Revival Zion. An Afro-Christian Religion in Jamaica Author(s): Emanuela Guano Reviewed work(s): Source: Anthropos, Bd. 89, H. 4./6.

(1994), pp. 517-528 Published by: Anthropos Institute Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40463021 . Accessed: 30/08/2012 19:29
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89.1994:517-528 Anthropos

Zion Revival
in AnAfro-Christian Religion Jamaica
Emanuela Guano

of Abstract. Meantas an ethnography theAfro-Christian Ezili, thewater goddessof Haitianvodou(Desof also addresses question the Revival Zion,this paper religion 1992: 143). mangles and Jamaican in theroleof Revivalism contemporary society as Kumina, perceived the"Afconventionally as rural areas Jamaica well of in culture. Widely practiced many is cult rican"end of the continuum, a secretive Zionseems be to Revival of as intheurban ghettoes Kingston, to of notonlya form accommodationharsh in therural areasof St. Thomas conditions, practiced living mainly of butalso a wayofresisting at times, actively and, opposing andSt. Catherine Kumina was parishes. Although reliand cultural socialoppression. [Jamaica, Afro-Caribbean at to have developed thetimeof slavery and nativistic movements, syncretism] thought religion society, gions,

nowa1969:201),most (Patterson anthropologists inJamaica believe this that religion originated EmanuelaGuano, M.A. (1993, LouisianaStateUniversity) days laborers from of the multicultural in is currently ethnicity Caribbean onlyafter arrival indentured investigating Pensiero Central in She societies. published Abstracta, Lares,and// thesecond Africa Kikongo) (mainly during Politico. Kumina halfof the19th pracPresently, century. as themselves the"African who titioners, define for still language ritual purpeople," use Kikongo poses (Bilbyand Bunseki1983: 65-93). Kumina bottom ondawater knock "Wen drum occasionslike a are ceremonies heldon specific muscomea tap" de sound to a Watson 1991: 193) death, disease,or a thanksgiving thespirits (Jamaican Saying; sharea num(Simpson1980: 166). The rituals Afro-American withother ber of traits religions of the liketheuse of ceremonial drums, sacrifice 1. Introduction: a an animal(usually goat),and spirit Afropossession. Jamaican Variety Religious is as Kumina defined theleast However, although it Afro-Jamaican Christianized havebeenconventionally AfroJamaican religions, among religions on the is going with Christhat seems a syncretism from on classified a continuum a more "European" occaKumina Revival tianRevivalZion. Whereas is "African" that from to a markedly spirits end, at themselves Revivalservices, manifest to as themost "Christianized,"the sionally Zion,1 regarded on Kumina(Moore 1953: If.). How- Christian leastChristian angelsare taking a role in Kumina are "tables" laid from Town, convenient a taxonomic and, point cosmology, inSpanish ever, although for in of (Ryman of view,thedefinition "African" thiscon- in a Revivalfashion Kuminarituals Eventheleast"European" 1984: 123). is text notconvincing. that Based on a fieldwork tookplace in 1992, do suchas Kumina, not Afro-Jamaican religions, is in material African withtheir paper sharemanytraits presented this equivalents. theethnographic in of to meant contribute thestudy Revivalism to of the are the In fact, former clearly result cultural RevivalZion is theresult Jamaica. tookplace in theNew Worldand contemporary that processes Afand a Jamaican of ofthesystems of a syncretism Baptism the altered alchemy that completely called"Myal."FromBaptism, 1978:4). Thismight ro-Creole beliefs ofreligious religion (Raboteau to the Zionderived African also the approach account for lackofa truly mainly literal panthe- Revival it to biblical theonlyexception the doctrine, which addedAfro-Creole Jamaican on in Afroreligions, on the like spirit the possession, emphasis beingthe"Fish" or "Mermaid," waterspirit elements 1929: lOlf.;Patterson ofRevivalZion (Beckwith with 1969: 205) thatbearsresemblances Oshun, 1 Alsocalledsimply Revival Moore Revival: although reports in theTrinidadian ZionandRevival separate also it theriverine as religions,seems, onthe deityworshipped exists. no 1956:342,that suchdistinction basisofSimpson Lewis 1991:85), andwith orisha (Warner religion

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the and and and drumming dancing, offerings sacri- tralAfrica from Slave Coast,Senegambia, but themselves SierraLeone, and the Bightof Biafra, also Revivalists ficesto thespirits. regard and Bantu of Fula, Wolof, the as Christians; worship God of theBible, Igbo, Dyula,Yoruba, they blacks The latter believed origin is and Jesus, theHolyGhost. (Alleyne1988: 28-61) -, Jamaican into of a itself seizingthe sensesof those blended number traditions a Creolesysto manifest by into articulated Myalandobeah. at- temofbeliefs whosesoulis "clean."Revivalists worshippers obeahbacktotheTwi the traces term Patterson basis(aboutthree churches a regular on tend their witches" within also but times week), they havespecialfunctions obeye,whichmeans"theentity a which "tables" (1969: 186). But obeah was (and stillis) notso are occasions for among particular and of as or the heldto thank spirits to urgetheir help,or muchwitchcraft a form sorcery necroof based on theritual new brethrenmancy meantto introduce river manipulation ointbaptisms substances. and intotheRevivalZion community. ments, Myal (the powders, other was a of is network so origin the wordis unknown), ButtheAfroJamaican instead, religious a means and a Kumina religion, set of healing be as knit practices, tightly that, might expected, of the at manifest RevivalZion ser- of counteracting evil activities obeah-mcn occasionally spirits both Kuminaand Revival (Alleyne1988). In theircomplementarity, between vices.The contact are Myal and obeah werebased on the beliefthat Revivalists Zion worksbothways: although character Kumina humanbeingshave two souls: a duppyand a of awareof thenon-Christian to was the in them thedue fashion welcome death, former thought by shadow.After they spirits, of to return Africa(muchlike the gwo-bon-anj withthe Kuminabeat,sometimes by drumming backto Ginen; vodoutravels with rumas prescribed Haitian the Desmangles by spraying possessed and by soakingspecial leaves in the 1992: 70), whilethe shadowwas at riskof bethe ritual, for water. ceremonial by ing manipulated obeah-men evil purposes re- (Stewart 1990: 119). Also,bothobeah and Myal of Jamaican all studies AfroUntil recently, the of as another used to report against White verysim- served a form resistance religion ligions the whileobeah-men "double" masters: a ilarto RevivalZion,almost negative supported numerown way,by distributing in has to it: Pocomania. This spelling now beenre- ous rebellions their the to whichweresupposed immunize stillbears "fetishes as placedby "Pukumina," Pocomania from the of from Span- insurgents thearmsof thewhites" thecontempt itsprobable (Patterorigin slaves Jamaican ish poco and mania:"a little madness" (Alleyne son 1969: 192), Myal provided that worldview was an alternative with religious a Pukumina existsvirtually 1988: 169). Nowadays 1990: 137). no definition; religious to established (Stewart Christianity only as an "out-group" banned itself "Poco,"as But,in 1781,an Act of Assembly as wouldeverdefine Myal community had and thiswouldbe a confession necromancy of rituals(137), and the Afro-Creole of religion until thecultof fallen 1980: 165). In to go underground the 1840s,whenMyalangels(Simpson of Pukumina fact, seemingly presently ists (all of whomweremembers missionary disappeared; in own Revivalby publicly no suchcommunityknown theKingston started their is area, churches) the performing ecstatic their dances(139f.).At that Revival Zionpreachers denounce still although wickedness "Poco" practices. of the of time, processof ChristianizationJamaican Blacks had already begun.In fact,in 1754,the missionaries started had first Christian (Moravian) in Whilethe 2. FromMyal to RevivalZion: their activity Jamaica. proselytizing A Historical werenotparticularly successful Outline Moravians (and in theAnglicans showedlittle interest the souls In Jamaica, Christianity spreadamongtheBlack of slaves and ex-slaves), GeorgeLiele and the masses is the Black Baptist that late, only relatively that atthebeginning other preachers camefrom of the 18thcentury. seemsin factthatBritish UnitedStatesafter It the 1784 immediately gained almost ofwhom all were mem- interest Jamaican of withCreBlacks.Mingling masters, plantation bersoftheAnglican oftheScottish or had ole practices, nonconformist the of doctrine these Church, or little no interest all in fostering at soon developed intoa native of missionary Baptists variety activities their slaves(Patterson of 1969:207). Baptism diverged that from official the doctrine among free Afri- theJamaican Mission(1990:128). influence, Virtually from Christian any Baptist can and African-derived filled In theearly1860s,a Great Revivaltookplace religious practices in thisgap by flourishing the in Jamaica.Missionaries orthodox of Christian among slaves. from different ofWestandCen- churches areas to it Coming greeted as a return a pureform
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the and Social Status of Christianity. to their distress, Great 3. Religion But, Revivalsoon turned Christianity Myal,mingling is element Jamaican of 1990:145f.; Religion an important culwith Afro-Creole the (Stewart religion Christian churches many of de1968: 170f.;Seaga 1969:4). The outcome tureand society. Curtin movement nominations scattered are theisland. In Revivalwas thereligious ofthisGreat throughout each Sunday streams wellof as still known RevivalZion. Kingston, morning, to at FromMyal,RevivalZion developed manyof groomed peopleflock their temples; night, rush like its features the missionagainstobeah and Revivalists, turbans, to recognizable their by in the churches. moral code(Chevannes worship spirit their andthestrict necromancy, In anycase,going church, to to the 1971:33), butalso spirit belonging some possession, emphasis of is atheism is and and ondrumming dancing, theoffering sac- church feltalmostas a necessity: Re- uncommon Jamaican FromBaptism, rifices thespirits. to (Kerr 1952: 118), and the statusof to is the vivalism derived (Austin1984: approach the nonbeliever not acknowledged mainly literal a is Zion carried 103). One of thefirst Like doctrine. Myal,Revival biblical questions stranger to is: of the of on a form opposition against Christianity be askedin Jamaica "Whatis yourchurch?" in is social condemnationMembership a church an important evena moral theWhites at times a Jamaican as it inthat, example, didnotprevent marker, thereligion for ofthelatter, practiced by of Genetellsmuchaboutthestatus theperson. 1990: 133). of theinstitution slavery (Stewart in churches is attendance orthodox CreoleChris- rally of element Jamaican The protest speaking, and as there- regarded prestigious, thesecongregations evident becameparticularly during tianity of native of bellion Morant in 1865,when (or composed upper-class upwardBap- are usually Bay The for But to their offered support theinsurgents. Re- ly mobile)individuals. Anglican tists Church, of colonizers the example thechurch theformer resistance vivalZionsocialandcultural -, against its was establishment toreach peakbetween ranks White (Kerr1952: 118), society highin Jamaican of Movement and it is attended the 1880and1920,with Bedwardite mainly the Whiteand the by Church Town. upper light-skinned classes.The Catholic August Methsocialstatus a Al- also enjoys high the on Centered a prophet, Revivalpastor (118),while soon odistshave a certain movement the exander Bedward, Bedwardite appealto thelight-skinned class(Hogg 1964: 131).A number of into a form millenialism mingled andthemiddle developed such as American of of churches North antiwith strong White a 1974). origin, (Williams protest of theChurch God,andthe that declared he, the Jehovah's Bedward Witnesses, On twooccasions, inare Adventists, now becoming returned Messiah,wouldascendto the sky,and Seventh-Day 1952: thewealthy a his wouldrescue peoplefrom cataclysm creasingly he that (Kerr among popular on and emotionalism emphasis the was aboutto strike island.In Bedward's 118). In general, that of as are regarded features of doctrine a new societyBlacks were to turn spiritual inspiration to RevivalZion belongs this the misfor- low class religions. Whiteand reignsupreme. Blaming the rascals" category, Blackson the"White Pentecostalism, of tunes Jamaican although alongwith than more the latter that Bedward 1974:158f.), prestige theformer enjoysa little preached (Williams and 1978: 148). BothPentecostals ReHis had Whites tobe wipedoutofJamaica. hatred (Wedenoja as to are also establishment led himto openly vivalists likely be condemned "Poco" by oftheWhite of Bedward members denominational the and (Austin its congregations reject values, among practices as 1984: 114), as theyare regarded "mad" and was on his followers thetaboo-breaking imposed are Revivalists feared in naked theHoperiver of habit bathing (Williams "wild."At thesame time, that inobeahandscience, is in their to for to his 1974: 165). After secondfailure ascend knowledge and Afro-Creole European of therest sorcery respectively to was Bedward condemned spend thesky, to are Revivalists thought possess In RevivalZion origin. fact, Sincethen, ofhislifein an asylum. to theextent andmagical and strong of millenialism the has abandoned doctrine powers, spiritual in evenorthodox White Christians, case ofan urgent its has mitigated antiYet, protest. Bedward that in to turn a Revival of as stillregarded one of the prophets the need, is pastor temporarily might Revival for and search help.In addition, the andas suchhe haunts visions pastors many movement, in arealso balmhealers, Revivalists. of dreams many experts theuse ofherbal for and baths concoctions healing purposes. considis Revival Unlike Zion,Kumina usually classesas less directly better-off eredbyKingston Kuminarituals and/or embarrassing. threatening
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takeplace in thecountryside as St. turn (mainly Thom- can make the holywaterof the fasting as and St. Catherine farfrom ur- redas blood.In thiscase,Revivalists that the the parishes), say banenvironmentKingston. addition, of In Kumina fasting "drawing sword," is a whichmeansthat dancesare often at festivals: it is condemned theHolyGhost. These signs performed folklore by Kumina nowachieved status an element arewarnings thespirit has the of that to thepeople.If gives ofJamaican it remain that heritage. ignored, is believed something they As above mentioned, Pentecostalism Re- worse happen. and can thespiritual of power Through vivalZionappealtothelower and en- the Holy Ghostand above all the mediation of classes, this hances competition the the between two.Generally thepastor, community shapedintoa fairly the is is Pentecostalism seen as less tradition harmonious network relationships. of Whenever speaking, in oriented: fact,upon embracing moremodern thissolidarity "sword," fails,a spiritual together to turn Pentecostalismwith rebukes thepastor, the seekstorestore the of values,manyRevivalists 1978: 153).In addition, rivalry the be- lostbalance. (Wedenoja tweenPentecostalism Revivalism led to and has that Besides the spiritual moralguidance and theabsorption Pentecostal of the elements Revival the pastorgives to the community, church by the role of (153), like glossolalia, layingof hands,and playsan important also inother aspects the thefrequent of Pentecostal use choirs. Nonethe- lifeof Revivalists. Most RevivalZion churches, lament arrogant the of memattitude forexample, classesto teach their less, Revivalists organize Pentecostal in churches Kingston, theyclaim bers (amongwhomilliteracy notuncommon) as is Pentecostals to howtoreadandwrite. addition, sometimes In reject contact RevivalZion. any they In Kingston, Revivalchurches found are ex- offer in instruction practical skillsrelated the to in defined as housework, cooking sewing like or clothes. clusively neighborhoods commonly Many like area also like socialactivities, short "rough," thedowntown orthetownships churches organize of WestKingston. Mostmiddle- upper-class leisure and around island. the trips Jamaicans not in Each church partof theRevivalZion netis prefer to venture theseareas, aboveall at night thetimewhenRevivalfunc- work. Revivalcongregations Kingston, All in for tions takeplace. are with Whenever example, incontact eachother. a church needsfunds, organizes convention. it a are for Specialservices heldin thischurch a few 4. Pastorsand TheirCommunities in of nights a row,anda number other congregationsare invited participate. fund to The raising In 1956, Simpsonsketched image of West activity this an in case is basednotonlyon theofferthat much ingspaid by theguestcongregations, also by but Kingston seemsnot to have changed in the last decades. Indigence and a verylow thesale of smallpamphlets "rosettes" and (bows standard lifestillaffect population this ofribbons). of the of outskirt thecity.The situation onlyslightly No recent of is censusexistsaboutthenumber of in better Central like RevivalZion churches Kingston; number in a of Kingston, although problems and crime remain rate acute. Revival congregations scattered are aroundthe unemployment a high As a matter fact, of mostRevivalists earntheir outskirts thecity, of whileonlyone church suras vendors domestic or area. communities living street helpers; many vivesin thedowntown Revival ofthem unemployed. are form tight a this hownetwork; does notimply, Given socialandeconomic this the different background, ever,theabsenceof antagonism among and of The responsibilities the involvement Revival congregations. rivalries, envies,and gossip and leadersin their communities far that are arise on pastors inevitably areblamed theprevalence from The in beingonlyritualistic. worldin which of the "carnalminded" manycongregations. Revival Zioncommunities is a moral live universe Reciprocal of obeahand"Poco" charges working where each sin,each evil deed or intention con- arealso notuncommon. from spirit has a visible the that The situation not necessarily is better juresa reaction within on If itself. somebody each community. in leaders soliimpact thecommunity Although promote thechurch turns obeah and secretly to carries darity a highly a as itoccasionalvirtue, appreciated charm human of bonesto thechurch, or she ly happens therelationships he that members among willcertainly attacked a fellow be In many of by cases,onlytheefforts the worshipperdegenerate. Misbehavior pastor or and the"swords" thespirit restore of possessedby an enragedspirit. can members thecommunity alter theharmony thecongregation. of can in envyamong thecolorof thebottles thealtar. abortion Another on An of aspectof the investment Revival
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in members their church the amount time prophets angelsare mentioned theBible, is of and in and money are willing sacrifice their butalso spiritual to for liketheFish,theHunter, they beings take activities. regular The services place or eventheMilkMaid,theBell Ringer, the and religious three a times week, they from and last about TimePiece. eight well intothenight. Revivalists also expected are to attend conventions other and specialservices likebaptisms, Each time, etc. Revivalists re- 6. The Spirit are to wear appropriate clothes: "uniform" a quired and a turban, a fancy or dressand a smallhat. The other source spiritual of important knowledge that Thisinvolves considerable is itself. spirit the The is expenses given the in Revivalism thespirit of low. The Holy Ghost, impersonal an income thesepeopleis very manifests average powerthat to themselves on theofferings the itself thehumans possessing them churches rely by by through as in defined "messengers." These are orgamembers; somecases,eventhepastors expect spirits The prophets, to to for theircongregation contribute theirliving. nized in different categories. takes all example, regarded more"earthbound," are as to of Some sort redistribution place in that can thepoint that someof them classified evil are as knowthat, case of need,they in Revivalists it not church. the count with helpoftheir However, seemsthat, longago, the spirits. and In sum,an analysisof Revivalcommunitiesverysame prophets angelswerecommonly for all thatthese conjured possession leads to the conclusion in Kingston during RevivalZion social services 1956: 344f.;Moore1953: 80), witha tight their churches (Simpson supply people like or to whereas chances of a network,system rulesandvalues, spirits theHunter theBell Ringer as in and support case of economic wereregarded "Poco,"andcalled"ground attain spirprestige, need.On a deeperlevel,RevivalZion churches its"(Hogg 1964:320f.;Seaga 1969:8). Presently, in in are with communities a worldview mostpossessions RevivalZion rituals actheir provide Pocomanian that on is which incident explainable thebasis of complished former spirits are by any and now even assigned humans and spirit, between therelationship permanent places in Revival and the the can Maid,theHunter, problems be solvedthrough helpof faith churches: FishorRiver of is theDove. The origin thesespirits unknown; andmagico-religious knowledge. the the worshipped spirit only Fishis clearly water Afro-American also in other religions (Benjamin 1987: 3). A specialclass of Revival(butformer 5. The Doctrine to Pocomanian, according Seaga 1969: 8) spirits like characters theMilkMaid,theBugler, as themselves good Christians. includes Revivalists regard the conduct at leastin theBell Ringer, TimePiece,theAmbush code and their moral Their (sic) is, to theBible. The Man, and others all of them, though, regarded according organized principle, It these in biblical origin. seemsthat and sung; as rigorously Bible is read,memorized, preached, of functionaries Revivalhiof theBible is the sourceof salvation, spiritual spirits possess only members. if and The and of magicalknowledge. Bible is erarchies, hardly ever ordinary power, viin manifest themselves dreams, as and revered feared, it is also a dangerous, These spirits both to destruc- sions,andpossession thosewhohaveachieved can that be usedfor mystery inexplicable level of "cleanliness" to answers all your a certain "You can find tivepurposes. (spiritual purity), has Each of thespirits in the Bible," a pastortold me once, to givethem "teachings." problems toits that the with Bible. peculiar a "butyoucan also destroy person powers aretransmitted functionis sendsyou a messagewitha special aries;theAmbush Man,forexample, at home Somebody herbsforhealand can manipulate the versefrom Bible,and whenyoureadit,you in thebush, The sentence." death arereading (but poisoning!). teachingpurposes also for your also thedescription include the Bible:therulesforChris- ingsfrom spirits is Everythingin the is supthat of the tianmoralconduct, techniques healing by of theuniform thefunctionary-spirit where function the thewaystoapproach posedto wearduring "tables": power, spiritual manipulating around in thechurch literal and creative these A the spirits. simultaneously wheeling spirits parade is the this to during possession a signof spiritual approach theBibleturns bookinto focus (wheeling is of and of ofRevivalZion system beliefs. achievement, that "wheeling pastors" a Revivalworshippers for of All categories Revivalspirits, example, specialclassification among their and their in to trance), wearing are supposed be described theBible. This who spinduring costumes. notonly colorful in meansthat, Revivalist interpretation,
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of Revivalists toa pattern movements turn of enough, Another of category spiritual beingsis that of forward theback,while who gained (a rhythmic the Fathers, former Revivalpastors bowing in the The swinging armsand stepping a circle)aca special reputation theirlifetime. during that and Bedward one of them, his name companied loudinhalations exhalations is and by preacher this music. The in still recurs sermons testimonies. spirits soundlikea percussion and During phase, haveabsorbed whoarepossessed of theFathers said to appearin visionsand those are (andhence to in them)"work"in order the spiritual also takepart services in where dreams; power they they to will.Theywant receive totheir can be seenbythosewhoarespiritually "clean." bendthis power this also want but from spirit, they the The lastcategory spirits of they (although can- a message concrete achieve to notbe defined messengers) that thedup- spiritual as is of goals power helpthem in life. in of believe andbenefits their work, everyday Spirit pies,orthespirits thedead.Revivalists that that deadcan go on haunting world the one word,is a way of manipulating superthe the of the to is if necessary arenot after their natural taken powerthat thought control lives living the steps of ritual death. consist a ritual of wake of human Theseprecautions beings a temporary, reversal 1993: 77), and called"ninenight," not (Guano reported onlyin Revival RevivalZion worldview mechanism butalso in Kumina(Simpson1957: 329). Some maybea compensatory psychological the better endure crisesof Revivalists death is that believe that fortieth after the helps people night for the moment thedead to leave life(La Barre1970:40). actually crucial thisworldor haunt forever; it hence,a wake is on that too. necessary night, Not onlyRevivalists, also many but peopleof 8. Obeah and science other confessions share thisfearofdupreligious condemn Revivalists becauseobeah-men The mostrigorous officially pies. The dead are dangerous as can easilymanipulate on theuse of suchdevicesas oils and powders, them "setting" them by to associated oberemedies traditionally are theliving. Hence,possession duppiesis these through Revivalists "voodoo," call an annihilating or trance. ah andscience what disease,not a temporary of definition sorcery. told is Because,as a pastor me,"when Many general youarespir- which their of are the Revivalists, nonetheless, reportedly blind,and you don't see the duppy, experts itually their often draw and eats withyou,and you get sick,and start both obeahandscience, they duppy and like until die." from booksthat, the"Fourth loosing weight you knowledge have Fifth ofSolomon" De Laurence, been Seal by law. banned Jamaican by 7. SpiritPossession of ChrisThisambiguity goodandevil,ofstrict is tianmorality magicpractice, one of the and Almost of It with con- striking characteristics Revivalism. is not alwaysspirit possession begins vulsive movements thebackandtheshoulders surprising, of hence,thatRevivalZion eventually 1956:352), andsoonturns a better syncretized itsnegative into with ofdouble Pukumina, (Simpson defined of attrib- ficially because itsworship fallen of of condemned pattern danceand vocalizations utedto thespirit The involved. Doves areknown angels,its commerce withthedead,and thelax tocoo anddancewith stretched whereas the sexualbehavior its worshippersall sinsthat of arms, Hunters forward howl, theFishtypi- Revivalcommunities blameon eachother. bow and and often wrists hands ifthey and as werefins. callyrotates It is commonly assumedthata special link existsbetween personand his or her spirit, 9. The Place and theParaphernalia the so that, mostcases, possession in occursalways thesame"messenger." Some Revivalists, Like human the havetheir favorite through beings, spirits Kumina Thisusu- spotsin thechurch: where are though, possessed get by spirits. they always places to or and receive offerings the allyhappens thosepeoplewho attend, have to be found, where they Kumina dances. the andthehomage their of attended, Fish, Though extravagant, worshippers. Doves, event considered acceptable, also Kumina andHunters, example, is as and for of dwellin thecorners are welcomed thedue wayby spraying thechurch. in each of thesespotsis marked Hence, spirits rumandoffering of specialleaves. bya "seal":a stem sugarcane other plus objects But the mostintense of possessionis that withthenature thespirit. of phase varyaccording what Revivalists call "spiritwork,"or "labor- The corner theHunter, example, posted of for is or When their is a and ing," "groaning." possession deep onlywith stemof sugarcane a candle.The
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Dove requires more a elaborate withversesfrom Bible. On theplatthe "seal,"as itusually orated has a tablelaid withbottles smallbasinsof form,fewChristian and a iconsarehung, which among and The of theimagesof Christ theLast Supper the and are water, candles, fruits, flowers. corner theRiverMaid or Fish is sometimes marked In a on by mostcommon. somechurches blackboard a pool, also called "the River."In mostcases, theplatform the reports listof thesickmembers the of and for however, poolis outside thechurch, the waiting thehealing. corner theFishis sealedbya stem sugarcane, Theinstruments inRevival of of Zionchurches played and a candle, stones. pools,which usually arealmost The are some exclusively percussions. Although atleastdouble sizeofa tub, often the are decorated churches have bought modern tradiequipments, also with shells they "foodfor Fish."Or tionally as are the Revivalists two kindsof drum: use the with rounded a staffs: sticks The drum. former bigger, is that, long extremity if base andtherakkling laid transversely thepool,havethepower over to produces lowertone,and is playedwithone a "lock"it,so that can The rakkling drum smaller has two is and nobody jumpintothe"Riv- stick. thesepools are decorated er." Occasionally with sticks; rhythm faster, its is which makesit more and Maidis supposed difficult play. The frames bothdrums silverware dishes to of are (theRiver and to eat),and with like cut metal covered with female a bins, perfume cosmetics: her usually from in Afro-American the anda malegoatskin either on and extremities, held equivalents other religions, Fishis concerned herappearance. with a to tight throughropefastened bignails.PeriodiIn addition thecorners, center particu- cally, drums is to the the must rubbed be with rum ash. or In mostchurches is marked it The third is instrumentthetambourine, is which larly important. by a and a bunch flowers. also covered of a jar of water, candle, with goatskin. a Provided have they in of for Thecenter a church Central in can skill, Kingston, ex- thenecessary anybody thechurch play ofbottles, these is marked a complex instruments. by ample, pattern white basins candles, cups,andwater representing Insidethestar, there an are with points. six a star with rings 10. Preaching a stick ten Bibleanda "rod," short open The used to beatawayevil spirits. lowerhalfof in betweenthreekinds of thestar culminates a tall,redcandlecalledthe Revivalists distinguish the two are and "tower." Underneath star, cloths laid, preaching: exhortation, testimony. sermon, and The distinction basedmainly thelength "suffer" is on that one redand one black,to represent varies from fewminutes thetestimonythe the of to "judgement." set of to A smalltableis usually nextto thecenter 10-15 minutes theexhortation, theelapsed of the It of the church. is coveredwitha whitecloth time thesermon thespirit (if inspires preachand er,thesermon lastup toa fewhours). adIn water and laid with candles, bottles, flowers, might a clockmaybe dition, functionaries sermons fruits. also Wedenoja As usually only preach reported, to and exhortations, whereasordinary of tableat thebeginning theservice seton this worshippers of to on (1978: areperiodically required testify. imposea limit thelength theritual to is and skill is that 269): a service lastsovermidnight likely Oratory an important appreciated forpreachers. is meant teach, mainly It to but to attract someduppies. a and enthusiBelowthetablearea basinofwater, coconut communicate emotions, ithastoelicit the from audience n. and absorbs evil influences is henceused asticresponses (Pitts d.: 73), (which as and exorcisms well as destructivelike "PraisetheLord!,""Yes!," or also "Amen!" forhealing are meantto whenfeelings sorrow aroused. of and two crossedcutlasses, purposes), Revival Zion sermons shareoratory devices keepawayevil spirits. The to other Afro-American At one end of thechurch, religions. sermon, opposite theen- with is that to with a is there usually platform thepulpit forexample, alwayschanted, theextent trance, with The altaris decorated and an altar. flowers, its cadenceis sometimes accompanied drumby tendto be laid sodabottles. and candles, cream Usually with ming(Pittsn.d.: 62). The sentences on with short, often withan emphasis thelast word, covered is thealtar sometimes a white cloth, to colorsaccording theocca- and theyalwaysleave a gap forthe responses of fabrics different As the as are from audience. Fine observes, pattern the sion.Colorsareparticularly important,they like includes use of formulas the of the sermon banners colored to related thespirits. Hence, hang used to taketimeduring and to inthechurch, be retrieved wavedaccording "PraisetheLord"often or before talk(1992: 25). Whenthepreacher the to thewillof thespirits. the is dec- judgesthat response notenthusiastic are The wallsofRevivalchurches usually enough,
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forexample, or she might he water ordirecur stimulantmissionary, to mothers, leader, secretary, formula like"I don'thearyou,"or "didyou nary members. (25) hearme?" The sermon formulaic thatthe is in is of The highest appointmentthat thebishop, often utters first the whichother wordsof a psalm who is in charge a diocesefrom of preacher or a prayer audience also have the power the knows so that churches well, very depend.Bishops to anointministers. consecration The ceremony everybody in a choir. joins The meansof involving audienceare not involves the like the layingof handson the rituals which is but In onlyverbal, also kinesic. mostcases, the newminister hisor hercongregation, by moves aroundthe church, and on sometimes also calledto testify themoralvirtue the preacher evenaddressing someofthemembers thecon- faith thecandidate, therubbing theeyes, of of of and with in thetongue, thehandsof thecandidate to and gregation talking by directly them, looking their their shoulders. Reviv- oliveoil. eyes,and touching al Zion preachers alwaysshowpeculiar part mimicry Thedeacon playsan important inbaptisms, like of in to he patterns, a swinging thearmsandthelegs where or she is supposed stand thewater whilejumping and from one side to the other, thus together thebishop, water with a mother, the to of of are The watermothers in charge candidates. pointing both wings theaudience. and claim theirwordscome all rituals to connected theuse ofholywater, Typically, preachers from spirit. the This inspiration when manifests are active itself they particularly inbaptisms, they with frantic movements thearms glossolalie takecareof thecandidates of and their and before after min- immersion theriver. in but, ejaculations, inthecase ofaccomplished this are leads to a complete isters, enthusiasm leader,and secretary Minister, rarely evangelist, In onecase,a pastor Revival became excited thosewholead ordinary so rituals. possession. Usually, an timesa week.The are that, during exhortation whenshe was stopped Zion services held three of she ordinary services by the intervention some other preacher, beginat around eighto'clock went walking on of the First, members thechurch nervously anddowntheplat- in theevening. up form shouting and "PraisetheLord"byherself. play the drumsand sing religious songs.Then A goodsermon must fervour elicit to to an the secretary choosestwo hymns be sungby express enthusiastic If fails the congregation. prayer A uttered follows, equally response. thepreacher by to do so, theaudience will soonmanifest loss a worshipper its on kneeing a cushionlaid on the of interest yawning a noisy(and eloquent) floor. in one After morehymn, secretary the "lines" by fashion. four "lessons": bylineshereadsfour line psalms, the of the echoesherwords a song. in Though contents the sermons varyac- while congregation to theoccasion, seemspossible draw Following psalms, offerings collected it to the the are cording a rough outline a recurrent of Mostofthe by a member thechurch of the pattern. walking through I sermonslistened started defining border benches to the with openBiblein herhands. an by between Revivalists all the"others." true and The Once a week,each member thechurch of is latter havebeenpeoplefrom other de- calledtopaya sumofmoney thesecretary that dil(whomight nominations evenother or Revival Zioncongrega- igently in records a book.Thenthepastor chooses weredefined sinners, as devoidof scruples thosewho will testify, whichtheleaderor after tions) and moralvirtues. wenton the evangelist called to give a short is Hence,thepreacher talk,an the of The followed explaining qualities the good Christian "exhortation." sermon thepastor, by that and by a short concludes service. the qualities almost alwaysentailed humility prayer, usually the endurance sufferings. mostcases, the of In this of skeleton ReObviously, is buta rough sermon enriched allegorical was with stories sin vivalservices. structure vary of The from church may andpunishment ofredemption) theBible, to church, evenfrom from and service service. to Each (or from lifeofthepreacher, evenfrom the and local ritual, fact, prone be modified theinin is to by of newspapers, provided couldbe usedas moral tervention thespirit: they peoplegetting possessed a spirit "getting thespirit") allowed in are examples. (or by to interrupt service anypoint screaming, the at by etc. singing, preaching, "laboring," 11. Hierarchy and Rituals In mostcases,theatmosphere thechurch in is notvery formal: walkin andout,provided people RevivalZion congregations "bands," they they as raisetwofingers toward platform the the and (or arecalled)areorganized a hierarchical in structurecongregationa salute. anytime, as At small crowds as follows:bishop, the Some of minister, deacon,evangelist, are peepinginsidefrom windows.
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them backsliders are in to (whoare also allowedto sit redwineare offered sacrifice thebishop by inthebackofthechurch), somearesympathizers, RiverMaid. Thenthedeaconholding cross the a A andothers justcurious. number children wrapped a bluecloth, water are of in a mother two with in untiltheyfall flags, are alwaysplaying the church and thebishopwalk intothewater, while on the pews, whiledogs walk freely in therest theworshippers stay theshores. of will on asleep the and out,sometimes the Helpedbythewater the mothers, candidates walk, lapping waterfrom sacrificial basinson thefloor. one at a time,intothe water. The womenhave womenare required wearskirts their to At rituals, in so their blanket, that body wrapped a white head. Sometimes clothes notbecome revealing they will and a wrap(or a hat) on their too as come it is also menweara wrap, the the although seemsthere outofthewater. Holding candidate, bishop to and no strict forthem do so. The colorof the givesa short rule sermon then her plunges or him is to the in name theFather, theSon, of clothes "uniform") prescribed of (the according into water the is the restrictionsthe and of theHolyGhost. out theoccasion.Among other Walking ofthewater, who are thought thecandidate greeted an outburst singing to is of ban on menstruating women, by rituals. and enthusiasm. and officiate takeplace at be unclean cannot Manypossessions important is and a Fromtimeto time, fasting heldto attain thispoint, someofthepeoplewhogetin the are on from Holy Ghost.Fasting spirit baptized thespot,eventhough the they specialblessings all from a of means either abstaining foodfor fewhours did notundergo therequirements thecase. and Laterin the morning, after candidates all have a day or feeding crackers, only on water, the is called"tree life"fora period beenbaptized, ritual concluded repeatedly of leavesof a plant by 3 and the on from to9, 10 to 21 daysorfrom to folding unfolding bluebanner thewater, 3 that ranges the will to thank dismiss RiverMaid. and and 9 months 21 days.The endofthefasting from The "table"is a special function usualthat be celebrated ritually holywater by sipping lasts morethanone night, and thatis held white ly cups. and or a Once a month, Holy Communion "Sup- for or, thanksgiving, uplifting, deliverance, in a of of is held.A bottle water, number little some(and moresecretive) cases,also fordisrupper" (Simpson1956: 371). It drawsits glasses,and smallpieces of breadare set on a tivepurposes the has Toward the namefrom longtablethat to be setin the cloth. a with white short tablecovered breads and both distributes the church laid with the endof theservice, pastor objects: specialritual thosewhoarepartici- (in shapeof doves,butterflies, creamsoda bread thewater and etc.), among whitecandles, to bottles, is The in lemons, glassesof water, pating theCommunion. event meant White alsothe is anda white cloth. Last Supper. Christ's flowers, Bibles, commemorate for occasion. Underneath intotheRevival coloroftheuniform this are The neophytes introduced basinandtwocrossed are there a water The event, thetable, a Zion community through baptism. smaller table may be set in a three-month-preparatory is cutlasses. that Another, course, requires and laid withsoftdrink of the most solemnritualsof Revivalism. a corner the church among and colored decideto havea baptism bottles, churches leaves,redtomatoes, candles, many Usually, are called to take at the same time,and each of themcontributescoconuts. Manycongregations with and in The witha fewcandidates. ceremo- part theservice, tocontribute offerings to theritual on the for starts (usually paying lighting candles the thathas to be celebrated a bishop, by by ny, The service in whenthecongregations in theevening, gather table)to thehighcostsof theritual. and than and more Testimonies involves and for a church drumming singing. singing dancing usual, for that of the until procession the requires theperson whomthe"table"is and preaching follow, at mid- held stands one end of thetableand testifies before the enters church candidates shortly beforemidnight, the wearwhite All clothes; women (Simpson1956: 375). Shortly night. ofthem ofspirit-functionaries glamorous have a wrapon their wearing hair,whilethemencover a parade and intothechurch spinsaround breaks Led with white a their forehead stripe. by a dea- costumes of outbursts spirit thetable.Inevitably, walkcounterclockwise a con carrying cross, possession they and members officials. both will occur of the around center thechurch. Later, ordinary among they are little the have to maketheir by vow, one by one, whilethe Allover church, circles formed peoSome of them in a and is preaching holding Bible above ple "working thespirit." might bishop on and dancewitha glass of water thehead (in the before head.Shortly their dawn, congregation of for will Queens)or holdritual objects candidates moveto a river thesecond part fashion Kumina cream fruits, are candles liton theshore, in their hands,like pots of water, ofthebaptism. Here, and or "silver" sometimes, soda bottles, even a notebook a pencilto andflowers, and, rum, (coins),
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write downspiritual Amidst general Revivalists the achievewithin is their messages. congregation a utterances increasetheir prestige to associated performative In fact, skills. enthusiasm, glossolalie the"spirit" a based on perforfrequency. requires charisma The secondday,a goatis sacrificed sunset mative at as preaching singing) and (such capabilities in a very The officials the that use theshyandthehumble private ceremony. supposedly preclude bloodoftheanimal mark cross the to a on forehead for women to the whobehave example, according of thosewho attend ceremony Pocoma- rules.Onlythosewomen the who are gifted with an (but nians saidtodrink this are of is can becomepastors and blood).Theanimal extraordinary personality not but buried. leaders defying precept modesty the of supposed to be eaten, immediately by imposed The tableis removed from church re- on theother the and female Revivalists. on Other Zion Revival (a placedby a circledrawn thefloor "ground anthropologists approached the drink bottles thecolored onthe and basisofitssocialbackground. diffusion The table")with soft candles that night the before werestanding the ofRevivalism thepoorest on in areasofKingston led smalltable.The center thecircle, of marked a many scholars speculate to about link the between by "Poco" con- thisreligion low social and economic and (another status, potof leavesand tomatoes see Moore 1953: 63), is surroundedandin most cases Revivalism envisioned a was as tamination?; different drinks source compensation poorliving of for conditions. by glasses containing including water sugar, bloodofthegoat, and the for milk, rum, In her studyof Jamaican society, example, and wine.Flowersand coconuts scattered Kerrobserved theroleofreligion that a are in that of is and outside circleof bottles. the the wishfulfillment,emotional an a outlet, substitute Structurally, ritual doesnotdiffer that thefirst from of but forrecreation, a way of attaining and night leadership for absence thespirit the of thecon- (1952: 135).AlsoWedenoja observes "Revivthat parade. Only, wear to the to gregations a reduniform remind spirit alism. . . evolvedas a compensatory response ofthebloodsacrifice has beenaccomplished. chronic that in deprivation themid-nineteenth century" (1978: 82). Butthese are convincexplanations only partly 12. Conclusion an of low ing.Though being aspect Jamaican class Revivalism does not necessary culture, identify Different have been used to explain withit; in other if Revival approaches words, it is truethat theroleof RevivalZion in Jamaican and Zion is practiced society mainly thepoorof suburban by in thelivesof itsmembers. and areas,in thebroadpicture Kingston of rural For example,some anthropologists ob- ofJamaican have Revival Zioncommunities are ghettos served that,as Revivalismallows women to decidedly minority. a achieve within hierarchy, Besides,if a compensatory its element undeniis prestigious positions thisreligion owes its persistence the support ablypresent Revival to in this doesnotexplain Zion, of its female members. to Zion can stillcompete with other reAccording thisexpla- howRevival RevivalZion should a sort women's ligions, be of nation, suchas Pentecostalism, should that attract a of world, happyislandin themale dominance morebelievers thattheyoffer higher in a social the otherChristian denominations. Unfortunateand auraof "modernism" denied prestige a luring the A is ly, thisis hardly case. If it is truethatthe to Revivalism. different approach Lanternaof in of Revivalism a form as majority members RevivalZion churches ri's treatment Jamaican are females, mosttop positions Revivalhier- of cultural nativistic in and protest againstslavery are in archy taken men.Male prestige Reviv- and colonialism the by (1977: 166). To Lanternari, al churches high;themanyrulesimposed is on "African" elements RevivalZion represent in an womenin order control to their and opposition Afroof Jamaicans the appearance against culture their behavior do to Women andtheworld theWhites. thissense, of In Revivclearly notapply men. cannot wearmakeup, can they nor their alistsreinterpret in their straighten own,"nativChristianity hair,norwearjewels. But manymen,above all isticandheathen" (1977: 166) to opposethe way leaders pastors, and often weara number gold ChristianitytheWhite of of dominators. and Women expected are necklaces, More recently, Baer and Singer(1992) prorings, charms. inall situations havea humble to whereas posedan analysis thedichotomy accommoof conduct, of men usuallyundergo mostdramatic the and AfroAmerican posses- dation protest among religious often of sions, as "converaccompanied outbursts boasting groupsclassified "thaumaturgical," by and spectacular dances and sionist," "messianic-nationalist." and oratory, glossolalia, As Baerand It in that what male Singer one "laboring." seems, sum, of observe, of themaintraits thaumamany
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is stress the"impor- 192), and it becameeven morevisiblebetween on movements their turgical over tanceoftheindividual society" movement (1992: 210). 1880 and 1920, withthe Bedwardite in a moral universe where each deed (and of AugustTown. On thatoccasion,Bedward's Living bearssomeconsequences, members millenialism the almost causedRevivalism at least misdeed) (or movements to blametheir tend a considerable ofthese stream themovement) turn of to to problems rather on external than causes.Both antionthemselves White militancy. and stress theindividual his/her on Revivalrepresents so mucha not responsibilities Nowadays, and char- protest againa modeof cultural as andtheuse ofspiritual healing resistance. Japractices move- maican RevivalZion as a thaumaturgical be acterize society might changing, though slowly, the three-tiered structure class ment. fact, use ofmagico-religious In (basedon practices itstraditional churches be- a Black lowerclass,a Coloredmiddle to of leadsmembers thaumaturgical class,and have somedegree control of over a Whiteupperclass; Hoetink 1985: 73). But,in lievethat they of of national awareness Black of their (1992: 208). As a result thisworld- spite a new,strong fate in the and of view,and of theconfidence their manipulativeJamaicans, privileges theprestige the "cometo accept or White casteremain and of untouched, widesectors thaumaturgical groups powers, social Jamaican Blackeliteas wellas ofthemiddle class at leastavoid openly challenging existing seemto haveatleastpartly absorbed valuesof the relations" (210). Zionas a thauma- theBritish colonizers. Revival Ifthese traits classify Likemostlow classJamaicans, Revivalists are seemto stress other movement, elements turgical of where a reli- awareof theparadoxes their with of a similarity Revivalism conversionist society, is Black majority sociallyand culturally toBaerandSinger In fact, (1992: largely according gions. White elite.In thiscontext, churches characterized dominated a tiny are by by 165),conversionist nativistic of Chrisform of "communitas" Turner's RevivalZion is thetruly a strong (in feeling to the of The its (and culsense;1969)among members. intensity tianity, real alternative religious backtheorigin Whiletracing colonization. allowsthe tural) andemotional their experience spiritual the faith a schism"between Baptist to within of their to of members conversionist groups share, church of of a of the liminalborders their ritual, perception church theWhitesand the Baptist still their theBlacks,"RevivalZion preachers drawa that and of reality a worldview strengthens and themselves all other Christian fits This mutual undoubtedly line between solidarity. description American and of in RevivalZion congregations, thatanyRevival churches, bothEuropean North relies origin. wheresolidarity "band"is a communitas of Zioncongrethe of on the common Presently, doctrine Revival experience the bespiritual antisucha strong White notentail becomesritually in a worldthat lievers might separate gations of on thebasisofBaer reaction say,that Rastafarian from as, (BarHence, ideology reality. ordinary their RevivalZion can be rett1988: 28). Yet, simply reasserting and Singer'sclassification, by on Jamaican and "mixed as defined a thaumaturgical-conversionist identity bycarrying their rituals, social stillresistbothan oppressive how- Revivalists to According BaerandSinger, religion. type" colonization. and doc- reality cultural and boththaumaturgical conversionist ever, to are trine conducive an accommodative approach stress issuesin that to socialand ideological they and of theimportance theindividual of a limited References Cited that is on interest a world and group, focustheir and moral spiritual. Mervyn Alleyne, that 1988 RootsofJamaican to It wouldnotbe correct, Pluto Press. London: Culture. though, affirm element. lacksanyprotest RevivalZion presently Diane J. between we In fact, shoulddistinguish "protest" Austin, The and Jamaica. Culture Class LifeinKingston, an activeand 1984 Urban of Two that and "resistance," is between New Neighborhoods. York:Gordon Ideology Since thedaysof a passivemodeof opposition. andBreach. was in Afro-Creole itsbeginning, religion Jamaica that a felt a wayofresistingworld was forcibly Baer,Hans A., andMerrill as Singer in American Century. Religion theTwentieth this on theBlackmasses;at times, resis- 1992 Africanimposed Knoxville: and of Varieties Protest Accommodation. active into turned a more tance opposition. actually Press. of The University Tennessee whenthenumerous for Thishappened, example, and Barrett, of the slaverebellions LeonardE. gained support Myalists BeaconPress. Boston: 1969: 1988 The Rastafarians. 1990: 137; Patterson obeah-men (Stewart
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G. MarthaWarren Moore,Joseph Beckwith, A of Folk A of 1929 BlackRoadways. Study Jamaican Life.Chap- 1953 Religion Jamaican Negroes. Studyof Afro-JaPh.D. maican Acculturation. Press. Carolina of el Hill:University North [Unpublished Dissertation, Northwestern of University] DepartmentAnthropology, Joel Benjamin, Orlando The WaterMama Beliefin Guyana.A PreliminaryPatterson, 1987 DickRutherford: of at and of Fairleigh Paper presented the17th 1969 The Sociology Slavery. Study Form Origin. Press. inson of Teacher'sAssociation Conference the History of University 18-21June. Trinidad Tobago. and Tobago, Walter Pitts, n.d. The Ancient ofZion.[Manuscript] Kia Bunseki Kenneth andFu-Kiau Ship M., Bilby, in A Tradition theNew World. 1983 Kumina. Kongo-Based Albert J. Indi- Raboteau, of M.S. University theWest [Unpublished Thesis, in AntebelInstitutionthe The 1978 SlaveReligion. Invisible es at Mona,Kingston] Press. Oxford: Oxford lumSouth. University Chevannes, Barry Cheryl Ryman, Savacou5: 27-40. 1971 Revival BlackStruggle. and Review ACIJResearch and 1984 Kumina. Stability Change. 1: 81-128. Curtin, Philip Greenwood. New York: 1968 TwoJamaicas. Seaga, Edward a NotesTowards Sociology 1969 RevivalCultsin Jamaica. LeslieG. Desmangles, Jamaica Journal 3-13. ofReligion. Catholicism 3/2: 1992 TheFacesoftheGods.VodouandRoman Carolina of inHaiti. ChapelHill:TheUniversity North GeorgeE. Simpson, Press. Studies SocialandEconomic Revivalist Cults. 1956 Jamaican 5-6: 321^42. C. Fine,Elizabeth in Journal AmerIn: Communication. 1957 TheNineNight as 1992 Performative of Ceremony Jamaica. Metaphors Ritual 70: icanFolklore 329-335. Haskeil E. C. FineandJean Speer(eds.),Performance, and Cults the of Caribbean. 1980 Religious Jamaica, and Trinidad, Culture, Identity; 23-45.Westport: Praeger. pp. Studies. of Rico:Institute Caribbean Puerto Haiti. Guano,Emanuela Robert A 1993 Doing SpiritWorkin Jamaica. Performative J. Ap- Stewart, Jamaica. proachto RevivalZion and Kumina.[Unpublished 1990 Religionand Societyin Post-Emancipation Press. of The Knoxville: University Tennessee and M.A. Thesis,Department Geography Anthroof State Louisiana University] pology, Victor Thrner, Chiand Process. Structure Anti-Structure. 1969 The Ritual H. Hoetink, In: W. 1985 "Race"andColorinthe Caribbean. Sidney Mintz cago:Aldine. andSallyPrice(eds.),Caribbean Contours; 55-84. pp. Warner Lewis,Maureen The Press. Baltimore: Johns University Hopkins in Other Suns.TheAfrican 1991 Guinea's Dynamic Trinidad Press. Dover:The Majority Culture. Hogg,Donald W. A 1964 Jamaican Religions. Studyin Variations. [UnpubG. Watson, Llewelyn lished Ph.D.Dissertation, of DepartmentAnthropology,1991 Jamaican AesthetWithNoteson Folklore, Sayings. Yale University] Gainesville: Florida ics,andSocialControl. University Press. Kerr,Barbara 1952 Personality Conflict Jamaica. in and LiverLiverpool: William A. Wedenoja, Press. poolUniversity in 1978 Religionand Adaptation RuralJamaica. [UnpubLa Barre,Weston of Ph.D.Dissertation, lished DepartmentAnthropology, 1970 TheGhost Dance.Origins Religion. of of San Prospect Heights: University California, Diego] Waveland Press. J. Williams, Anthony Vittorio in 1974 The Role of theProphet Millenial Cults.PoliticoLanternari, 1977 Movimenti di e in Movements Jamaica, 1800-1970. religiosi libert di salvezzadei popoli [UnpubReligious Milano:Feltrinelli. of lished B.L. Thesis, oppressi. University Oxford]

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