Electricity (Physics)

Modern Theory of Electrification You know that a glass rod gets charged when rubbed with a silk cloth. Do you know why this happens? To explain the phenomenon of charging by rubbing, you must have the basic knowledge of atomic theory.

Atoms are the building blocks of all matter in the universe. An atom consists of three main particles.
1. Protonspositively charged particles 2. Neutronsneutral particles 3. Electronsnegatively charged particles

Neutrons and protons are closely packed, forming the nucleolus, at the centre of an atom. Electrons revolve around the nucleolus in different orbits of different diameters.

Though an atom has charged particles, it is still electrically neutral. Why? In an atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. Therefore, the total positive charge is equal to the total negative charge. Thus, on the whole, the atom is electrically neutral. Valence Electrons Electrons present in the outermost orbit are called valence electrons. These electrons are loosely bound to the atom and can easily get free. It is these valence electrons that are responsible for electrification of a body. When two bodies are rubbed with each other, free electrons of one body get transferred to another body. This leaves one body with extra electrons, thus acquiring negative charge, and the other body with deficiency of electrons because of which it gets charged positively. It is important to note here that in positive electrification, protons are not transferred from one body to another; rather it is the deficiency of electrons because of which a body acquires positive charge. Glass Rod and Silk When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the valence electrons from the glass rod get transferred to the silk, thus making the glass rod positively charged and silk negatively charged. This in turn develops an attractive force between the two.

Flow of Charge: Electric Current

You know that potential difference between two points can be compared with the difference between the water levels in two connected containers. In the same way, the flow of electric current can be compared with the flow of water between the water columns.

Water always flows from higher level to lower level. Similarly, electric current always flows from high potential to low potential. Do you know how the flow of electric current occurs? The answer is very simple. The flow of electric current occurs because of the flow of charged particles. In metallic conductors, the charged particles are electrons. Therefore, we can say that the flow of electric current is nothing but a flow of electrons.

The Direction of Electric Current By convention, we consider the direction of electric current to be the same as the direction of flow of positively charged particles. As electric current in a conductor is the flow of electrons, which are negatively charged particles, the direction of flow of current is opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons. Let us now understand how electric current flows. ++++++++++++++++++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Amount of Electric Current

By now, we know that electric current is the flow of charged particles in a conductor. Therefore, the amount of current is also related to the amount of charge. The amount of electric current in a conductor is the flow of total charge per unit time.

The unit of electric current is ampere (A). It is defined as the flow of one coulomb (C) of charge in one second (s), i.e., 1 A = 1 C/ 1 s

Electroscope
You know that objects can be charged by rubbing. Is it possible to detect whether an object is carrying a charge? Electroscope is an instrument that is used to detect electrical charge on a body. How can you construct an electroscope?

It is a pretty simple device. Take an empty glass bottle and cover its mouth with a piece of cardboard. Pierce a hole in the center of the cardboard and insert a thick metal wire curved at the end. Hang two small strips of aluminum foil of the same size on the curved end of the metal wire (as shown in the figure). This is an electroscope.

Let us see how this electroscope works. Therefore, you see an electroscope is used to detect whether an object is carrying a charge or not. However, it cannot detect the type of charge (positive or negative) carried by an object.

The pith-ball electroscope and the gold leaf electroscope are two classical types of electroscopes.

Charging by Conduction

In an electroscope, the charge carried by a charged object is transferred to the aluminium strips through a metal wire. Thus, we can say that charge can be transferred from one charged body to another. However, charge can only be transferred through a good conductor of electricity. In the case of an electroscope, charge is transferred to the aluminium strips through a metal wire. Metal wires are good conductors of electricity. Thus, charge can pass through them. Let us see if charge can be transferred through the human body. It is extremely dangerous to touch an object carrying a heavy charge. In order to test whether a charge can be transferred through the human body or not, let us perform a simple activity.

Touch the metal strip of an electroscope with a charged glass rod. You will observe that the aluminium strips repel each other. You will also observe that they remain in that position even when the glass rod is removed. Now, touch the metal strip with your hand. What do you observe?

You will observe that the aluminium strips collapse to their original positions as soon as you touch the metal wire. Why does this happen? The charge carried by the aluminium strips is transferred to your body, which in turn is transferred to the ground, i.e., the charge carried by the aluminium strips is transferred to the earth through your body. Thus, you see that the human body is a good conductor of electricity. Charges flow when two conductors are brought in contact. In other words conduction only takes place between bodies in contact. Here we observe that free electrons in conductors help charges to flow. This is because charge gets easily transferred and transported in the lattice of a conductor.

Distribution of Charges on a Conductor

When electrically charged, the charges on a conductor, whether solid or hollow, reside on the outer surface of the conductor. Let us perform few experiments to see how charges are distributed on a conductor.

Biots Experiment

A is a spherical conductor and B and C are two hemispherical conductors with handles such that B and C can just fit on sphere A. When A is electrically charged, we cover it up with B and C. After some time, we detach B and C from A. Now, if we test all of them, then we will observe that the hemispheres B and C are charged, but sphere A is neutral. Why does this happen? When B and C are attached to A, the whole system acts similar to a single conductor. As electric charges only reside on the outer surface of a conductor, all the charges from A get transferred to the outer surfaces of B and C. Therefore, on detaching from A, only the hemispheres B and C contain charges whereas A becomes neutral. Faradays Butterfly-Net Experiment

Apparatus

Butterfly net made of linen Brass ring mounted on the butterfly net Insulated stand supporting the brass ring Silk thread fixed on the pointed side of the net such that it extends on both sides

Working First the net is charged by a glass rod. Then, the presence of the charges is tested on the inner as well as on the outer surface of the net with the help of a proof plane and gold leaf electroscope. It is observed that no charge is present on the inner surface of the net. All the charges are present on the outer surface only. Then the thread is pulled, hence making the inner surface outer and the outer surface inner. The same experiment is repeated. Again, it is observed that the charges are present on the new outer surface. Charges on a conductor are present only on the outer surface of the conductor. Therefore, charges are always found on the outer surface of the net and not in the inner surface. How Charges are Distributed on a Conductor Do you think that charges are always evenly distributed on a conductor? The answer is simple NO. Distribution of charges on a surface depends upon the shape of the conductor. It is observed that charges are densely packed on the pointed areas of a conducting surface or we can say that the density of charges is more on the pointed edges. The charges present on a unit surface area of a substanceare called the surface density of charges.

Take an egg-shaped conductor. Charge it and test the amount of charges at different points on it by using a proof plane or electroscope. It is observed that surface charge density is the maximum at A and the least at B.

The distributions of charges on conductors of different shapes are shown in the following figures.

Leakage of Charge Mount a conical conductor on an insulated stand. Charge the conductor with negative charges. Now, bring a candle near the pointed end of the conical conductor. You will observe that the flame of the candle bends away from the conductor. Why is it so? It is so because the surface charge density of the pointed edge is very high. Hence, when the air molecules come in contact with the pointed end, they take away some electrons from the conductor and become negatively charged. This is called the leakage of charges. These air molecules then lose the electrons to the neighbouring air molecules. The air molecules then repel each other, thus forming an electric wind, which bends the flame of the candle away from the pointed edge.

Electric Cell

We know that charge flows from higher potential to lower potential, till the equipotential condition is reached. When two conductors at different potentials are connected through a metal wire, charge starts flowing from higher potential to lower potential. This flow of charges is called electric current. The amount of electric current is defined as the total flow of charge per unit time. Flow of current between two conductors is not permanent; the conductors reach at the same potential quickly and the current stops flowing. To have a continuous supply of current, we must maintain a constant potential difference between the conductors all the time. To maintain a steady flow of current, i.e. to maintain a constant potential difference, we use electric cell. Electric Cell An electric cell is a device used for maintaining permanent potential difference with the simplest arrangement between the conductors. Its job is to simply bring electrons already in the conductors in motion. There are two types of electric cells:

Primary Cell In a primary cell, chemical energy is directly converted to electrical energy.

For example, simple voltaic cell, Leclanche cell

Secondary Cell In a secondary cell, electric energy is stored in the form of chemical energy, which is converted into electric energy on demand.

For example, lead acid cell, NiCd cell Electromotive Force (emf) When current drawn from a cell is zero, the circuit is said to be an open circuit. In an open circuit, the potential difference between the two terminals of a cell is called electromotive force. Emf of a cell depends on the following factors:

Materials of plates used in the cell Nature of electrolyte used

Emf remains constant even if the shapes or sizes of the plates of a cell are changed. Simple Voltaic Cell A simple electric cell was invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta. It was the first device capable of maintaining a constant potential difference between two plates with chemical energy. The cell was named Voltaic Cell after the inventor.

Construction:It consists of two metallic plates of copper and zinc. Each plate is attached with a brass terminal. The plates are placed in a glass vessel with the terminals connected to a voltmeter through insulated copper wires. The voltmeter records a potential difference of 1.10 volts, when sulphuric acid is poured into the container. It was assumed by Volta that the copper plate acted as the positive terminal and the zinc as the negative, and the current flew externally from copper to zinc. Theory: Ionisation potential of zinc is 0.76 volts and ionisation potential of copper is 0.34 volts. As ionisation potential of copper is more than that of zinc, zinc is more electropositive than copper. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is used as an electrolyte in the ionised state. H2 SO4 2H+ + SO42

When the zinc plate comes in contact with hydrogen ions (H+), hydrogen ions, being more electropositive, ionise zinc to form zinc ions and free electrons. Zn Zn2+ + 2e-

The free electrons move out in the external circuit towards the copper plate as they take the passage of least resistance. However, the zinc ions enter in the dilute sulphuric acid. Since Zn2+ ions are positively charged, they repulse hydrogen ions and hydrogen ions crowd up at the copper plate. Copper in turn starts losing electrons to hydrogen ions, which form nascent hydrogen. 2H+ + 2e2H

This nascent hydrogen combines to form molecular hydrogen. 2H H2

The above reactions show how free electron or charge drifts from zinc plate to copper plate in the external circuit. Therefore, it is deduced that electron flows from zinc to copper. However, by convention, we say that current flows from copper to zinc, when actually free electrons flow from zinc to copper. Emf between zinc and copper = 0.34 (0.76) = 1.10 V Drawback of this cell is that it cannot give current for more than 10 minutes as it has serious defects such as local action and polarisation.

Open and Closed Circuits

You are given a bulb, two connecting wires, and a cell. Can you join these components in such a way that the bulb will start emitting light? Let us find out how to do that ++++++++++++++++++++++++++

You have already learned so many things through the animation. Now, let us put them in words.

Simple Electric Circuit An electric circuit is a closed loop consisting of an electricity-producing device (such as a cell) and an electric device (such as a bulb). These are connected to each other using wires, as shown in the given figure.

You know that the bulb emits light when current flows through its filament. It is important to understand the importance of a simple electrical circuit. We use electrical instruments such as TV, fridge, etc. in our daily lives. A simple electrical circuit acts as the basic reference to understand these relatively complex circuits.

Do you know that current flows in a circuit because of the flow of charged particles known as electrons? Electric circuit of a torch

A torch is a practical example of a simple electric circuit. It is an electric device that emits light. It consists of a bulb, electric cells, a switch, a reflector, and a cylindrical-shaped casing. Closed Circuit Let us take a dry cell attached with a bulb as shown in the figure.

The bulb is connected to the dry cell by a copper wire. When the copper wire is connected to both the terminals of the cell, electrons start flowing, resulting in a flow of current in the wire. When the current flows through the bulb, the filament of the bulb offers resistance to the electrons, thus converting electrical energy into heat energy and resulting in the glowing of the bulb. This circuit is called closed circuit. The circuit in which current after starting from the positive terminal of a cell returns to the negative terminal of it, without any break, through a closed loop is called closed circuit. Open Circuit Now, take out the wire from one terminal of the bulb. In this situation, current does not have the closed path to return to the negative terminal of the cell. Hence, the bulb does not glow. This is called an open circuit. This circuit where the current does not have a closed path to complete the circuit is called an open circuit.

Series and Parallel Circuit

On entering his reading room, Rakesh switched on the bulb and found that the bulb did not glow because it had got fused. Then, he turned on his night bulb and was surprised to see the bulb glow. He remembered reading in his science book that current cannot flow through an open circuit. Since the filament of the bulb was broken, current could not flow through the entire circuit of the room. Then, what made the night bulb glow even when the fused bulb caused an open circuit? This happened because the bulb and the night bulb were connected in parallel combination with each other, rather than in series. A parallel connection ensured a continuous flow of current through the night bulb. To get the desired quantity of current, resistors are connected in series or parallel combination. For example, resistors used in radios, televisions, and other electronic devices are connected in series as well as in parallel combinations.

In this section, we will learn about the different combination of resistors in a circuit and the effects of such combinations in current and potential differences.
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System of Resistors

Series combination

In a series connection, all resistors are connected end to end (lengthwise) with each other. In such connections, the total resistance of the circuit increases. The given figure shows three resistors of resistances R1, R2, and R3 respectively connected in series with each other.

The equivalent resistance of the resistors connected in series is given by the algebraic sum of their individual resistances. Equivalent resistance or RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + Take three resistors of resistances 2, 4, and 6 respectively. Construct a simple electric circuit by joining them in series with a 12-V battery (as shown in the given figure). Now, note the readings in the ammeter after turning the switch on. Repeat the process by connecting the ammeter anywhere in the circuit. You will observe that the ammeter will give the same reading at any point in the circuit. Why does this happen?

This happens because an equal amount of current flows in each component of a series circuit. There is no current division in the series combination of resistors. Hence, in a series circuit, current remains constant throughout the circuit.

Now, using a voltmeter, take readings by connecting its two terminals at points AB, BC, CD, and AD respectively. Let these readings be V 1, V2, V3, and V respectively. In each case, you will observe different values of voltage. Why does this happen?

This happens because applied voltage gets divided into small voltages depending on the value of resistances of the resistors, which are connected in series. If you add voltages V1, V2, and V3 and compare it with V, then you will find that the applied voltage V is equal to the algebraic sum of the divided voltages V1, V2, and V3 respectively. Thus,

Division of voltage occurs in a series circuit. Magnitude of these divided voltages is given by using Ohms law for resistors R1, R2, and R3 respectively. Since an equal amount of current flows through each resistor, we obtain V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3 For each resistor, we have Ohms law as: V = IR Or, V1 + V2 + V3 = IR Or, IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = IR Or, I (R1 + R2 + R3) = IR R S = R 1 + R2 + R 3 Here, RS is the equivalent resistance of all three resistors, when they are connected in a series. Note that when any one resistor is removed from a series circuit, the circuit becomes an open circuit. As a result, the flow of current stops and other resistances also stop working.

Parallel combination

In a parallel connection, all resistors are connected sideways with each other. In such a connection, the total resistance of the circuit decreases. The given figure shows parallel combination of three resistors of resistances R 1, R2, and R3 connected between points M and N.

In this case, equivalent resistance (RP) is given as:

Take three resistors R1, R2, and R3 of different resistances and construct a parallel circuit using these resistors (as shown in the given figure). Now, with the help of a voltmeter, measure the potential differences between points M and N, A and B, C and D, E and F respectively. You will observe that the voltmeter shows the same reading in each case. Why does this happen?

This happens because supplied voltage does not divide across resistors in a parallel circuit. Now, use an ammeter to measure the value of current by connecting it at the same points as done with the voltmeter. You will observe that this time you obtain different readings at each point. Why does this happen? This happens because current driven through a battery divides into small magnitudes across each resistor. From your readings, you will observe that total current (I) is equal to the sum of divided currents I1, I2, and I3. Thus,

Applying Ohms law at each resistor, V = IRP

Or, I = I = I 1 + I 2 + I3

Note that when any one resistor is removed from a parallel circuit, other components of the circuit continue working because the remaining current flows through other resistors. Three resistors are connected to each other (as shown in the figure). Can you find the equivalent resistance?

Domestic Wiring and Decoration Domestic wiring in a house requires a number of electric devices to run simultaneously. Thus, they should be independent of each other i.e., the working of one device should not depend on the working of another device. For example, the working of a fan should not be affected when a bulb in the room gets fused. In parallel circuits, if one appliance stops working, then all other appliances work as usual. Hence, parallel circuiting is used in house wiring or in lights that are used to decorate buildings on occasions. This is done to ensure that if one bulb fuses, then the others remain functioning. The differences between series and parallel circuits can be summarised in the form of the following table: Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

1.

All components in a series circuit can be In a parallel circuit, all components require an individual controlled by a single switch. This results in switch. Hence, the closing of any switch will not affect the the closing down of all components when the functioning of other components. switch is turned off. In a series circuit, current through all the In a parallel circuit, potential difference across the entire components remains the same. component remains the same. Equivalent resistance in a series circuit is Equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit is given by, given by, RT = R1 + R2 + + Rn A series circuit stops working, if any one of its component stops functioning. This happens due to an incomplete path of the current. A parallel circuit continues to work even when any one of its component stops functioning. This happens because the current continues to flow through the other parts of the circuit.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Non-uniform voltage is received by all Uniform voltage is received by all components in a parallel components in a series circuit. circuit. In a series connection, the total resistance of In a parallel connection, the total resistance of the circuit the circuit increases. This increase in decreases. This decrease in the total resistance results in a resistance results in a very low amount of large amount of current derived by each component. current derived by each component.

6.