IESE PROGRAMA NIVEL II Overview of Nouns A noun can name:

a person - I'd like to speak to Mr. Nakamura, please. a job title - You should see a doctor about your sore throat. a place - Mexico is south of the United States. a thing - I left the report on your desk. a quality - Many countries have had to fight for independence. an activity - Swimming is good exercise.

Form of Nouns Nouns may be:

a single word without a suffix. The door was open, and the office was empty. a word formed with an ending such as -er or -ment added to a verb. She's a computer programmer. After a year of talks, the two countries finally reached an agreement. a compound formed from two or more words. Can I pay with a credit card?

Compound nouns occur when two or more words are used together in a fixed expression. They can be written as one word or with a space or hyphen between the words. Compound nouns can be formed from:

noun + noun - There's a bookshelf in the corner. adjective + noun - He is a middle manager in a large company. gerund + noun - Does the hotel have a swimming pool? noun + gerund - Ice-skating is a winter sport. verb + preposition/particle - Employees have been unhappy with recent changes in the company, and staff turnover has been high.

Noun + Noun Combinations It is very common to use a noun as a modifier. Use noun + noun combinations to show:

possession - Is the car door open? location - I left the umbrella in the hall closet. streets - Her house is on Oak Street. materials - He bought an expensive wool suit for the interview. types - I've been invited to a dinner party at their house. containers - There was an empty soda bottle on the table.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns (also called count nouns) have both a singular and plural form. They can be used with a/an or with numbers. Can we fit a table and two chairs in this corner? How many? can be asked about countable nouns. (For more information about quantity words used with countable nouns, see Overview of Quantifiers.)

How many people work in your office?

Uncountable nouns (also called non-count) have only one form, with no plural. They are not generally used with a/an or numbers. We mixed flour and water together to make paste. Use a singular verb after uncountable nouns. Pronouns referring to uncountable nouns are singular, too.

The music is very loud. Can you turn it down? How much? can be asked about uncountable nouns. (For more information about quantity words used with uncountable nouns, see Overview of Quantifiers.)

How much rain did we get yesterday?

Some nouns are countable in other languages, but not in English. For example: advice, furniture, hair, information, luggage, machinery, money, news. New machinery is being installed in the factory. Some nouns are uncountable in one meaning and countable in another. Do you think he has enough experience (= skill that comes from practice) to do the job? I had a couple of bad experiences (= something that happens to you) with that airline, and I won't fly with them again. Some nouns are uncountable when talking about the thing in general and countable when indicating different types or individual units. There's more cake in the kitchen. I baked a chocolate cake for dessert.

Use words that mean a piece with uncountable nouns, words that mean a group with countable nouns, and words that mean a container or a measure with either countable and uncountable nouns. All of these words are followed by of + the noun. The words can refer to:

a single unit of an uncountable substance The cat played with a ball of string. a piece of an uncountable substance - He ate two slices of bread and a piece of cheese. a collection of people, animals, or things I put the bunch of flowers in a vase. a container filled with something - I bought a box of cereal and a container of orange juice. a particular amount of something This recipe for onion soup calls for three pounds of onions and two quarts of beef broth.

Plural Nouns Form the regular plural by adding:

-s to most nouns: call--calls, bird--birds, monkey--monkeys, prize--prizes, store-stores, tree-trees. They could hear the calls of birds and monkeys in the trees. -es to most nouns ending in -s/-x/-sh/-ch/-z: box--boxes, bush--bushes, class-classes, watch--watches, quiz--quizzes (notice that z at the end of a word may be doubled). I have quizzes today in my biology and English classes. -es and changing y to i for most nouns ending in consonant + y: city--cities, country-countries, university-universities. Damascus is one of the oldest cities in the world. -es to some nouns that end in -o: hero--heroes, potato--potatoes, tomato--tomatoes; just -s to some: kilo--kilos, photo--photos, piano--pianos, video--videos; and either es or -s to some: mosquito--mosquitoes or mosquitos, volcano--volcanoes or volcanos. The book showed dramatic photos of active volcanoes.

Some nouns have irregular plural forms:

A few nouns have special plurals: child--children, foot--feet, man--men, mouse-mice, person--people, tooth--teeth, woman--women.

Thousands of men, women, and children were forced to leave their homes after the earthquake. Some nouns ending in -f or -fe have a plural ending in -ves: half--halves, knife-knives, leaf--leaves, life--lives, loaf--loaves, shelf--shelves, wife--wives. I keep history books on the two lower shelves of the bookcase. Some nouns have the same singular and plural form: aircraft, deer, fish, headquarters, moose, series, sheep. We caught six fish yesterday. Some nouns borrowed from other languages have irregular plurals: analysis-analyses, memorandum--memoranda, phenomenon--phenomena, stimulus--stimuli. The discovery helps explain several natural phenomena.

Gender (Masculine or Feminine) There is no grammatical gender for English nouns.

Most nouns referring to people do not indicate whether the person is male or female. Only the pronoun (he or she) indicates this. My accountant says that he is moving his office. My neighbor said that she sold her house. A few nouns exist in contrasting masculine and feminine forms; for example: man/woman, boy/girl, hero/heroine, bull/cow. Women, on average, live longer than men. A few feminine -ess endings are still used (for example, actor/actress, waiter/waitress), but adding -ess to most words, like author, is now oldfashioned. The actor and actress who played the couple in the movie are married in real life. Many people prefer to use nouns ending in -person or other gender-neutral nouns rather than words ending in -man or -woman; for example: chair/chairperson (rather than chairman or chairwoman), firefighter (rather than fireman), police officer (rather than policeman or policewoman), spokesperson (rather than spokesman or spokeswoman). Dr. Atkins is the new spokesperson for the hospital.

Form of the Possessive Add apostrophe s ('s) or just an apostrophe (') to nouns to show possession:

Add 's to most singular nouns. The company's main office is in Caracas. Add 's or just an apostrophe (') to singular nouns ending in -s. My boss's/boss' assistant is out sick today. Add 's or just an apostrophe (') to most names ending in -s. James's/James' father is from Iran. Add an apostrophe (') to plural nouns ending in -s. They checked all the passengers' tickets carefully. Add 's to irregular plural forms that do not end in -s. The men's football team won last night. Add 's to the last part of a compound or a phrase used as a unit. My sister-in-law's father is a pilot. We stayed at Miguel and Lena's house.

Use of the Possessive Use the 's (or s') form for possession by people, animals, and groups, but not for possession by things. The possessive can be used for:

things belonging or connected to someone My sister's car is a Toyota.

relationships Have you met Gerhard's sister? parts of the body The man's hair was very long. actions performed by someone The government's decision to lower taxes surprised many people. the intended users of a thing Women's clothes are on the first floor, and men's clothes are on the second.

A possessive can be used without a following noun to refer to a person's home or place of business. We're having dinner at Molly's tonight. I'm leaving work early to go to the doctor's. Use a possessive with 's after a noun + of to refer to one of a number of things or people that belong to or are connected with someone. I'd like you to meet a friend of my brother's. It reminded me of a story of Hemingway's that I once read. Possession by Things

Of can be used to show possession by things. He opened the door of his office. It is also very common to use a noun + noun combination. He opened his office door.

There are some phrases with of where it is not possible to form compound nouns. For example:

most parts of things - The inside of the car was covered in mud. many abstract phrases - The cost of living rose 3% this year.

There are some phrases referring to things where we use the 's/s' possessive rather than a compound noun or a phrase with of. For example:

time references - He received six months' severance pay. places named after people - St. Patrick's Cathedral is on Fifth Avenue in New York. features of the Earth and other planets - The Earth's atmosphere protects us from the sun.

Form and Basic Uses of Indefinite Articles Use a before a consonant sound. I need a comfortable chair. I couldn't find a hotel room. Use an before a vowel sound. Notice that an is used before words beginning with h when the h is not pronounced. Take an umbrella. It's raining. You have an hour to finish the test. Use a/an with singular countable nouns. There is no difference between a and an in the way they are used. She was writing a letter when he called. Use a/an:

with an indefinite meaning (it doesn't matter which). Do you have a pen? I need to sign this check.

when mentioning something for the first time. Use the for second mention. I looked up and saw a plane. The plane was flying very low.

Specific Uses of Indefinite Articles Use a/an:

to classify or identify a person or thing She's a computer programmer. Is that an answering machine? to mean "one." Usually, the word one is not used unless counting or contrasting one with another number. I'd like a burger, please. with some units of time or measurement to mean "each." The trains depart 5 times an hour.

Form and Basic Uses of Definite Articles The never changes in form. Use the when both the speaker and the listener know which thing is being talked about. It can refer to:

people or things - The woman sitting in front of us was upset by the movie. singular or plural nouns - The storm delayed the buses. uncountable or countable nouns - The information in the book was incorrect.

When mentioning something the first time, a or an is often used. When mentioning it again we use the because the listener knows which person or thing is meant. There was a big tree in front of my school. One day a boy climbed the tree and couldn't get down. The boy's friends had to get a ladder. Use the when adding information that identifies which item is meant. Do you have the report that I asked about? The new photocopier is as slow as the old one. Specific Uses of Definite Articles Use the when there is only one possible person, place, or thing in the environment. There has been an accident. Does the President know about it? Are you going to the post office this morning? Exercise is good for the heart. Do you mind if I open the window? Use the to refer to things that are one of a kind:

the Earth, sun, moon, sky, etc. - The Earth travels around the sun every 365 days. institutions - The World Bank lends money to many nations. public bodies - The government collects taxes. publications - The Singapore Straits Times is a daily newspaper.

Use the with nouns that refer to a particular group as a whole:

specific groups - The museum is not open to the public on Monday. nationalities - The Portuguese were great explorers. Remember to add plural -s to nationalities ending in -an - The Russians and the Americans raced to the moon in the 1960s.

Specific Uses of the Zero Article Use the zero article to classify or identify people and things in the plural form. Both of my parents are doctors. These are photographs of my family.

Use the zero article with:

days of the week and months Have a nice weekend. See you on (-) Monday. meals Let's have (-) lunch in the cafeteria. certain places (for example, school, work, home, bed, prison) after a preposition Elizabeth isn't here. She's at (-) school. continents, most countries, states, cities, streets, lakes, and most other place names. But: Use the with seas, rivers, deserts, and mountain groups. The Andaman Sea is off the coast of (-) Thailand.

Overview of Quantifiers Quantifiers are words like a lot of, a little, and some, or numbers. They show how much of something or how many things we are talking about. I have a lot of work to do. The soup needs a little salt. I could use some help setting up the equipment. Can you give us two hours? Numbers and exact measure words are definite quantifiers. We need five eggs and half a pound of butter for this recipe. Most quantifiers are indefinite. They do not give an exact amount. We have enough eggs, but we don't have much butter. Some quantifiers are used with uncountable nouns. He had a great deal of confidence in himself and was sure he would succeed. Some quantifiers are used with countable nouns. I called them several times, but there was no answer. Some quantifiers are used with both countable and uncountable nouns. A lot of employees are at a training course now. There was a lot of information on their web site. Uses of some and any Use some + plural noun or uncountable noun:

in affirmative statements I have some phone calls to make. in questions inviting a "yes" answer A: Do you need some more time? B: Yes. I'm not quite finished. in offers A: Would you like some coffee? B: Yes. Thank you. in requests A: May I have some milk? B: Of course. to mean "certain" Some people will believe anything they read.

Use any + plural noun or uncountable noun:

in negative statements I didn't take any sick days last year. in uncertain questions Are there any holidays in May? in statements with a negative meaning

There were hardly any (= very few) seats left by the time we got to the theater. in conditional sentences If you have any questions, I'll be happy to answer them. to mean "every" Any child could answer that question.

Uses of no and none No + countable or uncountable noun can be used in place of not any to show complete absence. No may sound more emphatic. There are no sandwiches because there was no time to make them. There aren't any sandwiches because there wasn't any time to make them. None can be used by itself as a pronoun to refer to a noun used earlier. I can't find the eggs. There are none in the refrigerator. A: Did you have any trouble getting here? B: No, none. Your directions were very clear. Uses of many, much, and a lot of Use many + plural noun:

in negative sentences Not many people know who he is. in questions How many people work in your office? after so and too or with asas (see Comparatives and Superlatives.) So many qualified people have applied for the job that it will be difficult to choose just one. in ordinary affirmative statements. A lot of is more usual in conversation; many sounds more formal in affirmative statements. Many foreign companies have set up factories there.

Use much + uncountable noun:

in negative sentences There wasn't much traffic this morning, since it's a holiday. in questions How much water should I give the plants? in statements with a negative meaning The noise prevented her from getting much sleep. after so and too or with asas I can't go out to dinner tonight. I have too much work to do. (For more information about as...as, see Comparatives with As.)

Much can be used in ordinary affirmative statements, but it sounds very formal. Other quantifiers are usually used in its place, such as a lot of or a great deal of. Much effort went into the development of this project. A lot of is more usual in conversation than many or much in affirmative sentences. Use a lot of (informal lots of) with:

plural nouns I took a lot of pictures on the trip. (more natural than: I took many pictures on the trip.) uncountable nouns He has a lot of experience in marketing. (much more natural than: He has much experience in marketing.)

Notice that the verb agrees with the noun that follows a lot of. There was a lot of water on the floor. There were a lot of people waiting to board the airplane. Uses of few, a few, little, a little A few and a little are positive in meaning. They mean "some."

Use a few with countable nouns. We're having a few friends over on Saturday. Would you like to join us? Use a little with uncountable nouns. I know a little Spanish.

Few and little are negative in meaning. They mean "hardly any" or "not enough." Few and little sound formal when they are used without a modifier like very.

Use few with countable nouns. Claire was lonely. She had few friends. Use little with uncountable nouns. He has very little hope of winning the election.

Uses of both and all Use both + plural noun and both (of) the (or both (of) my/these etc.) + plural noun in the same way to refer to two people or things. Katherine wrote two letters. Both letters were about the company's new advertising campaign. Both the letters were short. Both of my brothers are older than me. Use all + plural or uncountable noun to refer to things in general. All children like to play. Not all grass is green. Use all (of) the/my etc. for particular reference. All the children on my street like to play soccer. All the grass in our yard has turned brown. All of their documents were lost in the fire. Usually all is not used by itself as a pronoun to mean "all the people" or "all the things." Use everyone, everybody, or everything instead. Everyone has gone home. I think everything is ready for the presentation. Each compared with every Use each/every + singular countable noun.

Each is used for two or more things to suggest "one by one," "separately." You must sign each copy of the form. Every is used for three or more things and suggests "all together." The meal was delicious! I enjoyed every bite. However, each and every are often used in exactly the same way. The company's profits have increased each/every year. Each (not every) can be used after a noun or at the end of a sentence. The tickets are fifteen dollars each. Every (not each) can be modified by words like almost or not. I buy a newspaper almost every day.

Other, others, and another

Use other + plural noun to refer to additional or alternative people or things of the type mentioned. He shares an office with two other people. There must be other ways of solving the problem. After quantity words such as some, any, no, or one, the word other can be used with an uncountable or singular noun. We don't have any other information about the accident. There is one other person I could ask. Use the (or my/her, etc.) other with either a singular or plural countable noun to refer to one or more of the rest of a group. I found one glove, but I can't find the other one. Use the others by itself to mean "the rest." Alicia, what do you think? Do you agree with the others? Use another + singular noun to refer to an additional or an alternative thing or person. Would you like another cup of coffee? Thursday isn't good for me. Can we meet another day? Another can be used with a plural noun if few or a number comes before the noun. I'll be staying here for another two days.

Adjetivo Overview of Adjectives An adjective describes the person or thing that a noun refers to. Julio is young. He's only twenty-two. These boxes are heavy. I can't lift them. That's a good idea. Let's go out for dinner. Adjectives do not change their form to "agree" with nouns. We had a long meeting to discuss the problem. We had several long meetings to discuss the problem. Adjectives may be:

a word without a suffix or prefix The basement was cold and damp. a word formed with a suffix such as -able, -ful, -ical, -ish, -ous, -y added to a noun. Be careful. The roads are icy. a word formed with a prefix such as dis- or un- added to an adjective. He was unhappy about moving to a smaller office. the -ing form of a verb I read an interesting article about Internet-based companies. the -ed form of a verb I'm interested in the effect of electronic commerce on local businesses. a compound She's self-employed. She runs a small consulting company.

Position of Adjectives Most adjectives can occur:

before nouns We bought a new computer. after linking verbs. Be, look, seem, feel, taste, smell, and become are common linking verbs. This computer is new. We just bought it.

Note that adjectives come after, not before, indefinite pronouns like anything, anyone,

something, somewhere, nothing, everything. Did you notice anything unusual? Some adjectives are used only after a verb (usually a linking verb like be), not before a noun. These include:

adjectives beginning with a- (e.g., afraid, alive, alone, asleep, awake) She was alone in the house, and no one could hear her. some adjectives, when they describe a person's health or feelings (e.g., glad, ill, pleased, sorry, stressed, upset, well) But: these adjectives have different meanings when used before some nouns - an ill effect, a sorry state, etc. I'm glad you liked the present.

Some adjectives are used only before a noun. These include:

adjectives that either give emphasis (e.g., mere, sheer, utter) or restrict the reference of the noun (e.g., chief, main, only, sole) The meeting was an utter waste of time. adjectives referring to location (e.g., bottom, indoor, lower, outdoor, top, upper) She bit her lower lip nervously. a few adjectives ending in -al or -ic (e.g., atomic, federal, medical) We pay state and federal taxes.

A limited number of adjectives (e.g., available, eligible, imaginable) can either go before or after a noun. There are no rooms available/available rooms for the 23rd. Adjectives used in measurements go after the noun. The room is 18 feet long and 12 feet wide. Some adjectives can take on different meanings when they are used in different positions. He's an old friend. (= I've known him a long time.) [used only before a noun] My aunt is very old now. (= She has lived for a long time.) [used either before or after a noun] He gave a very involved (= complicated) explanation. [used before a noun] The people involved (= connected with this) no longer work for the company. [used after a noun] Modifying Adjectives Many adjectives that describe a quality can be modified with very, too, or enough.

Very and too go before the adjective. Your directions were very clear. Steve is only 14. He's too young to drive a car. Enough goes after the adjective. Jane is 18. She's old enough to drive.

Some adjectives cannot be modified by very, too, or enough. These adjectives often describe an extreme quality. Other modifiers may be used to emphasize them. The weather was absolutely perfect. What you're asking me to do is utterly impossible. He won't hear you. He's fast asleep. Overview of Adverbs Adverbs can add to the meaning of:

verbs He spoke slowly and clearly so that everyone would understand.

adjectives My department is very busy now. other adverbs I don't know her very well. whole sentences Unfortunately, sales were much lower than we expected.

Adverbs can be single words or phrases. They answer questions like:

how She walked quickly to keep warm. how long The training session lasted all day. how often; when I usually leave the house before seven. where We ate lunch in the park.

Adverbs of Place (answering the question where) are usually in the form of prepositional phrases. For more information, see, Prepositions of Direction and Position. Adjective Word Order Adjectives used together are usually in this order: opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, use. No more than three or four adjectives are used together to modify a noun..

opinion They have a beautiful horse. opinion + size They have a beautiful little horse. opinion + size + color They have a beautiful little black horse. opinion + size + color + origin They have a beautiful little black Arabian horse. use There was a conference table in the room. shape + use There was a round conference table in the room. size + shape + use There was a large round conference table in the room. size + shape + material + use There was a large round oak conference table in the room.

Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of manner tell how something happens. They are typically formed by adding -ly or -ily to an adjective. It was a slow train. It crept slowly through the tunnel. She was happy. She sang happily as she worked. Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives. He liked fast cars. He drove fast on the highway. We had an early flight. We left early. Some adverbs have two forms: a form that is the same as an adjective and an -ly form. The two forms often have different meanings. He didn't work hard (= using effort). In fact, he hardly worked (= almost didn't work) at all. I worked late (= past my usual time) last night. I've had a lot of work to do lately (=

recently). Some adverbs have two forms that have the same meaning. The form without -ly is usually used only in informal speech or writing. Please don't talk so loud/loudly. I'm trying to read. Go call the police quick/quickly! There's been an accident. Some adjectives end in -ly. Since they are adjectives, they cannot be used as adverbs. (Incorrect: Everyone smiles very friendly.) Other adjectives like this are: cowardly, lively, lovely, silly. My neighborhood is a friendly place. People smile in a friendly way when you pass them on the street.

Adverbs of Time Adverbs of time describe when something happened. They are usually points of time, such as last week or yesterday. Other time adverbs include already, still, yet, and soon. I presented my proposal last week. They had a staff meeting yesterday. They've already made their decision. I'm still waiting to hear what they decided. No one has told me anything yet. Adverbs of Frequency Adverbs of frequency are words like always, usually, frequently, often, sometimes, seldom, and never (arranged from most to least often) that answer the question How often? They have three basic positions:

after be when it is the only verb in the sentence I'm always late. after an auxiliary, if there is one, and before the main verb when there is only one verb I frequently sleep through my alarm. My business partner is usually waiting for me when I get to the office. after the first auxiliary when there is more than one I would never have completed the report without you.

Overview of Comparatives and Superlatives The comparative shows a higher amount or degree of a quality. Use comparatives when comparing one person or thing with another, or with itself at a different time. The Seitan Tunnel in Japan is longer than the Channel Tunnel between England and France. This restaurant is more expensive than it used to be. Use superlatives to compare one person or thing with the group that it belongs to. The is usually used before the superlative. Are the Petronas Towers still the tallest buildings in the world? Tokyo is the most expensive city in the world. If it is clear what the person or thing is being compared with, this does not need to be mentioned. A: Should we take the bus or the train? B: The train. It's quicker. First class is usually the most comfortable. To show a smaller degree of a quality, use:

less and least The advertising campaign was less successful than we expected. She was the least experienced of all the candidates for the job. not asas. This is probably more common than less/least in conversation. The advertising campaign wasn't as successful as we expected. She wasn't as experienced as the other candidates for the job.

Less/least is not used with many short adjectives and adverbs. Instead, use not asas or a comparative adjective or adverb of the opposite meaning. Anna isn't as old as Kate. Anna is younger than Kate. Forming Comparative and Superlative Adjectives One-syllable adjectives usually form the comparative with -er and the superlative with -est:

In most cases, simply add -er or -est to the end of the adjective: short--shorter-shortest; great--greater--greatest. Did you cut your hair? It looks shorter. Our employees are very important. In fact, they are our greatest asset. If the adjective ends in -e, add only -r or -st: large--larger--largest; nice--nicer-nicest. The company has grown and is looking for larger office space. He tried to say "no" in the nicest way possible. If the adjective ends in one vowel + one consonant, double the consonant before adding -er or -est: big--bigger--biggest; hot--hotter--hottest. It was hot outside and even hotter in the house. Russia is the biggest country in the world.

For two-syllable adjectives that end in -y, change y to -i and add -er or -est: happy-happier--happiest; busy--busier--busiest. She's much happier at her new job than she was at her old one. Atlanta has the busiest airport in the United States. Some two-syllable adjectives can form the comparative with -er or more or the superlative with -est or most. Let's go to my office to talk. It's quieter/more quiet there. At the street's narrowest/most narrow point, you can touch the houses on either side. This conversation is depressing. Can we talk about something more pleasant/ pleasanter? The word the is the most common/commonest word in English. Other two-syllable adjectives and adjectives with more than two syllables generally use more and most to form the comparative and superlative. Sorry about the mess. I'll try to be more careful next time. It was the most boring speech he had ever heard. He almost fell asleep. Would you like a more comfortable chair to sit on? Last year was the company's most successful year to date. A few adjectives have irregular comparatives and superlatives: good--better--best bad--worse--worst far--farther further--farthest/furthest Employees demanded better working conditions. How can we choose the best candidates for the job and avoid the worst ones? Forming Comparative and Superlative Adverbs Some one- and two-syllable adverbs form the comparative with -er and the superlative with -est: fast--faster--fastest; early--earlier--earliest. These are usually words that can also be used as adjectives. Other adverbs like this include: close, late, loud, slow. We'll have to walk faster to get there on time.

I have to get up earlier than usual tomorrow to catch a plane. Everyone worked hard on the project, but I think you worked (the) hardest. Most adverbs form the comparative with more and the superlative with most. Could you speak a little more softly? I'm trying to work. We can advise your company on how to use advertising most effectively. A few adverbs have irregular comparatives and superlatives: well--better--best badly--worse--worst far--farther/further farthest/furthest little--less--least much--more--most The car runs better since I had the oil changed. Farmers have been hit (the) worst by the recession. The with Superlatives Use the or a possessive with a superlative adjective when a noun follows the adjective. The teacher chose the best work for the exhibition. The teacher chose my best work for the exhibition. The is also usually used with superlative adverbs. Who works the best under pressure? In an informal style, the is sometimes omitted:

when a superlative adjective follows the verb Which company is (the) most profitable? with superlative adverbs The assembly line in Kyoto runs (the) fastest.

The cannot be omitted when the superlative is followed by a phrase describing the group with which the person or thing is being compared. Which company is the most profitable in the industry? Comparatives with As Use as as with adjectives and adverbs to say that two people or things are equal in some way. I was as surprised as anyone when they offered me the job. The noise ended as abruptly as it started. Not asas can be used instead of a comparative to show that two people or things are not equal in some way. Our apartment isn't as big as theirs. (= Our apartment is smaller than theirs.) She doesn't work as hard as he does. (= He works harder than she does.) Asas can be used to compare quantity:

Use as many as with countable nouns. Our company has had as many problems as theirs. Use as much as with uncountable nouns. We didn't make as much profit as we had projected.

Use as + adjective/adverb + as followed by:

a noun He's as talented as Beth. I can't run as fast as Mario.

a noun or subject pronoun + an auxiliary or main verb He's as talented as she is. I can't run as fast as he can. an object pronoun. Note that this is informal and not generally used in writing. He's as talented as her. I can't run as fast as him.

Form of the Simple Present: Statements To form affirmative statements:

Use the base form of the verb with I, you, we, they. I work in a commercial bank. You own a business. We make loans to businesses. Businesses often need money. Add -s or -es to the base form of the verb with he, she, it Edward designs clothes. Martha sells clothes. Her store opens at 10.

To form negative statements, use subject + do not/does not (= don't/doesn't) + base form of the verb.

Use do not (= don't) + base form of the verb with I, you, we, they. I don't speak French. Use does not (= doesn't) + base form of the verb with he, she, it. He doesn't speak English.

Form of the Simple Present: Questions To form Yes/No questions:

Use do + subject + base form of the verb with I, you, we, they: Do you need a ride home? Use does + subject + base form of the verb with he, she, it. Does it ever snow in Florida?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + do/does. A: Do I need a visa to enter the country? B: Yes, you do. A: Does the train stop in Birmingham? B: Yes, it does. No + subject pronoun + don't/doesn't A: Do you have any questions? B: No, I don't. A: Does this light work? B: No, it doesn't.

To form questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + do/does + subject + base form of the verb. How do you spell your last name? Where does the company market its products? Uses of the Simple Present

Use the simple present for:

permanent truths The sun rises in the east. Gases expand when heated. conditions and situations that exist at the present time My mother wears glasses. I work at Ace Electronics. habitual actions John travels to Spain every year. I usually get up at 6:30. comments and declarations I hope everything will be all right. I hear Sara has been promoted. I don't agree with you. future reference in describing scheduled events (assumed to be facts) The plane leaves at 7:45 and arrives at 10:20. future reference after some subordinating conjunctions (For more information, see Subordinating Conjunctions.) I'll call you when I get to San Francisco.

Form of the Present Progressive [Continuous]: Statements To form affirmative statements, use subject + present of be + verb + -ing

Use am + verb + -ing with I I'm working on a big project right now. Use is + verb + -ing with he, she, it Mark is helping me. Use are + verb + -ing with you, we, they We're trying to finish by Tuesday.

For more information on the present of be, see Simple Present Form of be. To form negative statements, use subject + am/is/are + not + verb + -ing. Short forms are normally used in conversation. I'm not driving to work today. The headlights on the car aren't working. It isn't raining, so maybe I'll walk. Form of the Present Progressive [Continuous]: Questions To form Yes/No questions, use am/is/are + subject + verb + -ing. Am I waiting in the right place? Is Mr. Jackson interviewing the candidates? Are you applying for a position? Are they making a decision today? A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + am/is/are (no short form) A: Are you enjoying your visit? B: Yes, I am. No + subject pronoun + am/is/are + not (using a short form in the negative): A: Are you staying long? B: No, I'm not. A: Is it still raining? B: No, it isn't. OR No, it's not.

A: Are they going to the meeting? B: No, they aren't. OR No, they're not. To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + am/is/are + subject + verb + -ing. What are you doing after work? How is your mother feeling? Why are they staring at us? Uses of the Present Progressive [Continuous] Use the present progressive for:

actions in progress at the moment of speaking Shh. The baby is sleeping. actions in progress around the present I'm very nervous. I'm taking exams this week. We're changing our accounting system at work. temporary situations He's visiting his aunt in Miami. She's studying Chinese. I'm working at a law firm for the summer. (= it's a temporary job) Compare: She works at a law firm. (= it's her regular job) planned future actions We're leaving for Hong Kong tomorrow. He's coming home next week. repeated actions (with always, constantly, etc.) You're always complaining. You're never satisfied.

Form of the Simple Past: Statements To form affirmative statements, use a simple past tense verb after the subject. The form is the same for all subjects.

Regular verbs add -ed or -d to form the simple past tense. I visited Maggie yesterday. She moved to a new apartment last week. Some verbs are irregular. Their past forms cannot be predicted. You must learn them. We ate dinner out. Then we went to a movie.

To form negative statements, use subject + did not (= didn't) + base form of the verb. I looked for her, but I didn't see her in the crowd. She didn't stay long, because she had a headache. Form of the Simple Past: Questions To form Yes/No questions, use did + subject + base form of the verb. Did you have any trouble finding us? Did anyone call while I was out? A yes/no question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + did A: Did you get my message? B: Yes, I did. No + subject pronoun + didn't A: Did Rosa say where she was going? B: No, she didn't.

To form a question-word question (wh-question), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + did + subject + base form of the verb. Where did they go? Why did he leave? How long did you stay there? Uses of the Simple Past Use the simple past for:

actions or events that began and ended in the past. A time reference is usually given or understood from the context. I spoke to the contractor this morning. We introduced two new products in January. I played a lot of tennis when I was younger. I never met my grandfather. (he is dead) Who left the door open? (a moment ago-it is still open) past habitual actions. A specific time period is usually given or understood. My family rented a house at the beach every summer when I was a child. He smoked a pack of cigarettes a day until he quit.

The past tense does not always refer to past time. It can also be used in present unreal conditionals, expressing wishes, and in making polite requests. (For more information, see Present Unreal Conditionals and Expressing Wishes.) I wondered if you could give me a ride. (more tentative or polite than I wonder if you could give me a ride.)

Form of the Past Progressive [Continuous]: Statements To form an affirmative statement, use subject + past of be + verb + -ing.

Use was + verb + -ing with I, he, she, it. A: Can I come in? B: Of course. I was expecting you. She was sleeping when I called. Use were + verb + -ing with you, we, they They were both working for the same company when they met.

To form negative statements, use subject + was not/were not (=wasn't/weren't) + verb + ing Could you repeat that, please? I wasn't listening. We weren't enjoying the play, so we left at the intermission. Form of the Past Progressive [Continuous]: Questions To form Yes/No questions, use was/were + subject + verb + -ing. Was it raining when you were out? Were you planning to work late today? A Yes/No question is often used with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + was/were A: Were all the men at the meeting wearing ties? B: Yes, they were. No + subject pronoun + wasn't/weren't A: Were you expecting this many people? B: No, I wasn't.

To form a question-word question (wh-question), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + was/were + subject + verb + -ing.

What were you doing at nine o'clock last night? Who was Eva talking to when I came in? Why were the children crying?

Uses of the Past Progressive [Continuous] Use the past progressive for:

actions or situations in progress at a point in the past The picnic was canceled yesterday because it was raining. A: What were you doing between 8:00 and 10:00 that night? B: I was watching television. two past actions in progress at the same time While I was looking at the sales figures, my assistant was answering some e-mails. At the time I was working in the bank, I was also studying engineering. repeated actions When he worked here, Patrick was always making mistakes. polite requests I was wondering if you could give me a ride. events planned in the past to take place at a later time ("future in the past") We were just going to leave when I fell and twisted my ankle. (answering the phone) Hi, Annie. I was going to call you today.

Use the past progressive (continuous) together with the simple past for past actions or situations interrupted by a shorter action or event.

The action in progress is often introduced by when, as, just as, or while. Just as I was leaving the house, the phone rang. He learned how to ski when he was living in Switzerland. When can also introduce the shorter action. We were having dinner when he walked through the door. I was waiting for the bus when a blue car pulled up.

Form of the Simple Present Perfect: Statements To form affirmative statements, use subject + present of have + past participle.

Use have (= 've) + past participle with I, you, we, they We're old friends. We've known each other since we were children. Use has (= 's) + past participle with he, she, it The weather has been great all week. For regular verbs, the past participle has the same form as the simple past tense Andrew has worked for us for two years. Before that, he worked (= simple past) for an advertising agency. For irregular verbs, the past participle and simple past are often different Interest rates rose (= simple past) again today. In the past six months, they have risen almost 5 percent.

To form negative statements, use subject + have not/has not (= haven't/hasn't) + past participle I've tried calling several times, but I haven't been able to reach her. The company has not made a profit for three years.

Form of the Simple Present Perfect: Questions To form Yes/No questions, use have/has + subject + past participle. Have you ever eaten Thai food? Has Rebecca finished law school yet?

A Yes/No question is often used with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + have/has: A: Have you ever bought anything online? B: Yes, I have. A: Has Brian been to Greece before? B: Yes, he has. No + subject pronoun + haven't/hasn't A: Have you met Linda Chan? B: No, I haven't. A: Has the rain stopped? B: No, it hasn't

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + have/has + subject + past participle. Where has Victor been all morning? How long have they known each other Uses of the Simple Present Perfect Use the simple present perfect for actions occurring in a period of time up to the present.

with already, before (now), ever, never, so far, yet This is the most interesting book I've ever read. A: Have you finished the report yet? B: Yes, I've already sent it out. with just or recently for recent actions (in American English, the simple past tense can also be used) They've just left for the airport. with often, several times, etc., for repeated or habitual actions He has been to Japan twice in the past year. I've often wondered what happened to Tom. without an adverb of time or duration We've had a lot of problems with the new software. I can't find my keys. I've looked everywhere.

Use the simple present perfect for situations beginning in the past and continuing up to now (and possibly into the future).

with since + point in time Mr. Ito has been with the company since 1998. with for + period of time I've lived here for five years. (and I still live here) Compare: I lived here for five years. (but I don't live here now) with adverbs of duration I've always loved to swim.

Notice that the present perfect is not usually used with adverbs referring to a period of time that has ended. Use the simple past instead. I haven't seen Ahmed today, but I saw him yesterday. Form of the Present Perfect Progressive [Continuous]: Statements To form affirmative statements, use subject + present of have + been + verb + -ing.

Use have (= 've) + been + verb + -ing with I, you, we, they. We've been waiting to see Ruth Goodman for almost an hour. Use has (= 's) + been + verb + -ing with he, she, it. She's been talking on the phone to another client.

To form negative statements, use subject + have not/has not (= haven't/hasn't) + been + verb + -ing:

Use have not (= haven't) + been + verb + -ing with I, you, we, they. I haven't been sleeping well lately. Use has not (= hasn't) + been + verb + -ing with he, she, it. He hasn't been teaching for very long. He just started teaching in September.

Use of the Present Perfect Progressive [Continuous] Use the present perfect progressive for:

actions that began in the past and are still in progress He has been looking for a job for over two months, but he hasn't found anything yet. I've been painting this room for two days and I'm still not done. (= unfinished action) Compare: I've painted this room three times and I still don't like it. (= completed action) actions that have recently stopped and have effects now Let's go for a walk. I've been sitting most of the day. repeated actions The phone has been ringing all morning. temporary actions or situations I've been staying at my cousin's house, but I'm moving to my own house next week.

Form of the Simple Past Perfect: Statements To form affirmative statements, use subject + had (= 'd) + past participle. My father had been with the company for ten years before the merger. We'd just bought a new house when he lost his job. To form negative statements, use subject + had not (= hadn't) + past participle. He hadn't looked for a job for a long time. Form of the Simple Past Perfect: Questions To form Yes/No questions, use had + subject + past participle. Had you heard of the company before they offered you the job? A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + had. A: Had he lived there his whole life up until that time? B: Yes, he had. No + subject pronoun + hadn't: A: Had they met before then? B: No, they hadn't. A: When you got to the office, had she already left? B: No, she hadn't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + had + subject + past participle. Where had you worked before your last job? Who had they interviewed before Cara? How long had he worked there before his retirement? Uses of the Simple Past Perfect

Use the simple past perfect:

to show which of two past events happened first I had never eaten sushi before I moved to Japan. Now I love it. When we arrived, Tom had already left. to show that something happened before a time in the past: Juliet was excited because she had never sailed a boat before. I began collecting stamps in February and by November I had collected more than 500. He had changed so much that I almost didn't recognize him. to describe things one hoped or wished to do but didn't (e.g., with expect, hope, mean, suppose, think, want) She had hoped to reach him before he left, but she was too late.

When, after, as soon as, or by the time that are often used with the past perfect. We went to bed as soon as our guests had gone home. Notice that the past perfect is not always needed to show which event came first. Sometimes either the past perfect or simple past can be used. After I (had) checked my schedule for the day, I returned some phone calls. Form of the Past Perfect Progressive [Continuous] To form affirmative statements, use subject + had (= 'd) + been + verb + ing When I first met Joel, he'd been working at Global for five years. We had been hiking all day and we were very hungry. To form negative statements, use subject + had not (= hadn't) + been + verb + -ing I had almost finished the work when I was told that I hadn't been doing it correctly. To form Yes/No questions, use had + subject + been + verb + -ing. Had you been getting enough sleep before you got sick? A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + had A: Had she been working for the company long when she retired? B: Yes, she had. Fifteen years. No + subject pronoun + hadn't A: Had they been living in Paris for long at that time? B: No, they hadn't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + had + subject + been + verb + -ing Where had you been living before you moved to Chicago? How long had you been studying English when you got the job? Use of the Past Perfect Progressive [Continuous] Use the past perfect progressive for:

actions that began at an earlier time and were still in progress at a time in the past We'd been waiting for three hours when we got the phone call. (= we were still waiting) Compare: We'd waited for three hours, so we decided to go home.(= we stopped waiting and went home) actions that had recently ended and had an effect at a time in the past He was very tired. He had been walking for hours.

Form of the Simple Future with will

To form affirmative statements, use subject + will + base form of the verb. The short form 'll is usually used in conversation, especially after pronouns. I'll, you'll, he'll, she'll, it'll, we'll, they'll. I'll see you tomorrow. The lawyers will review the contract next week. To form negative statements, use subject + will not (= won't) + base form of the verb. The short form is usually used in conversation. Don't worry. I won't tell anyone. They won't sign the contract until their lawyers see it. You won't believe it, but I won the lottery! To form Yes/No questions, use will + subject + base form of the verb. Will the furniture be ready for delivery by the 15th? A yes/no question is often answered with a short answer:

Yes + subject pronoun + will A: Will patients have access to their medical records? B: Yes, they will. No + subject pronoun + won't A: Will I be responsible for phone sales? B: No, you won't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + will + subject + base form of the verb. When will you find out if you got the job? What time will the meeting end? How will we get to our hotel from the airport? Uses of the Simple Future with will Use the simple future with will for:

making predictions There's a lot to discuss. It will be a long meeting. announcing decisions made at the moment of speaking A: It's hot in here. B: I'll open a window. announcing scheduled events, especially in a formal style The wedding will take place on June 27th. making promises I won't leave without you. expressing hopes, expectations, and beliefs (e.g., after assume, believe, doubt, expect, hope, suppose, think) I hope she'll get the job. A: Do you think he'll like the present? B: I'm sure he will.

For other uses of will, see Future Factual Conditionals, Offers, Requests, and Invitations and Willingness or Readiness. Form of the Future Progressive [Continuous] with will To form affirmative statements, use subject + will (= 'll) + be + verb + -ing. In ten years, robots will be doing many of our household chores. We'll be waiting for you at home after the game. To form negative statements, use subject + will not (= won't) + be + verb + -ing. The short form won't is often used in conversation. Jorge won't be coming with us. He had to take care of a family emergency.

To form yes/no questions, use will + subject + be + verb + -ing Will you be stopping in London on this trip? A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + will A: Will you be staying at the Madison Hotel? B: Yes, I will. No + subject pronoun + won't A: Will Dr. Leon be giving tomorrow's lecture? B: No, she won't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + will + subject + be + verb + -ing. When will you be taking the test? Where will you be staying in Boston? Uses of the Future Progressive [Continuous] with will Use the future progressive for:

actions that will be in progress at a time in the future We'd better hurry. The guests will be arriving at any minute. By this time tomorrow, I'll be lying on the beach. making a question about plans sound more polite Will you be working late tonight? When will you be seeing Dr. Weiss? (e.g., assistant to supervisor) Compare: When will you finish these letters? (e.g., supervisor to assistant) talking about planned events The bus won't be leaving until six. We'll be spending the summer in California.

Form of the going to Future To form affirmative statements, use subject + am/is/are + going to + base form of the verb. I'm going to meet with the software developer tomorrow. He's going to submit a revised proposal by the end of the week. They're going to install the new system in two weeks. To form negative statements, use subject + am/is/are + not + going to + base form of the verb. Short forms are normally used in conversation. (For more information, see Simple Present Form of be.) I'm not going to cook tonight. We're eating out. We aren't going to walk into town. It's too hot. It isn't going to cool off until the weekend. To form Yes/No questions, use am/is/are + subject + going to + base form of the verb: Is she going to accept the job? Are you going to tell him the truth about what happened? A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + am/is/are A: Are they going to replace the damaged goods? B: Yes, they are. No + subject pronoun + am/is/are + not (using a short form in the negative) A: Are you going to be around this weekend? B: No, I'm not.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + am/is/are + subject + going to + base form of the verb.

Which shoes are you going to wear to the party? When is Helen going to be back at work? Uses of the going to Future Use the going to future for:

making predictions based on present evidence Look at those black clouds! It's going to rain. Tom's always late for work. He's going to get fired. My wife is going to have a baby. plans and firm intentions I'm going to be away for a couple of weeks. I've made my decision. I'm going to take that job.

Overview of Phrasal Verbs Verbs are often combined with prepositions or adverb particles to form phrasal verbs (also called multi-word verbs or two-word verbs). Phrasal verbs are very common in conversation and informal writing.

Sometimes the meaning is non-idiomatic; the meaning of the phrasal verb is similar to the meaning the words have when they are used separately. Let me look at my notes from the last meeting. Often the meaning is idiomatic, and the words used together have a completely different meaning from when they are used separately. The police are looking into (= trying to find out more about) the cause of the fire.

Phrasal Verbs Type 1: verb + (object +) preposition + object In Type 1 phrasal verbs, the verb is followed by a preposition and then an object. The object always follows the preposition; it cannot come before it. Since the preposition cannot be separated from the verb, phrasal verbs like this are sometimes referred to as inseparable. The meanings can be:

non-idiomatic I never listen to the news. Do you believe in astrology? I'll take care of the problem later. I don't want to deal with it now. idiomatic I came across (= discovered by chance) this ad for a sales manager, and I thought you might be interested. There's no need to make a decision now. Why don't you go home and sleep on it (= delay a decision). You'll never guess who I ran into (= met by chance) at the post office.

Some Type 1 phrasal verbs must have an object directly after the verb: verb + object + preposition + object. The meanings can be:

non-idiomatic They accused Mike of lying. idiomatic The acting company turned (= changed) the old barn into a theater. If the economy worsens, voters are likely to hold it against (= blame) him in the next election.

Phrasal Verbs Type 2: verb + particle + object Type 2 phrasal verbs are probably the most common type. They are sometimes called separable phrasal verbs, because the particle can be separated from the verb.

A noun object can go either after the particle or before the particle. He took off his hat. He took his hat off. If the object is a pronoun, it must go before the particle (that is, between the verb and the particle). He took it off. Notice that if there is a long noun object, it usually goes after the particle. When will we find out the answer to the question?

In Type 2 phrasal verbs, the particle strengthens or extends the meaning of the verb. The meanings can be:

non-idiomatic She cut the article out of the newspaper. I want to write your idea down so I won't forget it. idiomatic He called off (= canceled) the meeting. Did you call your mother up (= telephone her)? They offered her the job, but she turned it down (= refused it) because the salary was too low. I can drop you off at (= give you a ride to) the station on my way to the bank.

Phrasal Verbs Type 3: verb + particle (no object) Type 3 phrasal verbs are intransitive (have no object). The meaning can be:

non-idiomatic Hurry up! The train is leaving. Please stand up when Dr. King is introduced. idiomatic The worker passed out (= fainted) in the heat. Things are certainly looking up (= getting better) around here.

Phrasal Verbs Type 4: verb + particle + preposition + object Type 4 phrasal verbs consist of three words, verb + particle + preposition, followed by an object. The meaning can be:

non-idiomatic I'm sorry you couldn't come. You missed out on a good party. idiomatic We've run out (= used all we had) of ink cartridges. Could you order some more? I don't know how you put up with (= tolerate) their rudeness.

A few three-word phrasal verbs also have an object after the verb: verb + object + particle + preposition + object. Can I let you in on (= tell you) a little secret? We tried to talk him out of quitting (= persuade him not to quit) his job. Overview and Form of Modals There are ten modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, and ought to. The verbs used to, have (got) to, had better, and be supposed to have meanings similar to modals; these expressions are also dealt with here.

Use the base form of the verb (infinitive without to) after a modal. Bill drives fast, so they might arrive early. Modals each have only one form. There is no -s/-es for the 3rd person singular (he, she, it). She is very physically fit. She can run very fast.

Form negative statements with modal + not + base form of the verb.

You must not smoke near oil. It's dangerous.

Short forms of these negative modals are common in conversation and informal writing: cannot = can't, could not = couldn't, will not = won't, would not = wouldn't, should not = shouldn't, must not = mustn't (less common than the others). Note: there is no short form for may not. I'd love to go, but I can't. I have to work late.

Form a yes/no question with modal + subject + base form of the verb. A Yes/No question can be answered with Yes + subject + modal or No + subject + modal + not (using a short form in the negative). A: Should we leave now? B: Yes, we should. It's getting late. A: Can you see the sign? B: No, I can't. Form a question-word question (wh-question) with question-word + modal + subject + base form of the verb. He's two hours late. Where could he be? Expressing Ability: can/could/be able to Can

Use can to describe natural or learned ability. Mr. Forester can speak Japanese. The negative form is cannot, usually written as one word. The short form can't is more common in conversation. He can't read it. Can can refer to the present or the future. You can sell the stock today or you can sell it tomorrow.

Could Could refers to general ability in the past. When I was young, I could swim two miles. Be able to

To describe a particular ability that someone will have in the future, use be able to. When you finish this course, you'll be able to design your own web site. Use was/were able to (not could) to refer to the successful completion of an action in the past. In fact, I was able to get a scholarship. Use either wasn't/weren't able to or couldn't for negative sentences referring to ability in the past. Unfortunately, my father died and I wasn't able to/couldn't finish college.

Asking for Permission: can/could/may There are various ways to ask for permission: Can is the least formal. (one student to another) Can I use your phone? Could is more polite than can. (one stranger to another) Could you tell me the time, please?

May is formal. Some people think it sounds more respectful than could. (waiter to a customer in a restaurant) May I take this chair? Requests for permission can also be made more polite by adding phrases like I wonder if or Do you think or Do you mind if. I wonder if I could look at your notes. Do you think I could sit here? Giving and Refusing Permission: can/may/be allowed to Give permission with can and may and refuse permission with their negative forms. May is more formal than can. You can bring a guest to work with your supervisor's permission. Guests cannot enter the building without a pass. They may eat in the employee cafeteria. They may not use the staff parking. Be allowed to (or its negative form) can be used for more emphasis. Students are not allowed to bring books into the exam room. Was/were allowed to is usually used for past reference. The children were allowed to stay up late to watch the fireworks. Possibility and Certainty: should/could/may/might Degrees of certainty can be expressed on a scale:

Use should for something that is probable, expected to be true. Their plane landed at 6. It's 8 now. They should be home by now. Use could for something that is possible. No one's answering the phone. They could be at dinner. Use may to allow a possibility. They may be on their way home. Might is less certain than may. There might be a lot of traffic tonight.

Could, may, and might are very similar in this meaning. Degrees of certainty in the negative can be expressed on a scale:

Use can't for something that is nearly certain. Ben's only a teenager. He can't be the manager. Couldn't is less certain than can't. Ben couldn't have enough seniority to be the manager. Use may not to allow a possibility. We may not be right about his age. Might not is less certain than may. He might not be as young as he looks.

In American English, the short form of might not is not usually used. Remember, there is no short form for may not. Express degrees of certainty about the past:

Use may/might/could have for something possible The fire may/might/could have started in the restaurant next door. Use could/might have for something possible that did not happen. It could/might have destroyed both buildings, if the firefighters hadn't arrived when they did. Use may/might have for something possible (negative). It may/might not have caused as much damage as we thought.

Use could not have for something impossible. The owner couldn't have known about it. He was away when it happened.

Deduction: must/must not/cannot/have (got) to These modals are used to express deduction when the conclusion seems likely to be true:

must Tom's back at work. He must be feeling better. The phone's ringing. It must be Will--he said he would call. must (not) have + past participle (used to express deduction in the past) Sophie isn't in her office. She must have gone to the meeting. He didn't respond when you said that. He must not have heard you. have to/have got to (used in affirmative sentences) Have got to is used mostly in conversational speech and writing. It has to be here somewhere. I was just using it. You've got to be joking! That can't be true.

These modals are used to express deduction when the conclusion seems to be impossible or unlikely to be true.

must not Kayla's not here. She must not be feeling well. can't (= cannot) The phone's ringing. It can't be Rachel--she just called. can't have (to express impossibility in the past) She can't have gone home. Her jacket is still in her office.

Offers, Requests, and Invitations: would/can/could/may/will Modals are used for various social functions: To offer things:

Would you like is common as a polite way to offer something. A: Would you like a cup of coffee? B: Yes, thank you. Wouldn't you like is polite, but more emphatic or persuasive. A: Wouldn't you like a more comfortable chair? B: No, this is fine, thanks. Will you is polite but informal. Will you have some more cake?

To request things:

Can is the least formal. Can I borrow a pen? Could generally sounds more polite than can. Could I have some typing paper, please? May is more formal than can or could. May I have some paper clips, please?

To offer to do something for someone else:

Can I/we is often used to offer help. Can I take you to the airport? May I is very formal. (salesclerk to a customer in a store) May I help you?

To request someone else to do something for you:

Would and could are more polite than can or will. Notice that could is not used to answer a request for permission. Can you help me with this suitcase? Would you make a copy of this contract for me? A: Could you write that down for me, please? B: Yes, of course I can. Will is informal and sounds less polite or more abrupt than the others. Will you drop this in the mail for me?

To offer an invitation:

Would you like is very common as a polite way to offer an invitation. Would you like to come with us? Won't you is formal. Won't you come in?

Advisability and Warning: should/ought to/had better When talking about advisability or warning in the present or future:

Use should or should not (= shouldn't) to say that something is or is not advisable. I should get more exercise. I'm really out of shape. You shouldn't leave without telling your supervisor. Use ought to in the same situations as should. The negative ought not to means the same as should not but is not common. We ought to get the photocopier fixed. These copies aren't clear at all. Use had better (not) to suggest a stronger warning. Note that it refers to the present or future, not the past. It is usually impolite to use had better (not) to someone in authority (e.g. a student to a teacher, an employee to a supervisor). We'd better leave now, or we'll miss our flight. (we had better = we'd better) We'd better not stop at the office. We don't have enough time.

When talking about advisability or warning in the past:

Use should have to say that something was advisable. I did badly on the test. I should have studied harder. Use should not have to say that something was inadvisable or unwise. I shouldn't have gone out the night before the exam.

Obligation and Prohibition: must/have to/be supposed to Use must and have (got) to to express absolute or unavoidable obligation:

Must is often used by officials or other people in authority. Visitors must have a visa to enter the country. Have to is more common in conversation. We have to return these forms before the end of the month. Have got to is used in conversational speech and writing. I've got to get up early tomorrow. My plane leaves at seven. Must and have got to are not common in questions. Have to is usually used. Do I have to sign both copies? Use had to to refer to absolute or unavoidable obligation in the past. I had to return the books to the library yesterday.

The negative forms of these words have different meanings:

Use must not to express absolute prohibition. You must not tell anyone your secret password. Use don't/doesn't have to to say that something is not necessary. You don't have to answer all of the questions. You can leave some answers blank. You don't have to accept their offer (= You can accept their offer, but it isn't

necessary.) Compare: You must not accept their offer (= Don't accept their offer). Be supposed to suggests a duty or responsibility to do something or an expectation that something will happen. I'm supposed to be at work by 8:30. The meeting is supposed to start in fifteen minutes. It can be used in the negative to express prohibition. We're not supposed to eat in the computer room. When used in the past, it suggests that an intended result was not achieved. The letter was supposed to arrive two weeks ago, but it's still not here.

Willingness or Readiness: will/would

Use will to refer to willingness or readiness to do something. They can't find anyone who will take the job. The doctor will see you now. The negative form, will not/won't, can suggest refusal to do something. He won't tell me what happened. The window won't open.

Used to and would for the Past

Use used to + base form of the verb for affirmative statements with all subjects. My brother used to live in Chicago, but now he lives in San Francisco. Use did not (= didn't) + use to + base form for negative statements. I didn't use to see him very often, but now I do. Use did + subject + use to + base form for Yes/No and question-word questions (whquestions). A: Did you use to call him on the phone? B: Yes. I talked to him every week. Use used to for something that happened regularly or was true in the past but does not happen or is not true now. When I was young, I used to work in a bank. I used to make a lot of mistakes. Use did not (= didn't) use to for something that didn't happen or wasn't true in the past but does happen or is true now. Bank tellers didn't use to use computers. Do not use used to for single events. Use the simple past. Once I lost a customer's money. Would can also be used for something that happened regularly in the past but does not happen now. Would is not used in the negative with this meaning. When I was a child, I would sit and watch the trains go by for hours. Sometimes Vera would come over and have dinner with us. Use used to, not would, for states that were true in the past. I used to like that kind of music, but I don't any more.