Pearlite is an iron alloy that's is characterized by the formation of distinct bands of ferrite andcementite.

It contains around 88% ferrite and 12% cementite. It only forms under specialized conditions which must be controlled to create it rather than another one. Pearlite is known for being tough, thanks to the way in which it forms, and it may be used in a variety of applications. The formation process of pearlite involves the creation of a euctetic mixture. In a euctectic mixture, two molten materials crystallize at the same time. This creates the distinctive banding associated with pearlite and also adds to the strength of the metal. In order for a euctetic mixture to form, the components of the alloy must appear in the right balance. Pearlite also requires slow cooling. If the mixture cools rapidly, it can transition into bainite, a different iron alloy phase which is slightly harder. People can identify pearlite by studying the structure of the alloy. Especially under a microscope, it has a very distinctive appearance created by the lamellar bands. Pearlite is around the middle of the chart in terms of strength when compared to other iron alloys. People who work with iron and steel need to know about the different phases and the factors which can influence iron alloy formation to understand the materials they are working with, and how those materials can be applied. The term pearlite is a reference to the material's appearance under the microscope. It resembles mother of pearl, a natural lamellar structure seen among some shellfish. Mother of pearl is created through the natural deposition of successive layers, rather than as the result of special treatment of a euctectic mixture, but it shares the trait of hardness and strength created by the layers of material. Steel may sometimes be advertised as pearlite-free. This type of steel tends to be less prone to cracking and metal fatigue, which makes it popular for certain types of applications. Brittle fracture of steel is a concern in some situations and pearlite-free steel may be preferred in these cases. Its level can also be adjusted to meet varying needs, and theproperties of the steel can also be influenced by the use of different alloy materials, depending on how and where the steel is going to be used.

Bainite is a microstructural crystalline pattern that forms in steel during heating. It is named after Edgar C. Bain, a US metallurgist who worked on the alloying and heat treatment of steel in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in the United States. Bainite is formed when austenite is cooled rapidly. Austenite is a allotrope, or form of iron known as gamma iron, that contains carbon and a cubical lattice structure when between 1,670 to 2,552 Fahrenheit (910 to 1,400 Celsius). Two unique temperature conditions have to exist for the bainite microstructure to form. Austenite must be cooled rapidly enough so that pearlite does not form. Pearlite is a alternating layered structure in steel of ferrite and cementite that forms when the steel is slowly cooled, and falls below a temperature of 1,341 Fahrenheit (727 Celsius). Cooling in the austenite must also be delayed long enough to prevent martensite from forming. Martensite is a very hard, brittle crystalline byproduct of austenite production. If the processing of austenite is done correctly and bainitic steel is formed, it displays some of the characteristics of both pearlite and martensite. It possesses some of the extreme hardness of martensite, as well as the tough structure of pearlite. The bainitic microstructure consists of ferrite, like in pearlite, and a minute dispersion of cementite also. Uses for bainitic steel varieties are included in the power generation industry because of their unique quality of creep resistance. They are less likely to deform under stress than other steel types. This quality is enhanced by alloying the steel with chromium and molybdenum to increase hardness. Another variation on bainitic steel manufacturing is to infuse it with nonmetallic particles, which produce a more disorganized microstructure. This is called nucleated bainite, or acicular ferrite,

and it has a greater ability to deflect cracks than traditional bainite. Uses for this variety include in large structural applications that undergo frequent stress, such as oil rigs and bridges. Variations on the types of bainitic steel produced are often categorized as upper bainite or lower bainite. The upper range is produced during the cooling process at a temperature of between 1,022 to 752 Fahrenheit (550 to 400 Celsius) and resembles a form of steel known as Widmanstatten ferrite. Lower bainitic steel is produced at a temperature cooling level of 752 to 482 Fahrenheit (400 to 250 Celsius), where it resembles the acicular morphology. Though lower bainite is not specifically nucleated bainite, it is somewhere between upper bainite and martensite structures in composition.

Austenite is a metallic, nonmagnetic solid steel consisting of carbon, iron, nickel and chromium. When steel is heated above 1350 degrees Fahrenheit (732 Celsius), atoms change to form austenite. This solid solution is easily manipulated at extreme temperatures and resists corrosion. These properties make it suitable for manufacturing food-service equipment, architectural applications and medical instruments. Austenistic stainless steel is one of five classes of metallurgical structures. Austenite stainless steels use chromium and nickel. Sometimes, manganese and nitrogen are added. If the mix is 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel, it is called 18-8. An iron, chromium and nickel combination is included in the 300 series. Surgical steel, Type 304 in the series, contains 18 to 10 percent nickel and 18 to 20 percent chromium. Temperatures above 1350 Fahrenheit (732 Celsius) cause iron to transform into a facecentered cubic (FCC) crystal configuration. When forging this steel, austenite is pliable enough to shape and hammer out imperfections. Annealing is the process of steadily heating the metal and then putting it through a gradual cooling process. Usually, stainless steel is sold annealed, or in its soft condition. Austenistic grades of steel are hardened by cold working as opposed to the heat treatment used for carbon steels. Cold working is the shaping of metal at a temperature lower than the molten state of that metal. Room temperature is fine for cold working austenite. Cold-work tool steels are used in dies, steel cutting shapes, that form metal at lower temperatures. An air-hardening tool steelis often used to shape molds. Molybdenum is added to the nickel-chromium mix to help with corrosion resistance to chlorides. Corrosive chlorides include sea water or the de-icing solutions used during snowy and icy weather. Residents in coastal areas and cold climates benefit from these rust resisting components of stainless steels. Austenite was named after Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen, an English metallurgist. Roberts-Austen, who died in London in 1902 at age 59, studied impurities in pure metals. His research and procedural improvements were used in a variety of applications and widely affected the industrialized world. Stainless steels are recyclable, making all types and mixes a natural, environmentally friendly choice. During recycling, the steel is re-melted then formed into new stainless steel. Type 304 austenistic stainless steel is used for today's popular stainless steel kitchen appliances and vent hoods. Austenistic stainless steels have also been used in conventional and nuclear power plants' superheaters and heating components Cementite is a chemical compound whose inclusion hardens steel. Each molecule is made of three iron atoms bonded to one carbon atom (Fe3C) to form a crystal lattice structure called

orthorhombic, where multiple rectangular prisms arise from the same base structure and intersect at 90 degree angles. The result is a very hard and brittle substance called iron carbide, or cementite. In its purest form, cementite is classified as a non-oxide ceramic. It is solid and inert, and can withstand crushing force, chemical erosion, abrasion, and temperatures up to 3000 degrees F (1600 C). It forms naturally by the melting of white cast iron, where it precipitates out of the iron as carbon to form large particles. It sometimes appears this way in phase with austenite, an allotrope of iron, which can sometimes cool to form martensite, a steel with a very strong crystal lattice. Steel is tempered to increase hardness and reduce brittleness by creating cementite. The first step in the tempering process is called austenizing, when the steel is melted into a solution of iron and carbon, or austenite. The steel is rapidly cooled, and martensite forms from the austenite. It is then heated again, and cooled slowly in a controlled manner, and cementite is formed. It is impossible to produce enough energy to run the reaction to completion, so the cementite is usually mixed with small amounts of unconverted martensite, bainite, which is also Fe3C, but with a different crystal structure, and ferrite(iron). Cementite is ferromagnetic, which means it displays magnetic characteristics with or without a magnetic field, like a refrigerator magnet. At 480K (404 F, 207 C), however, the atomic poles begin to move around and are no longer aligned. The spins of the molecules become randomized, and magnetization ceases. The substance becomes paramagnetic, which means it is only magnetized if the field is applied by an outside source. Even then, the magnetization will be weak because it relies upon induced dipoles, and no outside force can induce every dipole in every molecule, crystalline structure or not. In fact, it is the non-linear attraction that gives ferromagnets their strength. There is a substance very similar to cementite called cohenite. It is also Fe3C, except it forms a rod-like crystal and contains trace amounts of nickel and cobalt. It occurs naturally in meteorites, and on Earth is places with very high iron deposits, like volcanic magma flow trails that happen over coal deposits.

The term "martensite" usually refers to a form of steel with a distinctive atomic structure created through a process called martensitic transformation. Martensite is very hard, meaning that it won't dent or scratch easily; this makes it a popular choice for tools, such as hammers and chisels, as well as swords. It is brittle, however, so it will break rather than bend when put under too much pressure. Martensite is made from austenite, a solid solution of iron with a small amount of carbon in it. Phase Changes Austenite has a particular crystalline structure known as face-centered cubic (FCC). This means that each cubic unit has a lattice point in the center of each side as well as at each corner; with the lattice points connected, the crystal would look like a square box with an X on each side. This type of steel begins to form at temperatures of about 1,350F (732C). Austenite can hold more carbon than other forms of iron. If allowed to cool naturally, austenite turns into ferrite (alpha iron or pure iron) and cementite (iron carbide). Martensitic transformation occurs when the austenite is rapidly cooled in a process known as quenching. The rapid drop in temperature traps the carbon atoms inside the crystal structures of the iron atoms. This causes the crystals to change from FCC to body-centered tetragonal (BCT); the crystals are stretched so that they are square on each end but longer on the sides (like a shoe box), and the lattice points that were in the center of each face are now joined together at

one point in the center of the crystal. This new structure is what greatly increases the hardness of the steel. Tempering The resulting martensitic steel is extremely hard, meaning that it won't scratch, but very brittle, so it will break under stress. To address this weakness, martensite is heated in a process called tempering, which causes the martensite to transform partially into ferrite and cementite. This tempered steel is not quite as hard, but becomes tougher (less likely to break) and more malleable, and thus better suited for industrial use. Uses Tempered martensite's hardness makes it a good material for tool steels, since resistance to abrasion and deformation is important in such applications. It is a common component in machine parts and forging dies. Tempered steels containing silicon are often used for spring steel, which can be used to make springs, musical instrument strings, and components on model trains and other toys. Spring steel can be twisted or bent without permanent deformation, making it a good choice for components that require the steel to move repeatedly without degradation. Stainless steel, which contains chromium as well as iron and carbon, can also be made with a martenistic crystalline structure. This form is less resistant to corrosion than other forms of stainless steel, but it is also stronger and more easily machined in most cases. One method of making it, called precipitation hardening (or age hardening), adds impurities like chromium and nickel during a process of extended heat treatment; precipitation-hardened martensitic stainless steel has even greater strength along with high corrosion resistance. Such steel is often used in military and aerospace applications. Displacive Transformation The martensitic transformation is the best-known example of displacive transformation, a type of phase change in which the atoms of a material move short distances in unison rather than diffusing individually over longer distances. A phase change occurs when a substance changes from one state, like a solid, to another, like a liquid. Because they are so well known as a type of displacive transformation, the terms "martensite" or "martensitic" are sometimes used in a broader sense to describe any material produced by displacive transformation. Hardenability is a term used to describe a material's ability to be hardened when it is exposed to heat and then quenched, or cooled rapidly. It should not be confused with hardness, which refers to a material's strength and ability to resist damage. Instead, hardenability determines whether an object can be made harder, or whether it is resistant to hardening. This term is used only to refer to metal objects, including steel and metallic alloys, and is not applied to plastics or other materials. The primary type of hardenability test is known as the Jominy or "quench" test. To perform this test, a steel rod is heated until it crystallizes into a face-centered cubic structure called austenite. After the heat source is removed, one end of the austenite rod is immediately subjected to a water spray to cool it to room temperature. This process of cooling is called quenching. A very quick quench will cause martensite a very strong material to form. If the quench is not quick enough, a different material will form which is not as strong. The hardness of the rod is

measured at specific increments from the quenched end. The further from the quenched end, the slower the cooling rates, making it less likely for martensite to form. A material that forms martensite with lower cooling rates is easier to harden. A material that needs very quick quenches to form martnsite will be more difficult to harden. As a result, the greater the difference in hardness between the two ends, the lower the hardenability. The hardenability of steels and other metals depends on both the composition of the object and its shape or geometry. The thicker an object, the slower the cooling rates in the center, making it more difficult to harden the material within. This means that thicker objects, or those with little surface area, will have a lower level of hardenability than smaller or thinner objects made from the same material. In a thin object, the heat has very little distance to travel, so the cooling rates can be fast and increase its level of hardness. In general, the higher the carbon content of a steel product, the greater the steel's hardenability will be. Common elements added to steel to increase its hardenability include boron, manganese, chromium, and molybdenum. The addition of alloys should be carefully performed to avoid changing the properties of the steel or affecting its ability to be hardened. Hardenability of steel and its ability to be welded are inversely related. The more hardenable the steel, the harder it will be to weld; the lower the ability to be hardened, the easier it is to weld. A hardenability test is often used in welding applications to determine whether two materials can successfully be welded. It may also help welders choose electrodes and welding equipment or settings.

Austempering is a form of heat treatment used on ferrous metals, such as iron and steel, to improve the metal's mechanical properties. The metal is heated until it reaches an austenitic state and then rapidly cooled, or quenched, but kept at a temperature high enough to prevent the formation of martensite for an extended period. Austempered metals have improved strength, toughness, and resistance to distortion, wear, and hydrogen embrittlement, and are often used in machine parts. In the first part of the austempering process, the metal is heated to a temperature of between 1,350 F (about 732 C) and 2,462 F (about 1,394 C). This causes it to undergo a phase transition that changes the crystalline structure where the iron atoms are arranged, turning it into austenite. The austenite is then quenched, usually in a bath of molten nitrate salt, and cooled to a temperature of between 459 F and 750 F (about 232 C and 399 C). It is then kept at that temperature for a time period ranging from several minutes to several hours. The amount of time the metal is kept in the salt bath and the precise temperatures used in both phases vary according to the composition of the ferrous metal and the mechanical properties desired in the final product. The austempering process differs from conventional heat treating, which rapidly quenches the austenite in water or oil, usually to room temperature. This produces a form of steel called martensite. Martensite is quite hard but highly brittle and requires further heat treating, a process called tempering, to become ductile enough to use. Generally, the result of austempering depends on the material used. Austempered steel becomes a form of steel called bainite, which is more ductile than martensite and does not require additional tempering. It is also stronger, tougher, and more resistant to wear for a given hardness than martensitic steels. Austempered ductile iron results in a structure called ausferrite, which has greater strength relative to its ductility than the products of standard heat treatment.

The austempering process was patented by E.C. Bain and E.S. Davenport in 1933. It produced high-quality steel, but the process was originally quite expensive and not cost-effective for most uses. This limited its use to the production of high-performance parts that required extreme toughness and resistance to distortion, such as gun components. It was not until the 1960s, when technological advances in steel working greatly reduced production costs, that austempering became an economically viable means of producing steel for large-scale commercial use. Ferrites are a class of compounds composed of oxidized iron and other metals in a brittle ceramic state. They are polycrystalline, meaning that they are composed of large amounts of minute crystals, and they exhibit strong magnetic properties. A common use for ferrites is in the suppression of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency (RF) interference in electrical circuits, where they are often referred to as magnetic insulators. Two general categories for the composition of ferrites exists. Soft ferrite compounds are a mixture of iron and lightweight metals such as nickel, aluminum, or manganese, where they are used in electrical transformers and other devices that require the ability for the magnetic field to be easily reversed. Hard ferrite compounds are composed of iron and harder metals, such as cobalt, barium, and strontium. Barium ferrite compounds have uses as magnetic insulators and where permanent magnets are required in consumer applications, such as magnetic door latches. The use of ferrite material is widespread, as they are easy and inexpensive to manufacture. Their main attraction is that they demonstrate large magnetic flux densities compared to the small magnetizing forces applied to them. Their frequent use leads to various trade names for diverse applications, with EMI suppression ferrites often being called magic beads, due to the lump-like appearance that they can have when attached to electrical wiring. In RF and ambient electrical signal suppression, ferrites are most effective at bandwidth levels above 100 megahertz, where they replace decoupling capacitors that begin to exhibit circuit resonance problems in noise filtering above 75 megahertz. They can be designed to impede low frequencies below 10 megahertz as well. This makes ferrites useful as both alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) noise filters. Ferrite cores are designed to be as thick and long as is practical for the wiring or device into which they are built. This requires that, when used on electrical cable, they be encased in plastic or heat-shrink tubing that prevents them from breaking up under stress due to their fragile ceramic nature. The ferrites used for EMI suppression also tend to be of the hard type, which makes them more prone to breakage than their soft counterparts. A ferrite core often is employed to shield 100 Base-T cabling used in computer networking, which can be subject to a significant amount of shock during installation and maintenance. Small amounts of damage to a ferrite shield, however, will not degrade its ability to filter out noise.
Ferrite, also known as -ferrite (-Fe) or alpha iron, is a materials science term for iron, or a solid solution with iron as the main constituent, with a body-centered cubic crystal structure. It is this crystalline structure which gives steel and cast iron their magneticproperties, and is the classic [1] example of a ferromagnetic material. Practically speaking, it can be considered pure iron. It has a strength of 280 N/mm
2[citation needed]

and a hardness of approximately 80 Brinell.

[2]

Mild steel (carbon steel with up to about 0.2 wt% C) consist mostly of ferrite, with increasing amounts of pearlite (a fine lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite) as the carbon content is increased. Since bainite (shown as ledeburite on the diagram at the bottom of this page) and pearlite each have ferrite as a component, any iron-carbon alloy will contain some amount of ferrite if it is allowed to reach equilibrium at room temperature. The exact amount of ferrite will depend on the cooling processes the iron-carbon alloy undergoes as it cools from liquid state.

In pure iron, ferrite is stable below 910 C (1,670 F). Above this temperature the face-centred cubic form of iron, austenite (gamma-iron) is stable. Above 1,390 C (2,530 F), up to the melting point at 1,539 C (2,802 F), the body-centred cubic crystal structure is again the more stable form of delta-ferrite (-Fe). Ferrite above the critical temperature A2 (Curie temperature) of 771 C (1,044 K; 1,420 F), where it is paramagnetic rather than ferromagnetic, is beta ferrite or beta iron (-Fe). The term beta iron is seldom used because it is crystallographically identical to, and its phase field contiguous with, -Fe. Only a very small amount of carbon can be dissolved in ferrite; the maximum solubility is about 0.02 [3] wt% at 723 C (1,333 F) and 0.005% carbon at 0 C (32 F). This is because carbon dissolves in iron interstitially, with the carbon atoms being about twice the diameter of the interstitial "holes", so that each carbon atom is surrounded by a strong local strain field. Hence the enthalpy of mixing is positive (unfavourable), but the contribution of entropy to the free energy of solution stabilises the structure for low carbon content.723 C (1,333 F) also is the minimum temperature at which ironcarbon austenite (0.8 wt% C) is stable; at this temperature there is aeutectoid reaction between ferrite, austenite and cementite.