Department of Electronics Engineering School of Engineering and Architecture Saint Louis University

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ECE 525EL FINAL REPORT

AM TRANSMITTER
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I.

INTRODUCTION

AMPLITUDE MODULATION One of the simplest schemes for wireless communication is Amplitude Modulation (AM). Modulation is necessary for a number of reasons: The attenuation of the channel, i.e. air, is high for low frequency voice signals, but the attenuation is significantly lower for higher frequencies. If the voice signal is transmitted as is, i.e. baseband transmission, only one channel can be broadcast at a time. Often it is needed to have many channels transmitting at the same time, e.g. different radio and TV stations need to broadcast at the same time. Just think of it for a moment that the radio was broadcasted in baseband, you couldnt even sleep at night.

AM is Amplitude Modulation that is the RF signals amplitude is modulated with the audio signal. This modulation is done because the audio signal being of low frequency cannot be transmitted to longer distance so the audio signal is amplitude modulated with RF signal and then transmitted into the air. The idea behind AM is very simple: since high frequencies can propagate farther through air, we make a high frequency sinusoid (the carrier) carry the low frequency signal that we want to transmit. In AM, the signal to be transmitted, rides on the amplitude of the carrier, thus forming the envelope of the modulated signal, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Amplitude Modulation

AM TRANSMITTER An AM transmitter is an Amplitude Modulated transmitter where the amplitude of the Radio Frequency signal is modulated, usually used in the lower frequency bands where the frequency is too low for Frequency Modulation (FM), it was the first type of modulation used in radio communication FM was developed in the late 1950's and is not sensitive to static interference as AM. In A.M transmitter, the modulating signal amplitude modulates the carrier. Such transmitters are used for radio broadcast on long, medium and short eaves, radio telephony on short waves, radio telegraphy on short waves, television picture broadcast on every short waves or ultra-short waves. AM TRANSMITTER PRINCIPLES An AM transmitter can be divided into two major sections according to the frequencies at which they operate, radio-frequency (rf) and audio-frequency (af) units. The rf unit is the section of the transmitter used to generate the rf carrier wave. As illustrated in figure 2, the carrier originates in the master oscillator stage where it is generated as a constant-amplitude, constant-frequency sine wave. The carrier is not of sufficient amplitude and must be amplified in one or more stages before it attains the high power required by the antenna. With the exception of the last stage, the amplifiers between the oscillator and the antenna are called INTERMEDIATE POWER AMPLIFIERS (ipa). The final stage, which connects to the antenna, is called the FINAL POWER AMPLIFIER (fpa).

Figure 2. Block diagram of an AM transmitter. The second section of the transmitter contains the audio circuitry. This section of the transmitter takes the small signal from the microphone and increases its amplitude to the amount necessary to fully modulate the carrier. The last audio stage is the MODULATOR. It applies its signal to the carrier in the final power amplifier. In this way, intelligence is included in the radiated rf waveform. An RF modulator (or radio frequency modulator) is a device that takes a baseband input signal and outputs a radio frequency-modulated signal. This is often a preliminary step in transmitting signals, either across open air via an antenna or transmission to another device such as a radio broadcast. A preamplifier (preamp), or control amplifier, or the audio amplifier shown in Figure 2 is an electronic amplifier that prepares an electronic signal for further amplification or processing. The preamplifier circuitry may or may not be housed separately from the device for which a signal is being prepared. In general, the function of a preamplifier is to amplify a low-level signal to linelevel. A list of common low-level signal sources would include a pickup, microphone, turntable or other transducer. Equalization and tone control may also be applied.

II.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 3. AM Transmitter Block Diagram

III.

SYSTEM OPERATION

The AM transmitter is composed of an oscillator, buffer amplifier, RF amplifiers, a microphone, pre-amplifier and a modulator; as shown in the block diagram in Figure 3. Voice enters the microphone where this signal is converted to electrical signal. This is then amplified by the pre-amplifier and driver to prepare the signal for further processing. On the other hand, a carrier is generated by the oscillator which precedes a buffer amplifier that isolates the oscillator to provide a stable output. The modulator applies the signal from the driver to the carrier in the RF amplifier. The RF amplifier amplifies the signal for it to be radiated through the air.

a. Oscillator LC oscillators are oscillator circuits that utilize tuned LC tank circuits for the frequency determining components. Tank-circuit operation involves an exchange if energy between kinetic and potential. Once current is injected into a LC feedback, energy is exchanged between the inductor and the capacitor, producing a corresponding ac output voltage. The frequency of operation of and LC tank circuit is simply the resonant frequency of the parallel LC network, and the bandwidth is a function of the circuit Q. The Clapp Oscillator operates in the same manner as the Colpitts Oscillator. On initial power-up, noise appears at the collector of Q1 and supplies energy to the tank circuit, causing it to begin oscillating. C1 and C2 make up an ac voltage divider. The voltage across C2 is fed back to the base of Q1 through CCIN. There is a 180 degrees phase shift from base to the collector of Q1 and an additional 180 degrees phase shift across C1 and C2. Consequently, the total phase shift is 360 degrees.

b. Buffer and RF Amplifier The buffer amplifier is placed immediately after the oscillator. It provides a light, but constant load for the oscillator, regardless of the load on the output terminals. changes. The oscillator serves as the input for the buffer and RF amplifier circuit so the minimum requirements for the oscillator should be met. The buffer amplifier stage must have a unity gain so that the output impedance is relatively lower than the input signal. The buffers main function is to isolate the oscillator from the high power RF amplifiers. Coupling capacitors, DC source and emitter stabilizing resistors are employed in the circuit design. The coupling capacitor filters out the DC component signal and noise; the DC source input provides biasing to make the input impedance high while the emitter stabilizing resistor controls the gain. The output is taken at the emitter for relatively low impedance for the next stage. The output of the buffer circuit is fed to the RF amplifier which has two stages and are staggered tuned. These stages amplify the weak signal and output a waveform that that is greater than the minimum requirement, 25V p-p. Thus, the oscillator cannot drift off frequency due to output load

c. Pre Amplifier and Modulator The voice signal enters the electret microphone which serves as the transducer. A transducer is a source of low level signal, so the signal goes back to the second stage of amplifier to amplify the small signal detected. That was the main purpose of the amplifier. The Transmitter consists of a balanced Modulator circuit which takes an audio signal stream from an electret microphone and mixes it with a sinusoidal signal from an 870 KHz oscillator. The resulting output is amplified by an output stage before being transmitted through a wire-antenna.

IV.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

a.

Oscillator

Figure 4. LC oscillator schematic diagram

b.

Buffer and RF Amplifier

Figure 5. Buffer and RF Amplifier Schematic Diagram

c.

Pre-amplifier and Modulator

Figure 6. Pre-amplifier and Modulator Schematic Diagram

V.

DESIGN ANALYSIS AND COMPUTATIONS a. Oscillator The oscillator was designed to have an operating frequency of 870 KHz. A clapp oscillator was used since it produces stable frequency as compared to Hartley and Colpitts oscillator. It incorporates a Class C amplifier with the use of a 2N9013 transistor. The oscillator has an output of 5.2 Vp-p sine wave. Coupling capacitors are necessary for the oscillator design in order to block unwanted DC voltages to enter the Amplifier and out of the oscillator. Capacitors act as open path for DC signals while allow AC signals to pass. On the other hand, bypass capacitor does the same with the coupling capacitor and act to increase the gain of the amplifier by serving as a low resistance path for the Emitter current. Remember that the Emitter current is the sum of the Base and Collector current so it is implied that they are all directly proportional to each other. An increase Emitter current causes an increased Collector and therefore a high gain.

b. Buffer and RF Amplifier The buffer amplifier was designed to operate as a Class A low gain, high input impedance amplifier. In the circuit, the buffer employed is an emitter follower. On the other hand, the RF amplifier operates as a Class C and follows the principle of staggered tuning to make the circuit stable. Staggered tuning is the alignment of successive tuned circuits to slightly different frequencies in order to widen the overall amplitude-frequency response curve. Also, coupling capacitors are used in the design. Coupling capacitors are necessary for the oscillator design in order to block unwanted DC voltages to enter the Amplifier and out of the oscillator. Capacitors act as open path for DC signals while allow AC signals to pass. It is also important to note that the amplifier stages use the 9013 NPN silicon transistor.

c. Pre Amplifier and Modulator Design Analysis and Computations Pre-Amplifier, Driver, and Modulator Design Parameters: IC1=500A IC2=3.5mA hfe1 and hfe2=50 (2N2222A transistor) Vcc=12 volts

VRC1

VRC2

VRE1 VRE2

Modulator Circuit (with Preamplifier and Driver) Solving for RC1: VRc1=6V (for the transistor to operate in linear region)

Solving for RE1: VRE1=1.3V (for the base junction of the transistor to have a voltage of 2 volts, Vb=Ve+0.7v)

Since the computer RE1 is not available, use RE1=2700 Solving for R1:

KVL:

Since the base current is low, 10k is used to increase the current in the base and causes a slight increase in gain. Solving for RC2: VRC2=5V(for the transistor to operate in the linear region) VRC2 is not the same as VRC1 to compensate for the adjusted operating region because of resistor values.

Since the computed RC2 is not commercially available, use 1500 Solving for RE2: VRE1=1.3V (for the base junction of the transistor to have a voltage of 2 volts, Vb=Ve+0.7v)

Since the computer RE1 is not available, use RE2=356 Solving for the Gain:

Since the value of Av2 is low to provide a modulating signal, RE2 is subdivided into two parts, RE21=56 and RE22=300. The RE22 is bypassed so that the effective resistance at the emitter junction at A.C, conditions is 56. Then the gain computed is:

A high gain is achieved by bypassing RE22=300. It has an effective gain of 99.2348. It is enough to amplify low level voice audio signal. The two amplifiers are direct coupled so that it will not affect the frequency response of the amplifier. A 12k feedback from the 2nd amplifier to the 1st amplifier is employed to ensure that the voice signal is amplified further. VI. PCB LAYOUT

Figure 7. Oscillator Circuit Board

Figure 8. Buffer and RF Amplifier Circuit Board

Figure 9. Pre-amplifier and Modulator Circuit Board

VII.

TEST RESULTS

Pre-amplifier and Modulator Circuit

The requirement for the final period of the semester is a functional AM transmitter that operates in the frequency assigned for the group, 870 KHz. Since the oscillator, buffer and RF amplifier circuits were already constructed; the group then needs to design the pre-amplifier and the modulator. During the first meeting for the finals, we had researched about literatures regarding modulator and pre-amplifier. Circuits were downloaded and analysed so as to have a basis for designing the aforementioned requirements. We had computed for values of resistors and etched the circuit last February 21, 2012. On February 28, 2012, the circuit was tested. However, it produced a half wave instead of the desired sine wave. The circuit was redesigned, interfaced with the other modules, mounted on a fiber glass and encased in an aluminium sheet on March 5, 2012. The following day, the pre- amplifier and modulator was tested and it outputs a sine wave which then becomes an amplitude modulated wave whenever a person speaks or blows through the microphone.

The whole AM transmitter was tested on March 7, 2012. A radio receiver was tuned to the frequency 870 KHz. The voice of the speaker through the microphone was then transmitted and heard through the receiver. The following figures show the AM transmitter designed by the group.

Figure 10a. AM Transmitter (Group 5)

Figure 10b. AM Transmitter (Group 5)

VIII.

BILL OF MATERIALS a. Oscillator

b. Buffer and RF amplifier Item Transistor (9013) IF Tank Resistors Capacitors Ferric Chloride Total Quantity 3 2 4 5 1 Unit Price (Pesos) 10 15 0.5 1 35 Sub-total (Pesos) 30 30 2 5 35 102 Php

c. Transmitter Case and Pre-Amplifier and Modulator Item Resistors Capacitors (Electrolytic) Transistors (2N222A) Electret Mic Pin headers 2Pin-Female Header Aluminum Flat Sheet Aluminum Angle Bar Knot and Bolt Hinge TOTAL Quantity 6 3 2 1 3 1 1ft x 1ft 4ft 40 2 Unit Price Sub-total (Pesos) (Pesos) 1.50 5 10 40 5 10 45 32 32.5 4 9 15 20 40 15 10 45 32 32.5 8 226.5

d. Total costs for AM Transmitter Module Oscillator Buffer and RF Amplifier Pre-amplifier and Casing Total Cost (Php) 273 102 226.50 601.50

IX.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Modulation enables low frequency audio signals to be radiated long distances. This is done by superimposing the low frequency audio signal on the high frequency carrier wave by the process of modulation. Amplitude modulation is a form of modulation in which information is carried in the envelope of the carrier.

A basic AM Transmitter consists of a microphone, pre-amplifier, modulator, oscillator, buffer and RF amplifier stages. The microphone converts the sound waves into electrical signals. These signals are then amplified by the pre-amplifier. The oscillator generates the carrier frequency which serves an a input to the buffer and RF amplifiers. The buffer amplifier decreases the loading effect on the oscillator by reducing the interaction between the load and the oscillator. On the other hand, the RF amplifier stages boost the amplitude of the carrier. This processed signal then enters a modulator where the audio frequency is superimposed onto it. An antenna shall be incorporated to produce an electromagnetic wave which is radiated into space. For better operation of an AM transmitter, it is recommended that a Clapp oscillator will be used, rather than a Hartley or Colpitts oscillator, because this type presents better stability. The group also recommends that the circuits with IF transformers be coated with candle which will serve as an insulator and to lessen interference. Good construction of the transmitter casing is also preferred so as to protect the modules and for a better presentation.