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ELECTRONICS FUNDAMENTAL (AVIONICS)

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Chapter 1 Fundamental Solid-State Principles

Objectives After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Describe the makeup of the atom, and state the relationship between the number of valence electrons and its conductivity. 2. List the principles that govern the association between electrons and orbital shells. 3. Describe the relationship between conduction and temperature. 4. Contrast trivalent and pentavalent elements. 5. List the similarities and differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors. 6. Explain how a depletion layer is formed around pn junction. 7. Explain the source of barrier potential, and list the barrier potential values for silicon and germanium. 8. Describe the relationship between depletion layer width, junction resistance and junction current. 9. Define bias. 10. Describe the different methods of forward and reverse biasing a pn junction. 11. Describe diffusion current. 12. Explain why silicon is used more commonly than germanium in the production of solid state devices.

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The Atom
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.

Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbital paths, called shells.

The outermost shell is called the valence shell.

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Semiconductors
Semiconductor - An element that is neither an insulator nor a conductor. Semiconductors contain four valence-band electrons.

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Three common semiconductor elements are silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and carbon (C).

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Electrons and Orbital Shells

Energy gap The difference between the energy levels of any two orbital shells.
Band Another name for an orbital shell. Electron-volt (eV) The energy absorbed by an electron when it is subjected to a 1 V difference of potential. Conduction band The band outside the valence shell.

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Energy diagrams for the three types of solids

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Covalent Bonding
A means of holding atoms together by sharing valence electrons.
The center atom (at right) is electrically stable because its covalent bond is complete. An intrinsic (pure) silicon is one that has no impurities .

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In an intrinsic semiconductor, there are relatively few free electrons. Pure semiconductive materials are neither good conductors nor good insulators. Intrinsic semiconductive materials must be modified by increasing the free electrons and holes to increase its conductivity and make it useful for electronic devices By adding impurities, n-type and p-type extrinsic semiconductive material can be produced

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Energy band diagram for a pure silicon crystal with unexcited atoms. There are no electrons in the conduction band

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Free electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by the movement of thermally generated free electrons in the conduction band.

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Hole current in intrinsic silicon

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Electron - Hole Pair I

Electron-hole pair A free electron and its matching valence band hole. Recombination The return of a free electron to the valence shell. Lifetime The time from the generation of an electron- hole pair until recombination occurs.

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Creation of electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. An electron in the conduction band is a free electron.

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Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Free electrons are being generated continuously while some recombine with holes.

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Doping
The process of adding impurity elements to intrinsic semiconductors to increase and control conductivity within the material. Trivalent element One that has three valence electrons. p-type material A semiconductor that has added trivalent impurities. Pentavalent element One that has five valence electrons. n-type material A semiconductor that has added pentavalent impurities.

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N-type Material
A semiconductor that has added pentavalent impurities. The pentavalent atom (As) has a fifth valence electron that is not a part of the covalent bond. Relatively little energy is required to force the excess electron into the conduction band.

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N-type Material Energy Diagram

Conduction-band electrons are the majority carriers. Valence-band holes are the minority carriers.

The material contains the same overall number of protons and electrons, so it remains electrically neutral.

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P-type Material
A semiconductor that has added trivalent impurities. The bond requires one more valence electron than the trivalent atom (Al) is capable of providing. The electron shortage results in the bond having a valence-band hole.

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P-type Material Energy Diagram

Valence-band holes are the majority carriers. Conduction-band electrons are the minority carriers.

The material contains the same overall number of protons and electrons, so it remains electrically neutral.

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The PNJunction
When the junction is formed, free-electrons in the n-type material diffuse (wander) across the junction to the p-type material. An electron crossing the junction into the p-type material gets trapped in a valence-band hole.

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The Depletion Layer I

The diffusion of an electron from the n-type material to the p-type material results in: One net positive ion in the n-type material. One net negative ion in the p-type material.

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The Depletion Layer II

On a larger scale, the area surrounding the junction is depleted of charge carriers. This is the depletion layer. The difference of potential between the two sides of the junction is called the barrier potential. The barrier potential, VB, is the amount of voltage required to move electrons through the electric field.

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Bias
- A potential applied to a pn junction to obtain a desired mode of operation. Forward bias A potential used to reduce the resistance of a pn junction.

Reverse bias A potential used to increase the resistance of a pn junction.

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Forward Bias
A pn junction is forward biased when the applied potential causes the n-type material to be more negative than the p-type material.

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Bulk Resistance
The combined resistance of the n-type and p-type materials in a forward-biased pn junction.

RB = Rp + R n

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Forward Voltage
Forward voltage (VF) is the voltage across a forward biased pn junction. VF is greater than the junction barrier potential. VF 0.7 V (for silicon) VF 0.3 V (for germanium)

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How to Forward Bias a pn Junction

Apply a potential to the n-type material that drives it more negative than the p-type material. Apply a potential to the p-type material that drives it more positive than the n-type material.

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Reverse Bias
A pn junction is reverse biased when the applied potential causes the n-type material to be more positive than the p-type material.

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How to Reverse Bias a pn Junction

Apply a potential to the n-type material that drives it more positive than the p-type material. Apply a potential to the p-type material that drives it more negative than the n-type material.

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Bias Polarities and Effects

Bias Type Junction Polarities Junction Resistance

Forward low

n-type material is more negative than p-type material.

p-type material is more negative than n-type material.

Extremely

Reverse high

Extremely