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TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
REVISION 02 JANUARY 2013 Page 5 of 11
E XHCONSULTINGSERVI CES
The International System of Units, abbreviated SI, is
used. A summary of the various scalar and vector field
quantities and constants and their dimensional units are
presented in Table I. Recognition of the dimensional
character of the various quantities is quite useful in the
study of electromagnetics.
The study of electromagnetics begins with the concept of
static charged particles and continues with constant
motion charged particles, i.e., steady currents, and
discloses more significant consequential results with the
study of time variable currents. Faraday was the first to
observe the results of time varying currents when he
discovered the phenomenon of magnetic induction.
Table I. Field Quantities, Constants and Units
PARAMETER SYMBOL DIMENSIONS NOTE
Electric Field Intensity
E
Volt/meter
Electric Flux Density
D
Coulomb/meter
2
E D
c =
Magnetic Field Intensity
H
Ampere/meter
Magnetic Flux Density
B
Tesla (Weber/meter
2
) H B
=
Conduction Current Density
c
J
Ampere/meter
2
E J
c
o =
Displacement Current Density
d
J
Ampere/meter
2
t
D
J
d
c
c
=
Magnetic Vector Potential
A
Volt-Second/meter
A B
V =
Conductivity o Siemens/meter
Ohm
Siemen
1
=
Voltage V Volt
Coulomb
Joule
Volt =
Current I Ampere
Second
Coulomb
Ampere =
Power W Watt Volt Amp
Second
Joule
Watt = =
Capacitance
F
Farad
Volt
Coulomb
Farad =
Inductance
L
Henry
Coulomb
Second Volt
Henry
2
=
Resistance
Ohm
Ampere
Volt
Ohm =
Permittivity (free space)
c
o
Farad/meter
t 36
10
10 85 . 8
9
12
~
Permeability (free space)
o
Henry/meter
7
10 4
t
Speed of Light c meter/second
8
10 0 . 3
1
~ =
o o
c
c
Free Space Impedance q
o
Ohm t
c
q 120 ~ =
o
o
o
Poynting Vector
P
Watt/meter
2
H E P
=
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
REVISION 02 JANUARY 2013 Page 6 of 11
E XHCONSULTINGSERVI CES
3.0 SOME VECTOR CALCULUS
Much of vector calculus was invented for use in
electromagnetic theory and is ideally suited to it.
1
Vector calculus uniquely describes electromagnetic
phenomenon in a concise and almost elegant manner.
All engineering students have had an introduction to
vector analysis to the extent of addition, dot () and
cross () products of vectors. These are operations
that are included within the study of vector algebra.
However, with the more advanced differential vector
operations of gradient ( A V ), divergence (
A
V
) and
curl (
A
V
) and their complementary operations of
integration one must expand and embrace the three
dimensional quality of vector calculus. The nature of
electromagnetic fields embodies both spatial position
and time. Unfortunately, this can be overwhelming to
the student upon an initial encounter with the study of
electromagnetic fields. In addition to the formal
mathematical definitions of the vector differential
operators, an intuitive explanation is offered in the
following material.
In the following discussion, there are references to
volumes bounded by closed surfaces and open
surfaces bounded by closed contours. Those
references are defined graphically in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1-a: Volume Bounded by a Closed Surface
Figure 3.1-b: Open Surface Bounded by a Closed Contour
1
Schey, H. M., div grad curl and all that, 3rd ed., W. W. Norton &
Co., New York, 1997.
In some cases, the geometric references are
imaginary and only serve to define other concepts
and provide visual clarification. In other cases, the
geometric references provide definition to
conductors, dielectrics and further define specific
spatial relationships.
Verbal definitions of the vector differential operators
gradient, divergence and curl are as follows:
The gradient of a scalar field (VT) is a
directional derivative vector that represents the
magnitude and direction of the maximum space
rate of change of the scalar field, T. Room
temperature and landscape elevation are
examples of three dimensional scalar quantities
for which calculation of a gradient may be
required.
The Divergence of a vector field is a spatial
derivative, scalar value that represents the
outward flux
2
of the vector field at a point. The
divergence of a vector field is a measure of the
spreading of a vector field at a point.
The curl of a vector field is a spatial derivative
vector with magnitude equal to the strength of
field rotation and direction normal to the surface
that maximizes the rotation at a point. The curl
operation is a measure of the field rotation at a
point or at a surface.
The formal mathematical definitions of the vector
differential operators follow.
GRADI ENT:
z y x
u
z
T
u
y
T
u
x
T
T
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
The scalar function T(x,y,z) is differentiated with
respect to the constituent associated variables. The
partial differential in each case is multiplied by the
corresponding unit vector.
DI VERGENCE:
z
A
y
A
x
A
A
z
y
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
The respective components of the vector
z z y y x x
u A u A u A A
V
}}
A
lim
0
The formal definition of divergence of the vector
field A
per unit volume as the volume approaches zero. The
circle about the surface integral sign indicates that the
integral is to be executed over the entire closed
surface S that bounds the volume v. What should be
noted here is that as the volume approaches zero, the
formula applies at a point. Further, the dot-product of
the vector field with the differential surface
represents the flux of that vector field over the
incremental surface.
To attain a more physical interpretation, consider
Figure 3.3 where a closed surface a sphere in this
case encloses a charge, q+, which is the source of
the vector field A
.
Figure 3.3: Closed Surface (sphere) Enclosing the
Source of the Vector Field A
.
The divergence theorem, attributed to Gauss and also
known as Gauss theorem, is an important and useful
identity in vector calculus and may be obtained with
a little manipulation of the divergence definition by
integrating the differential volume.
( )
}} }}}
= V
s v
s d A dv A
Simply stated, the volume integral of the divergence
of a vector field is equal to the net outward flux of
the vector field over the closed surface that bounds
the volume. Another significant tool provided by the
divergence theorem is that a volume integral of the
divergence of a vector field may be converted to a
surface integral of the vector and vice versa. As
subsequently shown, Gauss theorem is also utilized
to relate the differential and integral forms of
Maxwells divergence equations.
CURL:
The curl operation is more commonly and concisely
written:
z
x
y
y
z x
x
y
z
u
y
A
x
A
u
x
A
z
A
u
z
A
y
A
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
In matrix notation:
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
REVISION 02 JANUARY 2013 Page 8 of 11
E XHCONSULTINGSERVI CES
z y x
z y x
A A A
z y x
u u u
A
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
The curl operator indicates differentiation with
respect to x of the y- and z-components of the vector,
differentiation with respect to y of the x- and z-
components of the vector and differentiation with
respect to z of the x- and y-components of the vector.
Therefore, to have a non-zero curl, a vector must vary
in magnitude along a line normal to the direction of
the field. This concept is graphically illustrated in
Figure 3.4 where a vector field exhibits a non-zero
curl and zero divergence.
Figure 3.4: Field with Non-Zero Curl and Zero Divergence.
Once again, to present the formal mathematical
definition of the differential vector curl operation, the
following formula is offered:
( )
n
c
a
l d A
A
s s
= V
}
A
lim
0
The verbal definition states that the curl of a vector
field A
, denoted by A
per unit
area as the area tends to zero and with direction
normal to the surface. Because the normal vector to a
surface may point in one of two directions, the right-
hand rule is utilized to indicate positive curl.
Unfortunately, this definition provides little intuitive
insight; therefore, a more physical definition is
attempted with the aid of Figure 3.5 which depicts a
point, P, lying in the plane of a vector field A
.
Figure 3.5: Illustration of the Vector Differential Curl
Operation
The curl of the vector field A
V is a vector with
magnitude equal to the strength of rotation at the
point and with direction normal to the plane of the
surface, as the surface tends to zero. Because the
surface tends to zero, the curl is defined as a vector
point function.
Note: if the vector field has no rotation at a point, the
curl of the vector field at that point is zero; in other
words:
NO ROTATI ON NO CURL
As was the case with the divergence and the theorem
attributed to Gauss, another perspective may be
gained from the fundamental theorem associated with
the vector curl operation, more widely known as
Stokes theorem and written mathematically:
( )
} }}
= V
c s
l d A s d A
The verbal definition of Stokes theorem may be
stated as follows: The flux of the curl of a vector field
over a surface is equal to the total rotation of the
vector around the closed contour that bounds the
surface. Stokes theorem also provides a relationship
between a line integral around a closed contour and
the flux of the curl through the surface bounded by
the contour. As subsequently demonstrated, Stokes
theorem is also utilized to relate the differential and
integral forms of Maxwells curl equations.
Another interesting observation from Stokes
theorem is that the left-hand term defines an integral
of a differential ( A
V = A V
A
s
n
n n
s s d A A
n
s
0
lim
Similarly taking the closed line integral around each
incremental area, one may write:
( )
}
= A
A c
n
n
l
l d A l A
0
lim
From the mathematical definition of the differential
vector curl operator, the right sides of each equation
are equal.
A more intuitive heuristic approach involves
direct integration of the definition of the vector curl
operation:
3
( )
s
c
l d A
A
s A
= V
}
A
lim
0
3
Recall that in the limit as AS0, ASdS.
( )
( )
} }
}
}}
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
= V
A
c S
c
s
l d A d
l d A
d A s
s
s
s
lim
0
Q.E.D. (admittedly with some degree of dispensation)
Before proceeding, there are three vector identities
that facilitate the manipulation, simplification and
solution of otherwise intractable problems.
Specifically, the following vector identities are
invaluable and are used extensively in
electromagnetic theory and problem solving:
( )
( ) ( ) A A A
A
V
2
0
0
V V V = V V
= V V
= V V
The first identity, expressed as the curl of the
gradient of a scalar field is equal to zero. This may be
immediately proven simply by execution of the
indicated vector operators in Cartesian coordinates.
However, that would provide no intuitive or physical
understanding. Another approach employs Stokes
theorem which stipulates that the surface integral
over an open surface is equal to the line integral of
the contour that bounds the surface; written
mathematically:
( ) ( ) l d V d V
c s
s
V V V
} }}
=
Intuitively, one may write:
( ) 0 = V
}
l d V
c
Recalling from the gradient defined as the
maximum space rate of change of a scalar field that
if we integrate or sum all the vector changes around a
closed path, the net change is zero. For example,
suppose that you are hiking a mountainous region
and that you continuously sample the maximum
directional change in altitude as you traverse a path
that brings you back to the starting point. Intuitively,
and in fact, the net change in altitude is zero. Recall
that the gradient represents the magnitude and
direction of the rate of change of the scalar field at a
point. If each of the gradient points is indexed (
n
A V
)
and multiplied by a similarly indexed incremental
line (
n
L
A
) which connects the points and the product
subsequently summed, an equation may be written
for the path length:
}
V = A V =
A
L d A L A Lim Path
n
n n L
n
0
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
REVISION 02 JANUARY 2013 Page 10 of 11
E XHCONSULTINGSERVI CES
If the start and end points of the path are the same,
the equation may be written as a closed-path integral:
D. E. Q. 0 V =
}
L d A Path
A voltage analogy asserts that the total voltage
around a closed loop is zero.
A corollary to the vector identity 0 = V V V states
that if a vector field is curl-free, then that vector field
may be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field.
V E E V = = V
then , 0 If
The choice of E and V is not without significance as
will be demonstrated.
4
The second identity, which asserts that the
divergence of the curl of a vector field is equal to
zero, may also be proven via execution of the
indicated vector operators in Cartesian coordinates,
and once again no physical or intuitive experience is
gained; however, using the divergence theorem, one
may write:
( ) ( )
}} }}}
V = V V
s v
s d A dv A
Invoking Stokes theorem on the right-hand term
yields:
( ) ( ) l d A d A dv A
c s v
s
= V = V V
} }} }}}
Note that we have related the divergence from a
volume of the curl of a vector field to the flux of the
curl of a vector field over a surface and to the closed
path line integral of the same vector field all terms
of which are equal to zero.
Consider the graphic of Figure 3.7
5
where the closed
volume has been separated into two open surfaces
bounded by the closed integration paths. Because the
flux of the curl out of the surface or the divergence
of the curl from the volume is normal to the
surfaces and pointing outward, the paths of
integration must be opposite according to the right-
hand rule; and since it is a common path in opposite
directions, the net result is zero.
4
The relationship between the gradient of the scalar potential, V,
and the electric field intensity vector, E, applies to the static case
only.
5
The example is from Cheng [1]
Figure 3.7: Volume Separated at a Common Path
A corollary to the vector identity ( ) 0 = V V A
states that if a vector field is divergence-free, then
that vector field may be expressed as the curl of
another vector field.
A B then , B If
V = = V 0
The choice of B
and A
Clearly, the vector Laplacian represents the second
derivative of the respective constituent components
of the vector field and mathematically resembles a
combination of a divergence and gradient operation.
As will be demonstrated in a later section, the vector
Laplacian serves a primary function in the
development of the vector wave equations.
Although not comprehensive in development or
presentation, this brief review of vector calculus
should be sufficient for the exploration and
understanding of Maxwells Equations and with this
background material completed, the investigation
may begin.
END OF PART 1
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
REVISION 02 JANUARY 2013 Page 11 of 11
E XHCONSULTINGSERVI CES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges Dr. Tekamul
Bber for his diligent review and helpful suggestions
in the preparation of this tutorial, and Dr. Robert Egri
for suggesting several classic references on
electromagnetic theory and historical data pertaining
to the development of potential functions.
The tutorial content has been adapted from material
available from several excellent references (see list)
and other sources, the authors of which are gratefully
acknowledged. All errors of text or interpretation are
strictly my responsibility.
AUTHORS NOTE
This investigation began some years ago in an
informal way due to a perceived deficiency acquired
during my undergraduate study. At the conclusion of
a two semester course in electromagnetic fields and
waves, my comprehension of the material was vague
and not well integrated with other parts of the
electrical engineering curriculum. In retrospect, I was
unable to envision and correlate the relationship of
the EM course material with other standard course
work, e.g. circuit theory, synthesis, control and
communication systems. It was not until sometime
later that I realized the value of EM theory as the
basis for most electrical principles and phenomenon.
In addition to my mistaken belief of EM theory as an
abstraction, the profound contribution of Maxwell
and others of his period and later to the body of
scientific knowledge could hardly be acknowledged
and appreciated. Experimentation as demonstrated
by Ampere and Faraday advances the art; while
Maxwells intellect and proficiency in applied
mathematics and imagination, has yielded a unified
theory and initiated the scientific revolution of the
20
th
century.
REFERENCES
[1] Cheng, D. K., Fundamentals of Engineering
Electromagnetics, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, 1993.
[2] Griffiths, D. J., Introduction to
Electrodynamics
, 3
rd
ed., Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999.
[3] Ulaby, F. T., Fundamentals of Applied
Electromagnetics, 1999 ed., Prentice Hall,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey, 1999.
[4] Kraus, J. D., Electromagnetics, 4
th
ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992.
[5] Sadiku, M. N. O., Elements of
Electromagnetics, 3
rd
ed., Oxford University
Press, New York, 2001.
[6] Paul, C. R., Whites, K. W., and Nasar, S. A.,
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields, 3
rd
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1998.
[7] Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. O., and Sands,
M., Lectures on Physics, vol. 2, Addison-
Wesley, Reading, MA, 1964.
[8] Maxwell, J. C., A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism, Vol. 1, unabridged 3
rd
ed., Dover
Publications, New York, 1991.
[9] Maxwell, J. C., A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism, Vol. 2, unabridged 3
rd
ed., Dover
Publications, New York, 1991.
[10] Harrington, R. F., Introduction to
Electromagnetic Engineering, Dover
Publications, New York, 2003.
[11] Schey, H. M., div grad curl and all that, 3
rd
ed., W. W. Norton & Co., New York, 1997.
Maxwells original Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism is available on-line:
http://www.archive.org/details/electricandmagne01maxwrich
http://www.archive.org/details/electricandmag02maxwrich