Job at the Zoo Story

In high school, I needed money. I was able to drive, had a girlfriend, and like to go out
with my friends. My folks didn't have much money and I needed to pay my own way.
I had already done jobs working at restaurants and grocery stores and wanted to try
something more interesting. While searching around, I stopped at the zoo.

As it turned out, the zoo director liked my style and said he had an interesting job that he
felt I could handle. We walked through the back alleys and tunnels of the zoo that most
people never see until we got to the gorilla cage. But, it was empty.

The director told me that their gorilla named Kong had caught a bug and was in
quarantine for the next week. Kong was getting old and they were even now shopping
around for a replacement since Kong just sits on a treebranch holding onto a rope all day.
When the crowds started arriving on the weekend, they'd be disappointed to have no
gorilla since everyone enjoys the gorilla exhibit, even a boring old gorilla.

The director said he had a gorilla suit I could wear if I would be interested in sitting on the
branch for 4 hours at a time so the people would at least have something to look at. It
sounded good to me, not the usual high school job, so I told him I would.

The next day I went to the zoo, put on the gorilla suit and climbed into the cage. I sat on
the branch holding the rope and soon there was a crowd of children pressing their faces to
the bars. It didn't take long for me to start getting bored, so I would scratch my armpits,
thump my chest, and twirl the rope. About an hour passed and I began to really get into
this gorilla stuff. I would grab the rope and swing across the cage. The kids thought it was
great so I started swinging higher and higher.

In the next cage there was a lion and he was becoming irritated by my antics and began to
pace his cage and roar. I kept swinging and started to swing to the lion's side of the cage
and would use my feet to push off of his bars. I could really swing out far and he roared
even louder. It was actually pretty fun and the kids were really enjoying the show.

All of a sudden I missed the bars, flew through, and dropped right into the lion's cage! I
landed on my back and was stunned but immediately got up and ran to the front of the
cage to the croud, screaming "Help me, help me, I'm not who you think I am!"

Just as I yelled, the lion jumped on my back and knocked me to the ground. His head was
at my neck and I was sure I'd never make it to graduation. Then he whispered in my ear,
"Shut up stupid, or you'll get us both fired".

Pehli nazar mein

Kaise jaado kar diya
Tera ban baita hai
Mera jiya
 Jaane kya hoga
Kya hoga kya pata
Is pal ko milke
Aa jee le zara

Mein hoon yahan

Tu hai yahan
Meri bahon mein aa
Aa bhi ja
O jaan-e-jaan
Dono jahan
Meri bahon mein aa
Bhool Ja aa

O jaan-e-jaan
Dono jahan
Meri bahon mein aa
Bhool Ja aa

Baby i love u, baby i love you, baby i love you, baby i love you … so..
Baby i love u
Oh i love u
I love u
I love u so
Baby i love u

Har dua mein shamil tera pyaar hai

Bin tere lamha bhi dushwar hai
Dhadhkon ko tujhe se hi darkar hai
Tujhse hai rahtein
Tujhse hai chahtein

Har dua mein shamil tera pyaar hai

Bin tere lamha bhi dushwar hai
Dhadhkon ko tujhe se hi darkar hai
Tujhse hai rahtein
Tujhse hai chahtein

Tu jo mili ek din mujhe

Mein kahin ho gaya lapata

(O jaan-e-jaan
Dono jahan
Meri bahon mein aa
Bhool Ja aa ) ….. 2

(Kar diya Deewana dard-e-Kash ne

Chain cheena isqh ke ehsaas ne
Bekhayali di hai tere pyaas ne
Chaya suroor hai
Kuch to zaroor hai) ….. 2
 Yeh dooriyan
Jeene na de
Hal mera tujhe na pata

(O jaan-e-jaan
Dono jahan
Meri bahon mein aa
Bhool Ja aa) ….. 2

Baby i love u, baby i love you, baby i love you, baby i love you … so..
Baby i love u
Oh i love u
Baby I love u
I love u…

The thieves were planning whenever in the night. Haphazard king appeared there to

put on the mask. The thieves asked! Who are you? King said! I am also thief and I would

like to join you. After asking some question they were agree and set him. After that they

were talking. One thief said! I have the art to make anybody climb on the tallest building.

Second said! I have the art to know the language of dog what is that saying. Third said! I

have the art that I can easily open any kind of lock. After that they asked the king. Yes

brother what art of you have? King answered. I have the art. If I open my mouth then

biggest crime is pardon of anybody. All thieves decided to today we theft in Mehal of

king. When he reached at Mehal then dog began to bark.

One man said who know the language of dog. The dog is saying king with all of you.

After listening his talking they had anger with him and said. Today you commit mistake

of hearing the voice of dog. He had insisted. The dog is same saying. Afterward they

used their art and thievishly things bring and hide these things at safe place. King sends
his policeman and caught them. When asked them then they said that is your time you

use your art and give us the freedom. Then king leave them.

Nouns
A noun is one of the most important words that you use either speaking or
writing. It is the word that tells what you are talking about. A noun is a word that
names something. There are names for persons, animals, places, and objects,
that can be pointed out and recognized. There also names for substances,
qualities, actions, and measures of time or quality. The following list includes
examples of different kinds of nouns.

Persons: student - John - girl

Animals: elephant - cat - zebra
Places: home - New York - camp
Objects: table - camera - computer
Substances: glass - mercury - water - meat
Qualities: kindness - heroism - beauty
Actions: moving - cooking - writing
Measures: month - pound - inch - hour
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word used in place of the noun. As pronouns can be used in
place of nouns, they avoid the monotonous repetition of nouns. Many of the
language errors that are commonly made are errors in the use of pronouns.
Mistakes occur because some of the pronouns that we use constantly have a
number of diffrent forms.

There are 5 groups or classes of pronouns in English:

personal
interrogative
demonstrative
indefinite
relative

Personal Pronouns
The personal pronouns are the most important group of pronouns. They are also
the pronouns that will give you the most trouble uless you are familiar with the
various forms that belong to each pronoun.

A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its form whether it refers to the
person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. All the
personal pronouns, with the exeption of the pronoun it, refer to persons.

First person
Singular Plural
I we
my our
mine ours
me us
Second person
Singular Plural
you you
your your
yours yours
you your
Third person
Singular Plural
he, she, it they
his, her, its their
his, hers, its theirs
him, her, it them

Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are pronouns that are used in asking questions. The
interrogative pronouns are: who (whose, whom), which, what. An interrogative
pronoun also has another function to perform in the sentence, just as any other
pronoun has. It may be the subject of the sentence, or it may be the object of the
verb or of a preposition .

Who is the manager of this firm?

For whom are you waiting?

Which is your bag?

Whose bike did you borrow?

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are pronouns that point out definite persons, places
or things. There are only two demonstrative pronouns: this with its plural these,
and that with its plural those.

This is my car.

These are travel tickets.

That is your razor.

Those are Peter's shoes

Indefinite Pronouns
A large group of pronouns are called indefinite pronouns because they do not
point out particular places, persons or things.

Somebody took my umbrella.

A few left the lessons early.

Commonly used Indefinite Pronouns

all everybody one
any everyone one another
anybody everything ones
anyone few other
anything many others
both neither several
each nobody some
each one none somebody
each other no one someone
either nothing something

Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that joins the clause which it introduces to its
own antecedent. The antecedent of pronoun is the noun or pronoun to which it
refers.

The relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what. The pronoun who has
two other forms, whose and whom.

Who is used when the antecedent is is a person.

That is used to refer to either persons or things.
Which is used to refer to anything exept persons.

He is the boy who won the award.

This is the cat that (or which) was lost.
She is the girl that won the award.

When the relative pronoun is combined with ever or soever, it is called a

compound relative pronoun.

List of Compound Relative Pronoun

whoever whosoever whichsoever
whomever whatsoever whomsoever
whatever whosesoever whichever

Verb
The verb is the most important part of speech. It is the only one part of speech
that can make a statement about the subject.

Most of the verbs in common use express action. The action is not allways
physical action like an action expressed in the sentence The hunters shot the
deer. In the sentence, He solved the problem, the meaning of the verb solved
implies both mental and physical activity.

A small, but very important group of verbs, do not express action. These verb
which have the connecting function are called linking verbs.

Linking verbs
 Linking verbs have very little meaning on their own. The most
important verb in this group is the verb to be.

The forms of the verb to be

I am was
you are were
he, she , it is was
we are were
they are were
Since the verb to be does not
express an action, it must have another function in the sentence.
With the help of some other word or words, it makes statements
about the condition of the subject, or person, place, or thing that is
talked about.

My brother is a famous surgeon. (classifies brother as surgeon)

I am very tired. (describes the condition of mine)
This dress is tight. (describes dress)

The verbs became and seem, like the verb to be, are almost
always used as linking verbs.
The following verbs are used both as linking verbs and action
verbs.

Linking and Action Verbs

grow look smell remain
turn stay taste keep
prove sound appear
When these words have a linking
function they have practically the same meaning as the verb to be
would have in the same sentence.

The biscuit looks wonderful. = The biscuit is wobderful.

A verb is not allways a single word. When the verb is composed of two or more
words, it is called a verb phrase.

Every verb has 3 basic forms which are called the principal parts of the verb.

3 basic forms of verbs

These three forms are the present tense, the past tense, and
the past participle. They are called the principal parts of the verb
 because the 6 tenses of the verb can be built from them.

Verbs are divided into 2 classes on the basis of way in which the
past tense and the past participle are formed. Some are called
regular or weak verbs, and others are called irregular or strong
verbs.

A regular verb is a verb that forms the past tense and the past
participle by adding ed or d to the forme of the present tense.
Sometimes the ed or d changes to t: build - built - built

Verb Past tense Past Participle

call called called
bake baked baked
build built built
An irregular verb is a verb that
does not the past tense and the past participle by adding ed or d
to the forme of the present tense. The past tense and the past
participle of irregular verbs are formed in various ways.

A verb not only undergoes certain changes to show tense, or the time of action,
but it changes in form to show voice.

Voice
Voice is a grammatical term which is used to tell whether the subject of the
sentence is acting or receiving the action expressed by verb.
When the subject is acting, we say that the subject is the doer. When the subject
is receiving the action, we say that the subject is receiver.

Jane washed the window. (Jane is the doer of action)

The window was washed by Jane. (Window is the receiver of the action).

In the grammar we say that the verb in the first sentence is in the active voice
because the subject is the doer, or is doing the wshing.
The verb was washed is in the passive voice because it represents the subject
of the sentence as the receiver of the action. In other words, the subject is not
acting, but is passive. The doer, or the actor, appears in a phase introduced by
the preposition by.
The verb in the passive voice is never a simple verb. It is always a verb phrase.

In addition to tense and voice, verbs have another property which is called mood.

Mood
There are 3 moods in English, the indicative mood, the imperative mood, and
the subjunctive mood.
The indicative mood is used to make statements and to ask questions. Most of
the verbs that you commonly use are in the indicative mood.

The secretary wrote the letter. (statement or fact)

Did you buy this dress? (question)

The imperative mood is used to express a comand or a request. The imperative

mood is found only in the present tense, second person. The subject is always
the pronoun you which is seldom expressed.

Come here at once! (command)

Close the window, Mike. (request)

The subjenctive mood is used to express a wish or a condition which is contrary

to fact.

If he were here, I would tell him the news. (He is not here)
I wish I were in America. (express a wishes)

Adjectives
Adjectives give life and color to language. They also help us to give more exact
pictures of what we are telling about, if we now how to select them carefully. As
you improve your skill in using these words, your language will become more
interesting and more explicit.

There are two kinds of adjectives:

Kinds of Adjectives
There are two kinds of adjectives: descriptive adjectives and limiting adjectives.
Descriptive adjectives, as the name implies, give color and vividness to the
persons, places, or things we talk or we write about. Limiting adjectives indicate
number or quantity.

Descriptive adjectives tell what kind, what color, what size, what shape etc.

brilliant speaker, a new hat, high level

Limiting adjectives tell how many, how much, which one, whose etc.
two sets, one plane, three tickets

descriptive adjectives and limiting adjectives. Adjectives derived form proper

nouns are called proper adjectives.

Proper Adjectives
Adjectives, derived from proper nouns are called proper adjectives. They are
usually written with a capital letter. They are usually descriptive adjectives.

Canadian becon Turkish tabacco

American industries Norwegian sardines
Mexican pottery Danish silver
United States flag Swedish crystal
English wool Indian summer

Adjectives that complete the meaning of the verb and modify the subject are
called predicate adjectives.

Predicate Adjectives
Adjectives that complete the meaning of the verb and modify the subject are
called predicare adjectives. If an adjective is found in the predicate and
modifies a noun in the predicate, it is not a predicate adjective. The adjective
must follow the linking verb and modify the subject in order to be classified as
predicate adjective. The predicate subjective usually describes the subject, noun
or pronoun.

Linking verbs
is grow look smell remain
become turn feel taste keep
seem prove sound appear stay

The biscuit is delicious.

Corn is plentiful in Illinois.
The street has become very muddy

The form of an adjective is often changed to show the extent or degree to which
a certain quality is present. In grammar, this change in form to show a difference
in degree is called comparison.

Comparison of Adjectives
The form of an adjective is often changed to show the extent or degree to which
a certain quality is present. In grammar, this degree in form to show a difference
in degree is called comparison.

There are three degrees of comparison in English: the positive degree, the
comparative degree, and the superlative degree.
The positive degree is really not a degree of comparison because no
comparison is indicated when the positive degree is used. The positive degree is
the simple form of the adjective. It shows that the quality is present, but it does
not show a comparison with anything else.

That is a beautiful rose.

It is a very cold day.
Peter is very energetic.

The comparative degree of the adjective is used when a comparison is made

between two persons or things. The comparative degree shows that the quality
expressed by the adjective exists to a greater or to a lesser degree in one of the
two persons or things that are being compared.

The comparative degree of almost all adjectives of one syllable is formed by

adding er to the positive degree or to the simple form of the adjective;

Peter is stronger than Mike.

This desk is larger than that one.

The superlative degree of the adjective is used when more than two persons
or things are compared. The superlative degree indicates that the quality
(expressed by the adjective) is possessed to the greatest or or to the least
degree by one of the persons or things included in the comparison.

Our flat is the largest flat in the block.

Jimmy is the smallest boy in his class.

Degrees of Comparison
Adjectives of One Syllable
Positive Comparative Superlative
neat neater neatest
sharp sharper sharpest
dark darker darkest
keen keener keenest
long longer longest

Adjectives of two or more syllables are usually compared by prefixing the words
more and most to the simple form of the adjective. More is used to indicate the
comparison between two persons or things. Most is used to indicate the
comparison between more than two persons or things. Less and least are used
in a similar way.

Positive Comparative Superlative

fragrant more fragrant most fragrant
famous more famous most famous
precious more precious most precious
difficult more difficult most difficult

Sometimes adjectives of one syllable are compared by prefixing more and most.
Sometimes adjectives of more then one syllable are compared by adding er and
est. There is no rule to follow for marking these exceptions. If one form of
comparison sounds better than the other, that is the form to use.

Adjectives of more than one syllable that end in y are usually compared by
adding er and est. The y changes to I before the addition of er and est.

Positive Comparative Superlative

silly sillier silliest
dainty daintier daintiest
clumsy clumsier clumsiest
handy handier handiest
noisy noisier noisiest

Some adjectives are compared irregularly.

And some adjectives are not to be compared.

Irregular Comparison of Adjectives

Positive Comparative Superlative
bad worse worst
far further furthest
far farther farthest
good, well better best
little less least
many more most
much more most
out outer outmost or outermost

Farther refers to distance or remoteness in space. Further refers to remoteness

in time, to degree, extent or quantity. It is also used to express the idea of
something more or additional.

Their house is further that I thought. (Distance in space)

He will give me father instructions tomorrow. (Additional instructions)

The distinctions between further and farther are passing out of use. These
words are now used interchangeable. There is also a tendency to use further to
express all the meanings discussed.
 Adjectives not compared
There are a number of adjectives that should not be compared because the
simple form of the adjective express the quality tj the highest possible degree.
For example, if an answer to a problem is correct, another answer could not
possibly be more correct. If a circle is absolutely round, another circle could not
be more round.

The following are some of the adjectives that are not compared for the reasons
given:

perfect unique square universal

single supreme fatal empty
vertical full alone dead
final mortal round deadly
straight blind everlasting wrong

The expression more nearly round, is often used when comparing two things,
one of which is more nearly round than the other. In this case, however, neither
of the things compared is round.
Sometimes an adjective such as the word honest is used in the comparative and
superlative degrees. In such cases, we have no standard of absolute honesty.
What hte writer or speaker means is that one person approaches the absolute
state of honesty to a greater or to a lesser degree than another person. The
adjective perfect is often used in the same way.

Adverbs
We have explained the uses of the adverb as modifier of the verb, telling how,
when, where, and to what degree the action is performed. Now we present other
uses of the adverb, and the relation of adverbs to adjectives and to other
adverbs.

Form of adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Yes, no and not
Adverbs of degree
Comparison of adverbs

Forms of adverbs
some people have the idea, that all adverbs end in ly. There are a great many
adverbs that do end in ly, but there are probably just as many that do not end in
ly. Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to the adjective form:
Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb
strange strangely awkward awkwardly
sudden suddenly necessary necessarily
calm calmly strict strictly
sure surely forcible forcibly
usual usually extreme extremely
swift swiftly similar similarly
rapid rapidly slight slightly

The following are some of the adverbs that do not end in ly:

Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb

seldom little why fast
again here now twice
soon there then too
very rather since much
almost often well quite
late when near yonder
hard where far how

Many adjectives end in ly. They should not be confused with adverbs that end in
ly. The following words ending in ly are commonly used as adjectives. Some of
them might also be used as adverbs:

Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb

stately lovely saintly manly
lonely womanly lively courtly

Some adjectives have the same form as the adverb. In such cases, the only one
way you can tell whether the word is an adjective or adverb, is to determine its
use in a particular sentence.

That was a hard task (hard - adjective, modifies task)

Our janitor works hard (hard - adverb, modifies works)

Interrogative Adverbs
An adverb is often used at the beginning of the sentence to ask a question.
When an adverb is use din this way, it is called an interrogative adverb. An
interrogative adverb also modifies some word in the sentence.

When did you come back?

Where did you buy the car?
In the first sentence, the adverb When modifies the verb did arrive. (You did
arrive when?). In the second sentence, the adverb Where asks the question and
modifies the verb did put.

Yes, No and Not

The affirmative adverb yes and the negative adverb no are use dindependently.
the are usually set off by commas. Not is an adverb. It is never used as part of
the verb, although, it often comes between the parts of a verb phrase. The
adverb not makes the verb express the idea which is an exact oppsite of te
regular meaning of the verb.

Yes, I shall make that.

I did not give him the ticket.
No, we are not going to Vienna this winter.

Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of degree tell how large, how small, how long, how much, to what
extent etc. they answer the questions "How large?", "To what extent?".
Adverbs of degree usually modify adjectives or other adverbs.

In the following illustrations the adverbs of degree modify adjectives:

This pear is very sour. (Very modifies the adjective sour)

The play was rather amazing. (Rather modifies amazing)

In the following sentences the adverbs of degree modify other adverbs:

Peter runs much faster than Edward. (Much modifies the adverb faster)
Don't talk so loud. (So modifies the adverb loud)

Comparison of Adverbs
There are 2 ways how the adverbs form their comparative and superlative.

1. Adverbs in -ly form their comparative and superlative with more and most.
(But not early)

Could you say that more slowly, please?

Tom can shoot the most accurately.
You will just have to get up earlier.

2. Adverbs with the same form as adjectives form their comparative and
superlative with -er and -est.

Sarah run the fastest.

Some adverbs form their comparative and superlative irregularly.

well better best
badly worse worst
far further/farther furthest/farthest

Comparison as...as, less etc.

We use as...as to compare 2 things that are the same in the same way.
I cannot do crosswords as quickly as you.

Less and least are the opposites of more and most.

The old man's son visits him less often nowadays.

We can repeat a comparative after and to talk about a change in something else.
They went faster and faster down the hill.

We use the+comparative to talk about a change in one thing which causes a

change in something else.
The more you practise, the better you will play.

Prepositions
Another important part of speech is the preposition. A preposition show the
relationship that exists in the sentence. The underlined words are prepositions.

The accident occurred under the bridge.

The accident occurred near the bridge.
The accident occurred above the bridge.
The accident occurred behind the bridge.
The accident occurred beneath the bridge.
The accident occurred on the bridge.

The entire group of words, on the bridge, is called a prepositional phrase.

A list of Commonly used Prepositions

above at by into toward

about before down like through
across behind during near under
after below except of until
against beneath for off up
along beside from on upon
among between in since with
around beyond inside to within
Conjunctions
In many sentences you need words that serve to join words or group of words. In
grammar, words that have this connecting function are called conjunctions.

She drives too fast and too recklessly.

He or you will audit the account.
Andrew fell and broke his arm.
It is a large but attractive house.

VERB

FORMS
•  Verb classes 
o  Variable Vowel Verbs 
o  Regular verbs other than Variable Vowel Verbs 
o  Minor verb classes of verbs and irregular verbs 
•  Derived verbs 
o  ­o  verbs: "action toward the speaker"
   
o  ­u  verbs: intransitive or "passive"
   
o  Causative verbs 
o Pluractional verbs (verbs showing reiterated action)
•  Verbal nouns 
o  ­wa  verbal nouns
   
o  non­ wa
    verbal nouns
   
•  Technical:  the "Grade System" as a way of classifiying verbs
   
Verb
Classes
General Remarks

•  Links to information on verb forms 

Factors influencing the forms that verbs take
Unlike most European languages, differences in Hausa verbs do not usually 
relate to marking verb tense. However, Hausa has several verb classes that differ 
primarily in the forms that verbs take depending on their objects or lack of 
objects. The factors that affect the forms of verbs are the following:

• No object following: There may be no object present in the sentence at 
all, the object may be someplace other than after the verb, or the word 
following the verb may not be considered an "object" in Hausa.

No object at all: Ka saya? 'Did you buy (it)?'

(the object is understood, 
perhaps from the context)

 
 Object not after verb :  Shinkafa na  'It is rice that I bought.
saya. ('rice' is the object, but it is 
at the beginning of the 
sentence for emphasis)

 
Word after verb not an  Sun shiga gida. 'They entered the 
"object": house.'
(with most verbs of motion, 
the goal of the motion is a 
"locative" rather than an 
object)

• Noun object following: In Hausa, any object which is not one of the 
special direct object pronouns counts as a "noun" object.

Na sayi akwiya. 'I bought a goat.'
 Ka sayi wannan? 'Did you buy this?'
(though wannan 'this' is a "pronoun"­­
it stands for a noun­­it is not one of 
the special direct object pronouns)

• Pronoun object following: In Hausa, "pronoun object" refers only to an 
object expressed as one of the special direct object pronouns.

Na saye ta. 'I bought it.'

• Indirect object following: This may be either a pronoun indirect object or 
a noun indirect object (in Hausa, indirect object always come immediately 
after the verb).

Na saya miki akwiya. 'I have bought a goat for you.'
Na saya wa matata ita. 'I bought it for my wife.'

Variable
Vowel
Verbs
•  Links to information on verb forms 
•  See a list of representative Variable Vowel Verbs 

Variable Vowel Verbs ("VVV's"), called Grade 2 in the Hausa Grade System, 
change their final vowel depending on the type of object which follows the verb. 
This is true for all verb tenses other than the Continuative (which uses the verbal 
noun rather than the base verb). The vowel variants of VVV's are as follows:

No object or direct object following verb (see below for indirect object)

No object following ­a
Pronoun object 
­e
following
Noun object following ­i

Tone­­Note the following tonal features of VVV's:

1. All transitive verbs which begin in Low tone are Variable Vowel 
Verbs.

2. All but 3­5 VVV's begin in Low tone. In the Kano dialect, the VVV's 
which do not begin in Low tone are d'auka 'take', d'iba 'dip out', and samu 
'get'. Even these verbs begin in Low tone when a pronoun or noun object 
follows. (See list of representative VVV's with their tones marked.)

3. Two­syllable VVV's always have Low­High tones (see saya 'buy' in the 
examples above).

4. Three­syllable VVV's have Low­High­Low tones when no object follows 
and Low­Low­High when there is an object (see tambaya 'ask' in the 
examples above). (Verbs with more than three syllables add additional 
Low tones at the beginning.)

Indirect objects with VVV's

Before indirect objects, VVV's take one of two patterns. One must simply learn 
which pattern applies to a particular verb. Some verbs can use either (as with 
tambaya 'ask' below).

Reversed tone pattern:
Hi­Lo(­Hi) instead of Lo­Hi(­Lo)

All High tones with final ­ar (becomes ­am 
before m)

 
For more information on Variable Vowel Verbs, see discussion of verbal nouns for 
Variable Vowel Verbs.

Regular
Verbs
other than Variable Vowel Verbs
•  Links to information on verb forms 
•  See a list of representative "regular" verbs 

By "regular" we mean verbs which follow predictable patterns of the majority of 
the basic verbs of Hausa. Here, we will consider only verbs which begin in High­
Tone and end in ­a or ­e. (In the technical terminology of the Hausa Grade 
System, these are Grades 1 & 4.) These verbs have the following forms:

1. Base form final vowel: Long ­a or long ­e.

2. Base form tone: Two­syllable verbs have High­Low tones. Three­syllable 
verbs have High­Low­High tones. (Verbs of more than three syllables have 
additional High tone syllables at the beginning.) (See note on tone of 
pronoun objects.)

3. Noun object following: The final vowel shortens for all verbs; three­
syllable verbs have final Low tone. (See note on vowel length of final 
   ­e
   .)

4. Everywhere else, regular verbs take their base form.

No object following
Pronoun object 
following

Noun object following

Indirect object following

Minor Verb
Classes
and irregular verbs

•  Links to information on verb forms 

By far the largest classes of underived verbs in Hausa are Variable Vowel Verbs 
and "regular" verbs ending in ­a or ­e. There are a few verbs in Hausa which do 
not follow the patterns of these verbs. We divide them into five groups here:

1. Intransitive verbs: A number of intransitive verbs end in ­i or ­u. These 
final vowels not found with the common verb classes. A fairly large group 
of intransitives resemble Variable Vowel Verbs in that they end in ­a and 
have Low­High tones, but unlike VVV's, they have short final vowels. 
Some intransitive verbs also have High­High tones with final short ­a. 
Since intransitive verbs, by definition, cannot take objects, they do not 
undergo the types of variations that transitive verbs can undergo. (See a 
list of representative intransitive verbs.)

2. Monosyllabic verbs: All but two monosyllabic verbs have High tone (the 
two exceptions are sa 'put on; cause' and ce 'say', which have falling tones 
and pattern with regular verbs in ­a or ­e). Monosyllabic verbs are invariant 
except that those that end in a short vowel lengthen their vowel before a 
pronoun direct object. (See a list of monosyllabic verbs.)
 3. The verbs biya 'pay' jira 'wait for', kira 'call', riga 'precede': These four 
verbs have High­High tones and long final ­a everywhere. They are 
"irregular" in the sense that there are only four of them and they have 
unusual verbal nouns. (See a list of "irregular" verbs, including 
   biya
   , 
  jira
   ,  
kira.)

4. The verbs bari 'leave', sani 'know', gani 'see': These three verbs drop the 
final ­i before any object. Gani drops the final ­ni before noun objects. 
(See a list of "irregular" verbs, including 
   bari
   , 
  sani
   , 
  gani
   .)

5. The verb ba/bayar'give': This is the most irregular verb in Hausa. See a 
 table with  ba
    'give' in all forms
   .

The table illustrates group (2) with bi 'follow' and ja 'pull' (monosyllabic verbs with 
short and long vowels respectively), (3) kira 'call' (representing also jira'wait for' 
and biya 'pay'), and (4) bari 'leave' (also representing sani 'know') and gani 
'see'.

No object following

Pronoun object 
following

Noun object 
following
Indirect object 
following
 ENGLISH VERB TENSES
MEANING * FORM * AUXILIARIES * LEXICAL ASPECT

PRACTICE: Labor Day * Martin Luther King, Jr. Day * Miss America *
FIFA/Fathers' Day * Chicago

ENGLISH VERB TENSES -- TIME and ASPECT =

MEANING
There are three times that can be indicated by verb tenses in English:

• present (or "non-past" -- the "default" time)

• past
• future

These times refer to the relationship of the "story" to the speaker (or writer).

There are three "aspects" that can be expressed:

• simple (the "default" aspect -- the time of focus)

• perfect (completion -- before the time of focus)
• progressive (or continuous) (duration -- in progress at the time of focus)
(one verb phrase can indicate both perfect and progressive aspect)
These aspects refer to the relationship between the events inside the "story."
MEANING
These three times and three aspects (four, including perfect progressive) can be combined
to express 9 (or 12) "verb tenses:"

The verb tense is also affected by the meaning of individual verbs (lexical aspect), by
time expressions, and psychological factors, but the basic idea is as described above.

ENGLISH VERB TENSES -- FORMS of the VERB

There are theoretically 6 forms of the verb in English:

We like pizza
V ("no-s" form) I eat pizza
I am/ they are hungry.
(simple present)
He likes pizza.
Vs ("s"-form) She eats pizza.
He is hungry.
They liked pizza.
She ate pizza.
Ved ("past" form) (simple past)
He was/they were
hungry.
 like
V (simple or "dictionary" form) eat
be
liking (require auxiliaries
( "-ing form" or present
Ving eating to form finite verb
participle)
being phrases)
liked
Vdtn ( past participle) eaten
been

For most verbs the "no-s" form and the simple form are identical in form. All verbs form
the "s-form" and the "ing-form" predictably from this simple form. For "regular" verbs,
the past and past participle forms are the same, and are formed by adding "ed" to the
simple form. So, if you learn the spelling rules for adding "s" "ed" and "ing" to the simple
form of verbs, and memorize three forms of "irregular" verbs:

the simple form * * the past form * * the past participle

you will be able to form all of the verb forms. (test yourself here).

(For a few verbs, the "no-s", "simple", past, and past participle are all the same! The verb be has two
different "no-s" forms, a different simple form, and two different past forms.)

FORMS OF THE VERB and AUXILIARIES

Simple negatives and questions and all passive, progressive, and perfect verb phrases are
formed by combining one of the following three auxiliary verbs or a modal auxiliary verb
with either a simple verb form, a present participle, or a past participle. The auxiliary
shows the time (and number) and the combination of the auxiliary and the verb form
show the aspect:
+ adj + (main +
(main
+noun nou verb) noun
(main verb)
+ n
verb)
prep.phrase
+
(or place)
B + Ving =
D = H Vdt
n =
E (pres.partic progressi O (auxiliar simpl AVE (auxiliar
(pas perfec
+V e y)
(auxiliar ip.) ve y) t t
tense
y) + Vdtn part.
s
(past =passive )
particip.)

Therefore, each verb (including be, do and have when

they are main verbs)
can form the following verb tenses:
I/He/They _______ pizza.
 F F
(F=E) | |
SIMPLE E--> | E <---->E
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
am eating
have eaten***
is eating
eat has eaten**
PRESENT** are eating
eats
have been eating
has been eating
was eating
had eaten***
PAST** ate*** were eating
had been eating
will have eaten*** will be eating
FUTURE** will eat
will have been eating

BE as a main verb
(I/He/They _______ hungry.

F F
(F=E) | |
SIMPLE E--> | E <---->E
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE*
am being
have been
am has been
is being
PRESENT** is are being
are have been being
has been being
was being
was had been
PAST** were being
were
had been being
will have been will be being
FUTURE** will be
will have been being

* (rare for be as an active main verb)

** in relation to the speaker/writer
*** some verbs have REGULAR past and past participle forms (+ed) and others have IRREGULAR past
and past participle forms, which must be memorized.
F = focus
E = event or situation described

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Ann Salzmann
Intensive English Institute
University of Illinois