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Reconfigurable SDR Equipment and Supporting Networks Reference Models and Architectures
Authors Information (alphabetically) Editor: Didier Bourse Nancy Alonistioti, University of Athens, nancy@di.uoa.gr , tel.: +30 10 727 5653 Didier Bourse, Motorola CRM-Paris, Didier.Bourse@motorola.com, tel: +33.1.6935.2558 Soodesh Buljore, Motorola CRM-Paris, Soodesh.Buljore@motorola.com, tel: +33.1.6935.2566 Antoine Delautre, Thales Communications, antoine.delautre@fr.thalesgroup.com , tel: +33.1.46.13.27.40 Markus Dillinger, Siemens AG, Markus.Dillinger@icn.siemens.de, tel.: +49 89 636 44826 Rainer Falk, Siemens AG, Rainer.Falk@siemens.com, +49 89 636 51653 Dieter Greifendorf, IMS Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, dieter.greifendorf@ims.fhg.de, tel: +49 203 3783 152 Mirsad Halimic, Panasonic PMDO, Mirsad.Halimic@panasonic-pmdc.co.uk, tel:+44 (0)118 902 9322 Tim Hentschel, Technische Universitt Dresden, hentsch@ifn.et.tu-dresden.de, tel: +49 351 463 32365 Quiting Huang, ETH ISL, huang@iis.ee.ethz.ch, tel: +411 632 5240 Apostolos Kountouris, Mitsubishi Electric ITE-TCL, kountouris@tcl.ite.mee.com, tel: +33 299842632 John MacLeod, University of Bristol, john.macleod@bristol.ac.uk, tel: +44 (0)117 9545189 Ashok Marath, ICR, makumar@cwc.nus.edu.sg, tel: +65 68709138 Linus Maurer, DICE, linus.maurer@ieee.org, tel: +43 699 12182643 Stefano Micocci, Siemens MC, Stefano.micocci@icn.siemens.it, tel +39 02 27337116 Klaus Moessner, CCSR, The University of Surrey, k.moessner@eim.surrey.ac.uk, tel: +44 (0)1483 683468 Nikolas Olaziregi, CTR, Kings College London, Nikolas.Olaziregi@kcl.ac.uk, tel: +44 (0)20 7848 2889 Parbhu D. Patel, Panasonic PMDO, Parbhu.Patel@panasonic-pmdc.co.uk, tel:+44 (0)118 902 9323 Santhosh Kumar Pilakkat, pilakkat@icr.a-star.edu.sg Christian Prehofer, DoCoMo Communications Labs Europe, prehofer@docomolab-euro.com, +49 89 56824223 Tapio Rautio, VTT, tapio.rautio@vtt.fi, tel: +358 8 551 2326 Joachim Sachs, Ericsson, Joachim.Sachs@eed.ericsson.se, tel: +49 2407 575 113 Andreas Schieder, Ericsson, Andreas.Schieder@eed.ericsson.se, tel: +49 2407 575 237 Wolfgang Schott, IBM, sct@zurich.ibm.com, tel: +41 1 724 8476 Matthias Siebert,Comnets, mst@comnets.rwth-aachen.de Joerg Stammen, IMS Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, joerg.stamen@ims.fhg.de, tel: +49 203 3783 152 Shiao-Li Tsao, CCL/ITRI, sltsao@itri.org.tw, tel: +886 3 591 4651 Paul Warr, University of Bristol, Paul.A.Warr@bristol.ac.uk, tel: +44 (0)117 9545166 Thomas Wiebke, Panasonic European Laboratories, wiebke@panasonic.de, tel: +49 6103 766 161 Manfred Zimmermann, Infineon, Manfred.Zimmermann@infineon.com, tel: +49 89 234 81636 Abstract Reconfigurability of SDR equipment is widely seen as one of the enabling technologies for the communication systems beyond 3G. This White Paper aims to outline the issues and technological problems of reconfigurable systems and endeavours the definition of a Reference Model for Reconfigurable SDR Equipment and Supporting Networks. To put things into perspective a roadmap in a 2010 timeframe, in accordance to the WWRF vision, is used. A reference model identifying all facets of reconfigurability must include the whole range of different access schemes available. It stretches through the heterogeneous environment of satellite, haps, broadcast, cellular and low range communication networks (WLAN, Bluetooth) and has to provide the means for interconnection of this variety of systems. The multitude of different radio transmission and access technologies has to be included in the reference model, and means for (re)configuration management in the network elements and end equipments have to be installed to control the configurations of nodes between the communication end points. The reference model targeted will encompass System and Network (including core and access network/base stations), the hardware issues in both RF & BB side and the data & control/management interfaces between the various building blocks of the reconfigurable environment. Specific technical appendixes complement the core of this White Paper. All research thematics identified in this document ate summarized within the second White Paper Reconfigurable SDR Equipment and Supporting Networks SDR Research Thematics. 2002, WWRF 1
Executive Summary
This White Paper Reconfigurable SDR Equipment and Supporting Networks Reference Models and Architectures has been produced within the WWRF WG3 SDR Group [1] [2]. It aims at defining the WWRF SDR Reference Models, analysing the overall problematic of the SDR Architectures and identifying the main SDR research thematics to be investigated in the next decade. The document follows a top-down approach and the reference model targeted encompasses system and network (including core and access network/base stations), the hardware issues in both RF and BB sides and the data and control/management interfaces between the various building blocks of the reconfigurable environment. This documents outlines the issues and technological problems of reconfigurable systems and endeavours the definition of a Reference Model for Reconfigurable SDR Equipment and Supporting Networks. The SDR reference model includes the whole range of different access schemes available, stretches through the heterogeneous Beyond 3G environment and provides the means for interconnection of the associated variety of systems. The multitude of different radio transmission and access technologies is included in the reference model, and means for (re)configuration management in the network elements and end equipments have to be installed to control the configurations of nodes between the communication end points. Following introduction of the multi-dimensional aspects of SDR and the needs and constraints for terminal and network reconfigurability in chapter 1, the SDR system and supporting networks reference models and architectures are presented and analysed in details within chapter 2. A High-level Reconfiguration System Model is proposed in this chapter and existing SDR system architectures are reviewed as potential candidates for future research on reconfigurable SDR equipment and supporting networks. Network and terminal reconfigurability and adaptability are deeply covered, security being also addressed at the end of the chapter as key area for SDR. To support the development of software defined and re-configurable radio and networks, the research on SDR System and Software Architectures will have to address the following main areas: system, network and protocol architectures supporting re-configurable equipment, network-centric re-configuration support and finally terminal-centric re-configuration support. All identified research thematics are summarized as conclusion of the chapter. The different SDR RF architectures choices are investigated in chapter 3. This chapter reviews issues that have arisen out of architectural considerations. Current state of the art solutions to these issues is examined. Necessary research to extend the usefulness of these solutions to a practical SDR design is identified. Chapter 3 discusses possible research topics, which, it is hoped, will aid the evolution of SDR hardware design. MEMS technology is specifically examined, as it provides the possibility of innovative breakthroughs that established technologies are incapable of providing. These research thematics include: agile linear frequency translation, flexible linearity profile (FLP) amplifiers, diplexerless frequency-agile radio front-end, interference cancellation or filtering, adaptive preselect filters, frequency agile zero IF receiver, novel up-conversion techniques, digital IF processing and finally data converters. Chapter 3 also proposes a RF road-map to make the SDR transceiver become a reality.
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Chapter 4 focuses on the SDR Baseband Architectures and critical components. Primary goal of the research in the field of SDR-BB concept is a generic hardware architecture which is able to cover as many current and upcoming wireless standards as possible. Baseband processing of the future multi-standard terminal or basestation will set very demanding requirements in computational performance and flexibility. It is very probable, that the future baseband processing architectures will consist of different kind of processing, storage and interconnection resources. Different kind of reconfigurable technologies will be used as processing elements. The reconfigurable technologies include configurable processing cores, FPGA-based approaches, embedded FPGA-based approaches and approaches based on arrays of processing elements. Still the special purpose hardware blocks will be needed also for the most demanding algorithms due to their superior silicon area and energy efficiency. Research is needed to define what is an optimum hardware architecture for a given wireless standard set. A crucial issue of the resulting architecture is the resulting implementation complexity, i.e. power consumption, chip area of single modules and the overall resulting architecture. This may also include research on efficient HW-Structures of re-configurable logic modules. Design flow for implementation of SWmodules for constituent standards on the hardware architecture has also to be considered. Chapter 4 ends with the summary of identified critical components, future directions and research goals. Chapter 5 investigates SDR equipment interfaces, protocol issues and genericity of the link layer. A powerful processing platform and a structured software architecture capable to implement the system requirements of the various RATs are core basis for the development of future reconfigurable SDR equipment. An architectural framework is developed which considers the inclusion of open programming interfaces for both the application layer but also for the lower system levels (i.e. an open programming interface for RAT implementation software). To develop this complete framework of interfaces between the building blocks of a reconfigurable equipment (terminal/base station, etc.) a number of research need to be solved, including clear separation of tasks between the different reconfigurable modules, generalisation and specification of individual generic interfaces between RF and BB as well as between BB and the GP modules, identification of all reconfiguration control/management related functions, definition of a generic control/management interface between the individual radio modules and the reconfiguration manager. The research topics associated to the definition of generic and adaptable protocols and protocol stacks have also been identified. The SRA configurability is addressed at the end of the chapter 5. A specific research challenges section concludes this chapter. Finally, chapter 6 attempts to define some plausible roadmaps for the deployment of reconfiguration applications. These roadmaps treat basic scenarios frequently mentioned in the literature: reconfiguration for remote equipment upgrades and reconfiguration for enhancing network management. Specific technical Appendixes complement the overall White Paper: Appendixes 1 to 5 (section 9.1 to 9.5) provide additional information to Chapter 2 on coupling methods, profile location, mobility management, mass up-grade and signalling. Appendix 6 (section 9.6) complements chapter 3 on amplifier linearisation schemes.
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Table of Content
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 14 1.1 The Need for Network and Terminal Reconfigurability and Adaptability.................................. 14 1.2 Reconfigurability, Adaptability and Flexible Service Provision................................................. 16 1.3 Open APIs for Reconfigurability Support ................................................................................... 18 1.4 Reconfigurability in IP Networks................................................................................................ 19 1.5 A Reconfigurable RF Architecture.............................................................................................. 21 1.6 A Reconfigurable Base-Band Architecture ................................................................................. 22 1.7 Data and Control Interfaces......................................................................................................... 23 1.8 Reconfigurability Applications ................................................................................................... 25 2 SDR System and Supporting Networks Reference Models and Architectures ................................... 26 2.1 Reconfigurability in Future Mobile Communication Systems.................................................... 26 2.1.1 An Abstract Model for Open Platforms and Reconfigurability........................................... 26 2.1.2 Adaptable Network Element Model.................................................................................... 27 2.1.3 Terminal Reconfiguration Control ...................................................................................... 28 2.1.4 Network Adaptability / Active Services.............................................................................. 29 2.2 Software Defined Radio Architecture Model.............................................................................. 29 2.3 High-level Reconfiguration System Model................................................................................. 30 2.4 Heterogeneous Network Architectures and SDR Network Functions ........................................ 33 2.4.1 Management and Location of Profile Data for Mode Switching ........................................ 34 2.5 SDR System Architectures .......................................................................................................... 35 2.5.1 Proxy Reconfiguration Manager ......................................................................................... 40 2.5.1.1 Proxies in IP-based Networks ......................................................................................... 41 2.5.1.2 Function Split in Control and User Plane for PRM......................................................... 43 2.5.1.3 Inter-PRM-Interface ........................................................................................................ 44 2.5.1.4 Mass Upgrade.................................................................................................................. 44 2.5.2 SRM and HRM Role and Location ..................................................................................... 45 2.5.3 Reconfigurable Modules and Protocol Stacks..................................................................... 46 2.6 Reconfiguration Security............................................................................................................. 50 2.6.1 Secure Software Download and Execution ......................................................................... 52 2.6.2 Reconfiguration Control...................................................................................................... 53 2.7 SDR System and Network Research Challenges ........................................................................ 54 3 SDR RF/IF Reference Models and Architectures ............................................................................... 57 3.1 Receiver Architectures ................................................................................................................ 57 3.1.1 Homodyne Receiver Architecture ....................................................................................... 58 3.1.2 Heterodyne Receiver ........................................................................................................... 60 3.1.3 Digital IF Receiver Architectures........................................................................................ 62 3.1.4 Low IF Architecture ............................................................................................................ 63 3.1.5 Six-Port Technology for Terminal Receivers...................................................................... 64 3.2 Transmitter Architectures............................................................................................................ 64 3.2.1 Direct Conversion Architecture........................................................................................... 64 3.2.2 Heterodyne Architecture ..................................................................................................... 65 3.3 The Analog/Digital Interface....................................................................................................... 66 3.4 Critical Components.................................................................................................................... 67 3.4.1 Filter Functions within a Conventional Receiver ................................................................ 67 3.4.2 Device Linearity .................................................................................................................. 67
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List of Figures Figure 1: The need for Reconfigurability and Adaptability in Service Provision for 3G and Beyond ...................................................................................................................................15 Figure 2: Service Provision Dependent Reconfiguration Management.........................................16 Figure 3: Generic Architecture for Flexible Service Provision and Reconfigurability Management. ..........................................................................................................................18 Figure 4: Convergence in Telecommunications.............................................................................19 Figure 5: Multi-Dimensional Aspects of Software Defined Radio................................................20 Figure 6: Interface Architecture for Reconfigurable Systems and Supporting Network Elements ................................................................................................................................................24 Figure 7: Open Platform with its Base and Components ...............................................................26 Figure 8: Abstract Model or Reconfigurable Network Element ....................................................27 Figure 9: High-level Reconfiguration System Model ....................................................................31 Figure 10: Tight /Loose Coupling between WLAN and UMTS....................................................34 Figure 11: Network-Centric Architecture ......................................................................................35 Figure 12: Functional Architecture for SDR Equipment ...............................................................36 Figure 13: Example of Entities and Interfaces of a Terminal Reconfiguration Serving Area (TRSA) with different Radio Access Technologies...............................................................38 Figure 14: IP-based Network and Proxies Supporting Reconfigurable Terminals ........................42 Figure 15: PRM Function Split ......................................................................................................43 Figure 16 Example of Proxy Control Functions in the Core Network (left) and in the RAN (right) ................................................................................................................................................44 Figure 17: Military SDR Platform Architecture (SDR Forum) .....................................................46 Figure 18: Decorrelation of SW and HW in SDR Context ............................................................46 Figure 19: Open Platforms Architecture Comparison (SDR Forum) ............................................47 Figure 20 : SRA Architecture Layers.............................................................................................48 Figure 21: Non-CORBA based SDR SW/HW Integration ............................................................49 Figure 22: Reconfigurable SDR Terminal Architectures and Interfaces .......................................49 Figure 23: Reconfiguration Security System Model......................................................................51 Figure 24: Re-configuration Support in Re-configurable Access Networks and Terminals ........56 Figure 25: Ideal SDR based Receiver ............................................................................................57 Figure 26: Direct Conversion Receiver Architecture.....................................................................59 Figure 27: Heterodyne Receiver Structure with two Hardware Conversions...............................60 Figure 28: Relation between Filter Bandwidths and IF in Heterodyne Receivers.........................61 Figure 29: Superheterodyne Architecture with Digital Second Downconversion.........................62 Figure 30: Direct Conversion Transmitter Architecture ................................................................65 Figure 31: Heterodyne Architecture...............................................................................................66 Figure 32: Possible Block Diagram of an Active Shadow Chain Transceiver ..............................76 Figure 33: Structure of a MEMS switch ........................................................................................79 Figure 34: Generic Software Architecture of Reconfigurable Baseband.......................................86 Figure 35: Generic Hardware Architecture of Reconfigurable Baseband .....................................87 Figure 36: Baseband Receiver Module ..........................................................................................92 Figure 37: Baseband Transmitter Module......................................................................................97 Figure 38: Baseband Transmitter and Receive Chain of Bluetooth.............................................101
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Figure 39: Modem Architecture...................................................................................................105 Figure 40 SDR Architecture Data and Control Interfaces ........................................................110 Figure 41: 4G System Abstraction Layer Groups........................................................................112 Figure 42: Middleware Platform and Applications......................................................................114 Figure 43: Network Side Networking Platform ...........................................................................115 Figure 44: Mobile Terminal Architecture ....................................................................................116 Figure 45: SDR Hierarchical Architecture...................................................................................117 Figure 46: Interaction of Components for an SDR Protocol Stack..............................................119 Figure 47: Multiple Link Layer Scenario compared to Generic Link Layer Scenario (GLL generic link layer, LL link layer, L1 layer 1, RAN radio access network, CN core network) ...............................................................................................................................121 Figure 48: Generic Link Layer Functions and Interfaces ............................................................122 Figure 49 : Waveform Component Model ...................................................................................123 Figure 50: SRA Core Framework Model.....................................................................................124 Figure 51: Deployment Roadmaps for Incremental Introduction of Reconfigurability Applications ..............................................................................................................................................127 Figure 52: Open coupling Scenario between WLAN and UMTS ...............................................138 Figure 53: Loose Coupling Scenario between WLAN and UMTS .............................................139 Figure 54: Tight Coupling Scenario between WLAN and UMTS...............................................140 Figure 55, Tighter Coupling Scenario between WLAN and UMTS............................................140 Figure 56: Interworking of different RATs, Hybrid Coupling ...................................................141 Figure 57: Example of a Mass Reconfiguration Process Initiated by an External Server with the Use of IP Multicast...............................................................................................................145 Figure 58: Signalling between the Terminal, the current PRM (PRM 1) and the new PRM (PRM 2) in the Mode Switching Case ............................................................................................147 Figure 59: Signalling between Reconfiguration Network Entities during Application Update Process..................................................................................................................................148 Figure 60: Signalling in Case of a Mass Upgrade, Initiated by a Manufacturers Server.............150 Figure 61: Signalling between Terminal, current and new PRM and Server in order to enhance Software Download Process.................................................................................................151 Figure 62: Cartesian Feedback Used to Linearise a PA...............................................................153 Figure 63: Feedforward Distortion Cancellation .........................................................................154 Figure 64: Linearisation using Predistortion................................................................................155 Figure 65: Envelope Elimination and Restoration .......................................................................156 Figure 66: LINC Linear Transmitter Architecture .......................................................................157 Figure 67: CALLUM Linear Transmitter Architecture ...............................................................158 Figure 68 The Block Diagram of the Proposed Technique Applied as a Receiver .....................159 Figure 69: Modified Hairpin Filter Structure...............................................................................161
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List of Tables Table 1: Typical MEMS switch Specification ...............................................................................79 Table 2: Comparison of Technologies Required to Realise a SDR Receiver using Various Architectures ..........................................................................................................................81 Table 3: Estimated Time Frame to Develop Technologies Required for a fully Functioning SDR Receiver..................................................................................................................................83 Table 4: Parameter Table for Receiver Module .............................................................................93 Table 5: Parameter Table for Transmitter Module.........................................................................98 Table 6: DAB Characteristics ......................................................................................................103
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Abbreviations List AAA ACL ACL ADC AEP AP API AS ATM BB BIOS BMM BS BS BT_AP BTS CALLUM CAST CDMA CF CM CMM CN CODEC COM CORBA CPU CSW DAB DAC DL DNS DVB DSP EIR ETSI EVM FDD FEC FLP FPGA FTP GGSN
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Authentication, Authorisation and Accounting Access Control List Asynchronous ConnectionLess Analog to Digital Conversion Application Environment Profile Access Point. Application Programming Interface Access Stratum Asynchronous Transfer Mode Baseband Basic Input Output System Bandwidth Management Module Base Station Bearer Services Bluetooth Access Point Base Transceiver Station Combined Analogue Locked Loop Universal Modulator Configurable radio with Advanced SW Technology Code Division Multiple Access Core Framework Configuration Management Configuration Management Module Core Network CODer/DECoder Component Object Model Common Object Request Broker Architecture Cental Processing Unit Computer Software Components Digital Audio Broadcast Digital to Analog Conversion Downlink Domain Name Service Digital Video Broadcast Digital Signal Processor Equipment Identity Register European Telecommunications Standards Institute Error Vector Magnitude Frequency Division Duplex Forward Error Correction Flexible Linearity Profile Field Programmable Gate Array File Transfer Protocol Gateway GPRS Support Node
10
GIOP GLL GP GPP GPRS GSM HiperLAN/2 HLR HO HRM HTTP HW IDL IETF IF IGMP IIOP IMD IMEI IMSI IMT-2000 IP ISA ISDN ISV LAN LINC LLC LNA LO LR MAC MDA ME MExE MEMS MIB MIMM MIP MIPS MMS MN MNSM MOBIVAS MS
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General Inter-ORB Protocol Generic Link Layer Generic Protocol General Purpose Processor General Packet Radio Service Global System for Mobile Communications High Performance LAN type 2 Home Location Register Handover Home Reconfiguration Manager HyperText Transport (or Transfer) Protocol Hardware Interface Definition Language Internet Engineering Task Force Intermediate Frequency Internet Group Management Protocol Internet Inter-ORB Protocol Intermodulation Distorsion International Mobile Equipment Identity International Mobile Subscriber Identity International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 Internet Protocol Instruction Set Architecture Integrated Services Digital Network Independent Software Vendor Local Area Network Linear Amplification with Non-linear Components Logical Link Control Low Noise Amplifier Local Oscillator Location Register Medium Access Control Model Driven Architecture Mobile Equipment Mobile Execution Environment Micro ElectroMechanical Systems Management Information Base Mode Identification & Monitoring Module Mobile IP Million Instructions Per Second Multimedia Message Service Mobile Node. Mode Negotiation and Switching Module downloadable MOBIle Value Added Services Mobile Station
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MSC MT MVCE NBS NE NO OEM OMG ORB OS OTA PA PAN PBA PHY PIM PLMN PRM PSM QoS RAN RAT RCS RF RM RMA RMM RNC ROM RPC RRC RSMM RSSI RX SAP SAW SCOUT SDL SDM SDP SDR SDRF SDRC SDU SEG
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Mobile Switching Centre Mobile Terminal Mobile Virtual Centre of Excellence Network Bearer Services Network Element Network Operator Original Equipment Manufacturer Object Management Group Object Request Broker Operating System Over the Air Power Amplifier Personal Area Network Parametrizable Basic Architecture Physical Layer Platform Independent Model Public Land Mobile Network Proxy Reconfiguration Manager Platform Specific Model Quality of Service Radio Access Network Radio Access Technology Radio Control Server Radio Frequency Reconfiguration Manager Reconfiguration Management Architecture Reconfiguration Management Module Radio Network Controller Read-Only Memory Remote Procedure Call Radio Resource Control Resource System Management Module Receive Signal Strength Indicator Receive Service Access Point Surface Acoustic Waves Smart user-Centric cOmmUnication environmenT System Description Language Software Download Module Service Discovery Protocol. Software Defined Radio SDR Forum Software Download and Reconfiguration Controller Service Data Unit Security Gateway
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SIM SIR SOAP SPRE SRA SRM S-RNC SW TCP TDD TOI TRUST TRSA TX UE UL UML UMTS UP UPS USIM UTRAN VCO VHE VLR VM WAN WAP W-CDMA W-LAN XML
Subscriber Identity Module Signal to Interference Ratio Simple Object Access Protocol Software Download and Profile Repository Software Radio Architecture Serving Reconfiguration Manager Serving RNC Software Transport Control Protocol Time Division Duplex Third Order Intercept Transparently Reconfigurable UbiquitouS Terrminal Terminal Reconfiguration Serving Area Transmit. User Equipment Uplink Unified Modeling Language Universal Mobile Telecommunication System User Profile User Plane Server UMTS Subscriber Identity Module UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network Voltage Controlled Oscillator Virtual Home Environment Visitor Location Register Virtual Machine Wide Area Network Wireless Application Protocol Wideband Code Division Multiple Access Wireless LAN eXtensible Markup Langage
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1 Introduction
This White Paper Reconfigurable SDR Equipment and Supporting Networks has been produced within the WWRF WG3 SDR Group [1] [2]. It aims at defining the WWRF SDR Reference Models, analysing the overall problematic of the SDR Architectures and identifying the main SDR research thematics to be investigated in the next decade. The document follows a top-down approach and the reference model targeted encompasses system and network (including core and access network/base stations), the hardware issues in both RF and BB sides and the data and control/management interfaces between the various building blocks of the reconfigurable environment. In order to support and complement SDR terminal and network reconfigurability, it is apparent that additional intelligence for network reconfigurability functionality is necessary. To this end, since the reconfigurability aspects in all OSI layers should be adequately addressed, the provision of holistic solutions towards the support of reconfigurable mobile environments, imply the introduction of advanced reconfigurability management and control. Furthermore, terminal and network reconfiguration is closely coupled with optimal service and RRM provision. The multitude of available services, with highly diverse requirements from the network and terminal, creates the need for a dynamic and intelligent way of adapting the network and terminal to enable optimal service provision by using adequate RATs. This adaptation encompasses the abstraction of the complexity related to the terminal capabilities.
1.1 The Need for Network and Terminal Reconfigurability and Adaptability
In 2G networks, services provided to mobile users are either rigidly integrated in network equipment or developed with proprietary tools by mobile operators or equipment manufacturers. However, in 3G and beyond, an open marketplace is expected to emerge, where a huge number of diverse services will be developed by Independent Software Vendors (ISVs) including radio software and application and service software which typically will not be targeted solely to mobile networks. This situation creates the need for more flexible networks that can be adapted dynamically to the requirements of the multitude of services and RATs software that are provided to them. Thus, network and terminal reconfigurability becomes an issue critical to the successful development of the 3G and beyond market according to the expectations of the market players that have invested in this technology as well as the end-users. Requirements and architectures for the support of reconfigurability management on the network side are addressed in. [3] and in [4], [5].
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Service
RAT
Network
Figure 1: The need for Reconfigurability and Adaptability in Service Provision for 3G and Beyond
Network and Terminal reconfiguration to best accommodate a service profile, adequate terminal and user profiles may occur either during service and RAT deployment to a network or during service and RAT activation and execution. Network reconfigurability is thus required in order to: Complement and support terminal reconfiguration, Support protocol and RAT adaptivity, Support flexible service discovery and provision, Support protocol/software download, Support policy provision based on terminal, service, user and network profile, Support to provide self-planning networks. Some examples of the types of reconfiguration actions that would be useful in a mobile network are the following: Quality of Service (QoS) provisioning, Charging and billing, Dynamic software downloading. Although the capability of a network to be dynamically reconfigured could by itself be a very powerful tool for terminal reconfiguration support and service adaptation and delivery, its full potential cannot be realized if such features are not accessible by all involved parties. Employing reconfiguration for a restricted number of operator or equipment vendor provided services limits its impact, while opening up reconfigurability capabilities to service provision platforms and applications could create a dynamic environment where flexible, personalized, revenuegenerating services will be within the reach of the user at any time and within any environment. To this end, we clearly identify the need for network reconfiguration functionality to be part of open, standardized interfaces that provide access to mobile networks.
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Services, RAT
Reconfiguration Manager
Network infrastructure
SP MS UTRAN SP
4G Core Network
IP Network
SP
SP
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Reconfigurability management encompasses the triggering and control of reconfiguration actions in various layers on mobile systems and networks. It incorporates management of protocol and software downloading, as well as policy provision in order to enhance or change mobile terminal and network component characteristics and capabilities ([7], [8], [9], [10]). The main processes for reconfigurability realisation that are directly related to reconfigurability management and control include the identification of reconfiguration context by spatially scoping the technological surrounding of the requesting entity by identifying affected elements in the communication and computing infrastructure, the identification of feasible alternative solutions by capability exchange and negotiation procedures under specific policies (e.g., maximise system features), the decision on solution and respective implementation by taking into account generic (e.g. user) preferences alongside with strictly technical considerations (type-checking). Finally, the physical deployment of the identified solution will follow by reserving necessary resources, then downloading, installing and activating the identified solution. This solution may be protocol stack related components, service related tasks etc. Service and protocol adaptability is an important feature for the implementation of reconfigurable and adaptable environments. Management of adaptability coincides with reconfigurability management. It encompasses protocol, service and system adaptation based on identified information handling related to change of status in various functional elements (resources, mobile environment etc.). Based on the context change and identified policy, specific protocol elements and service tasks may be triggered in order to activate or accomplish the overall desired behaviour. These actions may be supported by wider reconfiguration actions and protocol and software downloading on the network and mobile system. It entails protocol adaptivity in various layers. This can be achieved by the support of new generic approaches in protocol design and implementation. A basic protocol part can be supplemented by downloadable parts that will be able to specialize the protocol functionality and behavior. Protocol downloading is important in order to achieve and manage reconfigurability. It requires mechanisms for the identification of protocol elements to be downloaded, the management of protocol libraries, the versioning and conformance. Finally caching mechanisms of protocol elements for performance purposes should also be investigated. An important aspect related to the reconfigurability and adaptability support and management, is the introduction of intelligent service and RAT management platforms (its generic architecture is depicted in Figure 4) that act as mediators between SPs, end-users and mobile network operators, thus simplifying the extremely complex task of service management and provisioning, as well as reconfiguration actions in various layers in the protocol stack, terminal and network, employing various policies ([11],[12]). The platform functionality would include: A service and RAT provision and reconfigurability management middleware enabling reconfigurability and adaptability actions in various layers in mobile networks, systems and terminals. These actions could include service-level operations like service deployment and modification of service tariffing policies as well as lower layer actions like monitoring of traffic flows,
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Generic, re-usable mechanisms for adapting applications as well as service provision procedures to the current context (identified, among others, by terminal capabilities, network characteristics, user locations and status), A one-stop shop offering mobile users highly personalized, location and context-aware service discovery and access through a unified, customisable interface.
The generic framework introduced, incorporates aspects related to the combination of flexible service provision and best access and terminal connection selection, terminal and network reconfiguration in various layers in order to support better overall service provision and terminal connectivity (taking into consideration the various user/terminal/network and service profiles). Important features are the introduction of open APIs in order to support service registration, discovery and profile provision and additionally to trigger reconfiguration actions towards the network and terminal in various layers.
SP Adaptable services SP Adaptable services SP Adaptable RATs
APIs Service and RAT Provision and Reconfiguration management middleware APIs
RAN
RAT1 RAT2
Figure 3: Generic Architecture for Flexible Service Provision and Reconfigurability Management.
Architectures for the development and deployment of services by Service Providers over 3G networks have been introduced by 3GPP (OSA)[14], OSGi [15], Parlay [16], Jain [17], LIF [18] , UMTS Forum discussions [19] etc. The aforementioned schemes do not provide open APIs for reconfiguration purposes. Reconfiguration APIs should be introduced in order to enhance the OSA/Parlay etc. functionality and enable reconfiguration triggering network-wide, under specific conditions and policies. Reconfiguration actions concern various attributes. For example two types of attributes can initially be identified, namely state and configuration. Configuration attributes describe the desired state of a network device, and include attributes and classes for representing desired or proposed thresholds, bandwidth allocations, and traffic classification criteria. State attributes describe the actual state of a device at a particular operating instance. A generic service provision and reconfigurability management architecture in order to be able to fulfil its role, it is essential to accommodate open APIs for reconfiguration triggering and control. Context awareness features can also be accommodated on a generic service provision and reconfigurability management architecture and enabled through the support of open APIs related to context (e.g., location) aware policy provision, as described in [20], [21].
API
Network & service management
Applications Transport
IP Network
POTS/ISDN
xDSL
Equipment reconfiguration manager and software repository Mobility & radio access server Ad-hoc networks
Legacy PLMN
Reconfigurable equipment
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This future generation of reconfigurable SDR terminals will be capable to operate in several or all of the different access environments, to support the whole range of applications available on the specific devices in the heterogeneous networks, to guarantee efficient use of the existing network resources, to provide to the user adaptive and customisable QoS provision by using the right network for the required service... All these capabilities will be offered to the users in a seamless and transparent way in the form of permanent global access, roaming and service availability. As explained by the SDR Forum [24], the SDR concepts impacts many layers of a wireless network and associated benefits will be realized from the physical layer to the user applications plane.
tw Ne
Network Request for New Service or Capability
ork
to era Op ne P la
SDR provides flexibility in the deployment of new technologies to the network operator.
Software Download
nte me p le Im ne dio Ra P la
rs
All SDR research groups (European IST Reconfigurability Cluster Projects [23], SDR Forum [24], Mobile VCE initiative [25]) stress the fact that re-configuration of mobile SDR terminals will require complex interactions between the terminal and the network entities, including the download of new software modules to be installed on the terminal and the discovery of services. The successful development of this future SDR telecommunications environment will be directly dependant on the early and appropriate definition of the reconfigurable system and network architectures, including the analysis of intelligence split between reconfigurable terminals and network and the definition and design of reconfigurable equipment required on the network side to support reconfigurability.
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One of the objectives of this White Paper is to define a generic hardware architecture for an SDR baseband. Such an architecture has to cover three different aspects: Digital microelectronics is making much more profit from the fast evolution than its analog counterpart. Digital circuits fully benefit from the very fast increasing speed and integration density and also from the fast decreasing power consumption, due to lower supply voltages. By this, more and more complex digital circuits can be implemented on the same chip area. This will result in a continuous shift of digital circuits towards the direction of the antenna. Thus, the evolution of microelectronics forces a generic hardware architecture to be adaptable to the current state of the art of digital circuitry. Due to the aforementioned evolution, also the power of (embedded) processors is increasing permanently. This results in a shift from hardware to software: Functionality, which is realized by hardwired digital circuits today, will be substituted by software running on embedded digital signal processors in the future. A generic hardware architecture must be flexible enough to support this trend. An SDR concept must not be limited to todays wireless standards but has to be open for upcoming standards as well. This is a crucial constraint for a future proof SDR architecture.
Additionally, the anticipated flexibility of such equipment requires an able modularisation of the various system elements [28] and mechanisms to manage complete reconfiguration processes (examples are Mobile VCEs Reconfiguration Management Architecture RMA [25] and TRUSTs Configuration Management Module CMM [4] [23]). Taking all this into account, and at the same time aiming for open programmability to enable a PC-like growth and variety of software provided, requires an interface architecture for both control and data domains.
SGSN, MSC etc. G-AcA, HRM, etc.
backbone core network
air interface
Ant. RF BB Ant. RF BB
Figure 6: Interface Architecture for Reconfigurable Systems and Supporting Network Elements
Figure 6 abstracts the various interfaces between the different elements within a reconfigurable system. On the terminal side, a management unit (RMA, CMM, etc.) controls and steers the reconfiguration process whereby TRUSTs Mode Switching feature [29] may be applied to monitor, using a switched shadow chain, the radio environment and to support seamless HOs. MVCEs reconfiguration management controllers [30] are a solution to enable the intended reconfiguration of single modules within the transceiver chains. Based on a logical systems and software architecture for reconfigurable equipment, a clear defined and specified set of interfaces for both data and control of reconfigurable equipment needs to be developed, this section aimed to outline and proposed an initial approach applying different available technologies. A focused and detailed breakdown of the management control and data interfaces will follow in a later section (see Chapter 5).
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Platform Component n
We argue that adaptability achieved by this approach is a central concept in future mobile networks, because flexibility is a key requirement for future mobile systems. Our notion of adaptability is broad in order to cover all system aspects from reconfigurable radio parameters to applications. Due to this broad scope, different forms of adaptability are considered. The concept of open platform is only an abstract idealization of reconfigurable entities, either hardware or software.
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Middle ware
MW Platform(s)
Rout ing Prot. QoS Prot. Policy Mngr
Network ing
Computing Platform
Filter ing Secu rity QoS Enf.
Protocol Engine, e.g. Support for Active Networks Programmable Packet Forwarding Engine
Forwarding Engine
Trans mission
Firm ware
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Param eters
Programmable SDR HW
NW Interface(s)
In this architecture, four platforms are considered, each programmable with configurable components. For terminals, typically a more compact subset is selected due to resource constraints. The middleware platform can be structured in the local, virtual execution platform, the distributed processing platform, and the service support platform, The computing platform serves as a general-purpose platform for processing stateful protocols, e.g. routing, QoS signaling or connection management, The forwarding engine is in the data path of a network node and it connects network interface platforms, e.g., by a switch matrix. This engine can be implemented as dedicated hardware or as a kernel module of common operating systems. The forwarding engine is programmable for performance-critical tasks, which are performed on a perpacket basis, The network interface platforms are medium specific for different wireless or wired standards. They can be configured or programmed to adapt to new physical layer protocols or for triggering events in higher layers.
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The key technologies are the following: Software defined radio technologies as discussed in the remainder of this chapter, Programmable, active network nodes [33] will enable the fast deployment of new services by using open interfaces to the network resources. Active network technology typically provides an execution environment, which is tailored for networking protocols. Depending on the requirements, this can be on the middleware layer or on the networking layer. In both cases, the forwarding engine platform typically provides filtering of packets to be handled in the active network environment. With this technology, new protocols can be installed on the network elements, which use the lower layer resources for creating new services, Adaptable and open middleware platforms. From the operation point of view, the main requirements for the platforms are: Reliability for uninterrupted services, in particular when updating services, Remote management is important for the central configuration in large networks, Security with respect to attacks from outside. Since we assume that the network is owned by operator, the main security risks arise from external interfaces.
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Conceptualisation of the system regards on dividing the network architecture into subsystems based on the nature of traffic (i.e. packet and circuit switch domains), protocols (i.e. access and non-access stratums, control and data) and physical elements (i.e. access and core network structure). Accordingly, Figure 9 builds on those bases to present a perspective of (Re)Configuration Management (CM) instances, essential protocols and structural elements.
On the bottom side of the figure the structural approach illustrates a relation of 3G network elements of diverse domains, involved in an End-to-End Reconfiguration process. The functionalities implemented on those elements present a framework which capabilities would certainly be enhanced by Reconfiguration services. Should this constitute into a different network element (i.e. server, proxy) or, on the other hand be embedded into the same elements, is beyond the scope of this White Paper. Hence, instead of identifying the physical elements that incorporate CM instances, those are only depicted at the system level they operate. One way or another, functionalities and protocols should be likewise standardised, leaving open choice of implementation.
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The top side of the figure presents the logical architecture by separating the protocol structure into three layered subsystems, namely Transport, Radio Network and System Network layers. The protocols within each of the layers operate across multiple interfaces and belong together in the sense of interworking. This refers to protocols of the same layer which extend across multiple network elements. Thereby, they comprise a set of protocols, which contribute to distributed execution of a common system-wide function, as discussed in more detail in [31]. CM functionality extends across the three layers, as shown by the SDR Multi-Dimensional Aspects figure in the Introduction section (Figure 5). The range of CM varies depending on the protocols and functionalities implemented in each element. Furthermore, CM instances are located in various domains for the functionalities required during the Reconfiguration process, expand across several network elements. The Terminal and the Base Station, or NodeB, comprise the elements performing the most dramatic processes such as hardware and physical layer reconfiguration. Accordingly, these two elements need CM instances at those levels. Note that CM reaches partially to the Radio Network layer, for a minimal set of radio resource management processes are located over there; and therefore, subject to reconfiguration too. It is also worth to stress the importance of having a CM element at the Radio Network domain. The reason is twofold. First for the advantages it brings [35] shows that using inter-Radio Network signalling, easily achievable in an All-IP environment, offers implementation and capacity benefits compared to conventional Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA) algorithms. Thus, a CM entity supporting the system at this level can considerably improve the overall performance by triggering Terminal and Base Station reconfigurations, as well as performing a crucial role during radio access bearer establishment during Vertical Handovers. The bottom line is a better switching process for the user, with enhanced throughput and minimized delay, which in turn means optimization of the Reconfiguration QoS. Second, CM in the Radio Network domain proves valuable for network operators by making feasible to better administrate the extremely expensive and scarce spectrum resource, leading to Radio Network Planning optimization. The proposals for dynamic spectrum allocation between differing systems is facilitated by flexible system selection schemes as proved in [36]. Concisely, CM instances in the Access Network Domain could interact with elements that perform dynamic spectrum allocation, reporting current and target load conditions depending on the implemented reconfiguration capabilities. Finally, CM has to interwork with System Network entities, such as Communication (Connection, Session) and Mobility Management. High layer interactions are envisaged during procedures for authentication, global roaming and software download. The latter constitutes one of the key research areas; for specific cases (i.e mass terminal upgrades), it tends to rely on multicasting technologies managed in the top subsystem and thereby within the scope of the presented framework.
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Reconfigurable networks will use object oriented software technologies for distributed systems. The scalability and modularity advantages, which enables efficient methods for software provisioning, as well as fast deployment and high flexibility have been highly disseminated by TINA [37]. Middleware is an open, broadly applicable and platform-neutral technology that uses object-oriented techniques to hide most of the underlying complexity introduced by differing systems. The benefits of incorporating a glue-layer are straight forward, considering the vast amount of different environments and access schemes and the subsequent proprietary protocols. Provided that adequate APIs are available, middleware copes with migration of objects from one platform to a remote platform, conforming a whole set of Interworking functions. In the following, some architectural approaches will be presented highlighting the correlation to the High-level Reconfiguration System model.
Network
Architectures
and
SDR
Network
SDR Terminals must be supported by new network entities or functions and a fast download and reconfiguration management must be provided by networks. Before we introduce these new functions, we will define the interworking between different networks and the relationship to reconfigurable terminals. In the future systems, a certain deployment is required to support the interworking between different radio sub-networks in particular between 2G, 3G and 4G systems. Generally we consider sub-networks capable of running different radio access technologies (RATs). Currently different scenarios towards the interworking between different radio sub-networks are existing/under investigations (see Appendix 1 in Section 9.1). If the interworking between different access technologies is nowadays controlled by the core network (loose and tight coupling case), information is spread over several network elements, i.e. increased delay for inter-system handoff due to high number of involved network elements. Therefore a need of evolution solutions for interworking should be thought of, in order to maximize the benefit of the co-existing of different radio access network.
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Access Network 1
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The S-RM is used in each Access Network and is dimensioned according to the number of users that an Access Network can support and what the expected services for the Access network are. The P-RM is used to minimize delays, use information on location and status of terminal, and negotiate between terminal and S-RM a strategy for reconfiguration. Both S-RM and H-RM are key elements for upgrade of a large number of terminals and they relieve currently deployed network entities from several management and security issues that have a critical impact on network performance. The SDR functional architecture developed in TRUST [4] is presented in Figure 12. It reflects elements needed in the terminal architecture and in the network. The terminal architecture consists of re-configurable components and terminal resource system related parts (depicted in green colour) and on the other hand re-configuration process control and configuration parts (shown in red colour), which are the core of this architecture. Additionally, network implication during the re-configuration process are also addressed (entities in purple colour). Arrows drawn between entities represent interactions and indicate either some kind of negotiation, a store/retrieve type of interaction if one of the entities represents a collection of data, a kind of trigger, or a query operation.
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Service Provider
Network Operator
Authentication Manager
QoS Manager
Resource System Management Module (RSMM) User Profile Database Memory Management Power Management CPU Management
This functional architecture may be mapped on terminal and base stations physical architectures. The objectives of the reconfiguration architecture are to support a fast and reliable reconfiguration and to use the available resources in an efficient manner. Furthermore a common functionality is required to avoid a continuous adaptation of the backbone infrastructure in case of the possible heterogeneity of future radio access networks. Therefore the main responsible components and functions are located in the particular radio access network and additional on the terminal. The core entities in the reconfiguration process are the proxy reconfiguration managers (PRMs) located in every radio access network. The PRMs are the contact points for every terminal attached to the radio access network concerning reconfiguration. In case of a terminal initiated software download, the terminal signalises the need of reconfiguration to the current PRM in the radio access network and the PRM is afterwards responsible for the delivery of the appropriate software module. For the mode switching support, the PRM performs additionally different measurements and informs the terminal and the neighbouring PRMs as well.
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With reference to the software download, the PRM stores necessary software modules in its local repository. However, the overall capacity of the storage space in the PRM is not so high. The intention is to have a fast access on the most frequently used modules. For less frequent requests of required software there exists an interface between the PRM and an intermediate server database, the serving reconfiguration manager (SRM). Thus, the request is forwarded and processed by this SRM. Another possible reconfiguration supporting functionality is the Inter-PRM-Interface. Therefore, neighbouring PRMs are connected to each other and enabled to exchange some information about the current status of the accompanying radio access or about an ongoing mode change of a terminal. The reconfiguration of a terminal must not only be initiated by the terminal, but can also be triggered by an external entity. In the case of a new hardware driver version, it is inefficient to inform each terminal separately. The use of multicast would help to optimise the content delivery. We call terminal reconfiguration serving area (TRSA), the area of the served PRMs by a SRM. The TRSA encloses all PRMs connected to one SRM. The TRSA is not restricted to one single radio access network or technology and can therefore be larger and cover several radio access networks (e.g. if the total cover of an area is achieved by different WLANs) or smaller than a single radio access network and cover only a part of the access network (e.g. if a single radio access network covers the whole of a continent). All the reconfiguration signalling from and to the TRSA leads either across the external connection of the SRM or across the Inter-PRM-Interface, if neighbouring PRMs with overlapping cells exchange information. The Figure 13 shows an example of a terminal reconfiguration serving area. In this area different radio access technologies are located. 3 hotspot areas with 2 access points (e.g. IEEE 802.11 or Hiplerlan2) in each area with lower range but high maximum available bandwidth and one cellular access point belonging to the same TRSA. The neighbouring PRMs with overlapping cell coverage are coupled with each other by the Inter-PRM-Interface and every PRM has a connection to the local SRM.
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TRSA
SRM
CELLULAR
PRM
NodeB
HOTSPOT HOTSPOT
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AP
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AP
AP
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SRM: Serving Reconfiguration Manager PRM: Proxy Reconfiguration Manager TRSA: Terminal Reconfiguration Serving Area S-P-If: SRM - PRM Interface I-P-If: Inter-PRM Interface
Figure 13: Example of Entities and Interfaces of a Terminal Reconfiguration Serving Area (TRSA) with different Radio Access Technologies.
A SDR terminal could perform many different types of reconfiguration. Among others, the firmware associated to different hardware parts might be updated, as, for example, new DSP algorithms that might improve connection to existing or new access networks. New application might be downloaded, e.g. update to new version of WAP. Also new codecs for existing applications might appear, as new voice or image coding allowing a better compression. Malfunctioning terminals might be repaired by means of new software if the problem was provoked by some bug in the old one without the need of expensive and inconvenient shipments. Even new transport protocols or improvement in existing ones could also be adapted by a SDR terminal after downloading the required files. A software terminal allows the reconfiguration of every layer.
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A special mention is to be made for massive software downloads. This could be the case, for instance, of fixing an existing bug by means of a software update. Apart from an appropriate planning (scheduling it for low traffic times within the network, using hot-spots offering capacity for a high number of users), there is the need of minimising the impact in the radio link. Multicast or broadcast can solve or at least minimise this problem but they also introduce extra requirements in network functionalities. Support for multicast/broadcast or adding reliability are crucial aspects for software downloads, specially for the case of mass-upgrades, also mobility is an important aspect in case the user performs a handover while receiving a download from a multicast/broadcast session. There are also some reconfigurations specific for vertical handovers, changing to a different radio access technology might imply software download if the RAT has not been used or the terminal storage capabilities are limited (and the required software needed to be deleted). In addition, the whole or part of the algorithms required in order to negotiate with the available networks prior to taking the decision to reconfigure might be offered for download. For example the steps required in the algorithm, the measurements the terminal requires or the mapping functions in order to compare parameters of different networks might be downloaded. The state of the terminal influences greatly the requirements of the reconfiguration process. For example, the possibility to scan the radio frequencies change radically depending on whether the terminal is idle or in connected state. A terminal in idle state does not have strong time constraints for monitoring of alternative radio access technologies or performing software download, but, on the other hand, the necessity of reconfiguration might be quite limited. A terminal in connected state has more reconfiguration triggers but also has higher constraints. Since the terminal has a connection running there is no much time left in the terminal to perform monitoring of different available networks as it can only use transmission interruptions for the frequency testing. A vertical handover to another access technology might have different time restrictions imposed, among others, by the state of the terminal or by the cause triggering the handover. The higher the constraints are, the more important it is to have assistance from the network side retrieving as much information as possible. For example, for a faster identification of possible modes the network could inform the terminal about available radio technologies in the near of the terminals position. The terminal can now limit the scanning to the corresponding frequencies. Furthermore, the network could provide the terminal with additional helpful information, for example different measurements from the neighbouring networks, services provided and their general QoS. Also short-term information (currently occupied resources) can be provided.
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If the PRM is aware of the requirements placed by the current session(s) running at the terminal and also of some user requirements and preferences and terminal capabilities, it may provide a further selection of RATs fulfilling these requirements avoiding unnecessary negotiations. If the required software modules for reconfiguration are not available, the terminal has to request them at the PRM. This might also be a decision parameter if the reconfiguration process is urgent. A mode for which the required software is available at the terminal or at the PRM might be preferred above another one for which the software must be downloaded from a server since this introduces further delay. If the PRM is aware of the neighbouring cells it could obtain and store the software required for reconfiguration, the terminal could download these modules in periods when no connection is established, or might perform the download in the background with quite a low priority without impacting the active sessions. If the download is crucial for reconfiguration, this should take place with high priority, the active connections might get their priority reduced or even be stopped/cancelled to allow completing the download in time. This scenario highlights the importance of having the modules cached somewhere close to the terminal, the PRM is seen as the most appropriate entity for storing this kind of software. The SRM might collect less frequently requested downloads as well. Another point considering reconfigurability is the general download of application updates or new driver versions where time constraints are, in general, not so strict. The network could schedule the download and execute the process in a moment of low load and use therefore the resources more efficiently. For this the terminal should provide its reconfiguration requests with a priority indication for the download. In the case of an external initiated reconfiguration, e.g. by the manufacturers server or HRM, the terminal is notified about the available module. If the terminal is in a busy state and currently not able to receive it, the terminal should inform the PRM about it. Otherwise, if the transmission succeeded completely, the terminal should acknowledge the reception. If errors or packet loss occur during the download process, the terminal could request some retransmissions at the PRM.
Cashes measurements of terminals operating in specific mode (required during Mode Monitoring), Caches negotiations of terminals requesting same bearer services (required during Mode Negotiation).
The function split in c-plane and u-plane domain introduces scalability and load balancing for the proxies and their processing capability. Following the same approach the PRM is split into Software Download and Reconfiguration Controller (SDRC) that collects c-plane functions, and Software Download and Profile Repository (SPRE) that collects u-plane functions. Their functions are explained in the following sub-chapters. This scenario is based on IP-based RAN and CN concepts and SDR concepts defined in SCOUT and includes new elements with the aim to address software download and reconfiguration functions (SDRC and SPRE servers). For example, a new evolution of BTS could be used to interface with SDR terminal. This kind of BTS should have an IP interface and contains some of the functionality previously held in the core network with the aim to provide multimode capabilities.
User Plane Server - UTRA N Radio Control Server Sw Down load and Profile Repository
NODE B
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UTUPS
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Up Control
CSS MGC
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MG
GE-BTS
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User Plane Server - UTRA N Software Rad io BTS Radio Control Server imple menting old and new Sw Down load and Reconfiguration Controller air interfaces based e.g. on MC-CDMA
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The u-plane PRM (SPRE) should be located in the RAN, because the following information has to be available and updated as fast as possible: Channel and system load conditions, User service profiles, Application QoS, Terminal capabilities, Network address and protocol. Depending from the type of coupling between different RATs and the time constraints of the service and the necessity or not to perform a seamless handover, the c-plane PRM (SDRC) could be located both in the RAN (near or included in the RNC) or in the core network (near or included in the SGSN). When the SPRE and SDRC are located both in the access network, the interaction with the RRM is more direct and the micro mobility management could be managed from a dedicated SDRC function. The following figures show the location of the SPRE and SDRC in both scenarios.
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Figure 16 Example of Proxy Control Functions in the Core Network (left) and in the RAN (right)
2.5.1.3 Inter-PRM-Interface
The previous chapters have already shown that the overall functionality of the PRM is beyond the usual proxy functionality. One extension of the PRM could be a connection to neighbouring PRMs and the exchange of additional information via an Inter-PRM-Interface. First of all this could contain long-term information as the general supported QoS in the other radio access network (e.g. the priorities of different traffic classes, maximum bit rate, maximum delay, etc). Thus, the PRM could decide in advance which neighbouring mode is useful and for which mode the terminal should scan. After the detection of an alternative mode, which general QoS is promising, the PRM could request short-term measurements at the neighbouring PRM. The final decision should be made after the consideration of all the measurements. After a mode switch is initiated, the old PRM could transfer useful terminal information to the new PRM over the Inter-PRM-Interface. In this way, the new PRM can prepare the information concerning the attached neighbouring radio access networks for the new terminal and provide it to the terminal at an early stage. As far as the measurement and resource information are concerned, every QoS supporting radio access network must provide a resource reservation mechanism. If there is a resource manager available, the PRM can request the long-term as well as the short-term information from this manager via the Inter-PRM-Interface and the neighbouring PRM and inform back the manager in advance if a mode switch is initiated. If there is no resource manager or other resource information entity in a network, the PRM must measure and store general results on its own.
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After the registration of the terminal, the PRM joins a multicast session for every possible component. If there is a mass upgrade going on, which a certain server initiated, the SW packets are only delivered to these PRMs which joined the multicast group. Appendix 4 (Section 9.4) shows an example of multicast mass upgrade user data flow.
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The relationships between HW and SW in SDR, ensuring open platform characteristics, proposed by E. Buracchini [38], is presented in Figure 18. This clearly depicts the introduction of Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) and the inclusion of Virtual Machine (VM).
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The SDR Forum [24] has compared open platforms architectures, from PC and SDR handheld, as depicted in Figure 19.
In order to have an interoperable environment for different SDR components, JTRS Software Communication Architecture (SCA) based on CORBA, which is also adopted by SDR Forum, has been defined [28]. SCA aims to define a middleware that allows baseband modules, modulation modules, protocols working together over different SDR platforms. SDR Forum supports that applications portability is an essential concern for software radio that is why the Forum promotes the Software Radio Architecture (SRA). One of the SRA goals is to be able to port a waveform application from one SDR Set to another one. Portability of SRA Applications is mainly based on two technologies : Standardized layers, Component approach. The processing environment and the functions performed in the architecture impose differing constraints on the architecture. An Application Environment Profile (AEP) has been defined to support portability of waveforms, scalability of the architecture, and commercial viability: An operating system (OS) based on POSIX specifications shall provide, as a minimum, the functions and options designated as mandatory by the AEP, A communications middleware layer based on CORBA, And the Core Framework (CF) layer of the SRA which specify the configuration management framework in order to install, deploy, run, stop and dismount applications.
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To be SRA conformant, applications are supposed to settle above those three layers (Figure 20).
Applications use CF for all file access CORBA API
Operating System
OS (function) that supports SRA AEP. Unlimited proprietary APIs for system development. Any vendor-provided OS function calls
Also, portability relies on the component approach (http://www.omg.org/), conformant SRA applications are supposed to be split into separate components whose ports are connected together at installation time. To achieve better performance and real-time requirements for wireless communication system, non-CORBA based implementation of SDR framework is also considered as another solution. Figure 21 depicts an implementation of SDR software framework based on Linux operating system developed by CCL/ITRI SDR project [38].
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Data
Control
Core Framework
SDR General Manager
Operating System
Different representations of the reconfigurable SDR terminal architectures coexist [23] [25] and one of the main challenges in SDR equipment design resides in the proper description of HW / SW architecture and related interfaces (Figure 22).
Re-config Software API
Service Application s Service Execution Environment Network Layer Switching Control LLC RLC RRC Layer MAC Layer Physical Layer (BB, IF,RF)
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Environment Discoverer Resource Manager Download & Install Manager
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For flexible usage of a description of algorithms and more flexibility of implementation of the terminal, the functionality description and the hardware realization should be as much independent as possible. A complete independence probably cannot be achieved, but this characteristic has to be pushed as far as possible. Each communication standard requires a complex algorithm implementation. With the introduction of flexible and re-configurable realization a further dimension of complexity is added. All these complexities have to be handled which can be done by modularization and abstraction. This also implies the detailed definition of modules interfaces (see Chapter 5). All the algorithm descriptions for a reconfigurable SDR terminal can be downloaded and clearly the acceptance for terminal reconfiguration will be strongly influenced by the time needed for this.
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GW DL
Public IP Network
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RM
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Figure 23 presents a generic system model of the entities relevant for reconfiguration security. Reconfiguration support nodes as reconfiguration managers (RM) and download servers (DL) can be placed in the radio access network (RAN), in the core network, or in a public network connected by a gateway (GW). A reconfigurable terminal provides a reconfiguration interface for the communication between the local reconfiguration manager and the reconfiguration support nodes. A reconfigurable part is called reconfiguration class. A reconfiguration class can for example correspond to the radio interface, to voice or video codecs, to communication protocols, to user applications, or to ring tones. The reconfigurable terminal contains a local module store where software, parameters, and further configuration information is stored. The following reconfiguration security objectives specify what the security services and mechanisms are expected to achieve: Secure download and execution of software is required to prevent malicious activity from intentionally misbehaving or unfunctional software. Both restricted execution environments (sandbox) that controls access to system resources as well as restrictions on the source of software, either the provider or the download server, can be used,
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Reconfiguration control ensures that only legitimate reconfigurations can take place, i.e. that only authorized reconfiguration managers that are trusted to obey the user and network preferences can initiate and perform a reconfiguration and only of permitted parts (reconfiguration classes). The signalling traffic has to be protected, and information used for the reconfiguration has to be reliable, Access to a users private information as his preferences and the current status of his reconfigurable terminal and also himself has to be controlled. It should also be possible for a network operator to keep internal details of his network confidential, Reconfiguration allows to flexibly adapt the radio interface during operation. Regulatory bodies pose requirements on radio equipment concerning user safety, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC immunity), and radio spectrum use (EMC emission). It has to be ensured that a terminal can be reconfigured only in such ways that regulatory requirements are met, Although security and configuration management mechanisms should prevent the activation of an unfunctional or malicious configuration, fault management procedures could be introduced to detect misbehaving or unfunctional terminals and perform corrective actions.
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These two approaches can be combined: Although the software is executed in a controlled execution environment, it is either accepted only from trusted sources, or it receives increased permissions to access restricted functionality when it originates from a trusted provider. For example, the MIDP 2.0 supports trusted applications and privileged domains so that only trusted applications can access sensitive APIs. Mechanisms are defined to sign and authenticate applications using a X.509 public-key infrastructure [43]. The download process has to be protected to prevent illegitimate triggering of a software download, removal or modification of required software on the reconfigurable device or on the download server , and illegitimate access to download servers. Furthermore the usage, copying, and forwarding of software may have to be controlled.
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2) Network-centric support re-configuration. The terminal re-configuration can be at the initiative either of the terminal or the network. A local intelligence on the terminal must interact with the network, other terminals, or new software on another terminal. Procedures and signalling for reconfiguration tasks between communicating entities must be defined. There is also a need for specification of a minimum set of signalling for the purpose of controlling reconfiguration procedures namely, request, control and management processes. The research should also include the following points: Analysis of service discovery in support of the re-configuration process and implication of wireless middleware and agent technology from the terminal point of view, Automatic modulation and RAT recognition in dynamic spectrum environment to facilitate spectrum on demand functionalities, Development of standardized and generic protocols for vertical handover negotiations, Identification of requirements and constraints on wireless middleware. Definition of wireless middleware services as transaction management or interaction management. 3) Terminal-centric support re-configuration. The terminal re-configuration manager as part of the local intelligence on the terminal takes care of the successful re-configuration tasks. The research will have to focus on the following technical issues: Management of mapping of software on the hardware platform. Management of lock-up, crash, reset and recovery mechanisms, Management of run-time insertion, removal, and configuration of software and the modules running on SDR hardware platform through Operating System and Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL) de-correlating HW platform from application software, Definition of open APIs necessary for re-configuration processes, Development of object-oriented approach for platform design and realization. Global circulation and issues like standard compliance testing of software re-configurable terminals are the initial topics that need to be addressed by the standardisation bodies with potential interaction with regulators. Furthermore, the provision of a global connectivity channel for software radios and its implications could be investigated and finally research areas as usage of competitors network infrastructure, unified billing and global roaming support have to be explored. Cross network integration and global software radio connectivity and support will have various beneficiaries, the results of this research, the implementation and application of these technologies will influence: Global mobility and connectivity to wireless communication systems, Service specific choice of networks, Flexible application execution platform and network adaptation, Global regulation and standardisation.
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A transverse challenge is to define a generic model of Software Defined Radio, the result of this research will: Create the necessary background to exchange without misunderstanding, Structure the collaborative work based on a common basis or model Allow component inter communication Allow definition of framework: configurability, reconfigurability, control, management, The re-configurability support and domains are synthesized in Figure 24 [25]:
Application
API
Services
Protocols
Network Architecture
Radio Sub-system
Core Core
Access
Terminal Domain
It is inevitable, for potential research into the system and software architecture for Software Defined Radio systems, to include complete access networks into the re-configuration processes and also to introduce reconfiguration management techniques that cover the complete reconfigurable communication system. Figure 24 illustrates the co-operation and interaction of network and terminal reconfiguration management; the principle distinguishes between network and terminal reconfiguration management parts (i.e. Configuration Control Part and Configuration Management Part, respectively) but combines them in a Reconfiguration Control Space.
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The primary distinction between receivers, is the number of stages taken to down convert a signal to baseband. Direct conversion takes one down-conversion. Superheterodyne receivers employ two or more. In general, complexity increases with the number of down-conversions. There is great interest in direct conversion architecture as a component of a SDR receiver. This interest stems from the fact that direct conversion solves the image signal problem quite neatly. An overview of current state of the art architectures for highly integrated RF-ICs can be found in [46]. Direct conversion architectures are alternatively known as zero IF or homodyne.
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On the other hand the zero-IF receiver topology entails a number of issues that do not exist or are not as serious in a heterodyne receiver. Since in a homodyne topology the downconverted band extends to zero frequency, offset voltages can corrupt the signal and, more importantly, saturate the following stages. There are three main modes in which DC-offsets are generated. First, the isolation between the LO port and the inputs of the mixer and the LNA is not infinite. Therefore, a finite amount of feedthrough exists from the LO port to the mixer or the LNA input. This LO leakage arises from capacitive and substrate coupling and, if the LO signal is provided externally, bond wire couplings. This leakage signal is now mixed with the LO signal, thus producing a DC component at the mixer output. This phenomenon is called self-mixing. A similar effect occurs if a large interferer leaks from the LNA or mixer input to the LO port and is multiplied by itself. A time varying DC offset is also generated if the LO leaks to the antenna and is radiated and subsequently reflected from moving objects back to the receiver. The dynamic range of tunable filters would be a concern for multimode systems catering for air interface standards having a wide variation in signal bandwidth. If we use a single filter with tunable components for a multimode systems catering to the requirements of all the above mentioned systems, it would be difficult to recover the narrowband signals near sensitivity level in the presence of very strong interfering signals. This point is taken up again in 3.4.2.
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1
Large amplitude modulated signals that are converted to the baseband section via second order distortion of the IQ-mixers also lead to time varying DC offset. The spectral shape of this signal contains a significant component at DC accounting for approximately 50% of the energy. The rest of the spurious signal extends to two times of the signal bandwidth before downconverted by the second order nonlinearity of the mixers. The cause for the large signal content at DC is that every spectral component of the incident interferer is coherently downconverted with itself to DC. In order to prevent this kind of DC offset, a large second order intercept point (IP2) of the IQ-mixer is necessary.
3GPP compliant receiver front-ends need approximately 80dB gain. The baseband amplifiers contribute most of this gain. That means that even small DC offsets (in the range of several mV) at the mixer outputs may lead to DC levels sufficient to saturate the analog to digital converters (ADC). In time-division multiple access (TDMA) systems idle time intervals can be used to carry out offset cancellation. This kind of offset cancellation can not be used for systems with continuous signal reception. Here, the natural solution for DC offset cancellation is high-pass filtering. This approach is especially suited for wideband systems. From a system level point of view DC-free coding can help to diminish the performance degradation of high-pass filtering. I/Q mismatches are another critical issue for the zero-IF receiver topology. Fortunately, digital correction loops can tackle the problem of I/Q phase and amplitude mismatches from a data point of view. A reasonable level of I/Q match is of course still required. Research Issues DC offset, Maintenance of I/Q Balance, Maintenance of low second order distortion.
Gain 80dB
Gain 20dB
DSP
90
VCO VCO
As the first mixer down converts frequency bands symmetrically located above and below the local oscillator (LO) to the same centre frequency, an image reject filter in front of the mixer is needed. As depicted in the left part of Figure 28, the filter is designed to have a relatively small loss in the desired band and a large attenuation in the image band, two requirements that can be simultaneously met if 2IF is sufficiently large. Thus, a large IF relaxes the requirements for the image rejection filter, which is placed in front of the mixer. On the other hand it complicates the design of the channel selection filter (right part of Figure 28), because of the higher IF. In todays cellular systems the channel selection filtering is normally done with surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters. Another interesting situation arises with an interferer at (wanted + LO)/2. If this interferer experiences second-order distortion and the LO contains a significant second harmonic, then a component at |(2.(wanted + LO))/2-2LO| = |(wanted - LO)| = IF arises. This phenomenon is called half-IF problem [47]. It is typical of problems that arise if filtering is removed from a radio. Not only do intermodulation problems become exaggerated, but previously unconsidered harmonic distortion problems begin to emerge. Harmonic and intermodulation distortion problems occur when distortion is present in the early stages of RF hardware. Linearity of the LNA and mixer is important with SDR design. It is raised again in 3.4.2. Phase noise and LO distortion also contributes to this problem. This issue is discussed in 3.4.6.
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A major advantage of the heterodyne receiver structure is its adaptability to many different receiver requirements. That is why it has been the dominant choice in RF systems for many decades. However, the complexity of the structure and the need for a large number of external components (e.g., the IF filter) cause problems if a high level of integration is necessary. This is also the major drawback if costs are concerned. Furthermore, amplification at some high IF can cause high power consumption, particularly if a high degree of linearity is to be maintained. Due to the fixed receive bandwidth of the heterodyne receiver structure caused by the external IFfilter, the multimode and multiband capability can only be implemented by using a separate IF section for each mode. This would result in high costs and a complex receiver structure. Research Issues Image signals flexible preselect filters receiver linearity, Single chip solution, Channelisation filtering flexible IF bandwidth.
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90
Q channel for further processing Variable LO Numerically controlled local oscillator Digital IF
Although the multiple conversion stage of Figure 29 only shows two explicit down-conversions (one in the RF hardware and one in the DSP (Digital Signal Processing)), further conversions can be done in the DSP via the processes of sub-sampling. If the linearity of the receiver hardware can be maintained to a sufficiently high level, then the channelisation can be performed in the DSP. This can mean that the variable bandwidth IF filter (see 3.1.2) is not necessary. One of the significant stumbling blocks to implementing the superheterodyne architecture would then be removed.
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The receiver architecture described above may represent the best choice for a SDR receiver design today, given that the two principal disadvantages2 of direct conversion are very difficult to get around with current technology. With this architecture, the first conversion may be done in RF hardware, and all of the others are done in DSP. Two hardware down conversions will probably be required by the radio LAN (HIPERLAN/2 and IEEE802.11a) which operates in the 5GHz region. With this architecture, the ADC needs to have an analogue bandwidth equal to the IF frequency, and a sampling speed at least equal to twice the bandwidth of the wanted signal. If a superheterodyne architecture is chosen, then the problem of image signals must be seriously addressed. This is done in section 3.4.4. Aspects of digital IF-processing are covered in Section 3.4.7. Research Issues Hardware linearity.
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DAC AGC
90
RF SAW
PA
DAC AGC
LO
Research Issues I/Q balance in the local oscillator, Distortion of the LO signal by the PA, Baseband linearity.
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DAC
90
AGCIF LORF
AGCRF
HPA
DAC
LOIF
Research Issues Spurious distortion products, IF filter with configurable bandwidth, Single chip solutions.
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blockers, will show that the minimum input TOI will be +20.5dBm. This is an onerous linearity specification and obtaining devices (mixers and amplifiers) with this specification is currently not possible, when considering cost and power-consumption issues. We can infer from this result, that the receiver of a SDR should be extremely linear. In general, for best overall distortion performance, the components where the signal is at its highest power levels require the best distortion performance. A large body of research has been undertaken on linearising PA (see for example [52]). To enable SDR receiver design, work needs to undertaken on linearising receiver components. Reference [53] discusses the linearisation of wide-band RF receiver amplifiers. Work on linearising mixers was undertaken under the IST TRUST program (see [54] and [55]). A new technique known as frequency retranslation has been developed under this project. This work is further discussed in section 3.4.3.
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There have been a few variable MMIC filter designs reported in the literature, notably that of Katzin et al. [56]. The device described in this technical paper was produced as a prototype MMIC for the Hittite Corporation. Two versions were produced, both exhibiting ~100MHz bandwidth. One had a centre frequency that could be swept from 1,500 to 2,000MHz, and the other a centre frequency sweepable from 1,980 to 2,650MHz. The filter unfortunately never progressed beyond the prototype stage, due to lack of sufficient dynamic range [57]. Non linearity is introduced into MMIC designs from two sources. Firstly it occurs because a varactor is often used to tune the filter. Secondly, a nonlinear active device is often used to compensate losses in MMIC filter components5. Distributed component microwave filters might be electronically tuned by the following techniques. Varactor diode tuning at some strategic point on the filter structure, Constructing the filter on a substrate, whose dielectric constant could be electrically varied, Switching parts of the transmission line so that the physical characteristics of the filter structure could be changed. Switching the component parts of a filter, in and out of circuit, using Micro-Electro-Mechanical Structures (MEMS) seems to offer an interesting solution [61]. The use of Electro-mechanical switches will mean that the filter is composed entirely of linear components, and therefore the dynamic range of the filter should not be prejudiced.
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If converters consuming several watts or more power (those perhaps found useful for a SDR radio on a naval vessel or a juggernaut) are to be excluded from commercial portable applications, then suitable ADCs do not exist today for SDR applications. Given that typical radio ADCs have a dynamic range between 60 and 70dB (10~12bit) today and the dynamic range improvement in the past has occurred at a rough rate of 4 bits (24dB) per decade without power constraints, serious and sustained long-term research is absolutely necessary if the SDR dream is to be fulfilled within the next decade. In the short-run, reconfigurability can be achieved by designing converters that target the most useful combinations of applications. In [77] for example, a very low power, IF sampled ADC has been described for dual mode GSM/WCDMA applications. For the combination of radio standards described in the early part of this document, it should also be possible to find a suitable and clever architecture that fulfils all requirements without excessive power consumption. The generic question of how to provide the desired bandwidth and resolution on demand, must rely on a substantial advancement of the state-of-the-art. Promising architectures for such improvement include those based on sigma-delta modulation and pipelining, as well as hybrids thereof. Extended use of self-calibration techniques as well as digital pre/post-processing techniques may also be a very useful way forward. Scaling of semiconductor technology in the next decade will help us improve speed. Downward scaling of allowable supply voltage, however, makes dynamic range issues even more acute than they are today. While signal range is forced down by available headroom in supply voltage, the lower limit of thermal noise that presents itself in the form of kT/C noise in a sampled-data system, does not scale with the transistor feature size. Research Issues Low power, high performance ADC architecture, Trade-off in the definition of RF receiver and A/D converter, Dynamic reconfiguration of architecture, kT/C noise and dynamic range, Timing jitter in high-IF converters (clock jitter of LO and aperture jitter of the ADC), Low voltage design, Device matching, Intelligent self-calibration schemes, Digital error correction by means of pre-processing (for the DAC) and post-processing (for the ADC).
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Impact
on
Phase
Noise
The LO of any SDR receiver must operate over a wide frequency range. The tuning voltage available at the input terminals to an VCO, on the other hand, will be limited. To cover the wide tuning range would necessitate a large tuning sensitivity for the VCO. The higher sensitivity would result in increased LO spurious components and phase noise: Increased LO phase noise and spurious outputs would further increase the attenuation demand on RF filters, Increased phase noise would be problematic in broadband systems like 802.11a (OFDM carriers would lose their orthogonality effectively increasing the noise floor), Increased LO phase noise can cause increased baseband noise in zero IF and low IF designs. This happens because the decreasing correlation between instantaneous LO phase at LO input and LO leakage at RF input produce will produce this noise. This would also create problems mostly in wideband designs.
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With this architecture, the terminal would be fully transparent, and the standards could be monitored in order to define the target one. The power consumption, complexity and cost would not be as critical like in the active/shadow pair. An example of a possible active-shadow chain transceiver is shown in Figure 32. The Reconfiguration Management Module (RMM) manages the set-up of the active and shadow chains. This block diagram accommodates the following situations: (i.) Switching between antennas to optimise the antenna for the frequency band being transmitted/received. (ii.) Back to back test of the receiver transmitter combination before it is switched live to air. The RMM would need to set up LO frequencies, and insert appropriate attenuators to manage this situation. (iii.) Ability to test the ether for high power interfering signals, or new air interface standards that the user might prefer to use. This facility could utilise the antenna in current use by the active chain, or it could use the second band antenna.
3.5.1.4 Conclusion
Not regarding specific ways of the implementation (e.g. active and shadow transmit and receive chains, or hybrid architectures), it is obvious that for many applications (e.g. inter-standard handover without a common managing network) the receive and transmit functionality must be doubled. It is one of the important research issue to come up with pragmatic and realizable results which achieve this doubling. Research Issue Pragmatic realization of doubling the transmit and receive functionality.
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TX-RX frequency
RX Filter Param.s
TX Filter Param.s
RMM
Active RX ACTIVE Shadow RX Local Oscillator Active TX ACTIVE LOOPBACK Shadow TX TEST TEST
DSP
ACTIVE TX
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It is envisaged that a systematic research approach to the evaluation will lead to the required antennas, which will meet the SDR specification. Other novel types of radiating antennas also needs to be developed for the SDR applications. Research Issues Electronic antenna tuning, Combined FDD, TDD duplexing, Research into hybrid antennas, Dielectric resonator, Other Novel antenna types.
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100microns
100microns
Open
Closed
Typical performance details for a MEMS switch are given in Table 1. Performance Parameter DC actuation voltage DC resistance (switch closed). Insertion loss - switch closed (DC through 40GHz) Isolation Switching speed RF power throughput Value 20V 1.6 0.2dB 50dB at low freq. dropping to 27dB at 40GHz 50sec 1W (50 line)
There are a number of other MEMS that may be used to provide a filter tuning action, for example interdigitated capacitors where the fingers are capable of mechanical movement relative to one another. References [67] and [73] provide an excellent introduction to this exciting development. Other potential MEMS components include low loss, low power, mixers, and high Q resonators for low phase noise Oscillators.
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DC offset compensation
We will now try to assess what order of developmental time frame we are talking about for the development of these technologies. Quadrature Local Oscillator: The realisation of an accurate quadrature local oscillator is crucial to the development of direct conversion and low IF receivers. It is crucial to the development of a direct conversion receiver because all mobile radio systems use some form of complex modulation, and, by definition, the direct conversion receiver will only have one down conversion available. This downconversion therefore needs to be complex. In addition, some image cancellation is required as part of this receiver. 40dB image rejection is typically required for a direct conversion receiver. This requires the local oscillator to exhibit phase quadrature of better than 1 degree accuracy, and amplitude balance of better than 0.1dB. A low IF receiver also requires a complex signal to provide part of the image filtering that is required with this type of receiver. Thus it also relies on there being a local oscillator that has accurate phase quadrature and amplitude balance over a wide frequency range. Because the image of a low IF receiver is separated from wanted signal by twice the (albeit low) IF frequency, the image rejection requirements of a low IF architecture are significantly greater than the requirements of a direct conversion receiver (typically 70dB). Trying to set a time frame over which development of an accurate quadrature oscillator may take place is difficult. The problem has been solved to a limited extent today. Agilent Technologies have developed a chip that is claimed to generate phase quadrature local oscillator over a frequency range that would be very useful for mobile communications use (see [78]). This chip is a combined high pass low pass network, with servo amplitude control. It is used in Agilent instruments, and presumably gives their instruments a commercial advantage. For whatever reason, the chip doesnt appear to be commercially available. Analog Devices have a Direct Conversion Quadrature Demodulator chip available (The AD8347 see [79]). This chip appears to offer quadrature phase shift with a typical accuracy of about 1 at a spot frequency (1.9GHz). Spot amplitude accuracy is quoted at typically 0.3dBm at the same frequency. Phase variation over the range of 800MHz to 2600MHz is also about 1. Amplitude balance variation is not quoted. This is getting close to the performance that we require. It is difficult to predict where development will go from here but a 5 to 10 year period for the development of a suitable wide band quadrature oscillator seems a reasonable assumption. A quadrature oscillator is required for the superheterodyne architecture. This oscillator is only required to operate at a fixed single frequency. It will most likely be implemented in DSP and, as such, will not present a significant problem.
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Offset Compensation: The only architecture that requires offset compensation is the direct conversion receiver. There are a number of techniques for compensating the DC offset of a direct conversion receiver. Some rely on measuring the DC offset during the idle period of a TDM [80], others rely on using data streams with zero DC component or placing a high pass filter of sufficiently low frequency in the data stream [81]. None of these techniques are directly applicable to a SDR receiver, as the type of modulation is not known a-priori. It is possible that the techniques could be refined for a SDR, and therefore development time of 5 to 10 years is assigned to this technology. Image Reject mixing: As discussed previously, the image rejection requirements of a direct conversion receiver are comparatively low, and can be achieved almost routinely provided the magnitude and phase balance of the local oscillator is reasonable. Image rejection requirements for a low IF receiver are more stringent. Filtering, rather than image reject mixing will be used for image signals when the receiver employs superheterodyne architecture6. Variable Image filtering: Developmental time for this technology has been assigned to 3 to 5 years. There are no obvious extreme performance requirements and the process should represent the adaptation of existing technology. Linearity: The need for high linearity mixers and amplifiers has been established in 3.4.2. Various methods of linearising LNAs and mixers have been developed. Extending the usefulness of these techniques to a wide operational bandwidth is a current research interest. A developmental time frame of 3 to 5 years has been placed on this technology. The time taken to develop these technologies is summarised in Table 3: Technology Quadrature local oscillator Offset compensation Image reject mixing Variable image filtering Linearity Development time 5 to 10 years 5 to 10 years Available now7 3 to 5 years 3 to 5 years
Table 3: Estimated Time Frame to Develop Technologies Required for a fully Functioning SDR Receiver
From this table, it can be deduced that the superheterodyne architecture is seen as being the most likely architecture to be developed as a fully functioning SDR receiver in the short term. As has been emphasised in other parts of this white paper, the Zero IF architecture is seen as providing a better long-term solution because of the possibility of achieving a single chip implementation and other issues canvassed in this paper.
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4.1 Algorithms
4.1.1 Harmonization and Classification of Transceiver Algorithms
Different air interfaces use different algorithms for base-band processing e.g., equalization algorithms, filtering algorithms, the RAKE-receiver algorithm, and DFT-based algorithms. A harmonization based on a generalization of these algorithms might lead to a set of very few common basic algorithms for which a common software platform as well as a common hardware platform can be designed. The same principle applies to synchronization. Synchronization is crucial for every receiver, however, it depends on the air interface. A harmonization of the synchronization algorithms should lead to a synchronization engine that is applicable to virtually all known air interfaces. Research Issues Classification of receiver and transmitter algorithms, Design of a generic synchronization engine.
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4.2
A generic software architecture for a reconfigurable baseband has been defined in the IST project TRUST [23]. This architecture can be well-embedded into an overall system and network architecture that can support and exploit software-defined radio (SDR) equipment. It comprises a baseband management module that controls the configuration of the baseband. In the following the key features and components of the proposed software architecture of the baseband are briefly described. The TRUST baseband sub-system is adaptive because of its ability to reconfigure itself. The software architecture of the reconfigurable baseband is based on object-oriented methodology. Each module of the baseband transceiver chain is reconfigurable by instantiation of an appropriate class and/or re-initialisation with new parameters. It is assumed that the software (class) of each module (modulator, FEC decoder) is available (downloaded and stored in the baseband library), error free, and compatible.
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Shadow Chain Transmit Baseband Active Chain - Transmit Baseband Terminal Profile Resource Management Module Terminal Capability SW Download Module
In order to re-configure the baseband without interrupting the ongoing services, the baseband architecture must support dynamic creation and binding of new or modified modules. As a result, instantiation of downloaded classes must be administered through dynamic binding, whereby the required functionality of a given class is only made available at run-time, whilst the structure of the downloaded class is known a priori. Figure 34 illustrates the reconfigurable baseband architecture, which consists of the following components: Re-Configurable Baseband Management Module (R-BBMM): overall controller of the RBB sub-system. It is responsible for negotiating re-configuration, creating active and shadow transceiver chains, and controlling the run-time behaviour of each module, Active Baseband Transceiver Chain: currently operating baseband chain. Each chain consists of several modules, and each module is referred to as a Baseband Processing Cell (BPC), Shadow Baseband Transceiver Chain: post re-configuration baseband transceiver chain. It contains references of BPCs that are kept unchanged from the active chain, and one/more new BPCs. The shadow chain does not interfere with the active and constituent processes are kept mutually independent, Baseband Software Library: contains the baseband active and shadow configuration maps, corresponding to the active and shadow transceiver chains respectively. A configuration map is a list of baseband modules (type, functionality, algorithmic identity), their associated interface definitions and inter-connections. The library will also store all the baseband module classes that are currently in use and those that were used previously,
Re-Configuration Switch
RF Unit
SW Library
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A read-only default configuration map together with all the associated module classes and parameter lists. This would allow the baseband to confidently re-configure to a known, working standard, which is compliant with the user profile, A complete copy of the previously working baseband configuration. This should include the configuration map, associated baseband classes, parameter lists, operating standard, host network registrations Such a store would allow the terminal to return back to a fully working baseband configuration, without requiring a power off reset, Re-Configuration Switch: typical ON/OFF switch. It implements the ON/OFF signal from the R-BBMM, in order to switch the shadow chain ON and the active chain OFF.
The configuration map defines the baseband chain, in terms of functionality of consituent modules and their interfaces and inter-connections. The R-BBMM uses this map to create and then connect the different BPC objects. In order to re-configure the baseband, the R-BBMM creates a shadow baseband chain in compliance with the agreed configuration map for reconfiguration.
4.3
RF/IF
ADC/ DAC
IF/BB
BB1
BB1
BB modules BB modules
BB modules BB modules
BB control modules
memory
I/O
fixed network
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Figure 35 illustrates a generic baseband hardware architecture for a software-defined radio which can be applied to the design of user terminals and basestations for a mobile communication systems beyond 3G. It is well-suited for the execution of a variety of current and future wireless access schemes and provides the flexibility to reconfigure the physical layer transmission scheme under software control. This architecture covers at least some of the competitive hardware platform currently available on the market; it can also be viewed as a generic architecture for a reconfigurable baseband that is implementable as a System-on-Chip (SoC), containing several general purpose and digital signal processor cores, memories, and dedicated as well as reconfigurable hardware blocks. The radio signal received at the antenna is first processed with a wideband radio frontend before it is fed to the digital baseband (BB) signal-processing unit 8. The signal is down-converted with an analog mixer to an intermediate frequency (IF) band, sampled with a wide-band, high resolution A/D converter, and fed to the digital radio-frontend. This digital, re-configurable IF/BB module performs channelization. It extracts from the received signal a single or several user channels for further processing at the baseband and thus implements the signal-processing tasks downconversion, and filtering. Depending on the required radio access scheme and selected user channels, different channel frequency characteristics and parameters have to be implemented. These numerically intensive functions have to be executed on a dedicated programmable device with todays available technology; however, we expect that in some years from now these functions can also be implemented on a DSP. Most of the baseband signal-processing functions of the various wireless access schemes are executed as independent BB modules either on reconfigurable logic or digital signal processors (DSPs). The required signal processing modules and their configuration parameters are given by the selected wireless access scheme. We have to determine these module for each candidate scheme, identify the similarities in the different functions, and try to use common reconfigurable or switchable logic devices or DSP code to implement them. This is a challenging task considering the widely differing nature of the different signal processing functions of the above radio access schemes as well as the wide range of involved radio interfaces. At the same time it would be preferable to make the software modules independent of the hardware platform. This would allow upgrading of hardware platform without changing software modules. Something like a resident compiler or java interpretor is an option. Another requirement would be to minimize the reconfiguration data to be downloaded while constraining the total memory requirement.
If the advanced multi-input/multi-output (MIMO) transceiver concepts should be considered, several parallel radio fontends are required. 88
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This hardware platform should be partly reconfigurable on the run while some part is executing some functions. An ideal solution would be a combination of independent hardware modules and hardware independent software modules linked together by process control module. All signal processing modules should have standard interfaces so that they can be plugged in and out in any order in a system implementation. This would also allow switching off of some hardware modules to save power in good operating environments. Another issue to be considered would be a selection of the system clock. The least common multiple of the basic clocks of the chosen systems is unrealistically large for practical implementation. This would necessitate a new approach for timing and rate/frequency control. It would be advisable to have a single system clock and clock generation schemes approximating the basic clocks of different systems on the average. Other solutions incorporating multiple clock/PLL based schemes would be bulky. The BB control modules are implemented as independent processes on a real-time operating system (RTOS) on an embedded controller. One process is responsible for selecting the required BB modules according to the selected standard, configuring the parameters of the modules, and determining their execution order. The executable FPGA macros and DSP code implementing the BB modules are stored in memory devices. They can be downloaded to the memory over the fixed network or over-the-air (OTA) before the baseband transceiver operation is started. The reconfigurable logic devices, DSPs, embedded controller, memory, and external I/O devices communicate with each other via a local system bus, which allows the parallel implementation of the baseband signal processing functions for several radio transceivers. Since the hardware architecture shown in Figure 35 is a generic one, more advanced mechanisms other than conventional bus architectures can also be applied to interconnect the various hardware blocks or cores. Another requirement of the baseband processing is some standard way of defining its capabilities like processing power, RAM/ ROM memory size, RF capability, ADC/DAC resolution etc. A protocol to communicate this information to the higher protocol layers and in turn to network is required. This will allow network to assess the terminal capability before entertaining any upgrading in terminal capabilities. In the next Sections, we identify the BB modules of several wireless access schemes by briefly summarizing their baseband functions. As potential candidate systems, we selected the cellular systems GSM and W-CDMA, and the WLANs 802.11a and 802.11b.
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4.3.1
A generic baseband processing block diagram of the receiver chain for the four identified systems are given in Figure 32. IF processing is not included in the block diagram. In conventional implementations, this is done in the RF front end. In the case of software radio, it is likely that these functions would also form part of the baseband processing. The included functions would be channelisation and decimation. These functions would easily fit to a parameterised block with parameters: center frequency, channel bandwidth. Even though the blocks are shown in a sequential way, the actual implementations may be parallel or may even combine some of them. The idea here is to capture the critical blocks involved in the signal processing. Even though attempt is made to identify critical parameters of some of the blocks in the attached table, it is not complete. The complexity of the systems and the different modes / data rates of different systems would not allow a complete parameterised representation of the systems. Some of the common data rates and their critical parameters are shown in the table. In general, it can be said that the different systems are having different types of framing and encoding requirements. Hence, identifying common building blocks that can be parameterised to meet their requirements is a really challenging task. The channelisation block is followed by an optional filtering block. In the candidate systems, only WCDMA specifies a filter at this stage. This is followed by essentially two parallel blocks: Channel estimation and synchronisation. The performance of the receiver is largely decided in these blocks. The channel estimation is mainly for estimating the critical multipath profile and as such would be closely linked to equalisation / Rake combining. Hence their implementation would be highly dependent on the system characteristics. The synchronisation function is expected to estimate the frame, code symbol timings as well as frequency offset and do the necessary correction. This would be based on the parameters like frame size, no of symbols / frame, no of slots/ frame and the synchronisation information in the slot. This would estimate the correction function and again is dependent on the individual systems. The synchronised information is sent for despreading / Rake combining in WCDMA and 802.11b Systems and FFT processing in 802.11a. These functions are completely different and these blocks are missing in GSM. This is followed by equalisation in non-spread spectrum systems. Finally demodulation, de-framing, decoding and de-scrambling of the received data is carried out. The order of these functions is dependent on the individual systems and the particular service chosen. It would be possible to develop common blocks for these functions with the parameters and frame format for a particular service downloaded for activating that service. Details of some of the services of candidate systems are given in Table 4.
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R1
FILTER
R2
SYNCHRONIZATION
R4
DESPREADING/ RAKE
R5
FFT & CYCLIC PREFIX REMOVAL
Input
R3
R3p1 = Type of system R2p2 = Frame size R2p3 = No. of slots per frame R2p4 = Slot structure
W-CDMA IEEE 802.11b
CHANNEL ESTIMATION
IEEE 802.11a
GSM
Output Data
DEFRAMING
DEMODULATION
EQUALIZER
PARALLEL TO SERIAL
R10
T10p1 = Interleaver size T10p2 = Rate matching attribute T10p3 = Type of coding T10p4 = Polynomial T10p5 = Code rate T10p6 = Size of CRC
R9
T9p1 = No. of pre, mid & post-amble symbols T9p2 = Slot structure T9p3 = Frame size T9p4 = No. of slots T9p5 = Demultiplexing factor
R8
R8p1 = Type of Modulation
R7
R7p1 = Type of Equalizer R7p2 = No. of taps
R6
R6p1 = Yes or No R6p2 = No. of subcarriers R4p3 = No. of pilot subcarriers
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GSM Root RC with rolloff = 0.22 W-CDMA Root RC with rolloff = 0.22 Root RC with rolloff = 0.22 Root RC with rolloff = 0.22
8 8 8 15 15 15 15 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3,57,28,57,3 3,57,28,57,3 3,57,28,57,3 6,4,22,8 28,12,112,8 56,16,232,16 120,16,488,16 10,1,2,48 10,1,2,48 10,1,2,96 10,1,2,96 10,1,2,192 10,1,2,192 10,1,2,288 10,1,2,288 192, variable 192, variable
GSM GSM GSM W-CDMA W-CDMA W-CDMA W-CDMA 802.11a 802.11a 802.11a 802.11a 802.11a 802.11a 802.11a 802.11a 802.11b 802.11b
Full-rate speech Half-rate speech 9,6kbps full rate data 420 2100 4320 9120 48 48 96 96 192 192 288 288 variable variable
8 8 8 15 15 15 15 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3,57,28,57,3 3,57,28,57,3 3,57,28,57,3 6,4,22,8 28,12,112,8 56,16,232,16 120,16,488,16 10,1,2,48 10,1,2,48 10,1,2,96 10,1,2,96 10,1,2,192 10,1,2,192 10,1,2,288 10,1,2,288 192, variable 192, variable
IEEE 802.11b
variable variable
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Despreading/RAKE (R4)
Equalization (R7)
Demodulation (R8)
Required? (P1) N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y
Type of spreading code (P2) OVSF OVSF OVSF OVSF Bakers Bakers CCK CCK
Type of equalizer (P1) MLSE MLSE MLSE Linear Linear Linear Linear Linear Linear Linear Linear
Type of modulation (P1) GMSK GMSK GMSK QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK BPSK BPSK QPSK QPSK 16QAM 16QAM 64QAM 64QAM DBPSK DQPSK BPSK QPSK
GSM
W-CDMA
IEEE 802.11a
IEEE 802.11b
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3,57,28,57,3 3,57,28,57,3 3,57,28,57,3 6,4,22,8 28,12,112,8 56,16,232,16 120,16,488,16 10,1,2,48 10,1,2,48 10,1,2,96 10,1,2,96 10,1,2,192 10,1,2,192 10,1,2,288 10,1,2,288 192, variable 192, variable 192, variable 192, variable
338 318
1558 1238 1378
338 318
577 8 6638 7118
1, 138 148 1, 138 148 1, 138 148 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718
IEEE 802.1 1b
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T1p1 = Type of channel T1p3 = No. of data block T1p3 = No. of bits per block
T3p1 = Multiplexing & interleaver depth T3p2 = Interleaver size T3p3 = Frame size T3p4 = No. of slots T3p5 = No. of pre, mid & post-amble symbols T3p6 = Slot structure
T4p1 = Yes or No
Data
DATA BUFFER
FRAME
PRECODER
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
Output to IF
FILTER
SERIAL TO PARALLEL
SCRAMBLING
SPREADING
T10 T9
T8
T7
T6
T9p1 = Yes or No
T8p1 = Yes or No T8p2 = No. of data subcarriers T8p3 = No. of pilot subcarriers
T7p1 = Yes or No
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138
138 138 2100418 2100418 2100418 2100418
338 318
1558 1238 1378
GSM
338 318
5778 6638 7118
W-CDMA
1, 138 148 1, 138 148 1, 138 148 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718 1338 1718
IEEE 802.11b
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Framing (T3) No. of slots per frame (P4) 8 GSM 8 8 15 15 15 15 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 No. of pre-, mid- & post-amble symbols (P5) 3,28,3 3,28,3 3,28,3 0,4,8 0,12,8 0,16,16 0,16,16 (10,1,2),0,0 (10,1,2),0,0 (10,1,2),0,0 (10,1,2),0,0 (10,1,2),0,0 (10,1,2),0,0 (10,1,2),0,0 (10,1,2),0,0 192,0,0 192,0,0 192,0,0
Precoder (T4)
Modulatio n (T5)
Spreading (T6)
Scrambling (T7)
Filtering (T10)
Slot structure (P6) 3,57,28,57,3 3,57,28,57,3 3,57,28,57,3 6,4,22,8 28,12,112,8 56,16,232,1 6 120,16,488, 16 10,1,2,48 10,1,2,48 10,1,2,96 10,1,2,96 10,1,2,192 10,1,2,192 10,1,2,288 10,1,2,288 192, variable 192, variable 192, variable
Required? (P1) Y Y Y N N N N N N N N N N N N Y Y Y
Type of modulatio n (P1) GMSK GMSK GMSK QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK BPSK BPSK QPSK QPSK 16QAM 16QAM 64QAM 64QAM DBPSK DQPSK CCK
Type of code (P1) OVSF OVSF OVSF OVSF Baker s Baker s CCK
Required? (P1)
Require d? (P1)
Y Y Y Y Y (before encoding) Y (before encoding) Y (before encoding) Y (before encoding) Y (before encoding) Y (before encoding) Y (before encoding) Y (before encoding)
N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
W-CDMA
IEEE 802.11a
GMSK pulse with BT = 0.3 GMSK pulse with BT = 0.3 GMSK pulse with BT = 0.3 Root RC with rolloff = 0.22 Root RC with rolloff = 0.22 Root RC with rolloff = 0.22 Root RC with rolloff = 0.22 Mask to be met Mask to be met Mask to be met Mask to be met Mask to be met Mask to be met Mask to be met Mask to be met Mask to be met Mask to be met Mask to be met
IEEE 802.11b
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4.3.3
The baseband architecture of reconfigurable SDR equipment has to be designed so that not only the transceivers of the cellular systems like GSM and W-CDMA and 802.11 based WLANs can be efficiently implemented but it should also allow the integration of technology to be used in todays and tomorrows personal area networks (PANs) as well as satellite and broadcast systems. Since these systems require some additional functional baseband modules not shown in the generic transmitter and receiver chain given in the last two sections, we will now briefly discuss the required transmit and receive modules for the PAN Bluetooth and the digital broadcast systems DAB and DVB.
4.3.3.1
rate (1/3,2/3,1)
US link mamager
payload
CRC generator
encryption
whitening filter
MUX
UAP
WHI_init
UA
M U X
UI
TX ACL TX ACL TX ACL buffer TX ACL Buffer TX ACL Buffer TX ACL Buffer TX ACL Buffer Buffer Buffer
TX header register
header
HEC generator
whitening filter
UAP
X,Y,A
Acces Code
controls
link controller
f=f(n)
trigger
UI
D E M U X
RX ACL buffer
RX header register
header
HEC checking
dewhitening filter
DEMUX
UA
CRC_OK
WHI_init
US
RX SCO buffer
payload
CRC checking
decryption
dewhitening filter
key
enable
WHI_init
Bluetooth has been accepted by the IEEE 802.15 working group as standard for enabling wireless ad-hoc connectivity between portable and/or fixed electronic consumer products. It can manage within a small local area up to three synchronous connection-oriented (SCO) links mainly for speech transmission at a rate of 64 kbit/s, and up to seven asynchronous connectionless (ACL) links supporting symmetric or asymmetric data transfers at a maximum rate of 433.9 and 723.2 kbit/s, respectively.
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The radio subsystem is operated like 802.11b in the globally available unlicensed ISM frequency band at 2.4 GHz, covers distances of up to 10 meters with a transmission power of less than 1 mW, and applies frequency hopping in conjunction with a TDMA scheme for transmitting data at a symbol rate of 1 Mbit/s over the air. Figure 38 shows the baseband modules required for the transmitter and receiver chain of Bluetooth. The upper part of the figure shows the transmitter chain. User synchronous (US), user asynchronous (UA), or user isochronous (UI) data, and link manager (LM) control information are sent via the corresponding logical channels to the transmit (TX) SCO or ACL buffers. The stored information represents the payload to be transmitted over the radio link. Before its transmission, the payload is protected by appending cyclic redundancy check (CRC) bits, ciphering, whitening, and optionally encoding with a rate 1/3 or 2/3 forward error correction (FEC) code. In parallel, a packet header is assembled by the link control (LC) module and stored in the TX header register. The header is also protected with header error check (HEC) bits, whitened, and encoded with a rate 1/3 FEC code. A radio frame is obtained by first concatenating the filtered and coded header and payload information, and then preceding the resulting bit string with the access code. Finally, the radio frame is forwarded to the analog radio frontend for its transmission at a frequency f(n). The value of f(n) is provided by the hopping-frequency-select module. The corresponding receiver chain is shown at the bottom. When the access code correlator detects the arrival of a radio frame at a frequency f(n), a trigger event starts the processing in the receiver chain. The header information is extracted from the received frame, decoded, dewhitened, and stored in the receive (RX) header register. When the HEC check is successful, the receiver can start decoding, dewhitening, deciphering the payload information, and store the packet in the RX SCO or ACL buffer depending on the packet type received. From the RX buffers, the payload is carried via the logical channels US, UA, or UI to the synchronous or asynchronous I/O port. The link control module configures, monitors, and controls the transmitter and receiver chain. In case of packet data transmission, the LC module also coordinates the retransmission of erroneously received data packets with an automatic repeat request (ARQ) scheme. It also carries out the connection setup protocol, authentication, and power management control.
4.3.3.2
Digital broadcast systems are investigated since the mid of the 80ties. Main intention for going digital is to make the receiving quality of broadcast services comparable to that of CD reproduction. It gives listeners interference-free reception of high quality sound and simultaneously can provide additional service information like dynamic text labels (e.g. program titles, names of artists) or switching to traffic reports or other services. In 1992, the EUREKA147 DAB system (DAB=Digital Audio Broadcasting) was recommended world-wide by the Inter Union Technical Committee of the World Conference of Broadcasting Unions.
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In December 1994, the system achieved a world wide standard given in ITU-R recommendations BS.1114 and BO.1130. for terrestrial and satellite sound broadcasting to vehicular, portable, and fixed receivers in the VHF/UHF range. It is an accepted European Standard (ETS 300401, March 1997), adopted by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). The DAB system is a sound and data broadcasting system with high spectrum- and powerefficiency. It uses digital audio compression techniques (MPEG 1 Audio Layer II and MPEG 2 Audio Layer II) and by this achieves a spectrum efficiency equivalent or higher than that of conventional FM radio. DAB has got four transmission modes with different parameters as shown in the table below:
The DAB transmitted data consists of number of audio signals sampled at a rate of 48 kHz with a 22-bit resolution. This audio signal is then compressed at rates ranging from 32 to 384 kbps, depending upon the desired signal quality. The resulting digital data is then divided into frames of 24 ms. DAB uses differential QPSK modulation for the sub-carriers. A null-symbol (or a silence period that is slightly greater than the OFDM symbol length) is used to indicate the start of the frame. A reference OFDM symbol is then sent to serve as a starting point for the differential decoding of the QPSK sub- carriers. Differential Modulation avoids the use of complicated phase-recovery schemes. DAB uses a rate convolutional code with a constraint length of 7 for error-correction. The coding rate can also be increased using puncturing. Interleaving is used to separate the coded bits in the frequency domain as much as possible, which avoids large error bursts in the case of deep fades affecting a group of sub-carriers. DAB is designed to be a single frequency network, in which the user receives same signals from several different transmitters. This greatly enhances spectral efficiency. Even though there is a delay in the reception of signals from different transmitters, this situation can be considered as a multi-path situation and can be easily handled by selecting the guard interval properly. Further, this can be considered a form of transmit diversity, that the DAB receiver can take advantage of.
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4.3.3.3
Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) is a standard for broadcasting Digital Television over satellites, cables and thorough terrestrial (wireless) transmission. DVB was standardized by the ETSI in 1997 [89]. The following are some important parameters of DVB. It has two modes of operation: the 2k mode with 1705 sub-carriers and the 8k modes with 6817 sub-carriers. DVB uses QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-QAM sub-carrier modulation. DVB uses a Reed-Solomon outer code (204,188,t=8) and a inner convolutional code with generator polynomials (177,133 octal) combined with two layers of interleaving for error-control. Pilot Sub-carriers are used to obtain reference amplitudes and phases for coherent demodulation. Two-dimensional channel estimation is performed using the pilot sub-carriers, which aids in the reception of the OFDM signal.
Modem Manager
Modem Configuration Test Manager
Error Manager
Standardised Interfaces
Standardised Interfaces
SMAPIs
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This approach allows to separate software modules which are only waveform dependent from those which are platform dependent. As a consequence, the software structure shows three types of interfaces: I-SWAPIs: Interface Services for Waveform Aplications provides communications channel able to establish links to/from digital transceiver, BB, for control and data, miRTOS: modem interface for RTOS define a reduce set of RTOS services dedicated to DSP environment SMAPIs: Services for Management Application provide a dedicated set of services to manage the DSP software and/or the waveform The previous figure is an illustration of the DSP operting environment approach. Advantages of this software design is to separate waveform from platform which is the major SDR difficulty and so to facilitate waveform management, update and configuration. Research Issues: Design and Standardisation of SWAPIs interface definition, Design and Standardisation of miRTOS interface definition, Design and Standardisation of SMAPIs interface definition,
4.5
Primary goal of the Research in the field of SDR-BB concept is a generic hardware architecture which is able to cover as many current and upcoming wireless standards as possible. Baseband processing of the future multi-standard terminal or basestation will set very demanding requirements in computational performance and flexibility. The baseband hardware architecture should be designed and implemented with reasonable costs and energy efficiency. The current baseband hardware architectures typically consists of the following elements: General purpose processors GPPs, Digital signal processors DSPs, Special purpose hardware blocks (e.g. viterbi/turbo en-/decoder, (I)FFT, correlator, correlation filter), Busses and interconnections and, Memories. It is very probable, that the future baseband processing architectures will also consist of different kind of processing, storage and interconnection resources. As an addition to the list above, different kind of reconfigurable technologies will be used as processing elements. The reconfigurable technologies include configurable processing cores, FPGA-based approaches, embedded FPGA-based approaches and approaches based on arrays of processing elements. Still the special purpose hardware blocks will be needed also for the most demanding algorithms due to their superior silicon area and energy efficiency.
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Research is needed to define what is an optimum hardware architecture for a given wireless standard set. A crucial issue of the resulting architecture is the resulting implementation complexity, i.e. power consumption, chip area of single modules and the overall resulting architecture. This may also include research on efficient HW-Structures of re-configurable logic modules. Design flow for implementation of SW-modules for constituent standards on the hardware architecture has also to be considered. In the recent and current research of re-configurability in wireless communications, such as EC funded projects TRUST [1] and CAST [2], the problems of base band re-configuration were identified and addressed. With reference to TRUST [1], the top down design approach was adopted and it was identified that for the base band re-configuration purposes an additional entity is needed. This entity is termed Management Module. In CAST [2] designers tried to address the problem of re-configurability using the top down and bottom up approaches. Therefore, two additional separate control components were designed for managing the process of the base band re-configuration. They are Re-configurable Resource Controller [2] and Physical Layer Controller [2]. These two entities can perform the following: 1. Cover the functionality of Management Module as in TRUST, 2. Allocate physical layer resources, 3. Optimise physical layer resources in terms of: a. Power consumption, b. Speed of processing, and c. Memory usage, 4. Implement re-configuration, and 5. Accommodate different vendors. In these projects the designed base band software can be characterised as passive. This is because of a need for additional management entities to download, manipulate and control software modules in the process of re-configuration. In order to eliminate the need for these additional management units and reduce the requirements for downloading and re-configuration control signalling, further research is needed in producing new methods for designing the base band processing software. These methods should enable the base band software to be active. This means that base band software should have the ability to change functionality, behaviour and performance without the need for additional management units. These actions should be completed by base band software itself. Hence, there will be reduced requirements for downloading and re-configuration control signalling. This approach should allow the design to be based upon known methods with clearly defined data flow, control mechanisms and interfaces. Procedures for re-configuration should also be simple and well defined.
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In addition, the research should be conducted in identifying a specification for enhancing existing Real Time Operating Systems into Software Defined Radio based Real Time Operating Systems (SDRbRTOS). The SDRbRTOS will be needed to support active base band processing software and perform optimisation of re-configurable physical layer hardware. The overall research process therefore includes: Thorough analysis of existing wireless standards, Tracking of trends in upcoming wireless standards, Analysis and discussion of SDR-BB architecture proposals, Research and analysis of state-of the art and future component technology, including General Purpose-DSP, memory, re-configurable logic, semiconductor technology, Comparison of cost with conventional approaches.
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5 The Missing Link Management, Control and Data Interfaces to connect SDR Platform and SDR Software Architecture
Basis for reconfigurable equipment are a powerful processing platform and a sensible and structured software architecture capable to implement the system requirements of the various RATs. Major task of this SW architecture is to integrate the different technologies and platforms and to use the programmability of these platforms to make systems reconfigurable. An architectural framework has to be developed which considers the inclusion of open programming interfaces for both the application layer but also for the lower system levels (i.e. an open programming interface for RAT implementation software). Assuming the availability of ideal SDR terminal, the definition of the interfaces necessary would be simplified. However, reality demands the modularisation of various functional blocks within the receiver and transmitter chains of SDR terminals, as can be seen in Figure 6 and Figure 17 as well as the sections on reconfigurable RF and BB parts. Reconfigurable terminals have, in contrast to non-reconfigurable terminals, the additional need to provide a basic connectivity, in particular if the terminal is not configured to an available RAT. This connectivity can be achieved by polling, or scanning the radio environment and by reverting the terminal to the required configuration (n.b. this requires that a RAT is identified and the configuration software necessary is stored within the terminal [23]). Or, alternatively, by specification and establishment of a global connectivity channel, which could implement the required support infrastructure for reconfiguration of SDR terminals [97]. Independent which approach is being followed, both possibilities require additional features for reconfiguration control and management of the configurations and configurable radio modules/components. The following sections of this chapter describe the various interfaces of reconfigurable systems, starting with the separation of commercial and reconfiguration related traffic, followed by a look into the separation within and between the reconfigurable BB and RF parts of SDR terminals. The next step then will be the identification of the various control and management interfaces and finally an overview about possible software structures of SDR-radio implementations/configurations.
5.1 Information Exchange between Network and Terminal: Data and Reconfiguration Related Traffic
Once available, reconfigurable radios will provide implementations of mobile communication terminals that adhere to given RAT standards (e.g. UMTS, GPRS, H2, IEEE802.11, etc.). These (software defined) radio implementations will provide, as a minimum, all services and functions that a hardwired terminal of the chosen standard would offer. However, to undertake reconfigurations during runtime, reconfigurable terminals do require the means to control and manage such reconfiguration processes.
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Figure 40 depicts the principle of this, whereby the data and RAN signalling traffic is handled in the RAT implementation within the SDR terminal (using d (data) interfaces), whilst the reconfiguration related traffic requires its own (virtual) transport mechanism (confined by C (control) interfaces).
SDR platform
Antenna d RF d BB d General Proc. d User I/O
c CONTROL
Ant
RF
BB
The c interfaces in Figure 40 do provide the gateway between reconfiguration management and the modules of the implementation platform. Whilst some aspects of configuration management have been researched in TRUST [23] and a Reconfiguration Management Architecture (RMA) has been developed within Mobile VCE [25] [88], the Control and Management interfaces between the radio implementation platform and the Control/Management module are yet to be defined.
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Applications
Middleware Platform
Network Platform
Hardware Platform
Mobile-Resident Network-Resident
The four layers interact with each other using well-defined interfaces (i.e. these interfaces are subject to research and standardisation). In addition to their regular tasks and cooperation with neighbouring layers in an operational setting, each layer must also be reconfigurable individually and independently via configuration interfaces. The configuration interfaces are used to access either parameterise elements within the layer, or to add, exchange, or remove complete elements. The principle of this has been shown in Figure 22. In the following subsections, the Middleware and Network platform layers are described in detail, whilst application and hardware platform are not covered in this section, their interfaces however (as shown in Figure 41) will need to be defined.
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Services
Applications
End-User Applications Calendar, Calculator End-User Services Video Conference, Multimedia Chat, Emergency Locator, Email multimedia chat Support Applications & Services Billing, Profile Management, Context Accumulation, Media Conversion
Service Platform
RPC (1..n) Streams (1..m) Events (1..p) RPCs CORBA, RMI, SOAP Streams RTP Signaling & Call Control H.323, SIP, Parlay Lookup & Support UDDI, Naming, Trading
Middleware Platform
Figure 42: Middleware Platform and Applications
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Config. Agent
Middleware
Reliable OS Routing Protocol QoS Protocol Connec tion APIs Active Network Support
Computing Platform
Programmable L2 / L3 Switching / Routing Engine -Dedicated HW -OS Kernel Module
Filtering
Security
QoS
Forwarding Engine
Event Trigger 1..y Param eters 1..z wLAN Module IMT 200 Module Wired Nework Optical Network .
Firmware 1..x
Interface Modules
Similar to the middleware layer, an architecture for the networking in a mobile network is shown in Figure 44. There are three programmable/reconfigurable components within the layer:
A computing platform serves as a general purpose platform for processing of stateful protocols, e.g. routing, QoS signalling or connection management. A forwarding engine in the data path of a network node connects the different interface modules (e.g. by use of a switch matrix). This engine can be implemented as dedicated hardware or as kernel module (as commonly done in most operating systems). The forwarding engine is programmable for performance-critical tasks, which are performed on a per-packet basis. The interface modules are media specific and depend on the different wireless or wired standards. They can be configured or programmed to adapt to new physical layer protocols or to trigger events in higher layers.
Installation of new components and reconfiguration of the functionality within this layer can be performed by reconfiguration management mechanisms.
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B) Mobile Terminal Architecture Second part within the Networking Platform is the mobile equipment (see Figure 44), the main components of a terminal architecture following the four layer model of figure Figure 41 include:
SIM card, e.g. USIM for UMTS, which includes subscriber identities and also a small, but highly secure execution environment, Programmable hardware, designed to implement any possible RAT, Native operating system which provides real time support, needed for stacks and certain critical applications, e.g. multimedia codecs,
The main requirements from operator and manufacturer point of view include:
Survivability, e.g. robustness to misconfigurations, failures, or mis-usage, Security for end-user, operator, and manufacturer requirements, Mass-market optimisation of hardware and software platforms balanced with time-to market and flexibility or upgrade requirements.
Applications
Config. Agent
MW
Drivers (1..n)
Stacks (1..m)
Config. Manager
Application Module
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Hardware Hardware
Interleaver, Interleaver, Coding, Coding, Burst Build, ... Burst Build, ...
Software Software
Interleave Interleave
Mapping
Multiplier HW ADC HW ADC ADC Intfc Intfc Rx-Filter Rx-Filter Equalize Equalize uProc Demod Demod Interleave Interleave
Mapping
Implementation Implementation on SDR on SDR
Architecture Schedule, Control
The principle depicted in Figure 45 is based on the assumption that a terminal consists of a number of Processing Cells (Baseband Processing Cell (BPC) in Figure 45), each of which implements a (high level) module (e.g. BB/RF) within the terminal (see Figure 6). A reconfiguration process could thereby engulf the mere exchange of few parameters, requiring a very small SW download, or a complete terminal reconfiguration requiring download of the complete SW structure to implement the required RAT. The complete description of this process can be found in [23].
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The definition and realisation of such a hierarchically ordered architecture, must consider a number of issues: What is a suitable hierarchy abstraction level and depth, What information does a scheduler need for automatic scheduling, How can low level parameters be set automatically, How do parameters effect the overall scheduling. The hierarchical description of a radio configuration combines two advantages. The first one is the abstraction of complex algorithms and complex SW module structures, which, when inherited can be described with one module name only, and the second one is the access to every detail within the (hidden) complex structure. The following section describes generic and adaptive protocols as example for such a hierarchically organised implementation.
118
same properties
same properties
step 2
step 2
System_I_specific_part
Generic_protocol_stack
System_II_specific_part
step 3
step 3
step 3 System_II_specific_protocol_stack
System_I_specific_protocol_stack
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To result in a dedicated air-interface standard, the generic protocol stack and the standard-specific supplement, have to be merged (step3). This can be done by means of inheritance. Figure 46 shows the correlations and dependencies of the aforementioned parts in the notation of UML. In order to distinguish between a specific protocol stack that is designed either conformant with the above presented approach or not, the notation System_X (non-conformant) and System_X_specific_protocol_stack (conformant) is used.
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IP-based CN
RAN B IP GLL L1
Figure 47: Multiple Link Layer Scenario compared to Generic Link Layer Scenario (GLL generic link layer, LL link layer, L1 layer 1, RAN radio access network, CN core network)
Since different radio link layers have in general the same functionality for all radio access technologies, this problem can be solved if the radio link layers are made compatible. The old radio link layer state can then be handed over to the new radio link layer, which continues the transmission in a seamless way. This is achieved by defining a generic link layer, which can be used as radio link layer for all radio links (right side of Figure 47). The Generic Link Layer (GLL) is a specified radio layer protocol, which provides the link layer functions required in every radio link layer [100]. It can be configured in a flexible manner to perform these link layer functions in an optimised way for different radio access technologies with different properties. The generic specification of radio link layer functions enables reconfiguration of the generic link layer in which the existing communication context at time of reconfiguration is transformed into a new context within the new configuration. As a result the communication session can survive the reconfiguration procedure lossless and without disruption. From a service perspective it is a seamless reconfiguration. The GLL concept requires a reconfiguration of the GLL on both sides of the wireless link, in the mobile terminal as well as in the radio access node. This is required in order to seamlessly continue with the old context of the communication. To implement a GLL following interfaces and reference points have to be define (Figure 48): The higher layer interface: Via the interface to the higher protocol layer data is received for transmission and delivered after reception. This interface further allows to configure the QoS requirements for the transmission of higher layer datagrams, The physical layer interface: At the interface to the physical layer radio blocks are sent to the physical layer for transmission over the radio link, The control interface: Via control interface the generic link layer is configured and reconfigured, The internal interface to embed specific functions: Via this interface it shall be possible to include a specific function, e.g. a ciphering algorithm, into general functions.
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GLL
generic functions internal interface specfic functions interface to physical layer interface to control and configuration manager
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Data and Real-time Control B Non-real-time Control, Setup and Initialization, from applications, other levels, user interface Network
Waveform Application
A LLC
A B LLC B
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A I/O B
The underlying structure which support actively the previous waveform model is the Core Framework (CF) which can be seen as a "waveform run time". The Figure 50 summarizes the relationships between Core Framework run-time CSCs (Computer Software Components). This UML model highlights some innovative ideas: Importance of the Resource concept: all hardware and software components are subtypes of a Resource, Introduction of the DomainManager which acts as a (re)configuration and (re)deployment co-ordinator, TestableObject class whose all components inherits through the Resource allowing to run (on-line) tests procedure on component. The Port class has no relationships with any other one because the Port concept has links only with XML classes defined in. Those XML classes do not appear at runtime, but only at load time when the DomainManager interprets the contents of Profiles files. The DomainManager can be at a network level and so coordinate the network configuration. A Network Provider can extent the DomainManager to its specific needs.
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The system and applications are described using Configuration Management Files which are a set of XML files that are collectively referred to as a Domain Profile. These files describe the identity, capabilities, properties, inter-dependencies, and location of the hardware devices and software components that make up the systems configuration. Those files describes executable configurations (e ;g : application) in terms of packages, components, devices ... Each entity is described once and referenced through hyperlink by each entity that use it. The Domain Profile database is used by ApplicationFactory for setting up new software.
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There are a number of research issues that need to be addressed in the definition of Generic and adaptable protocols and protocol stacks, these include: Definition of elementary commonalities of the various mobile communication systems, Resource-sharing within telecommunication software, Modular software design and interfaces, Reusability of software, Structure of a generic protocol stack, Nature of software extensions to an existent system, Composition of an adaptive protocol stack architecture, Identification, description & specification of GLL functions, Description & specification of GLL interfaces, Configuration management and reconfiguration of the GLL, A protocol framework for the GLL, Integration of the GLL within SDR. As described in this chapter, various research efforts have been identified and initiated on different ways. Each result exhibits advantages and discrepancies, parallel implementations and evaluations shall be conducted to define the most appropriate one. Those research efforts exhibits a model of SDR based on components or layers interconnected with interfaces and supported by an operating environment. It is obvious that the next step will be to merge those efforts in the definition of a common and shared model and to define the associated SDR framework enabling the development of baseband, services and waveform designed for reconfigurability. This SDR framework will also enable the development of the supervision and management services at the network level.
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The roadmaps treat two popular use-case scenarios. First comes the scenario for over-the-air (OTA) software upgrades and second comes the scenario for dynamic radio mode and standard switching [31]. These two scenarios correspond to applications of reconfiguration that appeal to operators according to an extensive market study on SDR requested by the SDR Forum. The deployment road-maps are graphically depicted separately for each scenario in Figure 51.
Need agreement between OEMs, operators on: Need agreement between OEMs, operators on: what can be upgraded/changed what can be upgraded/changed security, reliability, fault-tolerance, testing security, reliability, fault-tolerance, testing how the upgrade/patch is packaged how the upgrade/patch is packaged reconfiguration link & protocol reconfiguration link & protocol needed network infrastructure needed network infrastructure Deployment of operator requested software upgrades Deployment of operator requested software upgrades several algorithms in the radio interface may be defined as several algorithms in the radio interface may be defined as upgradable in order to have the capability to enhance upgradable in order to have the capability to enhance network performance and increase service quality network performance and increase service quality operators may design their proper algorithms and then ask operators may design their proper algorithms and then ask OEMs to provide the device software upgrades OEMs to provide the device software upgrades
2008
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Remote upgrades as operator provided service Remote upgrades as operator provided service a service center network entity will manage the remote a service center network entity will manage the remote upgrades for every type of terminal that can be upgraded upgrades for every type of terminal that can be upgraded
2005
Equipment design to enable remote upgrades Equipment design to enable remote upgrades bug-fixing, remote software upgrades bug-fixing, remote software upgrades terminal: wired or wireless connection (e.g. WAP, imode, ...) terminal: wired or wireless connection (e.g. WAP, imode, ...) OEM-User private affair OEM-User private affair BTS: extensions to O&M BTS: extensions to O&M
2004
PI MA AD RO
:R
em
B4: increased Terminal IQ IQ Increased Terminal B4: increased Terminal IQ IQ Increased Terminal more intelligence at the terminal in the more intelligence at the terminal in the reasoning/decision process for reasoning/decision process for download/switch download/switch less work for the network and less work for the network and less related traffic less related traffic
Standardization Standardization
2009
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A0: preliminaryPreliminary phase phase A0: preliminaryPreliminary phase phase generic HW platforms //differentiation in SWSW generic HW platformswith differentiation SWSW with differentiationin differentiation in in user initiated switch/selection user initiated switch/selection
mmode, mu lti-a pplicatio n by SW paging mmode, mu lti-a pplicatio n by SW paging no downloa d no downloa d
P MA AD RO
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ork etw
Network optimization Network optimization Network controlled download/switch, inter-standard handoff Network controlled download/switch, inter-standard handoff spectrum management spectrum management optimized radio resource allocation optimized radio resource allocation algorithm diversity for better adaptation to Tx environment algorithm diversity for better adaptation to Tx environment signaling and download via special logical/physical channels signaling and download via special logical/physical channels predictive download predictive download
Multi-mode services Multi-mode services DAB + GSM, DVB + UMTS, ... DAB + GSM, DVB + UMTS, ...
2003
Network controlled switching Network controlled switching 2G-2.5G-3G-WLAN operation for coverage, QoS reasons 2G-2.5G-3G-WLAN operation for coverage, QoS reasons multi-band, multi-mode operation, requiring prior multi-band, multi-mode operation, requiring prior download (of parameters) download (of parameters) network signaling issues, decision policies network signaling issues, decision policies
Need agreement on: Need agreement on: signaling & download signaling & download reconfiguration/download for inter-standard handover reconfiguration/download for inter-standard handover multi-standard services multi-standard services dynamic spectrum allocation dynamic spectrum allocation needed network infrastructure for management needed network infrastructure for management
From lower to higher impact to the network design (the existing mechanisms will have to be augmented) new multi-criteria decision processes,modifications to the signaling aspects, new logical and/or physical channels for download heterogeneous network collaboration, reconfiguration management & accounting
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Over the past ten years previous work on SDR has set a solid foundation for the future evolutions represented by these two roadmaps. Technical issues have been investigated in depth by the SDR Forum. SDRF provided feedback to 3GPP in order for MExE to make provision for the software download required by reconfigurable radios. In this spirit the introductory phase indicated in the roadmaps is based on this previous work. The introductory phase consists in designing the devices in such a way that part or all of their radio functionality is designed to be modifiable by means of software change. This requires from one hand using generic hardware platforms and increasingly software implementations and from the other hand a software architecture permitting to completely or partially modify its function statically or dynamically. In addition, at the network side there is provision in the standards (e.g. 3GPP TS 22.129) for 2G to 3G seamless handoff (i.e. GSM to UMTS). This currently works under the assumptions that standard switching does not need download and that core networks are compatible. After this introductory phase the technical focus will shift from the radio implementation to the reconfiguration aspects of SDR as well as the network involvement in the reconfiguration process. To handle these aspects previous research work, like for instance results of EU projects, provides a good starting point. Within previous studies in 5th IST FW programme dedicated studies have been performed about downloading and SDR mechanisms for dynamic installation and test on new SW modules in a terminal. Several projects (TRUST/SCOUT, CAST, PASTORAL) contributed and still contribute to elaborate proposal for implementation of Reconfiguration control unit able to access and reconfigure SW modules at each layer of the system (Application, Protocol, physical layer) These results allow to anticipate that the concept can be implemented into wireless/mobile terminals, the main limitations are linked to cost, consumption and targeted features that have to be defined for these future systems. Past experience shows that technologies evolve from simple towards more complex applications and on a need basis. Thanks to its simplicity, the scenario on software upgrades for bug-fixing and for performance enhancement as well as algorithm dynamic change (i.e. algorithm diversity) within a single mode of operation could be deployed first. Next will come simple robust schemes (e.g. based on parameter controlled reconfiguration [107]) for multi-mode/multi-service operation without or with minimal network implication. These schemes will eventually permit download and reconfiguration signalling through logical/physical channels existing within the mode of operation (e.g. GSM logical channels or GSM based wireless internet links). Alternative uplink air-interfaces could be used whenever the mode of operation disposes only of a downlink, (e.g. DAB/DVB). During this period device reconfiguration mechanisms and designs will mature a high degree of reliability of the reconfiguration processes will be attained and regulation issues will be more clear. At the same time moving towards 4G will advance work on network interoperability and network management unification. This fact will push forward software radio applications requiring more network involvement and cooperation [108]. An all-IP approach will certainly facilitate resolving these interoperability issues
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Such application may target things like: Dynamic spectrum and network resource management, More intelligent air-interface selection for "best" communication and service integration, Flexible service discovery and provision, Reconfigurable applications to support context aware network wide reconfigurability, Reconfigurable charging and security schemes. Finally, progress in the domain of identification algorithms will greatly contribute in making the reconfigurable radio devices increasingly independent. As it is shown in Figure 51, in all cases there is need for standardisation. Standards will define the required device capabilities, the needed network infrastructure support as well as the communication links and protocols needed for signalling and data transfers. As a conclusion it can be said that the way reconfiguration capabilities will be deployed in the future is not yet completely known. The above roadmaps are only a plausible work hypothesis and have to be taken as such. Other interesting use-case scenarios most probably will have to be considered as well. Commercial applications will initially consider existing air-interfaces. This is because work on future airinterfaces (e.g. 4G) is still ongoing. However a reconfigurable SDR approach offers the benefit of making possible future transition with a low impact on existing infrastructure. As the deployment will be incremental; in between deployment phases experimentation is certainly needed. System prototyping will be a valuable approach in order to concretely demonstrate solutions into a smaller scale before their application in a larger scale. Such experimentation and prototyping could be part of R&D projects investigating future telecom systems.
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7 Conclusions
This White Paper outlined the issues and technological problems of reconfigurable systems and endeavoured the definition of a Reference Model for Reconfigurable SDR Equipment and Supporting Networks. The SDR reference model includes the whole range of different access schemes available, stretches through the heterogeneous Beyond 3G environment and provides the means for interconnection of the associated variety of systems. The multitude of different radio transmission and access technologies is included in the reference model, and means for (re)configuration management in the network elements and end equipments have to be installed to control the configurations of nodes between the communication end points. The SDR reference model encompasses System and Network (including core and access network/base stations), the hardware issues in both RF & BB side and the data & control/management interfaces between the various building blocks of the reconfigurable environment. Following introduction of the multi-dimensional aspects of SDR and the needs and constraints for terminal and network reconfigurability in chapter 1, the SDR system and supporting networks reference models and architectures have been presented and analysed in details within chapter 2. A High-level Reconfiguration System Model was proposed in this chapter and existing SDR system architectures were reviewed as potential candidates for future research on reconfigurable SDR equipment and supporting networks. Network and terminal reconfigurability and adaptability were deeply covered, security having been also addressed at the end of the chapter as key area for SDR. To support the development of software defined and re-configurable radio and networks, the research on SDR System and Software Architectures will have to address the following main areas: system, network and protocol architectures supporting re-configurable equipment, network-centric re-configuration support and finally terminal-centric re-configuration support. All identified research thematics were summarized as conclusion of the chapter. The different SDR RF architectures choices have been investigated in chapter 3. This chapter reviewed issues that have arisen out of architectural considerations. Current state of the art solutions to these issues have been examined. Necessary research to extend the usefulness of these solutions to a practical SDR design has been identified. Chapter 3 discussed possible research topics, which, it is hoped, will aid the evolution of SDR hardware design. MEMS technology has been specifically examined, as it provides the possibility of innovative breakthroughs that established technologies are incapable of providing. These research thematics include: agile linear frequency translation, flexible linearity profile (FLP) amplifiers, diplexerless frequency-agile radio front-end, interference cancellation or filtering, adaptive preselect filters, frequency agile zero IF receiver, novel up-conversion techniques, digital IF processing and finally data converters. Chapter 3 also proposed a RF road-map to make the SDR transceiver become a reality.
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Chapter 4 focused on the SDR Baseband Architectures and critical components. Primary goal of the research in the field of SDR-BB concept is a generic hardware architecture which is able to cover as many current and upcoming wireless standards as possible. Baseband processing of the future multi-standard terminal or basestation will set very demanding requirements in computational performance and flexibility. It is very probable, that the future baseband processing architectures will consist of different kind of processing, storage and interconnection resources. Different kind of reconfigurable technologies will be used as processing elements. The reconfigurable technologies include configurable processing cores, FPGA-based approaches, embedded FPGA-based approaches and approaches based on arrays of processing elements. Still the special purpose hardware blocks will be needed also for the most demanding algorithms due to their superior silicon area and energy efficiency. Research is needed to define what is an optimum hardware architecture for a given wireless standard set. A crucial issue of the resulting architecture is the resulting implementation complexity, i.e. power consumption, chip area of single modules and the overall resulting architecture. This may also include research on efficient HW-Structures of re-configurable logic modules. Design flow for implementation of SWmodules for constituent standards on the hardware architecture has also to be considered. Chapter 4 was concluded with the summary of identified critical components, future directions and research goals. Chapter 5 investigated SDR equipment interfaces, protocol issues and genericity of the link layer. A powerful processing platform and a structured software architecture capable to implement the system requirements of the various RATs are core basis for the development of future reconfigurable SDR equipment. An architectural framework was developed which considers the inclusion of open programming interfaces for both the application layer but also for the lower system levels (i.e. an open programming interface for RAT implementation software). To develop this complete framework of interfaces between the building blocks of a reconfigurable equipment (terminal/base station, etc.) a number of research need to be solved, including clear separation of tasks between the different reconfigurable modules, generalisation and specification of individual generic interfaces between RF and BB as well as between BB and the GP modules, identification of all reconfiguration control/management related functions, definition of a generic control/management interface between the individual radio modules and the reconfiguration manager. The research topics associated to the definition of generic and adaptable protocols and protocol stacks have also been identified. The SRA configurability was addressed at the end of the chapter 5. A specific research challenges section concluded this chapter. Finally, chapter 6 attempted to define some plausible roadmaps for the deployment of reconfiguration applications. These roadmaps treat basic scenarios frequently mentioned in the literature: reconfiguration for remote equipment upgrades and reconfiguration for enhancing network management. Specific technical Appendixes complement the overall White Paper: Appendixes 1 to 5 (section 9.1 to 9.5) provide additional information to Chapter 2 on coupling methods, profile location, mobility management, mass up-grade and signalling. Appendix 6 (section 9.6) complements chapter 3 on amplifier linearisation schemes.
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8 References
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[77] T. Burger, Q. Q. Huang, "A 13.5mW 185-Msample/s Delta-Sigma Modulator for UMTS/GSM Dual-Standard IF Reception", IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 36, No.12, pp.1868-1878, Dec. 2001. [78] Teetzel A., Circuit Design: Design of a wideband I Q modulator, 1997 RF Design Seminar, Hewlett Packard Corporation. [79] http://products.analog.com/products/info.asp?product=AD8347 [80] Razavi B., Design Considerations for Direct-Conversion Receivers, IEEE transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing, Vol. 44, No. 6, June 1997, pp428-435. [81] Parssinen A., Jussila J., Ryynanen J., Sumanen L Halonen A.I., A 2-GHz Wide-Band Direct Conversion Receiver for WCDMA Applications, IEEE journal of Solid State Circuits Vol. 34, No. 12, December 1999, pp1893-1903. [82] M Metha et al., Reconfigurable Terminals: An Overview of Architectural Solutions, IEEE Communications Magazine, August 2001. [83] P. R. Chevillat et al., Hardware Architecture of a Software-Defined Radio fo Mobile Commmuniction Systems beyond 3G, WWRF, Helsinki, 2001. [84] P. Jung et al., Future Microelectronoic Hardware Concepts for Wireless Communication Beyond 3G, WWRF, Helsinki, 2001. [85] P . Ting et al., An adaptive Hardware Platform for SDR, WWRF, Stockholm, 2001. [86] M. Beach et al., Re-Configurable Terminals Beyond 3G: Re-Configurable Baseband, WWRF, Paris, 2001. [87] S. Hsieh et al., A SDR Transceiver Design with Re-Configurable IF and Basband Platform, WWRF, Paris 2001. [88] K. Moessner et al., Software Radio Integration and Reconfiguration Management, WWRF, Paris, 2001. [89] A. Marath et al., System Level Issues in the Implementation of a Mulimode Terminal (WCDMA+GSM+802.11a+802.11b WLAN), WWRF, Tempe, 2002. [90] T. Rautio et al., SDR Architecture Design for Future Information Sense Terminals, WWRF, Tempe, 2002. [91] L. Kristiansen: TINA-C Service Architecture. Version 5.0. TINA-C, 1997. [92] OMG Telecommunications Specifications: Telecom Service Access & Subscription. http://www.omg.org/cgi-bin/doc?dtc/2000-10-03 [93] The Parlay Group: http://www.parlay.org, 2002. [94] M. Siebert, Design of a Generic Protocol Stack for an Adaptive Terminal, Proc. of the 1st Karlsruhe Workshop on Software Radios, pp. 31-34, Karlsruhe, Germany, March 2000. [95] M. Siebert, B. Walke, Design of Generic and Adaptive Protocol Software (DGAPS), Proc. of the Third Generation Wireless and Beyond (3Gwireless '01), San Francisco, US, June 2001. [96] M. Siebert, M. Steppler, Software Engineering in the face of 3/4G Mobile Communication Systems, Proc.of the 10th Aachen Symposium on Signal Theory, ISBN 3-8007-2610-6, pp. 89-94, Aachen, Germany, September 2001. [97] K. Moessner Reconfigureable Mobile Communication Networks, Doctoral Thesis, University of Surrey, UK, 2001. [98] J. Mitola, Software Radio Architecture Object-Oriented Approaches to Wireless Systems Engineering, Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0-471-38492-5, 2000.
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[99] 3GPP TS 25.322, RLC protocol specification, ftp://ftp.3gpp.org/specs/latest/Rel4/25_series/25322-430.zip. [100] Joachim Sachs, Andreas Schieder, Generic Link Layer, Wireless World Research Forum, Tempe, USA, March 7-8 2002 [101] "Request For Proposal PIM and PSM for SWRADIO Components", Object Management Group Document swradio/02-06-02, http://cgi.omg.org/cgi-bin/doc?swradio/02-06-02 . [102] Sun Microsystems: Mobile Information Device Profile (JSR-37), JCP Specification, Java2 Platform, Micro Edition, 1.0, September 2000. [103] Sun Microsystems: Mobile Information Device Profile, v2.0 (JSR-118), Public Draft Specification, Java2 Platform, Micro Edition, 2002. [104] R. Hirschfeld, W. Kellerer, C. Prehofer, H. Berndt: An Integrated System Concept for Fourth Generation Mobile Communication. Eurescom Summit 2002, to appear. [105] An Architecture Supporting Adaptation and Evolution in Fourth Generation Mobile Communication Systems, Robert Hirschfeld, Wolfgang Kellerer, Christian Prehofer, K. Kawamura, Hendrik Berndt, submitted [106] A. T. Campbell, M. E. Kounavis, and R. R.-F. Liao: Programmable Mobile Networks. Computer Networks, Vol. 31, No. 7, pg. 741-765, April 1999. [107] H. Harada, Y. Kamio, M. Fujise, Multimode Software Radio System by Parameter Controlled and Telecommunication Component Block Embedded Digital Signal Processing Hardware, IEICE Trans. on Communications, vol..E83-B, no.6, pp.1217. [108] J. Pereira, Re-Defining Software (Defined) Radio: Re-Configurable Radio Systems and Networks, IEICE Transactions on Communications, vol. E83-B, no. 6 pp. 1174, 2000.
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9 Appendixes
9.1 Appendix 1: Coupling Methods
Open Coupling Scenario The term Open coupling wants to indicate that there is no a real integration effort between two or more access technologies. In fact in this scenario, two access networks, for example WLAN and UMTS, a Billing system is shared between them. It means that separate authentication procedures are used (i.e. SIM based authentication for 3G system and simply user name and password for WLAN) and a common database system is used for handle the billing between the different technologies.
Loose Coupling Scenario Taking as reference the [ETSI TR 101 957 (v1.1.1 2001-08) technical Report], loose coupling is defined as utilization of a generic RAT as an access network complementary to current 3G access networks, utilizing the subscriber databases but without any user plane Iu interface, i.e. avoiding the SGSN, GGSN nodes. The operator will still be able to utilize the same subscriber database for existing 3G clients and new RATs clients, allowing centralized billing and maintenance for different technologies. One of the consequences of this kind of coupling is that the service in progress, is dropped during the switch between the two RATs because there is no a real integration between different RATs except for the sharing of the subscriber database. For the software download scenario, it means that it is not possible to maintain the download of the software when the terminal changes type of coverage. For the loose coupling scenario, the core network coordinates sub-networks during the interworking.
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For the authentication and billing, one customer database and procedure is used, and a new link between the wISP and the 3G-core network is provided and need to be standardized (AAA-HLR link). It means that the user has to perform an unique subscription if the network provider is the same for both network, or alternatively, the user has to perform an unique subscription to a certain service that will be available for both access networks.
Tight Coupling Scenario In the tight coupling, the generic RAT network is connected to the rest of the core of the UMTS network in the same manner as an UMTS radio access sub network (UTRAN). One of the most relevant aspects is that the tight coupling interworking requires the definition of the Iu interface between different radio access technologies and that the vertical handover can be supported. In this scenario the interworking between different RATs is performed at SGSN level In the tight coupling scenario, the interface between different radio access networks is located in the Core network (i.e. SGSN) and the vertical handover is also managed at that level.
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Tighter (Very Tight) Coupling Scenario This scenario is similar to the tight coupling one, however WLAN is viewed as a cell managed at the RNC, i.e. WLAN became a part of the UMTS. In tighter (very tight) coupling scenarios the RAN (RNC) itself manages the intersystem handover this will insure seamless handover but additional standardization effort is needed. In the case of handover between WLAN and UMTS, WLAN access is similar to UTRAN [ETSI DTSI/BRAN-0020003-2v0.c]
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SGSN
SGSN
SGSN
3GRNC
RAT3, 4
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Macro Mobility Management To handle Macro Mobility situations, Mobile IP is currently the best solution. Mobile IP provides roaming capability to users by utilising agents in each domain. When a mobile host visits a foreign network, a temporary address (care-of address) is given to the host. This is used to receive IP traffic in the foreign domain. An agent in each foreign network (the foreign agent) handles the registration of visiting hosts. Registration is accomplished by using an agent that resides in the hosts home domain (the home agent). This binds the users real IP address with the temporary IP care-of address. Any traffic bound for the roaming host is then forwarded by the home agent to the correct foreign network. A route optimisation option for Mobile IP allows roaming hosts and corresponding IP hosts to bypass the home agent. In the new version of the Internet Protocol (IPv6), a foreign agent is no longer needed because the network assign automatically the new address and the terminal is able to understand that it is attached to a foreign network. Then the terminal sends a binding packet to the home agent (located in the home network). When a terminal wants to contact it, the home agent is involved only the first time because the terminal called inform the caller of the new IP address ( the IP address assigned by the foreign network. The Proxy could support this mechanism, implementing some functionality that permit to act as MIP client on behalf of a terminal if the radio link doesnt support IP protocol (i.e GSM terminal). This concept is called Virtual Mobile Host (VMH) and is particular useful for supporting pure Rel 99 CS terminals where MIP cannot be supported on the terminal. An other way to manage macro mobility is provided by the application level protocol SIP. The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is an emerging protocol, designed to provide basic call control and application-layer signalling for voice and multimedia sessions in a packet-switched network. SIP is able to provide session management, personal, as well as, service mobility. Some SIP extensions have been proposed to extend the protocol in order to support also terminal mobility, resolving some of the problems associated with Mobile IP. Even if there are not constraints, usally SIP is used over UDP so it is indicated for real-time communications. Therefore the best solution would be a hybrid scheme (SIP for real-time and Mobile IP for non-real-time mobile communications) based on a policy table. Micro Mobility Management Mobile IP suffers from several well-known weaknesses that have led to the definition of the macro/micro mobility architecture: Latency and control traffic: in Mobile IP, the basic mobility management procedure is the registration to the HA each time the mobile changes of network and it can take a very long time. In the case of a quickly moving mobile, which rapidly changes of network, the registration process will become totally inefficient. Address space: Mobile IP requires the availability of an entire pool of valid addresses to serve as care of address (COA) in each domain. Unfortunately, the IPv4 address space has now reached its limits. This has partly led to the definition of IPv6 but we can expect that IPv4 will remain used for many years.
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Quality of Service: frequent changes of point of attachment and of COA make difficult to support Quality of Service for mobile users.
As explained above, Mobile IP has some weaknesses that had led to the different vision Macro/Micro Mobility. Foloowing the consideration above, the management of the mobility can be performed by Mobile IP in Macro mobility situation (with possible support of SIP), while, in Micro mobility situation, new candidates have to be found. At present, the most plausible candidates are: Hierarchical Mobile IP [Hierarchical MIPv6 mobility management (HMIPv6) Internet draft, draft-ietf-mobileip-hmipv6-06.txt July 2002]: this protocol is built on top of Mobile IP and separate local mobility (within a site) from global mobility (across site) management. Local handoffs are managed locally and transparently to the mobile nodecorrespondent hosts while global mobility is managed with Mobile IP. To achieve this mechanism a new network element is defined, namely MAP (Mobility Anchor Point). Mobile Node uses MAP as care of address, during the movements inside a MAP domain. Every terminal receives an IP address from a MAP and every packet addressed to a particular user is forwarded by the MAP itself until the terminal remains under a particular MAP domain, holding the same care of address and without the needing to inform the home network. Cellular IP [Internet draft, draft-ietf-mobileip-cellularip-00.txt, January 2000]: this protocol relies on Mobile IP for the macro mobility management, while for local mobility uses a very specialized Agent acts as gateway towards the Internet and as Mobile IP Foreign Agent. Mobile user connected to the network uses the IP of the gateway as care of address. The Uplink packets are routed from the mobile node to the gateway by a hop by hop way: the path information are stored on the nodes met during the transmission and these information are used by the downlink packets to reach the mobile node. To achieve this mechanism, each node maintains a routing cache that is periodically updated by beacon packets sent by the gateway or by route update packets sent by the Mobile node when it connects to the network or changes the point of attachment (handover). Cellular IP manages the handover by two different modes: hard handoff and semi-soft handoff. The hard handoff provides no guarantees while the semi-soft handoff ensures that the packet losses will be very reduced. HAWAII [Internet draft, draft-ietf-mobileip-hawaii-00.txt, June 1999]: this protocol is similar to Cellular IP. In fact it is a micro mobility protocol relying on Mobile IP for the macro mobility and organizes the network as a tree with a single gateway (Domain Root Router) located at the root of the tree. The mobility is managed by the creation of special paths between the gateway and the terminal and the maintaining of such paths is possible by control messages sent by radio stations them self. HAWAII defines two different handover mechanisms adapted to different radio access technologies. These two mechanisms present different properties and can be chosen to optimize the network with respect to packet losses, handoff latency or packet reordering.
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Internet Backbone
SRM
TRSA
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TRSA
SRM
TRSA
SRM
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PRM
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Figure 57: Example of a Mass Reconfiguration Process Initiated by an External Server with the Use of IP Multicast
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Terminal
Request Available Modes (Terminal profile included)
PRM 1
PRM 2
Check for useful mode Response Available Modes (Long-term info included) Scan for alternative mode Promising mode detected Request Short-term Information Request Short-term Information Response Short-term Information Response Short-term Information Estimate probability for mode switching decision Check cache for software Request Reconfiguration Software Download Reconfiguration Software Decision for mode switching Request Reconfiguration Software Check cache for software Request Reconfiguration Software Download Reconfiguration Software Download Reconfiguration Software Mode switching Forward Terminal Profile
1.
2.
3.
4.
Figure 58: Signalling between the Terminal, the current PRM (PRM 1) and the new PRM (PRM 2) in the Mode Switching Case
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Application/Driver Update Signalling In Figure 59 the signalling in a terminal initiated software update process is presented.
Terminal PRM SRM Server 1.
Request Software Update Check cache for software Response Software Update Request Software Update Search in database Response Software Update Request Software Update Response Software Update Store update in database Response Software Update Put update in cache Check priority of update request Schedule download Response Software Update
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Figure 59: Signalling between Reconfiguration Network Entities during Application Update Process
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1. The terminal needs an update of an application or a new driver version and sends a request directed to the server providing the desired software module. A priority indication is included in the request, to describe the urgency of the update. 2. All requests from the terminal cross the local PRM. The PRM checks, if the requested file is already stored in the local cache. If it is available, the request is no further forwarded and the desired update is transmitted out of the cache to the terminal. Otherwise the PRM forwards the request to the corresponding SRM over the PRM-SRM interface. 3. If the request reaches the SRM, the SRM looks into its database if the module is stored. If this is the case, the SRM sends the module to the PRM and from here the module is forwarded to the terminal. If the module is not stored in the SRMs database, the request is after all forwarded to the server. 4. The server receives the request for the software update, gets the module out of his database and delivers it in the direction of the terminal. 5. Now the update packets cross the SRM. Because the files are not yet in the local database of the SRM, the SRM stores and forwards them to the PRM. 6. The PRM put the update module in its local cache. Now the priority indication of the initial request is taken into account. If there is a high priority and/or the network load is low, the packets should be forwarded to the terminal immediately. If, on the other hand, the priority is low and the network load is high, the delivery to the terminal should be scheduled. Network Initiated Update The network initiated reconfiguration procedure of the presented architecture requires multicast functionality in the radio access networks and backbone as well. The necessary message exchange between the architectural components before and during a mass upgrade process is shown in Figure 61. 1. The terminal announces a terminal profile describing the reconfigurable software and hardware components of the terminal. 2. The PRM joins for every manufacturer a multicast group and sends therefore IGMP join group messages to the SRM, who is the next multicast router. The SRM forwards these messages to its next multicast router. 3. If the manufacturer server initiates a mass upgrade, the data packets are delivered per multicast to the recipients. In addition the update is marked by a priority parameter similar to the one in the terminal initiated case. 4. If the multicast packets arrive at the SRM, the SRM stores the update in its database and forwards it according to its multicast router functionality to the PRMs. 5. The PRM puts the update file in its local cache. In the next step the PRM compares the available resources on the radio interface and the priority parameter of the update massage. In dependence on the result, the PRM can schedule the download. For the delivery of the update on the radio interface the PRM can make use of a broadcast transmission to use the available resources more efficient, if more than one terminal in a cell is concerned.
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Terminal
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SRM
Server 1.
Announce Terminal Profile Join multicast groups IGMP Group Join IGMP Group Join Initiate mass upgrade Multicast Upgrade Store update in database Multicast Upgrade Put update in cache Check priority of update request Schedule download Deliver Software Update
2.
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Notification or Reconfiguration to the Server Application For all-IP networks, TCP should most likely be the transport protocol used for reliable connections. For an SDR terminal, the handover delay also needs to include the reconfiguration time. This extra delay increases the probability of losing packets in the reconfiguration process. If the disconnection time is big and the user is involved in an active session, the application can be adversely affected if it is not accordingly notified of the cause of the disconnection. Some applications using TCP in their transport protocol or some TCP-friendly applications might react with retransmission time-outs or reducing the sending rate as a result of this lack of connection. This reduces the performance obtained by the terminal considerably, specially if relative frequent reconfigurations and vertical handovers take place the obtained throughput might get degraded quite heavily.
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The common trend for new access networks is the continuous provision of higher data rates. This is also a factor to be considered if the terminal does not have any connection during reconfiguration and handover, since the amount of data is proportional to the data rate offered by the access network. Having 1 second disruption might suppose losses of some few kilobits (9.6) for current GSM networks, however, for UMTS for the same period some data losses of several hundreds of kilobits or even more (theoretically up to 2 Megabits) might occur. If the server is notified about the terminal disconnection, it can pause the transmission and freeze the transmission state, once the terminal registers in the new network the download can be resumed. By doing this, the probability of packet losses gets reduced. The proposal is shown in Figure 61.
Terminal PRM1
Software Download Decission for reconfiguration Request Reconfiguration Software Check cache for software Request Reconfiguration Software
Download Reconfiguration Software Download Reconfiguration Software
PRM2
Server 1.
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Pause Download Mode switching Buffer packets from server (sent before the pause signal arrived) Pause Download
3.
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Continue Download
Figure 61: Signalling between Terminal, current and new PRM and Server in order to enhance Software Download Process
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1.
In a first state, the terminal is performing a download from a server. This software is not required for the forthcoming mode switching, it might be related to terminal reconfiguration, for example downloading a new application or an update, but it could also be any kind of download, e.g. downloading a file from the internet, or in general for any connection using TCP protocol in the transport layer. 2. Before finalising the software download, the terminal needs to reconfigure to another mode. For this purpose it contacts its PRM for the download of the reconfiguration software. The PRM obtains the required software on behalf of the terminal. The terminal then downloads the modules from the PRM. This step does not have any influence on the described mechanism. If the terminal already had the required software for the reconfiguration, this step is not required, but the idea is still valid. 3. Before carrying out the reconfiguration and handover, the terminal sends the pause signal to the server via the PRM. Due to the transmission delay, it is most likely that some data packets have left the server before the pause signal arrives. Since the terminal is performing the reconfiguration process it is not able to receive them. The PRM is then in charge to collect this packets and store them. 4. The PRM can forward the buffered packets as part of the context transfer to the new PRM. Once the terminal has been reconfigured and correctly registered, it can received the missing packets from the new PRM and notify the server in order to continuing the download. This way, packet losses or unnecessary retransmissions and their consequences in terms lower throughput are avoided.
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90
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+
Ifb
Channel Synthesiser
Splitter
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Research Issues Bandwidth, Loop Stability. Feedforward Linearisation For wide band9 linearisation, feedforward can be used. With this technique a replica of the distortion components is obtained by subtracting the distorted output of the main PA from the wanted signal. The distortion components are then amplified and subtracted from the output of the PA. An undistorted output is therefore produced. This process is illustrated in Figure 63. The process requires accurate delay matching between the signal cancellation and the error cancellation loops, if wideband operation is required. The drawbacks with this technique are the loss of efficiency due to power loss in the error amplifier, and the signal splitting that occurs at the output of the PA.
Amplified signal plus distortion components Main PA
G1
T2
Splitter Variable time delay
Attenuator
Subtract
G2
T1
Variable time delay replica of wanted signal
Research Issues Power efficiency, Adaptability to changing conditions, Application over very wide bands.
Bandwidths of the order of 30MHz have been achieved with this system. 154
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Predistorsion Predistortion is a broadband technique10 used to linearise PAs. Essentially a network with complementary distortion characteristics to the main PA is placed before the PA. The required complementary characteristics can be generated at baseband or RF and be implemented by analogue or digital circuits (although digital implementation is obviously more suited to baseband implementation). This technique operates open loop, so the non-linear characteristics of the PA must be known in advance if accurate mapping of the predistortion to the PA is to be achieved. Research Issues Adaptability to changing conditions, Application over very wide bands.
Predistorter vin
v pd
v pd
vout
vin
v pd
Figure 64: Linearisation using Predistortion
vin
Amplifier Linearisation Schemes: Envelope Separation Based One possible way of designing an amplifier which combines the advantage of being power efficient, whilst being at the same time linear, is to separate the signal into parts where the amplitude varies, and parts where the amplitude is constant. The constant amplitude component is amplified in a highly efficient non-linear amplifier, and the variable amplitude component is amplified in a linear amplifier. The next three sections describe amplifier linearisation techniques that utilise this principle. As it turns out, the amplitude fluctuations can be represented by phase changes of two component signals. The required amplitude changes can be achieved using a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO). LINC and CALLUM make use of this
10
Bandwidths of the order of 100MHz have been achieved with analogue predistortion. This reduces to about 100kHz using digital predistortion. 155
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1) Amplifier Linearisation Schemes: Envelope Separation Based Originated by Kahn [3] in the 1950s for application to SSB transmission, where information is carried in both amplitude and phase, the technique is applicable to all linear modulation. Figure 65 shows the system. The low-power modulated signal at RF is sampled and this sample is used to derive a low frequency control signal that, after amplification in a video amplifier, directly modulates the high power RF signal. The incident RF signal is limited so that the RF power amplifier sees only phase variation, thus any AM-PM distortion in the non-linear power device is eliminated.
Limiter Low power RF Signal Tap Power Amplifier Mixer High power RF Signal
2) LINC Linear Amplification with Non-linear Components The LINC and CALLUM transmitter architectures are based on a technique dating back to the 1930s [4]. In general terms, a number of constant-envelope phase varying phasors are generated and combined in order to form an envelope-varying signal. A significant amount of gain can be applied to each individual phasor via an efficient non-linear process, as no in-band distortion will be generated. Both of these architectures are useful for linear transmitters, as the frequency upconversion process is inherent within the design. The LINC system is shown in Figure 66. The input may be in the form of polar or rectangular specified baseband data. This data is converted into a pair (potentially more) of phase varying phasors of constant amplitude. The information content is unchanged during this process, however, the redundancy of two power amplifiers can be employed to exploit non-linear efficient operation. VCOs are shown in Figure 66, which translate the information to the carrier frequency.
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In some realisations of this technique, direct phasors are generated within the DSP and analogue mixers are used to perform the frequency translation. Here, the local oscillator power may be kept low. The instantaneous magnitude of the combined output of the two power amplifiers is a function of the difference in phasor angle. The instantaneous phase of the combined output of the two power amplifiers is a function of the absolute phase of the two phasors.
G
DSP Dual phasor Generation VCOs @ Carrier Frequency Power Amplifiers
G
Figure 66: LINC Linear Transmitter Architecture
LINC is an open loop system and consequently it suffers from the lack of adaptability to changing conditions, which this type of system exhibits. Additionally, the DC-RF efficiency of this technique is limited by the use of signal cancellation in the output coupler to form low magnitude signals. Under such circumstances, most of the generated power is dissipated within the fourth port of the combiner (which may be virtual). The LINC technique has been superseded to some degree by CALLUM. 3) CALLUM Combined Analogue Locked Loop Universal Modulator The open loop problems of LINC, are resolved in CALLUM [6] [7]. where any imbalances between the two analogue chains are continually compensated. The bandwidth of operation of this scheme is limited by the relatively high-gain control loop. The comparison process operates in quadrature components, limiting the input format to I and Q. There are several extensions to this scheme, resulting in CALLUM1 and CALLUM2. These extensions to the basic operating principle are based around the requirements of system stability, reduced complexity, and useable bandwidth. Research Issues Efficiency of power combining networks.
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+ _
VCO
cos( ct)
Non-linear amplifier
sin( ct)
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_ +
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Mixer Linearization The inherent nonlinearity of mixers is particularly acute in SDR applications. Here, the broadband receiver frontend sees not only the wanted channel, but also a number of nearby signals. A non-linear mixer will downconvert all of these received channels together with the wanted channel to IF. During this frequency translation process inband interference caused by the nearby signals will be added to the wanted channel, making it potentially more difficult or even impossible for the receiver to correctly detect the wanted signal. This places demanding filtering requirements on a broadband receiver frontend to reject the out-of-band unwanted channels (blockers) entering the mixer. Filtering-out strong interfering nearby channels at high RF frequencies is difficult. In a traditional radio application, the frequency of transmission and reception will be fixed and the filter parameters will be set only for these known frequencies. This is incompatible with the SDR concept and filtering-out the blockers of multiple standards will be a challenging task for RF designer, thus making a linear mixer for a SDR frontend an attractive proposition. Available mixer linearisation techniques were investigated. It is found that, these techniques are unable to simultaneously offer a large dynamic range, low noise performance and suppress intermodulation distortion (IMD). A new technique using frequency retranslation was proposed ([54], [55]) in order to overcome these shortcomings.
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The system has been developed and a prototype demonstrator was constructed as a receiver downconverting RF to IF (see Figure 68). This technique frequency translates the distorted IF output back to RF and generates an error signal to predistort the input of the nonlinear mixer.
RF RF
Downconverting Mixer RF
RF
IF
e
LO
RF
RF
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IF Upconverting Mixer
Measured results indicate an impressive 33dB suppression of third-order IMD (IM3), whilst at the same time the noise floor is not effected. This improvement corresponds to about 16dB improvement of output TOI and dynamic range. The same prototype was also tested with a TETRA /4-DQPSK signal and a 22dB improvement in adjacent channel interference (ACI) was measured. Research Issues Improved linearisation bandwidth and dynamic range, Adaptive control scheme for practical application of the technique.
Image Signals and Variable Preselect Filters Image signals are a problem that must be dealt with if a superhetrodyne receiver is being employed. One possible way of achieving this is to make use of a variable preselect filter. An image reject filter will always operate at RF, therefore, the option for the design of a flexible preselect filter is at present limited to realisation as either a distributed component design or as a MMIC. There have been a few variable MMIC filter designs reported in the literature, notably that of Katzin et al. [56]. The device described in this technical paper was produced as a prototype MMIC for the Hittite Corporation. Two versions were produced, both exhibiting ~100MHz bandwidth. One had a centre frequency that could be swept from 1,500 to 2,000MHz, and the other a centre frequency sweepable from 1,980 to 2,650MHz. The filter unfortunately never progressed beyond the prototype stage, due to lack of sufficient dynamic range [57].
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Non linearity is introduced into MMIC designs from two sources. Firstly it occurs because a varactor is often used to tune the filter. Secondly, a nonlinear active device is often used to compensate losses in MMIC filter components11. There are several classic types of distributed component microwave filters. If we restrict consideration to those filters, which could conceivably be realised in microstrip, or similar, technology, then we are left with the following list: End coupled microstrip, Edge coupled microstrip with open circuit or short circuit termination, Interdigital microstrip, Combline microstrip, Hairpin microstrip. Most of these filter architectures were developed in the late 50s early 60s [58] [59]. All of these filter architectures are designed for a fixed centre frequency, fixed bandwidth application; the question thus remains as to how they might be electronically tuned. A number of suggestions are listed below: Varactor diode tuning at some strategic point on the filter structure, Constructing the filter on a substrate, whose dielectric constant could be electrically varied, Switching parts of the transmission line so that the physical characteristics of the filter structure could be changed. Varactor diode tuning has been investigated with Combline filters [60]. Filter designs are reported in which the centre frequency can be swept from 3,200MHz to 4,800MHz with a bandwidth of about 200MHz. Reported insertion loss for such a filter is of the order of 5dB. Such a filter structure is likely to exhibit distortion problems, because of the presence of the non-linear, varactor, diodes. It would be possible to sweep the filter characteristic by sweeping the effective dielectric constant of the substrate. As the electrical length of a transmission line is inversely proportional to the square root of the dielectric constant, this will cause the centre frequency of the filter to vary. The substrate would allow the dielectric constant to change, in response to variation in an electrical bias. Such a substrate material has been developed by a research laboratory in the UK. This technology has been subsequently sold on to a third party, and its commercial future is presently uncertain.
11
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Switching the component parts of a filter, in and out of circuit, using Micro-Electro-Mechanical Structures (MEMS) seems to offer an alternative solution [61]. The use of Electro-mechanical switches will mean that the filter is composed entirely of linear components, and therefore the dynamic range of the filter should not be prejudiced. The major problem with electrically switching a filter is to preserve the filter geometry as the centre frequency is translated, whilst at the same time utilising an essentially simple switching arrangement. Structures, such as edge coupled lines, or inter-digitised filters, have geometry problems as switching extends line lengths. At the time of writing, the simplest arrangement for tuning the filter characteristic would appear to be some form of slow wave filter. A slow wave filter has capacitive loading at each end of a short transmission line. The modified hairpin structure shown in Figure 69 is a member of this family (see [62]). This filter has a coupled line, which loads the top of the hairpin and forms part of the filter resonator. Interstage transformer action is bought about by edge coupling of the U shaped structures that make up the resonators. Tuning of this filter using MEMS can potentially be achieved by shortening the top loading coupled line via the use of a MEMS based switching arrangement.
inter-stage coupling Transmission line Open circuit coupled lines provide capacitive loading for the end of the transmission line.
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Appendix 6 References [1] S. Mann, M. A. Beach, P. A. Warr and J. P McGeehan, Increasing the talk-time of mobile radios with efficient linear transmitter architectures, IEE Electronics & Communication Engineering Journal, Vol. 13, No 2, pp., 65-76, April 2001.
[2] P. A. Warr, M. A. Beach and J. P. McGeehan, Gain-element transfer response control for octaveband feedforward amplifiers, IEE Electronics Letters, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp., 146-147, 1st February 2001.
[3] L.R. Kahn, Single Sideband Transmission by Envelope Elimination and Restoration, IRE Proceedings, Vol. 40, July 1952, pp. 803-806 [4] H. Chireix, High Power Outphasing Modulation, IRE Proceedings, Vol. 23, No. 11, November 1935, pp.1370-1392. [5] S. A. Hetzel, A. Bateman, and J.P. McGeehan, A LINC Transmitter, 42nd IEEE Vehicular Technologies Conference, Denver, May 1992, pp. 759-753. [6] D.C. Cox, Linear Amplification with nonlinear components, IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. 22, pp.1942-1945, December 1974. [7] D.J. Jennings, J.P. McGeehan, A High Efficiency RF Transmitter using VCO-derived Synthesis: CALLUM, IEEE transactions on microwave theory and techniques, Vol. 47, No. 6, June 1999, pp. 715-721. [8] T. Nesimoglu and M. A. Beach, Linearised mixer using frequency retranslation, UK Patent Application No. 0117801.1, 20th July 2001. [9] T. Nesimoglu, M. A. Beach, P. A. Warr and J. R. MacLeod, Linearised Mixer using Frequency Retranslation, IEE Electronics Letters, Vol. 37, No. 25, pp., 1493-1494, December 2001. [10] P. Katzin, V.Aparin, Active, Self Adjusting, L-S Band, MMIC Filter, IEEE GaAs Symposium, pp 41-43, 1994. [11] P. Katzin, V.Aparin, Active, Self Adjusting, L-S Band, MMIC Filter, IEEE GaAs Symposium, pp 41-43, 1994. [12] P Katzin, Personal Correspondence, January 2001. [13] G. Matthaei, L. Young, E.M.T. Jones, Microwave Filters, Impedance-Matching Networks, and Coupling Structures, Artech House 1980. [14] R Levy S.B. Cohn A History of Microwave Filter Research, Design, and Development, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Technique, Vol. MTT-32, No.9, pp1055- 1067, September 1984. [15] I.C. Hunter and J.D. Rhodes Electronically Tuneable Microwave Bandpass Filters, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-30, No9, pp1354- 1360, September 1982. [16] R. Y. Loo, G. Tangonan, D. Sivenpiper, J. Schaffner, T.Y. Hsu, H.P. Hsu, Reconfigurable Antenna Elements using RF MEMS Switches, Proceedings of ISAP2000, pp 887- 890, Fukuoka, Japan, 2000. [17] M Sagawa, K Takahashi, M Makimoto. Miniaturised Hairpin Resonator Filters And Their Application To Receiver Front End MICs, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 37, No. 1`2, pp1991-1997, December 1989.
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