h i g h - v e l o c i t y f l o w s i n l a r g e t u n n e l s w i t h frequencyresponse, temperature,etc. an a i r t e s t medium p r e s e n t ss p e c i a lp r o b l e m sw i t hr e g a r dt os i n g l e - t o - n o i s er a t i o , and s e n s i t i v i t y o f equipment t o t u n n e l v i b r a t i o n ,

3.

Furtherdevelopment

needed t o i m p r o v es i g n a lp r o c e s s o r ,p a r t i c u l a r l y
of l a r g e p a r t i c l e s ,

withregardtodatavalidationfeatures,rejection etc.

4.

Light-scattering particles of size followflowinregionsofrapidvelocity

needed for good s i g n a l may n o t change.

5 .
6.

Signal-to-noise ratio

may p r e c l u d e a c c u r a t e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y 0.1 t o 1.0 percent. good as w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l

measurements a t lowlevels,i.e., Current accuracy attainable is not as techniques.

7.

Takes e x c e s s i v e t i m e t o calibration.

make t h e s u r v e y s r e q u i r e d f o r w i n d t u n n e l

247

.WO

.1 08

,016

To = 3UK

.1 04

.012

- -o " aT

.1 00 1/OK

08 .0
.0 06

04 .0
.002

0 0

Mach No.
Figure A. I I -9

248

SENSITIVITY COEFFICIENTS FOR DETERMINATION OF MACH NUMBER FROM VELOCITY AND STAGNATION TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Nomenclature

aD a

s t rae o u s tlio c i t y fre c m e c ea v specificheatatconstantpressure i n i t i a l diameter o f l a s e r beam

=P
DO

d0 d

diameter o f l a s e r beams a t t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g l e n s particle. diameter f o c a ll e n g t ho ft k a n s m i t t i n gl e n s body f o r c e so np a r t i c l e Dopp 1 er frequency (Eq. 11.11)

Fe
fd

, Hz
5% r e l a t i v e t o s t e a d y

fo. 95

frequency a t which p a r t i c l e m o t i o n i s a t t e n u a t e d s t a t es i n u s o i d a lf l u i dm o t i o n

m
Knudsen number

Cunningham c o n s t a n t (Eq. mean f r e e p a t h l e n g t h o f measuringvolume Mach number sample s i z e number o f f r i n g e s i n

I I . 17)

R
llV

Nf r
NH
NL
R

measu'r i n g volume
o f a counterprocessor

number o f p u l s e s c o u n t e d i n t h e h i g h . r e g i s t e r number o f pulsescounted constant gas Lap1ace opera tor inthe

low r e g i s t e r o f a counterprocessor

S
TO

stagnationtemperature

249

TP
T3 o

t i m e c o n s t a n t d e f i n l n g p a r t i c l e response to v a r i a t i o n s i n f l u i d o lw f v e l o c i t y , seconds
. .

freestream temperature time, seconds dumny v a r i a b l e (Eq.

t
t'

11.11)

U uC

v e l o c i t y component n o m 1 to f r i n g e p a t t e r n and t o b i s e c t o r o f theangleformedby t o I n t e r s e c t i n g l a s e r beams w mean v e l o c i t y mean v e l o c i t y , c o r r e c t e d rms t u r b u l e n c e v e l o c i t y

for v e l o c i t y b i a s

U'

Au I

error i n magnitude o f t u r b u l e n c e v e l o c i t y
fw l gas o v e l o c i t y

V
9

""
W

particle velocity

f fees t ream ve 1oc it y

width of measuring velocity number o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a d e s i r e d c o n f i d e n c e l e v e l (Eq. I I .24).

Greek Y
r a t i o of s p e c i f f c h e a t s beam s e p a r a t i o n d i s t a n c e a t t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g o p t i c s f r i n g es p a c i n gi nm e a s u r i n g volume intersectionto formthe

A
bf
0

angle between l a s e r beams a t the.ir measuringvolume wavelength o f l a s e r l i g h t v i s c o s i t y o f gas density of gas

pP
a

density of particle standard deviation of v e l o c i t y p r o b a b i l i t y - d i s t r i b u t i o n - f u n c t i o n

250

phase angle, degrees ..

angular velocity, radians per second

.-; .

.. .
I

25 1

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1.
2.

Yeh, Y. and Cummins, H. Z.: He-Ne Laser Spectrometer,''

" L o c a l i z e dF l u i dF l o w Measurements w i t h .an Vo1. 4 pp 176-178, 1964. . .

Foreman, J., W. ; George, W. W. and 'Lewis, R. 0.: "Measurement o f L o c a l i z e d f l o w V e l o c i t i e s i n Gases With a Laser-DopplerFlowmeter,"AppliedPhysics V o le t t e r s , ,L . 7, pp 77-80, 1965. . . Lennert, A. E.; Bragton, D. B.; Crosswy, F. L., e t a l : "Summary Report o f t h e Development o f a LaserVelocimeter t o be Used i n AEDC Wind Tunnels", AEDC-TR-70-101, J u l y 1970. Stevenson, W. H.; Pedigo, M. K. and Zamit, R. E.: Doppler Velocimeters: Theory, Design Applications," and Report No. RD-TR-72-8, 1972. "Bibliography Laser on U. S . Army

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4.

5.

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1975. 6.
Johnson, D. A.; Bochalo, W. D. and Modarress, D.: "Laser Velocimeter Supersonic and Transonic Wind Tunnel Studies," Proceedings o ft h e Minnesota Symposium on Laser Anemometry, U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota, 1975. Lo, C . F: "TransonicFlowField Measurements Using a LaserVelocimeter," Proceedings o f t h e M i n n e s o t a Symposium onLaser Anemometry, U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota, 1975.

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a.
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9.
10.

Yanta, W. T 73-94, R

J.

Turbulence Measurements w i t h a LaserDopplerVelocimeter," Md., 1973. Naval Ordnance Laboratory,White Oak,

:
I'

Trolinger, . J D .: " L a s e rI n s t r u m e n t a t i o nf o rF l o wF i e l dD i a g n o s t i c s , " AGARDograph No. 186, 1974. " I n v e s t i g a t i o n on C a l i b r a t i o n so fB a s i cP a r a m e t e r sf o r Meyers, J. F.: NASA TN 0-6125, 1971. t h e A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e LaserDopplerVelocimeter, Orloff,Ki and Logan, S. E.: llCofocal Backscatter Velocimeter Laser w i t h On-Axis S e n s i t i v i t y , ' 'A p p l i e dO p t i c s , \ I . 12, No. 10, 1973. Fridman, J. D. Young, R. M.; Seavey, R. E. and O r l o f f , K. L.: "Modular HighAccuracyTrackers f o r Dual Channel LaserDopplerVelocimeter,''Pro-. ceedings o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota Symposium onLaser Anemometry,

11.

12.

13.

1975.

14.

Asher, J. A.: "Laser Velocimeter System Development and Testinq." Progress i nA s t r o n a u t i c s and Aeronautics, V.34 pp 141-166, Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e o f Technology, 1974.

1516. 17.

T_u_rbglence,- A n . - I n t r o d u c t i o n t o i t s Hfnze, J. D.: pp. 354-355, McGraw H i 1 1, New York, 1959.

Mechanism and

Theory,

Soo, S. L.:
Co.,

F l u i d Dynamics o M u l t i p h a s e f Walthan, Mass., 1967.

Systems,

B l i a s d e lP u b l i s h i n g l

Base, T. E.: "The M o t i o no fA e r o s o lP a r t i c l e si n a Computed Turbulent F ~ O Model t o DeterminetheAccuracyof W a L.D.V. System," Proceedings of the Minnesota Symposium on Laser Anemometry, U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota,

1975.
18.
F e l l e r , W. W. and Meyers, J. F.: "Development of a C o n t r o l l a b l e P a r t i c l e Generator f o r LV Seeding i n Hypersonic Wind Tunnels,"Proceedingsof Minnesota Symposium onLaser Anemometry, U n I v e r s i t y o f Mfnnesota, 1975. Mazumder, M. K.; Hoyle, B. D. and Kirsch, K. J.: "Generation and F l u i d DynamIcs o f S c a t t e r i n g A e r o s o l i n LaserDopplerVelocimetry,"Proceedings I t , Purdue o f t h e Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l Workshop onLaserVelocimetry,Vol. U n l v e r s i t y , March 1974. Yanta, W. J. and Gates, D. F.: "The Use 71-287, I n Supersonic Flows," A l A A Paper Epstein, P. S.: Physical Review,V.23 o f a LaserDopplerVelocimeter Albuquerque, N.M., 1971. (1324) p. 710.

19.

20. 21. 22.

Hoppel, T. and Brenner, H: Low Reynolds tJumber Hydrodynamics w i t h S p e c i a lA p p l i c a t i o n st oP a r t i c u l a t e Media, pp 50-51, P r e n t i c e - H a l l , J., 1965. EnciewiSod C l i f f s ,

N .

23

Walsh, M. J., Speed Flows,"

"Drag C o e f f I c i e n tE q u a t i o n s for Small P a r t i c l e si nH i g h A I A A Journal, V 13, No. 11, Flov., 1575.

24.

Walsh, M. J . :" I n f l u e n c eo f Drag C o e f f i c i e n tE q u a t i o n s on P a r t i c l e Motion Calculations," Proceedings of the tlinnesota Symposium on Laser Anemometry, U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota, 1975. Mazumder, M. K.; B l e v i n s , C. W and Kirsch, K. J . : . I'Wind Tunnel Flow Seeding f o r LaserVelocImeterApplications,"ProceedingsoftheMinnesota Symposium asLaserAnemmetry,UniversityofMinnesota, 1975. S e l f , S. A . , "Boundary Layer Measurements i n H i g h V e l o c i t y H i g h Temperat u r e MHD Channel Flows," Proceedings o f t h e Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l Workshop on LaserDopplerVelocimetry, Purdue U n I v e r s i t y , 1974. Pedfgo, M. K. and Stevenson, W. H . , "The Design o f a LaserDopplerVelocimeter for TransonicFlows,''PurdueUniversity,Prepared f o r Army M i s s i l e C m a n d , AD-774 302, October 1373. H a e r t i g , J . , InformalPresentation,Proceedingsofthe Workshop onLaserDopplerVelocimetry,PurdueUniversity, Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l

25.

26.

27

28.

1974.

253

29

Seasholtz, R. G., "Laser Doppler Velocimeter Measurementsin a Turbine Stator Cascade Facility," Proceedings of the Second International Work1974. shop on Laser Doppler Velocimetry, Purdue University, Yanta, W. J . , "Laser Doppler Velocimeter Measurements f Turbulence o Properties of a Mach 3 Turbulent Boundary Layer,'' Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Laser Velocimetry, Purdue University,

30

1974.
31.
George, W K., "The Measurement of Turbulence Intensities Using Real-Time . Laser Doppler Velocimetry," Proceedings the Second International Workof shop on Laser Velocimetry, Purdue University,1974. Flack, R.D. and Thompson, H. D., "The LVD's Potential in Understanding Turbulent Structure,'' Proceedings of the Minnesota Symposium Laser on Anemometry, University of Minnesota, 1975. Barnett, D. 0. and Bent ley, H. T., "Statistical Bias o f Individual Realization Laser Veloc imeters," Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Laser Veloc imetry, Purdue University, 1974.
K. and T iederman, W. G., "Biasing Correction for Individual Realization of Laser Anemometer Measurementsin Turbulent Flows,ll The physics of Fluids, Vol. 16, 1973.

32.

33.

34. McLaughlin, D.

35
36.

Yanta, W. J. and Smith, R . A., "Measurement of Turbulence Transport Properties with a Laser Doppler Velocimeter,''AlAA Paper No. 73-169, Jan. 1973. Johnson, D. A . , "Turbulence Measurements in a Mach 2.9 Boundary Layer Using Laser Velocimetry," AIAA Journal V 12 No. 5, p p 711-714, M a y 1974.
G C., "Turbulence Measurements in a Transonic I . Boundary Layer and Free-Shear Flow Using Laser Velocimetry and Hot-wire Anemometry Techniques," AIAA 9 t h Fluid and Plasma Dynamics Conference, Paper No. 76-399, J u l y 1976.

37. Johnson, D. A. and Rose,

38.

Yanta, W. J. and Lee, R. E., "Measurements of Mach 3 Turbulence Transport Properties on a Nozzle Wall , I i AlAA Journal, V.14, No. 6, pp 725-729, June 1976. Boutier. H. and Lefevre, J.: "Some Applications of Laser Anemometry in Wind-Tunnels," The Accuracy of Flow Measurements Laser Doppler Methods, By Proceedings o f LDA Symposium - Copenhagen, 1975.
"

39.

254

APPENDIX 1 1 1
EFFECTS OF VIBRATION O A CYLINDRICAL PROBE F

ON STATIC PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Intheprocessofcollectingmaterialforwritingabout mean s t a t i c

pressure measurements, t h eq u e s t i o na r o s e a f f e c t e db yv i b r a t i o no f (Ref. a probe. causedbyunsteadycross-flow

as t o how measured datawouldbe measured pressure

The problem o f e r r o r i n

has been previouslyconsideredbySiddon

1).

The f o l l o w i n g i s c u s s i o n s a k e n r o m h i s e f e r e n c e . d it f t r a probe i n an unsteadycross-flow model t h a ti g n o r e sv i s c o s i t y . a uniform,

Some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f

can be o b t a i n e d by use o f an i d e a l i z e d f l o w

Consider a c y l i n d r i c a l p r e s s u r e p r o b e o f d i a m e t e r d , s u b j e c t e d t o u n s t e a d yc r o s s - v e l o c i t yV n ( t ) , a x i a lv e l o c i t yU ( t ) see Fig. A.III.1.

Any c o u p l i n ge f f e c to ft h e be i r r o t a t i o n a l ,t h e

i s neglected.

Assuming t h ef l o wt o

a p p r o p r i a t ep o t e n t i a lf u n c t i o ni s :

= Vn

(r +

d2 r)

COS

n.

The unsteadyform

of the

Bernou l l i equat i o n g i v e s :
p (vn2 Pt(t) = " 2

p (r, where,

n, t )

- v 2, + n

a4 at

P ( t )i st h ep r e s s u r ew h i c hw o u l d
t

have o c c u r r e da t

r = 0 i nt h e

absence o f
( r = d/2)

theprobe

( i . e . ,t h e' t r u e 'p r e s s u r e ) . becomes: Pt(d = 1 2 P 'n

A t t h es u r f a c eo ft h ep r o b e

t h ep r e s s u r ee q u a t i o n

P (Tl,t)

(1

4 Sin2n ) + p t n d Cos n

(111.1)

The f i r s t t e r mo nt h er i g h t t i o nf o rs t e a d yp o t e n t i a lf l o w .

hand s i d ei sr e c o g n i z e d

as t h ep r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u -

The second t e r ma r i s e sf r o mu n s t e a d i n e s s .
of

For a p r e s s u r ep r o b ew h i c hr e g i s t e r st h ee x a c tc i r c u m f e r e n t i a la v e r a g e

P(n,t),

(e.g., by

means o f a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s l i t ) t h e e r r o r

will be:

P,(t)

Pt(t)

$P

vn 2

.where P,(t)

= measured unsteady s t a t i c p r e s s u r e .

I nt h i si d e a ls i t u a t i o nt h ep a r to ft h ep r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o na s s o c i a t e d withtheaccelerationterm

Vn does n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e r r o r .
an exactaverageover

A realprobe

will n o tt a k e

P(rl);

therefore,

an

a d d i t i o n a le r r o rp r o p o r t i o n a lt o

in a r i s e . may
+
K p ind

P,(t)

Pt(t) =

1 p Vn2

Roughly peaking, he oefficient s t c of he verage ver t a o

K (<1) epresents he ractionalnaccuracy r t f i

P(n).

I f we regard Vn as s i n u s o i d a l ,t h e

i n c r e a s i n g l ym p o r t a n w i t h r e q u e n c y i t f cm ( 1 / 8n . ) i a m e t e r r o b e i t h i d p w m/sec (10 f t / s e c ) ,

(in

\in

e r r o r becomes a 0.318

wVn).

Nevertheless, or f o f 5% and V

an averaging inaccuracy

K p i n d i s less than

5% of t h e V n e r r o r a t
or sideof

n 100 Hz.

3.05

Based on responses a s i n g l e row o f o r i f i c e s c a l i b r a t i o n s . B yu s i n g

t ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e , on e i t h e r t h e t o p

many i n v e s t i g a t o r s havelocated a l o n gp i p ef o rt u n n e l
o r bottom)

Eq.

(Ill-I)

w i t h 11 = 0 ( o r i f i c e s on e i t h e r t o p

a n da s s u m i n gt h ep i p eo s c i l l a t e ss i n u s o i d a l l y , measured, mean s t a t i cp r e s s u r e ,i . e . ,

one can e s t i m a t e t h e e r r o r i n

P(0, t )

P (t) =
t

1 T

p Vn

(t)

p \ip(t) d.

( I 11.2)

Taking a timeaverageover

one c y c l e r e s u l t s i n T 0 i n ( td t , )

P( ) ,O

P
t

-T 2

1
T

V 2(t) dt + O n

( I 11.3)

where T = p e r i o d o f o s c i l l a t i o n . Before we canproceed must be assumed. any f u r t h e r , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f r e q u e n c y we here assume a and amplitude frequency o f 100 Hz.

For c a l c u l a t i o np u r p o s e s

256

Since we have previously established that i s desirable to measure mean it static pressure to within 6.89 N/m2 (0.001 psi), the amplitude of pipe 2 oscillation wi 1 1 be calculated for the case m - Pt = 6.89 N/m P

Hence, if the pipe oscillation is represented by Displacemetjt E D = A sin wt; then

'8

' .

Vn

= Aw coswt
-AU

in =

D =

2 srnwt.

Substituting into Eq. ( 1 1 1 . 3 ) , we have

a*.

6.89 = -

2 2 2wt) d t - P A w

(111.4)

It may be noted from Eq. ( 1 11-41 that the required amplitude increases as

frequency decreases. For the particular case ofw = 21rf = 2 0 0 ~and 5 2 2 4 p = 1.71 N sec2/m4 (0.00332 lbf sec /ft ) [Po = 2.41 x 1 0 N/m (35 psia), T = 311K (560"R), M = 11, the amplitude required for significant pressure
0

error is

Therefore, a static pressure survey pipe with single row of orifices, a located on either the top or bottom, would have tooscillate at a frequency
of 1 0 Hz and an amplitude of 0.639 cm in order to cause the measured pressure 0 2 to be 6.89 N/m (0.001 psi) too high.

Figure A. I I I . 1

PFESSURE DISTRIBWION ON A CIRCULAR CYLINDER IN CRoSSFIX)W, Ref. 1

I Goingthroughthe an a m p l i t u d e o f s t a t i cp r e s s u r et o mize sag, same p r o c e d u r e w i t h

n =

90" ( o r i f i c e s o n s i d e o f p i p e ) ,

0.368

cm (0.145 i n . ) i s p r e d i c t e d t o cause t h e measured, 2 (0.001 p s i ) .S i n c el a r g et e n s i o n or be low by 6.89 N/m on s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s u r v e y p i p e s t o m i n i a s i g n i f i c a n ts o u r c eo f

compressionloadsareusuallyplaced

it appears u n l i k e l y t h a t p i p e v i b r a t i o n i s

e r r o r .A l t h o u g ht h i sc o n c l u s i o ni s analysis,
it i sc o n s i d e r e dt o

based on an

inviscid,ncompressible i a lower bound

be c o n s e r v a t i v e( i . e . ,g i v e s

estimateof

A) because o f t h e n e g l e c t o f

pneumatic damping i n t u b i n g w h i c h

connect o r i f i c e s w i t h p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s .

A.III
1.

REFERENCES

Siddon, T. E., "On t h e Response o f Pressure Measuring Instrumentation i n Unsteady Flow," U T l A S Report No. 136, AD 682296, January 1969.

APPENOIX I V :

FACILITIES RESPONDING T OUESTIONNAIRE O TABLE I

Faci 1i t y

Organlratlon & ion Locat

Re/m x @ H 1.0 24.6

4' T r i s o n l c
B 1owdown
26" Transonic 16-Inch .Supersonic W High Speed W T Continuous Supersonic WT Farm1nadale.N.Y. ETH Zurich, Swltz. NLR Amsterdam, Hol land
II
II

Productlon Testlng Began

60.7 0.66 m Octagon Cont

31
0

92

1957

I . 2-2 (2.5)

- 0.95 -

.37

- 7.5 3.5 - 19
7
(H = 1.2) 50 30

10.40 m s q .
1.6 x 2.0 m2
2 10.27 x 0.27 m

Cont. Run Tlme Cont.

nsert.5-1.2 1.2 5.8

Pilot

WT

Bd

I I
I

( F i r s t . Cont. S.W.1

1935

1959
1960 1956

1.0

14.1
21

10.55 x 0.42 m21

v m uIe 2 1.2 x 1.2 m n . s Y 1 . 7 nl2

Supersonic W T Supersonlc Tunnel No. 1 T r l s o n l c G.F. Mach

II

1.2 1.25

4.0

54
71

Bd Cont

1963
1956 N.A. 1970

3 Hi-Re

12" T r ison i c

8' x 6' SwT IO' x 10' SWT

18- Inch

U.S. Army Aberdeen, Md. USAF-FDL 10.3 WPAB, Ohio USAF ARL W A B , Ohio PF Sandia Albuquerque, N.M. NASA Lewis R.C. Cleveland,Ohio

- 1.2 - 4.76 2.97 - 3.0:

1.5
0.5

5.0

(M = 1.25)
h

2 0.38 x 0.33 m 0.38 x 0.38 m : 0.61 x 0.61 m

3.3

27

Cont. Bd Bd

33

359

.
0.305 x2 0.305 m

2.5

16.4

1956

o.36
2.0

2.1

15

II

Aero. Res. U n i t Pretoria, S.Afr.

- 3.5 o*6 - 4*2

- 11 12 - 30
1

(M = 2.0)

. . . . . ..

APPENDIX I V :

FACILITIES RESPONDING TO OUESTIONNAIRE TABLE I

Faci I i t v

Organlzatlon Location

I
2.0

Re/m x @ M = 1.0

Tvne

,.

Cross-Sect ion 1.22 x 1.22 m 2 0.76 x 0.41 m 1.52 x 1.52 m 2

Production Testlng Began 1960 1952

I .2 m HSWT
30" x 16"

BAC Preston, Eng.

0.4

NAE S u c t l a n W . T . d a Tr i sonic II t3lowdown Wf HRN-PDT

II

0.4 0.1 0.15

4.0

21

74

4.4
0.95 1.2

15.1

NASA Langley Res l / 3 m Trans. 0.05 Cryoqenic Tun. Ctr.Hampton, Va. High Speed II On2 7 ' x IO' Tun.

13.45

d
341

Suction

Bd Bd Cont. Cont.

1964
1969

2 0.38 x 1.52 m 0.34 m Octagon 2 2.0 x 2.92 m

1974 1946
1948
1974
1960 1955 1950 1952 1962

( M = 0.9) 11.8 - 16.1

1.37 x 1.37 m

2 2

6" x 28"
Transonic Wl Transon ic DynamicsTun. Unitary Plan Wl I 6 l Transonic
T I
I

I'

0.3
0

1.20

32.8

98.4

Bd Cont.
Conto

15.2 x 72.4cm

II

1.2

II

1.47
0.2
I

(1.05-2.53) air (8.04-19.7)Freon 2.86 2.6 - 28 (k1.5) 4.63 1.6 20 2.29 ("2.3)
I

, '4.88 m x 4.88m
i

11

1.3
1.3

I2

0.61 m corner f i1 l e t s 1.22 x 1.22 In2

13.8

Cont.
I

A.72 m Oct. 2 '2.16 x 2.16 rn 0.61 m

8 ' Transonic
Pressure Tun.

II

0.2

1.3

15.3

Cont. Bd

2 ' Trisonic High Speed Subsonlc W T

Northrop 0.20 Hawthorne, Ca. 11.5 P i c a t i n n y Arsen0.2 a l , Dover, N.J.

1.3
3.0
0.76

0.28

49

sq.

(M = 0.6) 11.12 12.96 . ". .

Induct ion '0.61 m Diarn. . . .

N.A.

APPENDIX I V :

F A C I L I T I E S RESPONDING TO OUESTIONNAIRE

TABLE I

TY Pe
Bd Bd lndraft

Cross-Section
0.42 x 0.41 m 2

Productlon Testing Began

N.A.

2 0.71 x 0.51 m
10.2 x 12.7 cm"
7

1973
1956

Polysonic \-IT Tunnel A

rz y;
ac.AEDC/ARO
II

Bd
1

10.66

m sq.

1965

kcDonnel1-Doug 1as U I S . Mo. ,G;:z

Cont.

11.02 m sq.
I

1958

I
~ ~~ ~~

Tunnel D

I
(Research Only)

P i l o t HlRT
Transon i c 30 cm echn ion
1

Ludwi eg be Tu Induction

2 !18*6x23*2 cm 1N.A.

0.8 x 0.6 m2
0 . 3 0 m Sa.

1968
1960

WT

i
I Bd

40 x 50 cm S W l ? 3 k n ic Transonic W 24' x 23' ockwel I I n t . 1 Sequndo. Ca. bedford, Eng.

1
2.13

2 0.4 x 0.5 m

1968
1958

I Bd
Cont.
"

m SQ.

II

SWr

0.69x0.76
.

. ,.. .

m2
"

. . .

1959
.

APPENnlX I V :

FACILITIES RESPONDING TO OUESTIONNAIRE TABLE I

Faci 1 it y

Organization & Location

Re/m x
M

@ M = 1.0

Type

Cross-Section 0.305x0.406m2

Production Testing Began 1964

Bd

1956
15-lnch SWT

WRE Salisbury, s. Aust.

I1

0.4

1.4
2.8

s3 Bd W l

1.0 2.8 5.0

3.3

- o.38
b9

Cont. Bd Cont. Bd Bd Bd Bd Cont.

0.38x0.38 17.8x15.2 0.81x0.53 0.5x0.5 0.5 x 0.5 1.22x1.22 0.305x0.91

m
2 cm
m
2 2 2

1957
1966

(M = 2.8) 16.4 - 65.6

Transon i c wT

WT

ARLMe1 bourne,

V o l v oT r o l l h a t t e n Sweden Aust.
II

3.28

6.56

1957
1952 1962

o,5 0.4
1.4

1.5 1.4
3.2

23

WT9

Boe ing Boe ing Supersonic WF. Seattle, Wash. 2D-TWT Boe ing Tranyznlc WT Lockheed Triqn,nic HS
I1

4*0
1.25

(M = 1.5) 29 55 ( = 1.2) M 19.7 - 45.9

rn

1957

0.2
0.
0.2

26.25

77.1

2 m

1965
1944

II

1.11

- TWT

Lockheed Saugus, C a l i f . Hawker-Siddeley Hatfield.Enaland B u f f a l o , N.Y.

5.0

14.8
10.2

67.9
11.5 18

Bd

2.44 m x 3.668 0.61 m corner tr I l e t 2 1.22x1.22 m 2 m

1 h 9 0
1954 1956
1966

0.5

1.1

w-r

8' Transonic Calspan

1-34

1.3
28

42

zg'"
Tube,

0.76x0.61 Cont. Cont. 6' low Re; Interm. 2.44 m Sq.

V a r i a b l e Dia, 0.81m-l.52m
. .

APPENDIX

IV:

FACILITIES

RESPONDING TO OUESTIONNAIRE

TABLE I

Organization Faci 1 i ty 20'' SGrr VoughtCorp. 10.5 High Speed W l Dal las. Texas Pro ulsion LIT Fac Aerodyn. W T AED!/ARO Tulla- 10.2 1T ,ho-. Aerodyn. WT II 01 . 4T 1.6 Propu 1 s ion V f It 16T 0.2 Propulsion WI l I

Re/rn x @ M = 1.0

Type

Testing Cross-Section Began

rn

Production

(M = 1.5) 0.47 23.6 Cont. 3.51x0.46

1950

&

5.0

1.5
1.3,
7.0

17
1.3

I
22.5
I

Cont. Cont. Cont. Cont.

10.305 m Sq.
1.22 rn Sq.

1953
1968 1957
I961

16s 14" Trisonic

W T

1.5

1.6 4.75

- 23 (M = 2.0) 1.3 - 8.4

1.3
2.1 12

4.88

rn sq.

NASA Marshall SFC

4-tuLa3.q-

Huntsvi 1 le,Ala. 12' Pressure NASA Ames RC 0.wr Moffett Field,Ca. 14' Transonic

Bd
0.98

0.356 rn Sq.
I

1956
I

5.4
I

Cont. Cont. Cont. Cont. Con t Cont.

.
.

3.44 m Sq.
4.11x4.18 m 2

1946
1956
1956

w-r

w-r

1 1 I Transonic LIT 2' Transonic

1
16.5
32 0.4 0.2
II

- 1.4 - 1.4

6.7
12

3.35 m

Sq.

23.5

0.61 rn Sq. 15.24 crn Dia. 2.74 x 2.13 rn2 2.44 x 2.13 rn2
.. ..

1951
Pilot Model

Injector-Driw I n II Transonic W l 9' x 7' Super II T sonic W 8 ' x 7' Super I1 sonic W T

0 - 1.0, 1.2. 1.4

16.7
7

167

1.55
2.45

2.5

(M = 2.0)

71.7

1956

3.5

(M = 2.5)

- . 17 .
.

, . . .

Con t .

1956

APPENDIX

IV: FACILITIES

RESPONDING

TO OUESTIONNAIRE

TABLE I Organitat ion & Locat ion

Faci 1 i t y

61 x

61

sonic W T
CWT

Super-NASA Ames f eF t e l d , ti
II

RC MofCa.

1 ' x 3 ' SuperSupersonic Tunnel No. 1 Supersonic Tunnel No. 2 Boundary Layer 1 NSWC Hypersonic Tunnel

Uaval Surf.Weapon Zntr.,Silver Spg.

II

II

II

Aero.Res.lnst. Tunnel FFA-Sb (FFA)Stockholrn,Sb Transon ic TunII n e l FFA-HT I I

T isonic Tonne; r =FA-TVM 500

Tunnel FFA-S5

II

II

6-Ft T T W

II

x 4-Ft*

'*
TWT

Royal Airc.Est. Bedford.Enqland

DFVLR Gottingen,W.Ger.

APPENDIX IV:

FACILITIS RESPONDING TO OUESTIONNAIRE TABLE I Production Testing Began :ross-Section

0 . 6 rn Sq.

I
I

1966

0.5 rn Sq.(M>I
0.6x0.34 rn2

0.25-0.50 m
0.81 m D l a . 1970

APPENO I X I V
TABLE I I :

(Cont Id)

TEST SECTION CHARACTERISTICS Venting of Plenum Chamber EJector Flaps -Ejector Flaps

Facllf t y NAL (India)

Cross-Section 1.22 m Sq.

Perforated
Slotted
~ ~~

GAC (NY)
ETH (Swi t z ) NLR (HST .Hal land) NLR (CSST) NLR (PT) NLR (SST)

0.66 m Octagon
0.4 m Sq.

I
I

90 SW 1.27 cm, 300 Top & Bot.

Porosltv 20% sw
6%TsB 12% & 6%

WallAnqle

lo o -2O t

0 oso .

Sol i d

1.6 x2

2 m

0.27 x.27

Slotted (T & B) Solid Slotted

5 cm,cm 40

12% T E B

0.13'

Fixed Ejector Slots

I
I

2 0.55 x 0.42 m
2 1.2 x 1.2 m 0.38x0.33 2 m

,
0.525 cm, 5.25 c m

(T & B)

'

l O % T &B

0.22O

Flxed Ejector Slots

U . S . Army (SSTl)
W A B (TGF) PF

Sol i d
~

0.38 x 0.38 mL
20.3 x 20.3 cm2 0.305 x 0.305 m2 2.44 x Solid Perforated

12%

O0

'EJectorFlaps

t-

W A B (M3HR) PF Sand i a (TWT)

I I

I
[

0.318 cm, 30'

6%

lo

EJectorFlaps Aux i 1 i a r y Pumps

1.83 m2

3.05 x 3.05 m2

-"-Perforated 2.54 cm, 30' Sol i d

'

6%

O0

ARU (SWT)

0.45x0.'45

I
~

Perforated

0'.'6O T E B

l A u x i l i a r y Pumps

APPENDIX IV

(Cont'd)

TABLE I I :

TEST SECTION CHARACTERISTICS Venting o f Plenum Chamber E j e c t o rF l a p s

Fac i

Wall Anqle 1.22 x 1.22 m 0.76 x 0.41 m Perforated Slotted

BAC (HSWT)

1.6 cm, 90'

0.58 cm,

19%

O0
lo

lJAE (Su

WT)

4.7 cm

-.' 05
NAE (2DT)
9RA (TWT)
4 f M (SWT)
0.38
X

to-.25'

E j e c t o r F 1 aps Vent Inq to Atm.

1-52 m

Perforated (T B)

1.27 cm,

90'
' 0 9

20.5% T E B 22.5%

O0
O0

2.44 x 2.74 m2 0.305 x 0.406 m2

1.27 P e r f o r a t e d cm, Solid

9ux i 1 i a r y Pumps

20.3 x 22.9 cm2

Perforated

0.185 cm, 90'

22%

O0

E j e c t o rF l a p s E j e c t o r F 1 aps

O0

0.5'

Volvo (WTl) Volvo (Wr9)

Boeing (SWT) Boe 1 ng (2D-TWT)

2 0.5 x 0.5 m

1 0.5 1

x 0.5 m2

1.22 x 1.22 m2
X

I 1

Slotted (T G B)

?
I
I

4%T&B

0.21O

E l e c t o rF l a p s

Sol i d

Sol i d
Perforated (T & B)

1.03 cm, 90

0.305

2 0.91 m

34.1% T&B

O0

E j e c t o rF l a p s

APPENDIX IV

(Cont'd)

TABLE I I :

TEST SECTION CHARACTERISTICS Venting o f Plenum Chamber Ejector Flaps A u x i l i a r y Pumps Ejector Flaps Ejector Flaps

Faci 1 it y

Cross-Section

2.44
(TWT)
Lockheed (TWT) Hawker

x 3*66

p;fleTscorner 1.221.22 x
m2

HoleSize/Angle o r Wall Type Slot Width/Soaciu PorQsjtv Slotted 7.45 cm,70.41 cm 11% 3.5% tJith insertsTdB 47.31 cm SW

cm* 'O0 Perforated S l o t t e d T&B 2.54 cm, 10.80 cm Perf. InsertsO.10 cm, goo

'*''

WallAnqle

O0
'-0.75'

22%

3% 4.4%

-0.17' 0.067' SW 0.167OT~B

6.35 cm, 148.6 cm

L C (UPWT) R LRC (16' TT) L C ( 8 ' TPT) R LRC(1/3m TCT) LRC (HST) LRC (4' SPT) L C (6" TWT) R 1.22 x 1.22 m 4.72 m Octagon Sol i d

Slotted Slotted Slotted Slotted Solid Slotted Slotted Holes

.62 cm, 1.95 rn

3.9%
3-6% T&E
0-125;

' 0
no

0.75'
SW

Auxi I i a r y Pumps

2.16 x 2.16 mz 0.34 m Octagon

3.18 cm, 43.20 cm

to 1.727 cm 14 cm
4.60 cm, 73.03 c m Tapered fromzero

o-,,h~TFR F i x e d E j e c t o r S l o t s Ejector Flaps or 003 .8' Vent Ins t o Atm.

0,083'

2.0 x 2 . 9 2 m

4.8%
TF.R

O0

A u x i l i a r y Pumps & Ejector Flaps

I . 37 x 1.37 m
15.2 x 72.4 cm2

3.476 cm, 3.81 cm

3.318 x 2.54 cm, 1.91 cm

12.5%
TL R

O0

F i x e dS l o t s t o +lo E j e c t o r F l a p s
'

NC ( 2 l TWT)
PA(HSSWT)

0.61 m Sq.
10.61 m Dia. 0.42 x 0.41 m

10%

-/' 23
IO0 10'

Solid Perforated

I
0.48 cm, 30'

I
0.25

I
Va 1ve Cont r o 1 s Diffuser Pumping

PA

(''I'

Tbn)

8%

NA

h ,

4
0

APPENDIX I V
TABLE I I :

(Cont I d )

TEST SECTION CHARACTERISTICS

Venting of Plenum C harnber E j e c t o rF l a p s

Faci 1 i t y

Cross-Section 0.71 x 0.51 m

Wall Type Perforated 0.635 cm, 30' 0- 10%

Mal 1 Anqle 0.25'

L-G (CFF)
UM (4" x 5"

T&B

1
10.2 x 12.7 c m

Sol i d

Perforated

0.635 cm, 90

23 25

oo

to

+.3O

EjectorFlaps

MD (PSWT)

1.22 m Sq.
I

Perforated Sol i d

0.953 cm, 90'

-0.75'

to

Oo

Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps

0.305 o l

AEDC (Tunnel AEDC ( P i l o t

H I RT)

m Sq.
2

Sol i d
Perforated Perforated Sol i d 2 Sol i d Perforated Perforated Perforated 0.635 cm, 90 1.27 cm, 90 .305 cm, 3 0 '

18.6 x 23.2 cm
0.8 x 0.6 rn
Sq.

0- 10%

O0

Techn i o n (TIWT) Techn ion Techn ion

.635 cm, YOo

21% TbB

+0.5'

E j e c t o r F l a p s and/ o r Exhaust t o A t m . E j e cFoa p s t lr

0.3 n m

&haAm"
RI ( T U )

0.4 x 0.5 m
2.13 m Sq.

19.7%
22.7%

O0

E j e c t o r F I.aps A u x i l i a r y Pumps E V e n t i n g t o Atm.

O0 to 0*670

JPL (SWT)

0.51 x 0.46 m

Sol i d

APPENDIX IV TABLE I t :

(Cont'd)

TEST SECTION CHARACTERISTICS Venting of Plenum Chamber Ejector Flaps Ejector Flaps
&

Facl 1 i t y
VC

Cross-Section 1.22 m S q . 3.305 m , Sq. 1.22 m Sq.

HoleSize/Angle 0 1 Wall Type S l o t Width/SDacint Perforated Perforated 1.04 cm, 0.318 cm, 30' 1.27 30' cm, 1.905 cm, 30'

Porositv
22.5%

WallAnqle

(HSWT)

90'

8.3 03:
Q-h'

T&B

cw
t o 0.5'

AEDC (AWT- 1T)

6% and
0 -10% 0

-.7 06'
T&B

AEDC (Am-4T)

Perforated Perforated Sol i d

AEDC (PWT- 16T) 4.88 m Sq. AEDC (PWT-16s) 4.88 rn S q .

I I

TEB Steam Eiector SYS.

1 t o 0.55'

10%

EjectorFlaps & Aux I l l a r y Pumps

6%

-1'

Ejector Flaps E t o O.jOT&B Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps

NASA Marshall (14'' TWT) ARC (12' PWT)

ARC (14' TWT)

0.356 m Sq.

03.4% Sol i d 2 w i t hi n s e r t

Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps

3.44 m

Sq.

4.11 x 4.18 m

'lottedb l . 7 4 cm, 26.4 cm

5.6%

).18O

T&B

EjectorFlaps Ejector Flaps & A u x i l i a r y Pumps Ejector Flaps

ARC ( 1 I ' TWT)

3.35 m Sq.
0.61 m S q .
0.152 m Dia.
Sol i d

5.8%
22% w i t h Throttle -Bars

1.19O

sw

ARC (2' TWT)

ARC ( I -D TWT)
4 C (7 'x7 ' S W ) R

- bo

t o 0.35'

2.74 x 2.13 m2
m
2 Sol i d

ARC(8Ix7' SWT) 2.44 x 2.13

v,

ARC (6'x6' SWT 1.83 m Sq.

'lotted T&B11.03 cm,cm 28 with insert

5.1%

O0

Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps

4
N

APPEND I X I V

(Cont I d )
ION CHARACTERISTICs

TABLE I I :

TEST SECT

Venting o f Plenum Faci 1 1 t y Cross-Section

I NSWC

(ST # I )

I 0.4

NSWC(ST #2)

m Sq.

0.4 m Sq.

TransonicJozzle Solid

used i n ST.I#l

isavail 0.86'

NSWC (HyT)

0.41 x 0.41 m 0.92 x 0.90 m

Sol i d Slotted Slotted Perforated Slotted

1 I
I 2.5
cm, 30 cm

FFA-Sb FFA-HT FFA-TVM 500

6% TES
9.2%

0.15'

F lja p so r E ect
'

0.89 x 0.89 mL Octaaona 1

d

3.4 cm, 37 cm
0.5 cm, 30'
0.21 cm, 5.3 cm

O0

E j e c t o rF l a p s Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps Ejector

0.5 m Sq.
0.46 x 0.48 m2

6%
4% T&B

-6'

t o 00 0.15'

FFA-SS

Flaps

RAE(8Ix6' TWT) 2.44 x 1.83 m2 RAE(3Ix4' SWr)l 0.91 x 1.22 m2

1

-0.2'

t o 0.45'

Sol i d
Slotted

0.99 cm, 8.9 cm

9.75%

-0.4' 0 '

t o 0.9

0 ' Perforatedl 1 cm, 3

DFVLR (TT
W 1 )

6%

t o 0.5'

v
A u x i l i a r y Pumps Ejector

Flaps

Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps
Exhausted t o

0.6

m Sq.

- P e r f o r a t e d 0.6

cm, 3 0 '

6%

APPENDIX IV

(Cont'd) ISTICS Venting o f Plenum Chamber Exhausted t o Atm.

TABLE I I : TEST SECTION CHARACTER HoleSite/Angle Wail Type Slot Width/-

Cross-section 0.5 m sq. (M > 1 ) DFVLR (T-s WT) 0.6 x 0.34 rn2 DFVLR (HGK)

Facll I t y

or
Porosftv

Wall Anqlc
00' .5
t o 0.1'

Slotted
so, id

0.8 cm, 6.8 cm

10%

0.25 0.50 m x 0.30 .m

0.81 m D i a .

NASA Marshal 1 (HRNTT)

Perf.

1.27 cm, 3 0 '

Varies 1-1 0: : along a x i s

00

Ejector Flaps

1. Rmort N . o

2. Gobwnmmr Accr*on

No.

3. Rripient's cltabg N . o
5. Rem13 Date

NASA CR-2920
4. Title rd Subtitle

"Calibration of Transonic and Supersonic Wind

Tunnels"

November 197 7
6. F'erformingOrgmnization Coda

T.D. Reed, T.C. Pope and J.M. Cooksey

9. M a m i n QOrp.nilrtion Narm ud

A& d-

. 10. Work Unit

"11.

N. o

Vought Corporation Dallas, Texas

12. Spotnoring A p n c v

Contract or Grant

No.

NAS 2-8606
13. Type of Repon and Period Covered
Address

Nlnu md

Contractor Report
14. Smmroring Agmcy code
I

National Aeronautics E Space Administration Washington, D.C. 20546

1
15. Supplemntarv Notes

16. Abstraa

State-of-the art instrumentation and procedures for calibrating transonic (0.6 C M < 1.4) and supersonic (M 5 3.5) wind tunnels are reviewed and evaluated. Major emphasis is given to transonic tunnels. Background information was obtained via a literature search, personal contacts and a questionnaire which was sent to 106 domestic and foreign facilities. Completed questionnaires were received for 88 tunnels dnd included government, industry and university-owned facilities. Continuous, blowdown and intermittent tunnels are considered. The required measurements of pressure, temperature, flow angularity, noise and humidity are discussed, and the effects of measurement uncertainties are summarized. Included is a comprehensive review of instrumentation currently used to calibrate empty-tunnel flow conditions. The recent results of relevant research are noted and reconmendations for achieving improved data accuracy are made where appropriate. lt is concluded, for general testing purposes, that satisfactory calibration measurements can be achieved in both transonic and supersonic tunnels. The goal of calibrating transonic tunnels to within 0.001 in centerline Mach number appears to be feasible with existing instrumentation. provided correct calibration procedures are carefully followed. A comparable accuracy can be achieved off-centerline with carefully designed, conventional probes, except near Mach 1. In the range 0.95 M < 1.05, the laser Doppler velocimeter appears to offer the most promise for improved calibration accuracy off-centerline. With regard to procedures. tunnel operators are cautioned to: (1) verify by measurements that expansions from a settling chamber to a test section are indeed isentropic, and (2) obtain calibrations over the entire range of reynolds number and humidity levels. Also, it is suggested that calibration data should include off-centerline measurements of Mach number and flow angularity. Finally, three problem areas for transonic tunnels are identified and discussed, viz. (1) the lack of standard criteria for flow uniformity and unsteadiness, (2) the undesirable noise generated by ventilated walls, and (3) wall interference.

Wind tunnels, Calibration, Testing

I
19. Scurity Clrit. (of this v t t

I
UNCLASSIFIED

UNCLASSIFIED-UNLIMITED STAR Category 09

21. NO. of p.pa

20. S M i w a a i f . (of chis p e t

UNCLASSIFIED

22. Rice'

287

$9.25

'For ule bv thc N n i w l Tuhniul InfarmtionSmvii. Spriqtidd, Virginia 22161

*U.S.

GOVEKtB.!ENT

PRINTIKG OFFICE: 1977

- 735-078143