CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.

.1General:The design of structures for bridges is mainly concerned with provision and support of horizontal load bearing surfaces. Except in long span bridges, these floors or decks are made up of reinforced concrete, since no other material have better combination of low cost, high strength and resistance to corrosion, abrasion and fire. In conventional composite construction these concrete slabs rest over steel beams or box girders and supported by them. Under load these two components act independently and a relative slip occurs at the interface if there is no connection between them. At spans of more than about 10 m, and particularly where the susceptibility of steel to damage by fire is not a problem, as for example in bridges and multi-story car parks, steel beams become cheaper than concrete beams. It used to be customary in design the steel work to carry whole weight of concrete slab and loading on it; but by about 1950 the development of shear connectors had made it practicable to connect the slab to the beam, and so as to obtain the T-Beam action. Concrete is stronger in compression than in tension and steel in susceptible to buckling in compression. By composite action between the two, we can utilize their respective advantages to the fullest extent. In composite members, the structural steel component is usually built first, so a distinction must be made between load resisted by steel component only, and load applied to the member after concrete has developed sufficient strength for composite action to be effective. The division of dead load between these two categories depends upon method of construction. Composite beams and slabs are classified as propped or unpropped. In propped construction, the steel member is supported at intervals along its length until the concrete has reached a certain proportion, usually three-quarters, of its

design strength. The whole of the dead load is then assumed to be resisted by composite member. Where no props are used, it is assumed in elastic analysis that the steel member alone resists its own weight and that of the formwork and the concrete slab.

1.2 Advantages associated with composite construction: The most effective utilization of steel and concrete is achieved. Keeping the span and loading unaltered; a more economical steel section (in terms of depth and weight) is adequate in composite construction compared with conventional non-composite construction. As the depth of beam reduces, the construction depth reduces, resulting in enhanced headroom. Because of its larger stiffness, composite beams have less deflection than steel beams. Composite construction provides efficient arrangement to cover large column free space. Composite construction is amenable to fast track construction because of using rolled steel and pre-fabricated components, rather than cast-in-situ concrete. Encased steel beam sections have improved fire resistance and corrosion.

1.3 Shear connection:The established design methods for reinforced concrete and for structural steel give no help with respect to basic problem of connecting steel to the concrete. The force applied to this connection is mainly but not entirely the longitudinal shear. Since these connections are region of severe and complex stresses defies accurate analysis and so methods of connection are developed empirically and verified by tests.

1.4 Types of shear connector:2

There are three main types of shear connector, viz., Rigid Shear Connector, Flexible Shear Connector and Anchorage Shear Connector.

1.4.1

Rigid shear connector:As the name implies, these connectors are very stiff and they sustain only a small deformation while resisting the shear force. They derive their resistance from bearing pressure on concrete, and fail due to crushing of concrete. Rigid shear connector consists of short length bars, stiffened angels, channels or tees welded to the flange of the steel girders (some of this type are as shown). Such connector should be provided with anchorage devices.

Fig. 1.1 Rigid Shear Connector

1.4.2

Flexible shear connector:3

Flexible shear connector consists of studs, angels or tees welded to steel girders and derive resistance to horizontal shear through bending of the connector (some of these types are shown in fig.). Where necessary, such shear connector shall be provided with anchorage device.

Fig. 1.2 Flexible Shear Connectors

1.4.3

Anchorage shear connector:4

This connector is used to resist horizontal shear and to prevent separation of the girder from the concrete slab at the interface through bond.

Fig. 1.3 Anchorage Shear Connectors

CHAPTER2
5

STATE OF ART 2.1 Effect of stiffness of shear connector on Elastic Behavior of composite Beam:-

Fig. 2.1 Bending and Shear Stress Distribution in Composite beam

2.1.1. Connector with zero stiffness

6

(No interaction case):In this case upper beam cannot deflect more than lower one, so each beam carries a load W/2 per unit length.

Fig 2.2 Deflection, slip and slip strain

Fig 2.3 Stress and Strain in a beam without composite action Bending stress:-

max

M 12 w*l *l h 3wl * l * = I * ymax = * = bh* h * h 2 16 8bh * h

Shear stress:-

max =

3 V 3wl * = 2 A 8bh

Moment:Mx = w[l2-4x2]/16 Strain: M * y max 3w = [l2-4x2] EI 8 Ebh * h

There is equal and opposite strain of each beam at interface. s

= 2* x

Where, s is slip strain ds 3w = s = 2x= (l2-4x2) dx 4 EBh * h S = w (3l2x-4x3) 4 Ebh * h

These equations show that slip strain is maximum and slip is zero at centre of span while slip strain is zero and slip is maximum at end of the beam.

2.1.2. Connection with infinite stiffness (Full interaction case):-

Fig 2.4 Stress and Strain in beam with full interaction It is now assumed that two halves of beam shown are joined together by an infinite stiff shear connector. The two members then behave as one. Slip and slip strain is zero everywhere and it can be assumed that plane sections remains plane. My max 3wl * l = I 16bh * h

max =

This bending stress is half in magnitude of no interaction case

max =

3wl 8bh

This longitudinal shear is same as previous in magnitude.

2.1.3. Connector with finite stiffness (Partial interaction case):Current composite steel and concrete bridges are designed using full interaction theory assuming there is no any relative displacement or slip at interface of concrete and steel. But results obtained from small scale and full scale tests shown that slip occurs even under very small loads. Slip occurs because mechanical shear connector has finite stiffness. Hence the connector must deform before they carry any load and this is the case of partial interaction.

Fig. 2.5 Stress and strain in Beam with Partial Interaction Current full interaction design procedures are safe and simple. However in fatigue assessment of existing structures, more accurate assessment techniques are required in order to extend the life of structure as possible. R. Seracino, D.J. Oehlers, M.F.Yeo develops a new concept [July 2000] of a partial interaction focal point and extends the classic linear-elastic partial interaction theory.

Fig. 2.6 Strain Distribution

10

The linear elastic strain distribution at any point along a beam can be defined by determining the curvature and location of neutral axis. The curvature can be found using well known relationship. =M/EI Where, M= Bending moment EI= Flexural rigidity As we are dealing with composite section For full interaction:EI(f) = Ec * Inc For no interaction:EI(n) = EcIc + EsIs Where, Ec= Modulus of Elasticity of concrete Inc= Second moment of transformed concrete area. Es= Modulus of Elasticity of steel Ic & Is = Second moment of concrete and steel areas respectively. Having determined curvature we can find strain distribution. The full interaction strain distribution passes through the centroid of transformed section. While no interaction strain distribution passes through centroids of concrete and steel areas respectively. The two points where the boundary strain distribution intersect are of special interest as it can be theoretically shown that every strain distribution passes through these two points irrespective of stiffness of shear connector for a given section and moment. It is evident from partial interaction strain distribution that flexural stresses are greater than full interaction stresses currently being used. This can potentially induce tensile stresses in concrete slab that can lead to premature failure (cracking) and / or reduce the fatigue life of steel section. It is suggested that partial interaction flexural stresses should be considered particularly when assuming the remaining life of existing structures as realistic assessment techniques are required.

11

2.1.3.1 Calculation of slip:This is best illustrated by an analysis based on elastic theory. It leads to a differential equation that has to be solved afresh for each type of loading, and is therefore too complex for use in design offices. Even so, partial-interaction theory is useful, for it provides a starting point for the development of simpler methods for predicting the behaviour of beams at working load, and finds application in the calculation of interface shear forces due to shrinkage and differential thermal expansion.

Fig. 2.7 Composite Beam The above fig. shows in elevation a short element of the beam, of length dx, distance x from mid-span cross-section. For clarity, the two components are shown separated, and displacements are much exaggerated. The slip is s at cross-section x, and increases over the length of the element to s + (ds/dx)dx, which is written as s+. This notation is used in above fig. for increments in other variables, Mc, Ma, F, Vc and Va, which are respectively the bending moments, axial force, and vertical shears acting on the two components of the beam, the suffixes c and a indicating concrete and steel. It follows from longitudinal equilibrium that the forces F in steel and in concrete are equal. The interface vertical force v per unit length is unknown, so it cannot be assumed that Va equals to Vc.

12

If the interface longitudinal shear is v per unit length, the force F on each component is Vdx. It must be in the direction shown, to be consistent with sign of slip, s. The load slip relationship is pv = ks since the load per connector is pv. We first obtain equations deducted from equilibrium, elasticity and compatibility, then eliminate M, F, V and v from them to obtain a differential equation relating s to x, and finally solve this equation and insert boundary conditions. These are as follows. 1. Zero (A.2) 2. At supports, M and F are zero, so the difference between the longitudinal strains at the interface is the differential strain, c, and therefore, ds L = c when x = dx 2 Equilibrium Resolve longitudinally for one component: dF = v dx Take moments: dMc 1 + Vc = vhc , dx 2 The vertical shear at section x is wx, so Vc + Va = wx. Now (hc + hs) = dc, so from (A.5) and (A.6) dMc dMa + + wx = vdc dx dx Elasticity: In beams with adequate shear connection, the effects of uplift are negligible in the elastic range. If there is no gap between the two components, they must have the same curvature, , and simple beam theory gives the moment-curvature relations. (A.7) (A.6) dMa 1 + Va = vhs dx 2 (A.5) (A.4) (A.3) slip at mid-span, from symmetry, so s=0 when x=0. (A.1)

13

Ma nMc = EsIa kcEaIc 1 nF hc c 2 kcEaAc 1 F hs + 2 EaAa

(A.8)

The longitudinal strains in concrete along AB and in steel along CD are:

AB =

(A.9) (A.10)

CD =
Compatibility

The difference between AB and CD is the slip strain, so from (A.9) and (A.10) and putting (hc + hs) = dc ds F n 1 = dc + c dx Ea kcAc Aa (A.7) and (A.8), kcIc d Ea + Ia + wx = vdc n dx d kdcs / p wx = dx EaI 0 Differentiating and eliminating from (A.13), F from (A.4), and v from (A.1): d 2 s kdc 2 s / p wdcx ks ks 2 Io wdcx = + = dc + 2 dx EaI 0 EaA0 p EaI 0 Ao EaI 0 This equation leads to equation in standard form, d 2s 2 s = 2 swx dx 2 Solution for s, s = K1 sinh x + K2 cosh c + wx Where, 1 n 1 = + A0 kcAc Aa (A.14) (A.12) (A.13) (A.11)

It is now possible to derive the differential equation for s. Eliminating Mc and Ma from

14

I 1 2 = dc + 0 A' A0 I0 = kcIc + Ia n k pEa I oA'

2 = =

A' pd c k

The boundary conditions (A.2) and (A.3) give K2 = 0, c = -K1 cosh(L/2)-w Substitution in (A.14) gives s in terms of x: w + c L s = wx sec h sinh x 2

2.1.3.2 Modeling of stud connectors:1. Dennis Lam and Ehab EI-Lobody (2005) Behaviour of Headed Stud Shear Connectors in Composite Beam January ASCE 12, 96-107:For a successful model of shear connector, all different components associated with the connection must be properly presented. ABAQUS, which is general purpose finite element modeling package, was selected for this purpose. The elements used:-

Fig. 2.8 Three-dimensional solid elements

15

Combinations of three-dimensional solid elements, which are available in the ABAQUS element library, are used to model the push-off test specimen. These are a threedimensional eight-node element (C3D8), a three-dimensional fifteen-node element (C3D15), and a three-dimensional twenty-node element (C3D20) as shown in Fig. 2. In the modeling of the concrete slab around the stud, C3D15 elements are used and C3D8 elements are used elsewhere. The shank of the stud consists of C3D15 elements and the stud head consists of both C3D15 and C3D20 elements. The width of the head is 1.5 times the stud diameter and its thickness is 0.5 times the diameter. 2. Kuan-Chen Fu and Feng Lu (2003) Nonlinear Finite-Element Analysis for Highway Bridge Superstructures May ASCE, 7, 173-179:The shear stud is modeled by a bar element, which can be seen as two independent linear springs with a stiffness kn parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bar and kt perpendicular to the axis. Note that kn = EsAs hs

where Es = elastic modulus; As = area of cross section; and hs = height of stud. Along the tangent surface, the constitutive behaviour is defined by a typical load-slip function proposed by Yam and Chapman (1972), which is P = a(1-e-by) Where P = load; a and b = constants; and y = interface slip. By choosing two points on the function such that the relationship y2=2y1 is maintained, the constants a and b can be determined as a= b= P*P 2 P 2 P1

1 P1 log y1 P 2 P1 dP = a b e-by dy

Therefore, the stiffness in the tangential direction is kt =

16

Each bar element provides a dimensionless link between the concrete deck element and neighboring top flange element of the girder.

2.2 Headed stud as shear connector:The most widely used type of connector is the headed shear stud. These range in diameter (d) from 13 to 25 mm, and in length (h) from 65 to 100 mm though longer studs may also be sometimes used. The advantages associated with stud connectors are, stiff in shear in all direction normal to the axis of stud. There are two factors that influence the diameter of studs. One is welding process, which becomes increasingly difficult and expensive at diameters greater than 20 mm and other is thickness should be welded. welding process is rapid, provide

little obstruction to reinforcement in the concrete slab and they are equally strong and

Fig 2.9 Headed Shear Stud The ratio d/t should be less than 2.5 to achieve maximum static strength of stud. The maximum shear force that can be resisted by a stud is relatively low about 150 KN.

17

2.3 Use of larger stud as shear connector:Shear studs used in composite steel bridge construction are typically 19.1 mm or 22.2 mm in diameter. This paper presents the development and implementation of the 31.8 mm stud diameter. Because the 31.8 mm stud has about twice the strength and a higher fatigue capacity than the 22.2 mm stud, fewer studs are required along the length of the steel girder. This would increase bridge construction speed and future deck replacement, and reduce the possibility of damage to the studs and girder top flange during deck removal. Studs also can be placed in one row only, over the web centerline, freeing up most of the top flange width and improving safety conditions for field workers. This paper provides information on the development, welding, quality control, and testing of the 31.8 mm stud. Information on the first bridge built in the state of Nebraska with the 31.8 mm studs is provided.

2.4 Characteristics of shear connector:Though in the discussion of full interaction it was assumed that slip was zero everywhere, results of tests have proved that even at the smallest load, slip occurs. This load-slip characteristic of shear connector affects the design considerably. To obtain the load-slip curve push-out tests are performed. Arrangement for these tests as per Eurocode 4 and IS: 11384-1985 are as shown in Fig. respectively. To perform the test, IS: 11384-1985 suggests that, At the time of testing, the characteristic strength of concrete used should not exceed the characteristic strength of concrete in beams for which the test is designed.

18

A minimum of three tests should be made and the design values should be taken as 67% of the lowest ultimate capacity.

2.4.1 Push out test:The property of shear connector most relevant to design is the relationship between shear force transmitted, P and the slip @ interface, S. The load slip curve should ideally be found from tests on composite beams, but in practice a simpler specimen is necessary. Most of the data on connectors have been obtained from various types of push out tests.

2.4.1.1 Experimental Details:The flanges of a short length of I section are connected to two small concrete slabs. The slabs are bedded on to lower platen of a compression testing machine or frame and load is applied to upper end of steel section. The slip between steel member and two slabs is measured at several points and the average slip is plotted against the load per connector.

19

Fig. 2.10 Push-Out test

2.4.1.2 Load-slip relationship:This load slip relationship is influenced by many variables including:1. 2. 3. connector, 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Thickness of concrete surrounding the connectors, Freedom of the base of each slab to move laterally and so to impose uplift Bond at steel concrete interface, Strength of concrete slab and Degree of compaction of concrete surrounding the base of each connector. Number of connectors in test specimen, Mean longitudinal stress in concrete slab surrounding connectors, Size, arrangement and strength of slab reinforcement in the vicinity of the

forces on the connectors,

20

Fig. 2.11 Typical Load-Slip curve for 19 mm stud connectors in composite slab

21

Fig. 2.12 Standard Test for shear connectors (according to IS: 11384-1985)

22

2.5 Load bearing and failure mechanism of shear connector:In a composite beam where the interaction is achieved by means of stud shear connectors, the forces acting on the stud are sketched in Figure 2-13. This is a simplified model taken from Oehlers & Bradford (1995). The shank and weld collar of a shear stud is designed to resist longitudinal shear force, and the head is designed to resist tensile forces normal to the steel/concrete interface due to separation of concrete and steel. In order for the stud shear connectors to start transmitting shear forces, certain slip has to be introduced. This slip forces the shank of the stud to bear on to the concrete.

Fig. 2.13 Transfer of force at a shear connector (from Oehlers & Bradford 1995) In course of resisting the shear load, the connectors deform and transfer the load to concrete through bearing. This is illustrated as in fig.2.13. The dispersion of load can cause tensile cracks in concrete by ripping, shear and splitting action. However the steel dowel may also fail before concrete fails. Since the bearing zone of concrete has a certain height, the force on the shank of the stud acts with eccentricity, and moment is introduced in the stud shear connector (F multiplied by e). This bending moment (F*e) has to be resisted by resistance of the stud shear connector is called dowel action. flange stud interface. The

23

Fig. 2.14 It has been found by research that the bearing stress on a shank is concentrated near the base in shown in fig.2.14. Assuming that the force is distributed over a length of 2d where d is shank diameter; it can be shown that concrete has to withstand a bearing stress of about seven times its cube strength. This high strength is possible, because concrete bearing on connector is confined laterally by the steel element, reinforcement and surrounding concrete.

Fig. 2.15 a) Transfer of longitudinal shear by dowel action b) Schematic visualizations of contributions to shear resistance.

24

Figure 2.15 a) shows a stud moving to the right. Figure 2.15 b) schematically show the active forces. PA is the force acting on the weld collar; it is biggest in the beginning of the dowel action. When the concrete in front of the weld collar crushes the force resultant moves up and the value of PA decreases. The force resultant acting on the stud shank, PB give rise to an increasing bending moment, PBe. Pc is the tensile force acting in the stud, as the bending moment increases so does the tensile forces. Compressive forces in the concrete lead to additional frictional forces in the interface between the concrete slab and steel flange, denoted as PD. The size of the bearing zone of the concrete is dependent of the ratio Ec/Es. Keeping Ec constant and decreasing Es, (as is the case when the stud is cracking) means that the stud is more prone to bending, and so the height of the bearing zone is decreased as Es decrease. If Ec is decreased (the case when the concrete cracks), the stud is less prone to bending, and so the height of the bearing zone is increased. High compressive forces in the concrete bearing zone cause the concrete to crush. The horizontal forces introduce shear forces, and the bending moment give rise to high tensile stresses in the weldcollar/shank interface where the steel failure zone is. Increasing the eccentricity e means introducing higher tensile stresses in the steel failure zone, and thus, decreasing the ration Ec/Es, decreases the strength of the dowel.

25

2.5.1 Static failure

During static loading three different modes of failure occur in a stud shear connector. All three types illustrate the strong interaction between the steel and concrete elements on the dowel action.

1. Concrete failure steel failure Assume that Es and Ec are constants. A force F is applied to the composite member. 2. Concrete failure no steel failure bending In this case, a large volume of concrete crushes, but the steel is strong enough to withstand the increase in tension by F e and is bent over. 3. Steel failure concrete failure The same mechanism as in (1) but the steel starts to fail before the concrete, decreasing Es and increasing e, which lead to increased bearing pressure in the concrete and eventually cracking of the concrete and so on.

26

2.5.2 Fatigue failure:In real structures the load often varies and the assumption that the load has constant range and a constant peak is not accurate. The best way to get a good estimation of real problem is to know how the loading has been or will be, then count the numbers of cycles with a specific range and peak load and do test according to this data. To do this kind of test a big part is to determine the loading condition. Many tests carried out around the world are made with constant range. These types of testing is accepted for fatigue testing due to the problems with collecting data for more exact testing and it have been seen that this type of testing gives good results. Fatigue failure occurs in structural member subjected to cyclic, vibratory or frequently repeated loads. A fatigue failure occurs at stress much lower than permissible static stress.

Fig. 2.16 Different propagation of failure mode(from Hallam 1976) During fatigue loading there are four different modes of failure in a stud shear connector. 1. The first failure mode and also the most common is when a crack starts in the weld collar/shank interface (point B in Figure 2.13) and propagates in one of three different ways according to Figure 2.16. This failure mode is introduced because of discontinuities in the connection between weld and shear stud.

27

2. The second failure mode is when a crack starts in the weld collar/flange interface (point A in Figure 2.13) and propagates across the flange of the beam during fatigue loading. This failure mode has the same background as failure mode one. 3. The third failure mode is a crack starting in the middle of the shank (point C) due to tension in the shear stud. This tension comes from the fact that the stud is bending but the head of the stud is constraint from bending in all directions because of the embedment in concrete. 4. The fourth failure mode is a combination of failure mode one or two and failure mode three. This failure mode allows the shank between A and C (in Figure 2.13) to rotate to a more horizontal position.

-N curves may be developed for determination of e, the endurance limit stress, for
different combination of min and max. Alternatively max is given as a function of stress ratio, max / min and the permissible number of stress cycles, usually in range of 10e5 to 10e8 cycles. The endurance limit is that level of stress at which the material can take any number of load repetitions. The paper (Thorsten Faust, Andreas Leffer, Martin Mensinger) presents push-out tests performed with headed studs embedded in lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) under dynamic loads. Based on the test results in solid slabs, a somewhat more inclined S-Ncurve could be observed in comparison to normal weight concrete (NWC). The endurance of headed studs subjected to high stress ranges is governed more by the peak load applied and the shank diameter than by the kind of concrete, while for low stress ranges the influence of the concrete dominates the fatigue. Particularly for high stress ranges further investigations concerning the real effects of action for the studs in the structure are desirable.

28

Fig. 2.17 Example of Unidirectional and Reverse Loading

2.6 Effective cross-section:Longitudinal shear in the slab causes shear strain in its plane, with the result that vertical cross-section through the composite T-Beam do not remain plane, when it is loaded. At a cross-section, the mean longitudinal bending stress through the thickness of the slab varies as sketched in fig below.

Fig. 2.18 Use of Effective width to allow for shear lag Simple bending theory can still give the correct value of the maximum stress (at point D) if the true flange width B is replaced by an effective breadth, b, such that the area GHJK equals the area ACDEF. Research based on elastic theory has shown that the ratio b/B depends in a complex way on the ratio of B to the span L, the type of loading, the boundary conditions at the supports, and other variables.

29

2.7 Strength of connectors (According to Euro code 4):From the discussion, it can be inferred that dowel strength is a function of the following parameters. PRD = f(Ad, fu, fckcy, Ec/Es) Where, Ad = cross section of dowel fu = tensile strength of steel fckcy = characteristic compressive (cylinder) strength of concrete Ec/Es = ratio of modulus of elasticity of concrete to that of steel. Tests have to done for a range of concrete strengths, because the strength of concrete influences the mode of failure as well as the failure load. 1. Stronger the concrete: - Stud will shear off. Since the failure load of concrete is higher than yield stress of stud. 2. Lean concrete (comparatively):- Concrete surrounding fails in the region near to stud in the form of a cone with apex towards steel section. Since the value of shear resistance of studs depends upon strength of concrete the design shear resistance should be taken lesser of two (according to Euro code 4) with h/d greater than 4. PRD = PRD = Where, fu = ultimate tensile strength of steel. fck and Ecm are the cylinder strength and mean secant modulus of concrete. u = partial safety factor 1.25 0.8 fu (d * d / 4) u 0.29d * d ( fck * Ecm)0.5 u

30

2.8 Codal provisions for design of shear connector

(As per IRC: 22-1986):Shear connectors may be either of Mild Steel or High Tensile Steel according to the material specification of steel girders. 2.8.1

High tensile shear connector from fatigue Strength consideration

Calculation of spacing of shear connectors:Based on the fatigue strength of connector and the range of horizontal shear per unit length, the spacing of shear connector is given by: P= Where, P = Spacing of connectors Qr = The allowable range of horizontal shear for each connector evaluated from equations given before (Qr is the resistance of all connectors at one transverse cross-section of the girder). Vr = The range of horizontal shear per unit length of beam at the interface and may be determined from equation given below. Vr = VR. Ac. y I Qr Vr

Where, VR = Range of vertical shear i.e. the difference between the maximum and minimum shear envelope due to live load and impact. Vr = Range of horizontal shear per unit length. Ac = Area of transformed section on one side of interface. y = The distance of centroid of the area under consideration from neutral axis of composite section. I = Moment of inertia of composite section.

To cater for effect of repeated loading, the shear connectors shall be designed for fatigue. 31

(i) The fatigue strength of stud connector is given by the following expression: Qr = A 10-3 (for a ratio of h/d >= 4) Where, Qr = Allowable range of horizontal shear per stud connector (KN) A = Area of stud (mm2) d = Diameter of stud connector (mm) h = Height of stud (mm) = 55 MPA for 20 * 105 cycles (ii) For channel angle or tee shear connector, the fatigue strength shall be calculated from the following formula: Qr = L. 10-2 Where, L = Length of connector (mm), measured transverse to the beam axis = 370 N/mm for 20 * 105 cycles

2.8.2 High tensile shear connector from the consideration of ultimate flexural strength of the composite section: Calculation of number of shear connectors:In addition to providing adequate fatigue strength, sufficient number of connectors should be provided so that the flexural strength of composite member can be reached. Usually the requirements will be satisfied in most composite beams because fatigue considerations are usually critical except in cases of shored construction. The flexural strength of composite members can be achieved if sufficient connectors are provided to resist the maximum horizontal force in the slab and the connectors could be spaced uniformly. H1 = Ast . fy . .10-3 H2 = 0.85 fc bf hf 10-3

32

Where, H1 and H2 = Horizontal shear force (KN) Ast = Area of tensile steel (mm2) in longitudinal direction fy = Yield stress of steel (MPa) fc = Cube (characteristic) strength of concrete (MPa) bf = Effective width of flange of in-situ slab hf = Thickness of in-situ slab The ultimate flexural strength of any composite section will be governed by either of the aforesaid equations depending upon whether the steel section or concrete section is large. Therefore, the maximum possible compressive force in the slab would be the smaller of H1 and H2 and sufficient connectors should be provided to resist the horizontal force H1 or H2 whichever is the lesser after calculating the ultimate strength of shear connectors. The ultimate strength of shear connectors is given by the following: (i) High Tensile Stud connectors Qu = 0.5 A (ii) fck * Ec * 10-3

High Tensile Channel / Angle Tee flange (mm) Qu = 45 (h + 0.5 h1) L fck *10 3

Where, Qr = Allowable range of horizontal shear per stud connector (KN) A = Area of stud (mm2) h = Average thickness of channel / Angle / Tee flange (mm) h1 = Thickness of channel / Angle / Tee web (mm) fck = Cube (characteristic) strength of concrete (Mpa) Ec = Modulus of Elasticity of concrete (Mpa) To ensure the development of the ultimate flexural strength of composite section, a larger margin of safety against connector failure should be provided than is provided for section. This margin should be achieved by providing a load reduction factor of = 0.85 to the ultimate shear strength of connectors. The number of connectors required from fatigue consideration will usually exceed the requirements for flexural strength. The 33

minimum number of shear connectors required between the points of maximum moment and end supports shall be determined by: n= Where, n = Number of shear connectors between points of maximum moment and end supports = Load reduction factor = 0.85 Qu = Ultimate shear resisting capacity of one connector H = smaller of H1 and H2 as given below. If number of shear connector given by the above equation exceeds the number provided by the spacing from formula additional connectors should be added to ensure that the ultimate strength of the composite section is achieved. H Qu

2.8.3 Mild steel connector:For mild steel shear connectors, the safe shear for each shear connector shall be calculated as below: (i) For welded stud connector of steel with minimum ultimate strength of 460 MPa, and yield point of 350 MPa and elongation of 20 percent. (a) For a ratio of h/d less than 4.2 Q = 1.49 h d fck

(b) For a ratio of h/d equal to or greater than 4.2 Q = 6.08 d2 Where, Q = Allowable safe shear resistance in Newton of one shear connector (N) d = Diameter of stud connector (mm) h = Height of stud (mm) fck

34

(ii)

For channel / Angle / Tee connector made of mild steel with minimum ultimate strength of 420 MPa to 500 MPa yield point of 230 MPa and elongation of 21 percent.

Q = 3.32 (h + 0.5t) L Where,

fck

Q = Allowable safe shear resistance in Newton of one shear connector (N) L = Length of shear connector (mm) h = The maximum thickness of flange measured at the face of the web in mm t = Thickness of web of shear connector in mm The spacing of shear connectors shall be determined from the formula P= Where, VL = The longitudinal shear per unit length as stated below Q = Safe shear resistance of each shear connector as stated above V . Ae. y I Q VL

VL = Where,

V = Vertical shear due to dead load placed after composite section is effective and working live load with impact. Ae = Area of transformed section on one side of interface y = Distance of the centroid of the area under consideration from the neutral axis of the composite section. M = Moment of inertia if the composite section.

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CHAPTER3 Conclusions
Even though mechanical shear connectors in composite steel and concrete beams require slip to transmit shear, most composite bridge beams are designed as full-interaction because of the complexities of partial-interaction analysis techniques. However, in the assessment of existing composite bridges this simplification may not be warranted as it is often necessary to extract the greatest capacity and endurance from the structure. This may only be achieved using partial-interaction theory which truly reflects the behaviour of the structure. Some test results from push-out tests of studs in normal and high strength concrete are presented. It is found that the concrete compressive strength significantly affects the strength of the stud connections. Increase of the transverse reinforcement in the concrete slabs has a negligible effect when high strength concrete is used and some effect when normal concrete is used. The present design code is not adequate to estimate the shear strength of studs embedded in high strength concrete and it is suggested that a design formula that takes account of the interaction between the studs and the surrounding concrete should be used. The concrete strength significantly affected the shear resistance of stud connectors. The increase of the maximum shear load was about 34% when the cylinder compressive strength of the concrete increased from 30 to 81 MPa. The test showed that the amount of slip at the maximum load was on the same level for both NSC and HSC specimens. However, ductile behaviour of the studs was observed for the NSC specimens after the maximum load. The descending branch of the load-slip curves for the high strength concrete was short and steep. The reinforcement in concrete slabs did not take very much load, but confined the concrete surrounding the studs. The amount of reinforcement in the concrete slab had a slight influence on the load capacity of the NSC specimens. The increase was about 6%. No obvious influence of reinforcement on the capacity was

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observed in the HSC specimens. Evaluation of shear resistance of the studs according to different formulas showed that the formula which combined contributions from both concrete and studs could take variation of the concrete strength into account and give a better estimation of the shear resistance of studs.

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