http://www.fas.org/spp/military/docops/afwa/U3.htm 2Radio-Communications Theory Page 21. Radio-Wave Creation and Propagation 406. History1865 to the present 407.

Natures force fields and electromagnetic radiation 22. Characteristics of Radio Waves 408. Properties of a radio wave 409. Frequency and frequency bands 23. The Electromagnetic Spectrum 410. Characteristics of wave travel 411. Characteristics of frequency bands 412. Electromagnetic frequency management N this unit we briefly look at the historical development of radio communications and introduce the principles of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Well also discuss the characteristics and properties of radio waves, and take a detailed look at the electromagnetic spectrum. From the first radio transmissions between St. Johns, Newfoundland, and Cornwall, England, radio communications have undergone continued improvements, evolving into the sophisticated systems now used to communicate with space vehicles millions of miles from earth and nuclear submarines cruising the oceans depths. Research continues today as powerful radio transmissions are probing deep into the universe in an attempt to establish contact with alien life. You will discover radio communications are a unique and reliable form of communications and will continue to play a vital role in military, commercial, and scientific advances. 21. Radio-Wave Creation and Propagation Lets start by defining communications as a means or system by which we exchange our thoughts, opinions, information, and intelligence with others. Were all familiar with many methods of communication. These methods may be simple and direct or highly technical. For example, people

engaged in conversation, either directly or by telephone, are using a common and simple means of exchanging ideas. Most of our civilizations great discoveries and inventions were made accidentallynot so with radio. The discovery of radio waves and the invention of the numerous tubes, transistors, resistors, and other components that make transmission and reception possible were part of an almost evolutionary process. This evolutionary process started more than a hundred years ago and has not ended. The invention of radio can neither be attributed to any one person nor traced back to a specific date. There are however, certain individuals who made important contributions to its initial development. 406. History1865 to the present The 1800s. Before the discovery and development of electricity and radio, people used simple and crude methods for transmitting intelligence. The early Indians used smoke signals and drum beats to convey messages from one tribe to another. Although this type of communication was adequate for early man, it proved to be increasingly archaic as man progressed. The invention of the telegraph and telephone became milestones in the history of communications progress since they were radically different from any previous communications system. These systems used electrical devices for both the sender and the receiver, and a wire or cable as the medium for the transmission. Thus, it became possible to communicate between any two points on the face of the earth that could be bridged by a cable or wire. The next significant stage in the process of message transmission was the development of a system of communication called the wireless. The wireless was superior to the telegraph and telephone since it used the air as a transmission medium rather than a wire or cable. Today wireless is known as radio communications. In 1865, a Scottish physicist, James Clerk Maxwell, made a startling prediction. He stated that any electrical or magnetic disturbance created in free space could be propagated (transmitted) through space as an electromagnetic wave. He went on to predict that this would be a transverse wave; that is, one in which the disturbance is at right angles to the direction of travel. In addition, he concluded that the speed of such waves would be approximately the speed of light: 186,000 miles per second. Maxwell also suggested that such waves could be created by setting up electrical vibrations in a wire capable of conducting electricity. These revolutionary predictions were proven to be correct. During the last part of the 19th century, a German scientist, named Heinrich Hertz, performed a series of experiments based on Maxwells theories. His work revealed that electromagnetic waves could in fact be produced. He also proved that these waves were invisible and moved at the speed of light. Hertzs experiments further showed that while light waves are only a few thousandths of an inch long, electromagnetic waves vary in length from millimeters to thousands of miles long. Simultaneously, many other scientists throughout the world were working and experimenting with the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Most of their experiments were of little or no practical value. Nevertheless, they

all contributed to the eventual development of radio. Their research proved their proposed systems did not work and thus saved other scientists, like Hertz, time and experimentation. By 1895, enough information was available to enable an Italian scientist and inventor, Guglielmo Marconi, to develop a crude, but working, radio-telegraph system. In 1901, Marconi succeeded in transmitting the letter S (three dots in Morse code . . .) across the Atlantic Ocean. This was the start of transoceanic radio communications. For his invention, Marconi was awarded a Nobel prize in physics. Due to equipment limitations, the first radio sets operated at the low frequency (LF) and medium frequency (MF) end of the radio-frequency (RF) spectrum. These two frequency bands offered good voice and low-speed teletype communications, but their transmission distance was limited due to the rather low power outputs available at the time. In the 1890s, experiments began with the use of the higher frequencies. Unfortunately, the ideas for the use of the higher frequencies were born quite a while before science could produce the components required for reliable operation. The 1900s. High-frequency (HF) communication was first made practical in the 1920s when the first actual radio system was installed in Europe. In County Galway, on Irelands western fringe, Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi set up one of the first transatlantic wireless stations. On 15 June 1919, with generators fueled by peat, the station notified London of the successful flight of two British aviators. This was the first nonstop transatlantic flight. The desire to go to higher frequencies was caused by the need for longer range, higher capacity circuits. Until HF came about, transatlantic communication was by cable or mail. Cable systems were very limited in capacity and sending messages was extremely expensive; mail was rather slow. With HF radio, transatlantic communication became faster, had greater capacity, and was less expensive. From this point in history to the present, radio technology increased dramatically. World War II had a profound impact on the use of the radio-frequency spectrum. Military leaders realized higher capacity communications were needed. Naturally, the solution was to go to even higher frequency bands. During the early part of the war, a system called radar was developed. The development of components and equipment to operate at the higher radar frequencies led to the development of higher frequency radio systems. Developments during the war led to the development of very high frequency (VHF) and ultrahigh frequency (UHF) radio systems. Along with these systems came the idea of line-of-sight (LOS) microwave and tropospheric (TROPO) scatter systems. Unfortunately, it was found that using these higher frequency bands caused the distance range to be shorter than with HF. So until the late 1950s, longrange radio communication had to remain in the HF band, even with its limitations. With the advent of the space program, radio engineers realized they could now get long-range communications at the higher frequencies by using satellites as radio relay stations. Thus came the development of satellite communications systems. Today, practically all of our long-range communication goes through satellite links. Since the first communications satellite was placed in orbit,

satellites have been thought of as "the" communications system. However, as seen from a military viewpoint, satellite systemsand most other radio systemshave some weaknesses. Because higher frequency systems have weaknesses associated with their method of radio-wave propagation, lower frequency systems are taking on more importance. Studies and experiments have indicated that if there is a nuclear blast, mostif not allof our higher frequency systems would be adversely affected. Since the military always requires communications, low frequency (LF), very low frequency (VLF), and extremely low frequency (ELF) communications systems have been undergoing development since the early 1960s. As you can see, radio communication has changed markedly over the last century. Theres still much to be learned, and research continues in all areas of the electromagnetic spectrum. 407. Natures force fields and electromagnetic radiation There are three major force fields in nature: gravitational, electric, and magnetic. In radio, we are concerned with the electric and magnetic fields. No one knows the exact composition of these fields, but scientists have gathered sufficient information to be able to predict how they behave. Although an accurate representation cant be pictured, you can visualize a field as consisting of lines of force. In school, you may have seen the experiment with magnetic lines of force, where iron filings were scattered on a piece of cardboard. When a magnet was placed under the cardboard the filings arranged themselves in a pattern that outlined the magnetic lines of force between the two poles of the magnet (fig. 21). Even before Maxwells time, it was known that the following relationships existed between the electric and magnetic fields:

When an electric field is changing, a magnetic field is being created. When a magnetic field is changing, an electric field is being created.

Changing electric fields. To discuss the phenomenon of changing electric fields, we must briefly explain the principle of electric current. There are two types of electric current: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). Direct current is simply a flow of electrons through a wire from a negative to a positive charge. A flashlight battery, for example, produces direct current. Alternating current, on the other hand, is not a steady flow. Rather, it is continually changing in magnitude and periodically changing in direction. The rate at which the current changes direction is twice the frequency of the alternating current. This means that if the current alternates (changes direction) 120 times per second, its frequency is 120 divided by 2, or 60 cycles per second (cps). (The term "cycle" means one complete set of events or phenomena that occurs periodically. Thus, a cycle consists of two complete alternations.) Incidentally, the standard frequency for generation of electrical power in the United States is 60 cps.

Electromagnetic fields. Radio transmission is made possible because alternating current changes in magnitude and reverses its direction during each cycle. As you recall, radio waves are electromagnetic fields of force; that is, magnetic fields generated by continually changing electric fields. As alternating current moves back and forth in a wire, magnetic fields are created around the wire. With each current increase, the magnetic fields expand; and with each current decrease, they collapse. The magnetic field collapses completely at the instant current is at the zero point, just before starting the next alternation. Figure 22 shows a magnetic field around a conducting wire. This field is continuous along the wire, not just in sharply defined circles as shown in the illustration. It also expands and collapses with changes in the direction and magnitude of the AC current.

Figure 22. Magnetic force fields around a conductor. Electromagnetic propagation. The magnetic fields created around a wire conducting a 60-cps current are very small. They extend only a short distance from the wire, and collapse with each current reversal. As the current increases in frequency, however, the magnetic fields have more and more difficulty in collapsing completely with each alternation. When the frequency reaches a certain point, somewhere around 10,000 cps, the magnetic fields no longer have time to collapse completely between alternations. Instead, they are pushed away from the wire by the fields produced by the succeeding alternations. This is the principle of electromagnetic propagation. Alternating current in a conductor creates magnetic fields that expand and collapse with each alternation. At frequencies below approximately 10,000 cps, these fields collapse completely between alternations. However, at frequencies above 10,000 cps, these fields no longer collapse completely. Instead, they are pushed away (radiated) from the conductor. They travel out from the conductor as electromagnetic energy, commonly known as radio waves. This radiation is composed of two perpendicular waves: one electrostatic in nature, the other magnetic. Both of these waves are at right angles to the direction of propagation as shown in figure 23. These two waves are in time phase with each other and travel at a constant speed through space. This speed (186,000 statute miles per second, 162,000 nautical miles per second, or 3 108 meters per second) is the speed of light. Before we go any farther, remember that frequency is normally expressed in "Hertz" (Hz), not cycles per second (cps), even though both terms have identical meaning. This was done to honor Heinrich Hertz who, in 1887, demonstrated that electromagnetic energy could be sent out into space as radio waves. One Hz equals one cps. Other terms used to express frequency are "kilo" (thousand) hertz (kHz);

Figure 23. Electromagnetic wave propagation.

"mega" (million) hertz (MHz); "giga" (billion) hertz (GHz); and a new designation, "tera" (trillion) hertz (THz). This last portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (electro-optical) is being used for communications using light waves transmitted by laser beams. Radio-wave creation. As previously mentioned, the creation of radio waves requires a current whose frequency is at least 10,000Hz. That is, it must be in the radio-frequency (RF) range. Mechanical generators, which are capable of developing frequencies up to 100kHz, are not adequate to cover the useful RF range (10kHz to 300GHz). The solution to this problem has been found in the electronic oscillator. The oscillator is an electronic device for creating voltages that can be made to surge back and forth at whatever frequency is desired. (Since the output of an electronic oscillator is RF energy, we normally refer to it as an RF oscillator.) When RF energy is applied to a conductor (antenna), the antenna resonates (vibrates). The antenna provides a means of radiating the electromagnetic (EM) waves into the air. Thus, we are well on the way to having a complete radio circuit. Later in this volume, specific transmitter components and various sections of the electromagnetic spectrum are covered in detail. Self-Test Questions After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit. 406. History1865 to the present 1. What two inventions became milestones in the history of communications progress? 2. Why was the wireless superior to the telegraph and the telephone? By what name is it known today? 3. Who took the theories of Maxwell and the experimentation of Hertz and made the first working radio-telegraph system? 4. Where was the first practical HF communications system installed? 5. Why was HF an improvement over transatlantic cable? 6. How are practically all of our long-range communications accomplished today? 407. Natures force fields and electromagnetic radiation 1. Which of the three major force fields in nature impact radio? 2. What is the relationship between the electric and magnetic fields? 3. Describe direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). 4. What is a cycle? 5. What are electromagnetic fields of force?

6. What happens to magnetic fields below approximately 10,000 cps? 7. What happens to magnetic fields above approximately 10,000 cps? 8. Define the following terms: Kilohertz, Megahertz, Gigahertz, and Terahertz? 9. Name the device used to generate RF energy. 22. Characteristics of Radio Waves Understanding how to create and radiate EM waves is only the first step toward comprehending radio communications. Once a radio wave leaves the antenna, there are many factors that need to be understood and considered before actual communication can take place. As a start, lets look at the properties of a radio wave as it propagates through space.

Figure 24. Frequency measurement. 408. Properties of a radio wave Wave motion. The EM wave form is most commonly illustrated as in figure 24. This wave form represents the wavelength and amplitude characteristics of an EM wave. By tracing along the wave form through points A, B, C, D, and E, one complete cycle is outlined. If it takes one-thousandth (1/1,000) of a second for this cycle to occur, the wave form would then represent a frequency of 1,000 hertz. The movement of radio waves through space can best be explained by comparing them to the movement of waves in a pond. (Figure 25 illustrates some of the similarities.) When you toss a rock into the center of a pond, a disturbance is created in the water. This disturbance (ripples or waves) spreads rapidly in equally spaced circles, and soon the leaves that are floating on the water begin to bob up and down. In other words, the energy that was transferred to the water by tossing the rock into the pond has now been transmitted (propagated) to the leaves, making them move up and down. An electromagnetic signal radiated from an antenna creates an electromagnetic disturbance (wave) that spreads outward from an antenna through space. As water molecules were used to propagate energy in figure 25, controlled EM disturbances in space are used to propagate the waves created by the antenna. When these waves reach another antenna, some of their energy is transferred to that antenna, just as wave energy was transferred to the leaves floating on the water in the pond. These EM waves set up a small current in the antenna, which is then amplified and reproduced as a radio signal by a radio receiver.

Figure 25. Comparison of liquid wave to electromagnetic wave. Wavelength. Wavelength is a measure of the distance between two successive crests or any corresponding points on two consecutive cycles of a sine wave; it is also the distance traveled by a wave during the time interval of one cycle. This distance normally is expressed in meters or feet. All waves of electric and magnetic fields travel at the speed of light, which is 186,000 miles per second, or 300,000,000 meters per second, or 984,300,000 feet per second. Since speed is constant, the more cycles that pass a given point in a given amount of time, the higher their frequency, the shorter their wavelength. The relationship between frequency and wavelength is illustrated in figure 26. The equation used to determine wavelength is expressed as:

Wavelength = With this formula, you can calculate the distance a wave travels in one cycle (the wavelength) or the length an antenna needs to be to resonate at a specific frequency. In free space (no atmosphere) the speed of light expressed in feet is about 984,300,000 feet per second, or 300,000,000 meters per second. Thus, to find the length of a full wavelength antenna use the above formula substituting 984,300,000 to find the distance in feet or 300,000,000 to find the distance in metersthat is, if your antenna was in free space. Since our antennas arent erected in free space, they dont operate in the most efficient manner and must be adjusted accordingly. In the HF band, a practical antenna is about 5 percent shorter than the same antenna in free space. Therefore, the previous formula is adjusted downward 5 percent. 300,000,000 mps now becomes 285,000,000 mps, and 984,300,000 fps now becomes 936,000,000 fps. (For practical purposes these feet per second figures are normally rounded off to their nearest million. To be specific, 984,300,000 less 5 percent is 935,085,000 fps.) As a result of this adjustment, we use these formulas in computing the wavelengths of terrestrial antennas in feet:

FULL WAVE:

HALF-WAVE:

QUARTER-WAVE:

To find the length in meters, substitute meters per second for feet per second. Understand that dipole/doublet antennas are center-fed, half-wave antennas. Therefore, to find the overall length of the antenna, use the half-wave formula (for example, 468/MHz); but to find the length of each leg of the antenna use either the half-wave formula and divide the product by 2, or use the quarter-wave formula. On the other hand, the full wavelength formula is used in figuring the length of long-wire antennas. Well look at wavelength again in the text on antennas. Remember, no matter what part of the frequency spectrum used, wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency. That is, the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, and, the lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength. Frequency is defined as the number of complete cycles per unit of time for a periodic phenomenon. The EM waveform and thus the EM frequency spectrum are categorized by their periodic characteristics. The entire spectrum (fig. 27) extends from direct current (DC) with zero cps to cosmic rays above 1023Hz. (The term "hertz" (Hz), the international unit of frequency, is now more commonly used than cps.)

Figure 27. The electromagnetic wave spectrum. 409. Frequency and frequency bands Frequency band designators. Each frequency range has a band designator and each range of frequencies behaves differently and performs different functions. The following is a descriptive designation of international designators: International Band Designators Designation ELF SLF ULF VLF LF extremely low frequency superlow frequency ultralow frequency very low frequency low frequency Frequency Range 3 to 30Hz 30 to 300Hz 300 to 3,000Hz 3 to 30kHz 30 to 300kHz

MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

medium frequency high frequency very high frequency ultrahigh frequency superhigh frequency extremely high frequency

300 to 3,000kHz 3 to 30MHz 30 to 300MHz 300 to 3,000MHz 3 to 30GHz 30 to 300GHz

While you may be familiar with many of the systems that operate within these frequency bands, a few examples in figure 28 give a better understanding of the types of intelligence they carry. For communications purposes, the usable frequency spectrum now extends from about 3Hz, through 300GHz, and up to about 100THz, where research on laser communications is taking place. This frequency spectrum is shared by civil, government, and military users of all nations according to International Telecommunications Union (ITU) radio regulations. In radio operations, were mainly concerned with the audio-frequency and radio-frequency ranges. Audio-frequency range. Frequencies that are ordinarily heard by the average person are said to be in the audio range. Although the audio range of any two persons may be very different, it is considered to be those frequencies between 15Hz and 20,000Hz. For example, the lowest note on a piano is approximately 32Hz, while the frequencies of human speech fall approximately between 200 and 2,500Hz. The range of a pipe organ is from about 16Hz to 5,000Hz, and the highest fundamental note of the flute is about 4,000Hz. The high-pitched whine from a jet engine may be above 10,000Hz. RF range. The RF range extends from about 10,000Hz to over 300,000,000,000 (300GHz). For convenience, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has divided the RF spectrum into different bands. These frequency bands, their uses, their characteristics, and their advantages and disadvantages are addressed in detail later in this unit. As weather personnel, were mainly concerned with radio operations in the HF, VHF, UHF, and sometimes SHF frequency bands for our communications. However, with the added emphasis of satellite communications to our career field, expect more involvement with communications equipment operating through the EHF frequency band.

Figure 28. Frequency band applications. Self-Test Questions After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit. 408. Properties of a radio wave 1. What is used to propagate radio waves created by an antenna? 2. Express the speed at which electric and magnetic fields travel in miles per hour, meters per second, and feet per second. 3. Identify the formula used to calculate the length of hertz, half-wave antenna. 4. If a high frequency has a short wavelength, what wavelength does a low frequency have? 409. Frequency and frequency bands 1. For communications purposes, what is the usable frequency spectrum? 2. What organization regulates the use of the frequency spectrum by all nations? 3. What is the audio frequency range? 4. What frequency range is used for arctic communications? 5. What frequency band(s) does commercial TV operate on? 23. The Electromagnetic Spectrum In selecting a communications system for use, we must consider many factors. Besides frequency, power, and equipment configuration, we must also consider such effects as atmospheric absorption, rain, vegetation, and terrain. Then, theres the susceptibility of the various RF bands to electronic warfare. As you can see, its not an easy task to determine the best mode of transmission for your traffic. (Sometimes itll be easyyour radio will only have one mode of operation, youll only have so many authorized frequencies, and your equipment configuration will be fixed.) However, all these considerations are secondary to the two principal elements of radio-wave propagation: the type of radio wave and the transmission path(s) of the radio wave. 410. Characteristics of wave travel Radio waves travel through free space at the speed of light and can be reflected, refracted, or diffracted. The effect of the atmosphere on radio waves is a problem which has complicated the use of communications systems since before World War II. In our discussion of radio systems and antennas we

normally discuss antennas designed and constructed to direct radio waves in a specific direction. These types of antennas work by focusing and directing the EM energy into specific patterns of radiation and thus forming radio "beams." Types of radio waves. Primarily, there are three types of radio waves, the ground wave, sky wave, and direct wave. Since ground waves travel near the surface of the earth, theyre greatly affected by the earths conductivity and by any obstruction (such as mountains or buildings) on its surface. Ground-wave transmission is used mainly for local communications. The sky wave is an electromagnetic wave propagated at such an angle that it travels up through the atmosphere, strikes its upper layer (the ionosphere), and refracts back toward the earth. Sky-wave transmission is used in long-distance communications. Figure 29 shows the various radio-wave paths. The radio waves (beams) represented are simplified, of course. All radio waves emitted by an antenna have the components shown in figure 29; that is, surface, ground-reflected, direct, refracted, and sky. However, radio waves of different frequencies are affected by the environment in different ways. As an example, lower frequency waves are easier to propagate by surface wave than any other means because they follow the contour of the earth and penetrate obstacles more easily. Higher frequency waves propagate more easily via sky and direct wave because they are easily absorbed by obstacles. For these reasons, a particular type of antenna is usually used for a given radio system. The propagation of electromagnetic radiation depends on the conditions existing within the atmosphere, including variations in temperature and pressure, as well as the various components making up the atmosphere. The way radio waves react to atmospheric conditions depends on the radio frequency being used. RF transmission paths. Radio waves are classified according to the paths they take from transmitter to receiver: ground waves (surface waves) along the surface of the earth, sky waves reflected back to earth from the troposphere and ionosphere, and direct waves from antenna to antenna (line-of-sight).

Figure 29. Radio-wave propagation paths. The act of a radio wave traveling from one point to another is called propagation. When a radio wave is radiated from an antenna it may start its journey in a variety of directions. However, we normally use only one path to reach the station with which we want to communicate (distant end). These transmission paths can be short or long, may travel along the ground, or be reflected from the upper parts of the atmosphere. The primary transmission path of a radio wave is determined by the propagating characteristics of its frequency and the direction and manner in which it is radiated by the

antenna. Remember, all radio waves are propagated by one of three primary transmission paths: direct waves, ground waves, or sky waves. Again, figure 29 illustrates these transmission paths. Direct waves. Direct waves are those which travel through the air in a straight line (line-of-sight or LOS) from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. Direct waves continue to travel in a straight line until they are interrupted by an object or weaken over a great distance. The average distance of directwave communications is therefore limited by the height of the transmit or receive antenna. At frequencies greater than 30MHz (VHF and above) with antennas at ground level a direct wave is normally limited to under 20 miles. This is due to the curvature of the earth. Of course, if you increase the height of either antenna you will be able to increase the distance between the antennas. By eliminating obstructions, long-range UHF or SHF satellite communications or VHF/UHF communications with aircraft are possible using direct waves. Ground waves. Radio waves that travel close to the earth are called ground waves. When these are transmitted over the earth, they take three separate paths to the receiver: a direct path, a surface path, and a ground-reflected path. Depending on the conductivity of the earth, the surface path may be more useful for communications from one ground station to another when lower frequencies are used. Conductivity is a measure of the ability of a medium to conduct electric current, or the efficiency with which a current is passed. The earths conductivity is determined by the type of soil and water in the propagation path. Soil with poor conductivity quickly attenuates (weaken) radio signals. Note the conductivity characteristics in figure 210 and you can see quite a difference between types of terrain. If a ground wave was transmitted over sea water, the direct path would only travel the short line-of-sight distance, but the surface path might travel up to 700 miles. All radio waves can reflect, to some degree, off certain surfaces. The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, and so the greater the chance that the wave can be deflected or reflected. In groundwave communications, the most probable reflector is the ground. If ground-reflected waves reach the receive antenna out of phase with the direct wave, therell be some fading of the received signal. On the other hand, if the direct waves and reflected waves arrive in phase, the received signal is increased. These effects are called "multipath effects." Sky waves. Sky waves are those waves that travel upward and are redirected by atmospheric properties back to the earth. High above the earth these radio waves meet the ionosphere, which consists of layers of gases ionized by the ultraviolet rays of the sun. Passing through these ionized layers, radio waves are bent from their original course. Sky-wave communications become possible when the bending of the waves is great enough to return them to earth. Sky-wave transmissions are very effective for longdistance communications in the high-frequency range (3 to 30MHz). 411. Characteristics of frequency bands In this lesson we look at the following frequency bands:

Extremely low frequency. Very low frequency. Low frequency. Medium frequency. High frequency. Very high frequency. Ultrahigh frequency. Superhigh frequency. Extremely high frequency.

Extremely low frequency (ELF). The ELF frequency range is from 3 to 30Hz, and it can transmit signals 5,000 miles or more. As currently used, ELF propagates through the earths substrate. ELF waves produce high-power sounds that can penetrate ocean depths to several hundred feet. ELF communications systems require enormous transmit antennas covering thousands of acres and operating at very high transmitting powersin the 100-megawatt range. Called transducers, these "antennas" transfer the transmitted RF energy to the earth and vice versa. The distance range of ELF is greater than that of any other terrestrial communications system, and it is not greatly affected by atmospheric disturbances. This area of the frequency spectrum is used primarily for underwater communications. Operating in the range of audible sound, ELF is capable of only very low transmission rates. This slow data rate makes ELF transmissions impractical for normal character message transmission and impossible to use with current communications security (COMSEC) devices. ELF traffic is used mainly to communicate with submerged submarines. Messages are only one or two characters in length and are transmitted by interrupted continuous wave (ICW). Very low frequency (VLF). The VLF frequency range is from 3 to 30kHz. Like ELF, VLF transmissions can span 5,000 miles or more and penetrate vegetation and water. VLF is used mainly for navigation and to communicate by low-speed secure teletypewriter with submarines at sea when theyre submerged at shallow depths (about 10 feet). While VLF transmitters are normally shore-based, certain command and control (C2) aircraft such as airborne command posts may have a VLF capability, using long trailing wire antennas and transmitters powered in the 100 to 200 kilowatt (kW) range. While VLF transmissions are capable of higher data rates than ELF transmissions, theyre still limited. VLF broadcast systems use minimum shift keying (MSK) and operate low-speed, 50 baud, secure teletypes. A very common mode of operation on VLF circuits is ICW. An anti-jam (AJ) capability does

exist, but it reduces the data transmission rate dramaticallyto about three characters every 12 seconds. Low frequency (LF). The LF range is from 30 to 300kHz and can span distances of 1,000 to 5,000 miles. LF is used for medium-distance communications, particularly with submarines and surface ships at sea, and for navigation. Airborne operations can be conducted efficiently using LF. While LF can penetrate vegetation and water, it is less effective than ELF or VLF. Current shore-based LF communications systems use 50 to 100kW transmitters and use frequency shift keying (FSK) for secure teletypewriter or International Morse Code (IMC) for communications operations. Using FSK and appropriate COMSEC equipment, LF can transmit in a secure teletype mode at 75 baud (which equates to approximately 100 words per minute (wpm)). Medium frequency (MF). The MF range is from 300 to 3,000kHz. MF propagates by ground wave, direct wave, and sky wave. MF can span from 100 to 1,000 miles by ground wave and from 1,000 to 3,000 miles by sky wave, depending on the transmitter output power and the atmospheric conditions. The main uses of the MF band include medium-distance communications, radio navigation, and amplitude modulation (AM) broadcasting. The 550 to 1,600-kHz part of this frequency band is mainly used for AM broadcasting. A 10kHz separation standard between stations, results in 105 available audio channels. The MF band can support low-capacity multichannel circuits for both voice and teletype operations, with the latter limited to 75 baud (100 wpm). Security is available through voice and data COMSEC devices. High frequency (HF). The HF part of the spectrum can transmit signals by ground-wave or sky-wave propagation. Ground-wave propagation is effective from 30 to 300 miles. Sky-wave propagation can span the worlddepending on atmospheric conditions and the frequency used. HF is widely used for long-distance communications, short-wave broadcasting, over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, and amateur radio. HF transmitter power can range from as low as 2 watts to above 100kW, depending on the intended use. In the HF range, two-way voice and data (record) communications can be supported in various ways. This includes point-to-point broadcast and air/ground/air operating modes using upper or lower sidebands. Besides long-range communications, HF is also widely used in tactical environments to supplement communications when LOS radio isnt possible or feasible. Another HF mode is short-range near-vertical-incidence sky wave (NVIS) used with the NVIS antenna. The NVIS is useful when stations are separated by obstacles (such as mountains). When direct communication isnt possible, a NVIS antenna can radiate an HF signal almost straight up for reflection down (over a mountain peak) to another station only a few miles away. NVIS operations are most effective when using the lower HF frequencies (2 to 6MHz).

HF can accommodate IMC, voice, and teletypewriter operating modes and can operate in secure modes using a variety of available COMSEC devices. HF radios can be mounted in vehicles, ships, or aircraft and can be fixed, portable, or manpack configured. Transmissions are normally in either the single sideband (SSB) or independent sideband (ISB) mode. HF sky-wave propagation is extremely vulnerable to intercept, particularly the high-powered, long-haul systems. The HF part of the spectrum is currently the frequency band most susceptible to jamming. Electronic countermeasure (ECM) jammers far from the receiver can jam or disrupt HF sky-wave communications. Proper use of COMSEC devices and burst transmission techniques can reduce this vulnerability however. Without some form of anti-jam protection, HF communications arent considered suitable for critical C2 systems. Very high frequency (VHF). The VHF frequency range is from 30 to 300MHz, and its signals propagate principally by line-of-sight (LOS). Although LOS restrictions limit the ground range of VHF systems, LOS is an effective means of ground communication for distances up to 25 to 50 miles (depending on terrain and antenna height) without using a repeater. By placing repeaters properly along an intended communications path, we can get long-range VHF transmissions through a series of short LOS hops. Remember, the higher the antenna, the greater the LOS distance possible in each link. Depending on the use, range, and number of channels intended, VHF transmitter power can range from 0.25 watts for a portable hand-held FM radio to 120 watts for a 12/24 multichannel LOS system. A rule to remember here isthe higher the frequency, the less power required to transmit VHF signals over a given distance. Single-channel VHF radios are portable, vehicular, or airframe mounted, and can usually be operated in motion. The larger multichannel systems are commonly mounted aboard ships and on 2 1/2 or 5-ton trucks in shelters, and require careful siting of directional antennas. Typical uses include short-range FM combat radio nets, radar, radio navigation, wideband LOS multichannel systems (repeatered or nonrepeatered) and television broadcasting. VHF links can provide excellent circuit quality, comparable to cable systems with up to 99 percent reliability. VHF links can handle either analog or digital voice and data transmissions in single/multichannel modes. Data rates may vary from 45.5 to 75 bits per second (bps) for mobile VHF radio nets to 1.2 to 9.6 thousand bits per second (Kbps) per channel for LOS multichannel radio relay systems. Ultrahigh frequency (UHF). The UHF range is from 300 to 3,000MHz. The main propagation methods include tropospheric scatter, satellite, air/ground/air, and LOS. Due to the flexibility of UHF communications, the distance range varies significantly as follows:

Line-of-sight (LOS)15 to 100 miles, terrain dependent, 300+ nautical miles (nm) LOS from aircraft.

Satellitethousands of miles, depending on altitude, power, and antenna configuration.

Transmitter power can range from a low of 10 to 100 watts for LOS and satellite systems while troposcatter systems operate in the 2,500 to 10,000-watt range. Many UHF systems are transportable by vehicle, aircraft, or ship. Some UHF satellite terminals are small enough and lightweight enough to be manpack portable. Common UHF applications are seen daily in local ambulance, fire, and police radio nets, with repeater operations being typical. On military installations, the non-tactical intrabase radio (IBR) nets are usually VHF or UHF. UHF systems are capable of high-quality, reliable, and high-capacity transmissions with data rates of 2.4Kbps and higher. UHF is used widely to provide secure/nonsecure voice, record, data, and facsimile service in both mobile and fixed configurations. Along with VHF, UHF is the band preferred for television. Superhigh frequency (SHF). The SHF range, from 3 to 30GHz. It is used mainly for high-data-rate LOS microwave, multichannel radio relay, troposcatter, and satellite systems. Distances for SHF systems range from line-of-sight for terrestrial microwave links to thousands of miles for satellite connectivity. Here are some nominal distances for SHF systems: Line-of-sight Line-of-sight Ground-wave mode Direct-wave mode (satellite) Troposcatter mode 40 miles (approximately). limited only by power and sensitivity (gain) of transmit and receive antennas. analog: 100 to 200 miles with 132 voice channels 200 to 300 miles with 72 voice channels Over 300 miles with 12/24 voice channels Properly engineered, LOS microwave systems provide reliable, high-capacity, long-distance communications through radio relay sites. SHF carrier signals permit large bandwidths, so they can handle significant amounts of data over multiplexed voice channels and television. High-speed data with rates of 2.4Kbps and more (250Kbps data rates are possible) can be transmitted by SHF systems. Some military satellite terminals and troposcatter terminals have been designed for tactical use. These systems are transportable by 2 1/2 to 5-ton truck and have antenna dishes of varying size. Extremely high frequency (EHF). The EHF frequency range is from 30 to 300GHz. Military application of this band is the subject of continuing research and development. Two types of experimental applications appear to offer attractive advantages. EHF satellite systems and millimeter-wave (MMW) transmissions.

The EHF Military Strategic Tactical and Relay (Milstar) satellite system provides worldwide coverage using geosynchronous space segments in both equatorial and polar orbits. The range of EHF satellite systems with cross-satellite linking is global. EHF transmissions passing through the atmosphere are susceptible to being attenuated by rain and other atmospheric conditions. EHF systems can transmit secure voice and high-speed data at rates of up to 100Mbps (million bits per second). These systems operate in either the single-channel or multichannel mode. The extensive bandwidths available in the EHF range permit up to as many as 600 channels per link, depending on the type of multiplexing equipment used. EHF also offers increased capacity, jam resistance, electromagnetic pulse (EMP) protection, low power, narrow beam width, and excellent mobility advantages. 412. Electromagnetic frequency management The basic idea of spectrum management in foreign areas is that the RF spectrum is a natural resource within the boundaries of any sovereign nation and may be used only with the consent of that nation. Each nation must consent to the use of the RF spectrum. Allocation and use of the RF spectrum requires international understanding and cooperation. With that in mind we look at international spectrum management, U. S. spectrum regulation and management, Department of Defense (DoD), and spectrum management within unified/specified commands, treaty organizations, and other foreign areas International spectrum management. The premise of international spectrum management is that the radio-frequency spectrum is a natural resource within the boundaries of any sovereign nation and may be used only with the consent of that nation. National plans must be tailored to the international allocation pattern. We can show the necessity for these international agreements by a few examples: 1. International flights must be able to communicate always with at least one checkpoint along each route. 1. Communications-electronics (C-E) equipment developed by the U. S. military should be usable by troops deployed worldwide. 1. We cant allow unrestricted spectrum use during wartime, since various countries have allies with whom they must cooperate. 1. The need for compatibility and interoperability of C-E equipment is particularly important in allied joint commands such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). 1. During wartime, certain civil safety services require continued protection. International allocations of the RF spectrum and registration of frequency assignments are handled by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). ITU Radio Regulationsratified by member nationshave treaty status.

U. S. spectrum regulation and management. Regulation of radio spectrum use within the United States is predicated on the idea that responsibility for orderly use of spectrum space by a nations citizens lies with the government of that nation. National regulation is necessary so each country will be able to live up to international agreements that have treaty status in the world political arena. The Communications Act of 1934 governs the use of the RF spectrum in the United States. This act established two branches of spectrum management. The President is the final authority for controlling spectrum usage by government-owned radio stations (in this case, government-owned refers to the federal government). The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is the responsible agent for regulation of the non-government part of the spectrum, which includes civil users, state and local governments. The need for efficient use of spectrum resources on a national basis is urgent and must be recognized by all spectrum users. Efficient use requires intelligent planning, management, and technical advances in communications equipment. To put together these facets of planning, management, and equipment requires sound and effective spectrum management at the national level. The Communications Act of 1934 established the FCC, with responsibility for regulation and management of non-government interstate and foreign telecommunications originating in the United States including: 1. Assignment of space in the RF spectrum among private users. 1. Regulation of the use of that space. 1. Authorization of alien amateur operators licensed by their governments for operation in the U. S. under reciprocal agreements. Recognizing the constitutional powers of the Office of the President, the Act puts control of government radio stations in that office. The President: 1. Assigns frequencies to radio stations "belonging to and operated by the U. S." 1. Authorizes foreign governments to construct and operate radio stations in fixed service at the United States seat of government and assigns frequencies to these stations, provided these actions are determined to be in the national interest, and the foreign governments grant reciprocal privileges to the United States. 1. Has the power to control all frequency resources in the United States when the nation is in a wartime posture. By Executive Order, the President established the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) under the Department of Commerce to act on his behalf in discharging his telecommunications responsibilities. The President (or NTIA) and the FCC are the sole authorities for

frequency assignments in the United States and possessions. Additionally, the FCC and NTIA assist and advise the Department of State in negotiations regarding international telecommunications policy. Spectrum management within the Department of Defense (DoD). The military services and the defense agencies, acting as agents of the Secretary of Defense and the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Telecommunications, are responsible for management and operational direction of telecommunications resources within the DoD. Multilateral government channels coordinate DoD spectrum management matters with non-DoD agencies in the United States. Military channels are used for all other military frequency management matters worldwide. The Director, Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence (C3I), is the principal staff assistant to the Secretary of Defense on telecommunications matters. This is the focal point for coordinating telecommunications policy within the DoD and with organizations that work together with the DoD on telecommunications matters. The Director is also responsible for reviewing and monitoring policies, plans, programs, and budgets for telecommunications within the DoD. The Military Communications-Electronics Board (MCEB) is the primary agency for coordination of military C-E matters among DoD components. They also coordinate between the DoD and other government departments and agencies, and between the DoD and representatives of foreign nations. It functions under the policies and directives of the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chief of Staff (JCS), acting under the Secretary of Defense. The MCEB is responsible for providing DoD guidance and direction in preparing and coordinating detailed and technical joint and combined directives and agreements in various C-E activities, including authorizing spectrum allotments of resources allotted by the NTIA to DoD. Spectrum management within unified/specified commands, treaty organizations, and other foreign areas. The RF spectrum is considered to be a natural resource within the boundaries of any nation. In foreign areas, the RF spectrum may be used only with the consent of the host nation. Any deviation from established frequency authorizations could affect relationships and negotiations with the host government. Unified commands are normally established for missions that require significant assigned components of two or more services. Specified commands are normally established where a mission requires a force consisting primarily of units from a single service. Spectrum management in specified and unified commands is under the control of the highest command present, with policy guidance provided by the MCEB. MCEB policies allow unified and specified commanders to make frequency assignments for certain intracommand communications provided: 1. Appropriate coordination has been accomplished with host government agencies, such as FAA, FCC, or area frequency coordinators. 1. National or international protection is not desired or required. 1. NTIA and FCC jurisdictional areas are not involved.

1. Harmful interference with authorized users registered with NTIA will not result. Unified and specified commanders, subject to host nation agreements, have overall management and control responsibility for all United States military use of the RF spectrum within their zones of operation. Direct military liaison channels have been established between the United States and the countries of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, and Canada through formation of the Combined Communications-Electronics Board (CCEB) which is staffed at the same level as the MCEB. Spectrum management for operations or planning within the Allied Treaty Organizations basically follows the pattern of the international command organization. In NATO, the Allied Radio Frequency Agency Permanent Staff (ARFA P/S) is responsible for NATO plans, policies, and C-E requirement engineering. The United States maintains a permanent ARFA representative at United States Commander-in-Chief, Europe (USCINCEUR) Headquarters. An assistant representative at NATO Headquarters in Brussels is the major contact point for all United States C-E requirements at ARFA Headquarters. Allied treaty organizations other than NATO have no equivalent to ARFA. Advanced spectrum planning is handled among the headquarters of the military departments concerned. United States spectrum planning for NATO and other Allied Treaty Organizations always includes coordination with United States authorities. Communications play an indispensable role in the command and control network by providing decisionmakers timely information to coordinate offensive and defensive activities. Information can come in several forms: voice communications, teletype, data link, or video transmissions. Also, information may be transferred by several methods: radio, microwave relay, tropospheric scatter systems, or satellite, to name a few. Weve covered a lot of information in a short time. From the early history of radio, we progressed into the principles, characteristics, and properties of the electromagnetic spectrum and radio waves (fig. 211). Due to the complexity of the material covered, lets emphasize some areas that are of major concern. HF radio is a relatively low-frequency device used for long-range voice communications. HF radio waves can propagate along the surface of the ground and bend over the horizon, following the curve of the earth. They may also be reflected by the ionosphere. Transmitted skyward, HF waves can bounce between the ionosphere and the ground several times as they propagate from the transmitter to the receiver. HFs usefulness is limited by several factors. First, HF has a low capacity, with only four sidebands on each frequency. Second, it cant be depended on for full-time communication, because its susceptible to a high-noise environment. Sunspot activity or high-altitude nuclear detonations also hinder down HF communications.

VHF and UHF radio provide LOS communication. By mixing signals (multiplexing), hundreds of voice channels can be transmitted simultaneously. They can also carry teletype, data link, or video transmissions. There are several ways to extend the LOS-limited range of UHF transmissions. Microwave relay stations can increase the range

Figure 211. Advantages and disadvantages of the various electromagnetic frequency bands. and survivability of the communications system. By using directional, high-gain antennas, microwaves can be transmitted 20 to 40 miles by only 1 kilowatt of power. Rough terrain and inaccessible areas can be traversed more easily by relay stations than by telephone lines. In addition, since most of the equipment is inside buildings, the system is less susceptible to severe weather or bomb blast effects. A tropospheric scatter system can also be used to extend UHF radio range. The atmosphere is made up of several layers that are constantly shifting but have sharply defined characteristics of temperature, moisture content, and refractive index. The index of refraction is the ratio of the velocity of a radio wave in free space to that of a wave in a different medium. The change in the index of refraction between atmospheric layers bends RF waves in the UHF band. Most of the transmitted energy continues forward, but enough is bent, or "scattered," back toward the earth to be usable (fig. 212). Because of the large losses, the transmitter requires a lot of power.

Figure 212. Tropospheric refraction.

Figure 213. Satellite vs. relay station coverage. A troposcatter system can span up to 400 miles per link, where a microwave system would require many repeater stations to span the same distance. Like a microwave relay system, the troposcatter system can handle over 250 voice channels at ranges of 100 miles or less, but this number drops drastically as the range between links increases. For example, at ground ranges over 300 miles, the system can handle only 12 to 24 voice channels. One final method for increasing the range of UHF radio transmissions is to use satellites, either as a repeater system or passive reflector. Because of reduced signal losses, satellite links can provide ground ranges more than 750 miles. Figure 213 shows how a satellite can greatly extend the range of a communications system over a troposcatter system. The resulting advantage is that one satellite could

replace several ground-based troposcatter relay sites (which could be replacing several LOS repeater sites), effectively reducing the amount of equipment needed. Self-Test Questions After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit. 410. General radio-wave propagation characteristics 1. Name the three types of radio waves. 2. What is the term used to describe a radio wave when it travels from one point to another? 3. How is the primary transmission path of a radio wave determined? 4. What limits the distance of direct-wave communications? 5. What three paths do ground waves take to the receiver? 6. What determines the conductivity of the earth? 7. What are sky waves? 411. Characteristics of frequency bands 1. How are ELF transmissions propagated? 2. Why are ELF transmissions impossible to use with current COMSEC devices? 3. What mode of operations is used for data communications within the LF frequency band and what is the speed of transmission? 4. What determines the range of MF propagation? 5. What is the standard separation between radio stations operating within the 550 to 1600kHz portion of the MF band? 6. What determines the distance HF sky waves can propagate? 7. Why are HF communications not considered suitable for critical C2 systems? 8. What is the general rule to remember when using the VHF frequency band? 9. Identify the main UHF propagation methods. 10. What is SHF mainly used for? 11. What satellite system is currently using the EHF frequency range? 412. Electromagnetic frequency management

1. What is the premise of international spectrum management? 2. Who accomplishes international allocations of the RF spectrum and registration of frequency assignments? 3. What governs the use of the RF spectrum in the United States and possessions? 4. What agency is responsible for the regulation and management of non-government interstate and foreign telecommunications originating in the United States? 5. Where does the Communications Act of 1934 place control of government radio stations? 6. Why was the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) established and under what department does it fall? 7. Who is the focal point for coordinating telecommunications policy within the DoD and with organizations that work together with the DoD on telecommunications matters? 8. Identify the primary agency for coordination of military communications-electronics (C-E) matters among DoD components. 9. Who controls the spectrum management in specified and unified commands? 10. What is the index of refraction? Answers to Self-Test Questions 406 1. The telegraph and the telephone. 2. It used the air as a transmission medium rather than a wire or cable; radio communications. 3. Guglielmo Marconi. 4. Europe. 5. HF was faster, had greater capacity, and was less expensive. 6. Through satellite links. 407 1. Electric and magnetic. 2. If an electric field is changing, a magnetic field is created; if a magnetic field is changing, an electric field is created.

3. Direct current is simply a flow of electrons through a wire from a negative to a positive charge. Alternating current is continually changing in magnitude and periodically changing in direction. 4. One complete set of events or phenomena that occurs periodically. A cycle consists of two complete alternations. 5. Magnetic fields generated by continually changing electric fields. 6. They completely collapse between alternations. 7. They are radiated from the conductor in the form of radio waves. 8. Kilo (thousand) hertz, mega (million) hertz, giga (billion) hertz, and tera (trillion) hertz. 9. The electronic, or RF, oscillator. 408 1. Controlled EM disturbances in space. 2. 186,000 miles per second, 300,000,000 meters per second, and 984,300,000 feet per second.

3. The half-wave formula:

4. Long wavelength; the shorter the wavelength the higher the frequency, and the longer the wavelength the lower the frequency. 409 1. From about 3Hz up to about 100THz. 2. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU). 3. 15Hz to 20,000Hz. 4. LF. 5. VHF and UHF. 410 1. Ground wave, direct wave, and sky wave. 2. Propagation. 3. By the propagating characteristics of its frequency and the direction and way its radiated. 4. The height of the transmit and receive antenna.

5. A direct wave, a ground-reflected wave, and a surface wave. 6. The type of soil and water in the propagation path. 7. Waves that travel upward and are diverted by atmospheric properties back to the earth. 411 1. Through the earths substrate. 2. Slow data rate. 3. FSK; 75 baud or 100 wpm. 4. Transmitter output power and atmospheric conditions. 5. 10kHz. 6. Atmospheric conditions and the frequency used. 7. The inherent vulnerability of intercept and jamming. 8. The higher the frequency, the less power required to transmit VHF signals over a given distance. 9. Tropospheric scatter, satellite, air/ground/air, and line-of-sight. 10. High-data-rate LOS microwave, multichannel radio relay, troposcatter, and satellite systems. 11. Milstar. 412 1. The radio-frequency spectrum is a natural resource within the boundaries of any sovereign nation and may be used only with the consent of that nation. 2. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU). 3. The Communications Act of 1934 as amended. 4. The Federal Communications Commission. 5. In the Office of the President. 6. To act on the behalf of the President in discharging telecommunications responsibilities; Department of Commerce. 7. The Director, Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence (C3I). 8. The Military Communications-Electronics Board (MCEB).

9. The highest command present, with policy guidance provided by the MCEB. 10. The ratio of the velocity of a radio wave in free space to that of a wave in a different medium. Do the Unit Review Exercises (URE) before going to the next unit. Do the Unit Review Exercises (URE) before going to the next unit. Unit Review Exercises Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle the corresponding letter.

Sorry, I don't know how they do it as I am not a Ham radio operator. I am pretty sure there are websites dedication to Ham radio use. There are licensing requirements and that can take awhile (or at least it used to). There may also be requirements that you broadcast a certain amount of time a month. I am thinking back to things I was told about 40 years ago and have no idea what the current requirements are.

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 10:46 PM by Chakotay Originally posted by kroms33 reply to post by squizzy

I googled CB radios and water and didn't come up with a thing.... do you have any links to verify this works?

Here's why. The water is electrically bonded to the earth as an ideal groundplane. With a properly grounded antenna over water, range of a transmitter is dramatically increased. This idea goes back to James Clerk Maxwell, Tesla and Marconi. See KGO 810 AM Antenna in San Francisco Bay for an example. Because of the ideal water groundplane, you can hear KGO all over the Western US with a simple AM receiver.

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 10:47 PM by CASH69 reply to post by kroms33

That was a new one to me too.

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 10:47 PM by Mr Tranny Originally posted by AQuestion reply to post by CASH69

Shortwave radio for sure. While ham radio is not as big as it once was, it is still a great system and the units can be shielded from EMPs because many were designed in case of a nuclear attack.

The ham radio licensee base has been growing over the last several years. And NO, the radios are not designed to survive an EMP. Most of the modern units are the same class of electronics as every other piece of commercial electronics you will find. If you look at the front end of the receiver section that would take the brunt of the EMP, you will find that it doesnt look any different than any other high end commercial class radio RF preamp. Business band two way, and police radios, and other equipment is most likely better designed than what we hams use. The only place you find worse design is consumer grade throwaway stuff. And even the higher end of that market will easily match what a lot of ham equipment in design quality. Cell phones for example, are pretty well engineered. They operate in an RF dense environment without interference, multiple modulation and encoding systems, and have very strict emissions limits. There is very few ham radios that can match that level of operation. They just operate in a different frequency range, and with different modulation modes.

The only thing that would make a ham radio more EMP resistant than a consumer item is the fact that most ham radio equipment has a metal case. That provides direct shielding. Everything else is totally location, and operator dependent. What type of antenna he has it hooked to. What type of lighting/surge arrestors he has it hooked to. On and on. If you have a CB with a metal case. A high speed surge arrestor on the antenna. And one on the power cable, then it should be able to handle any EMP just as easily as any ham radio. If you have the mike and antenna disconnected, then it will definitely be fine.

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 10:48 PM by amari I let my ham radio license lapse years ago I was on 2 and 6 meters and had to learn morse code and take 2 tests to receive my Novice and Technicians license. I was talking to my son and said now is the time to go back and get my license again because if everything goes to hell and a hand basket this will be the only long distance communications for civilians in the future. ^Y^

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 10:50 PM by CASH69 reply to post by Chakotay

Wow,that blows my mind. I might just have to try that sometime. I guess the more water the better ground plane? I have heard of grounding to a water pipe,and using a homes ground plane wiring.

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 10:54 PM by CASH69 reply to post by Mr Tranny

If you have a CB with a metal case. A high speed surge arrestor on the antenna. And one on the power cable, then it should be able to handle any EMP just as easily as any ham radio. If you have the mike and antenna disconnected, then it will definitely be fine.

Thanks for the advice,i will do that. Oh and how much am i looking at for a power arrestor? edit on 17-1-2011 by CASH69 because: (no reason given)

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 10:55 PM by OatDelphi Originally posted by Mr Tranny And in reply to another poster, NO a CB radio will not be fried by a solar flare.

I am not trying to argue this at all, as I stated this stuff is not my forte, but I am always interested in learning. Could you please explain why CB's are not going to be affected? Is it because they operate on early form transistors or vacuum tubes? edit on 17-1-2011 by OatDelphi because: formatting???

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 11:01 PM by Atlantican

Yes absolutely a CB would still work, or at least have the best chance to work. That is, vintage tube driven CB gear would for certain. The only problem is power draw for a base station. On another note CBs are fairly well sheilded when disconnected and stored properly. And rather than a base station your best bet would be to have a good mobile (cobra / radio shack / superstar) and a couple different connectors. One for hooking up to your car and another with a couple alligator clips (booster cable sort of ends) for hooking up to any power source that provides 12volts @ 5 amps for transmit and/or just 12 volts and 1 amp for receive only. As noted previously, in the event of solar flares you have a dilemma. Depending on the type that is. Longer ranges are possible during this time, thousands of miles but it's relatively point to point. If you were in new england you might be able to receive brazil but nothing in the states and countries between. Other times the "skip" / "scatter" /"DX" might be more regional. That seems to be the case early mornings from time to time. So yes. An extremely valuable asset to have. As for channels, well channel 1/19 are generally trucker / transport channels and channel 9 has always been the emergency channel. For international traffic, go to channel 38 (lower side band)/27.385 or more official international frequency 27.555 (upper side band). 27.555 requires modifications to a standard CB but found on most if not all 10/11 meter ham sets that also have (SSB/USB/LSB). Any of the old Radio Shack sidebands or the Cobra 148GTL would be best and most affordable. There's some good Superstar (ss-3900) and Galaxy radios out there, sometimes fairly affordable. If you get them cheap/used, get a few and store the best ones in a nice steel box / ammo case. PS: If you ever want to hear how far you can go on a standard AM frequency, check out "the superbowl" aka Channel 6 any time there's a little strange activity in the atmosphere. Those crazy guys in the south sure love their power. Search for "super bowl channel 6 cb" on youtube for a several examples. Also youtube "27.555" / "triple nickel" and "CB 38 LSB skip" for more. edit on 17-1-2011 by Atlantican because: added superbowl reference

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 11:02 PM by Chakotay reply to post by CASH69

For a base station, you REALLY need the arrestors, because EMP is a maybe but lightning is a reality

Water pipe grounding is practical and doable. The groundplane, and the antenna length/geometry for the frequency are critical parameters for DX. CB's have big antennas because they are 27 Mhz (low frequency, 11 meters wavelength), cellphones have tiny antennas because they are UHF. The ionosphere reflects best around 40 meters, I think. And look at Honda RV generators for backup power. They have diesel ones too. edit on 17-1-2011 by Chakotay because: for the Halibut...

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 11:02 PM by Mr Tranny Originally posted by OatDelphi I am not trying to argue this at all, as I stated this stuff is not my forte, but I am always interested in learning. Could you please explain why CB's are not going to be affected? Is it because they operate on early form transistors or vacuum tubes?

A nuclear EMP has a very high frequency component that has a short enough wavelength to induce voltages on electronic components and normal sized antennas. The also have the lower frequency longer duration magnetic variations.

Solar flares on the other hand, will only generate very low frequency magnetic variations. Way to low in frequency to affect a cbs internal circuitry or induce any current onto any normal sized antenna. Solar flares will only bug stuff that is very long. Like power lines and phone line.

reply posted on 17-1-2011 @ 11:14 PM by OatDelphi reply to post by Mr Tranny

Thank you for that info... It never hurts to learn and I assure you it did not fall upon deaf ears.

reply posted on 18-1-2011 @ 12:41 AM by dainoyfb I just want to reiterate what someone mentioned earlier. In most SHTF situations it will be much more important to know what is going on than to actually be able to transmit. In fact you may not want to risk transmitting at all in many situations. If budget is a concern then my advice is to concentrate on receiving first. Start with a good short wave receiver, a multi-band receiver, good antennas, and a reliable power supply such as a car battery charged by a solar panel. Look for a multi-band receiver or scanner that can receive as much as possible such as: Local law enforcement and EMS CB, including LSB, USB AM FM TV audio

All of the Ham bands FRS, GMRS I own a couple of radios that cover all of these bands and more. Cost is just a few hundred dollars. Like others have said keep everything unplugged from everything else and it should be ok. For added protection wrap it in a few layers of cooking foil and keep it close to or in the ground. If you are wondering about my information, for what its worth I design electronics, some for industrial and military applications. Also, stars for Mr Tranny's posts for his accurate and practical information.

reply posted on 18-1-2011 @ 01:31 AM by countrytruck reply to post by squizzy

I call bs. Not even possible. I run dual 5 ft whips on my jeep and can get 10 miles untuned. You would have to have high power amplifiers which I doubt you could do it. Besides its illegal to take part in transmissions over 150 miles. But to the op i believe they would be fine to use and im planning on using mine when the time comes.

reply posted on 18-1-2011 @ 01:45 AM by DrMattMaddix Originally posted by dainoyfb I just want to reiterate what someone mentioned earlier. In most SHTF situations it will be much more important to know what is going on than to actually be able to transmit. In fact you may not want to risk transmitting at all in many situations. If budget is a concern then my advice is to concentrate on receiving first. Start with a good short wave receiver, a multi-band receiver, good antennas, and a reliable power supply such as a car battery charged by a solar panel. Look for a multi-band receiver or scanner that can receive as much as possible such as:

Local law enforcement and EMS CB, including LSB, USB AM FM TV audio All of the Ham bands FRS, GMRS I own a couple of radios that cover all of these bands and more. Cost is just a few hundred dollars. Like others have said keep everything unplugged from everything else and it should be ok. For added protection wrap it in a few layers of cooking foil and keep it close to or in the ground. If you are wondering about my information, for what its worth I design electronics, some for industrial and military applications. Also, stars for Mr Tranny's posts for his accurate and practical information.

Also, Stars for your info! * * * * * I'm NOT an electrical engineer but, they [EE's], as co-workers, have asked if I am degree'd. Nope, I'm not EE. My background has included board level troubleshooting of the instruments that validate high speed EEPROMs; multiband telecommunications equipment repair (faraday cages of any size for EM protection); etc... For emphasis: Those items need to be OFF THE GRID! Unplugged and separate power source(s) to survive. Multiple power sources available. Those items will be WELL shielded in a faraday cage. Better safe than sorry. Don't skimp on quality. Pay as much as you can afford for highest quality. Better safe than sorry. edit on 11811 by DrMattMaddix because: (no reason given)

reply posted on 18-1-2011 @ 06:19 AM by brokedown

With a EMP either Solar or man made the CB radio will not work. A CB radio you buy over the counter has a 4 watt signal output. Which means with a "matched" antena you possible will be able to send/receive about 3 miles normally, ( on a clear channel). On the "Truckers" channel 19 expect half that. First thing to know about CB radio is that you MUST "match" the antena. This means you "set the SWR's" of the antena. This is done by placing an external meter between the CB and antena, then with the reading you would raise of lower the antena's whip lenght. BEST to have this done by a professional CB tech. You can add "Power" to the CB by adding an external "Liner" this can be as many watts as you care to push, most range from 250 watts to 1200 watts. Ask a Trucker for help most know CB's and how they work they will also beable to tell you who is a good CB tech in your area.

reply posted on 18-1-2011 @ 06:41 AM by trailertrash reply to post by CASH69

CB operates on a frequency which is a bit high for anything other than slightly more than "line of sight". OK sometimes, at night, one can skip a couple of hundred miles but don't count on it. Also the very low power mandated in this band makes matters even worse. Amateur radio can be far superior for several reasons. There is a much wider range of frequencies available and transmitting power allowed is sufficient for inter-continental connections. The business of interference from the sun can usually be countered. Not always though. If space weather is stopping you speaking with someone 2000 miles away it might be remedied by adjusting your transmitting power either up or down or by making a radical change in frequency. The average amateur radio equipment is far superior in quality to anything in the CB market. The average CB set is very poorly designed. For instance if we are operating on one channel the next channel up or down should not hear our conversation at all. This "slop over" is the rule however, not the exception with CB. Folks, CB radios are pretty much junk but I suppose they are better than nothing. The only real advantage they have is due to their low power. They sometimes can be used effectively when

only a couple of other stations are operating nearby. Don't care to study for a license? Stick with CB. edit on 18-1-2011 by trailertrash because: typo

reply posted on 18-1-2011 @ 09:54 AM by gringoboy During solar flae maximum the signal of most CB radios travels further and infact you can speak to someone around the otherside of the globe,so if the sun goes crazy for several days and fries all other electrics,satelites Etc you can rely on a CB radio and antenna.My reason for this is experience,remember the term SKIP...yep occurs only on solar flare maximums,rremember also that as long as the flares window of duration is how long you will get to talk to someone from say hawai .or further.If you have a artificial ionospheric amplifier like HAARP then your hitting the bigtime when it comes..

reply posted on 18-1-2011 @ 10:04 AM by Ophiuchus 13 reply to post by CASH69

Smoke signals work best, especially when you can color code them for data.....

reply posted on 18-1-2011 @ 10:20 AM by Mr Tranny Originally posted by brokedown With a EMP either Solar or man made the CB radio will not work.

A CB radio you buy over the counter has a 4 watt signal output. Which means with a "matched" antena you possible will be able to send/receive about 3 miles normally, ( on a clear channel). On the "Truckers" channel 19 expect half that. First thing to know about CB radio is that you MUST "match" the antena. This means you "set the SWR's" of the antena. This is done by placing an external meter between the CB and antena, then with the reading you would raise of lower the antena's whip lenght. BEST to have this done by a professional CB tech.

3 miles?...... If you are using a wet noodle for an antenna. In flat terrain expect about 10 to 15 miles. In rough terrain, I normally expect 6 to 8 miles. The only people I have seen with 3 miles of range is people using those worthless base loaded antennas. Word of note, do not buy a base loaded antenna like the K40 or what ever. They are all junk. A flimsy $5 center loaded antenna will blow them away any day of the week. Top loaded or unloaded antennas are the best and that is a simple fact of life. Easiest way to make a good cb antenna is take two 102 inch long pieces of wire. Hook one to the center conductor of the coax. Hook the other to the shield. Tie a string to the unused end of one of them, and pull it up into a tree. Hit the mic and start talking.

You can add "Power" to the CB by adding an external "Liner" this can be as many watts as you care to push, most range from 250 watts to 1200 watts.

To say that I take a dim view of that statement, would be an understatement. If you want to operate at those power levels get a ham license, get on the ham bands, and operate equipment that wont pollute the RF bands with hash and spurs for megacycles in every direction. Operating at those power levels in the cb band with normal junk grade CB amplifiers just destroyed the usability of the band for the legal operators.

PhilTheBiker

09-05-2012, 07:37 PM Since it was brought up by Stocker (http://www.zombielyptic.com/member.php?435-Stocker) I figured I would start a thread and forum section specifically on communications. I'll try to put out some basic info of what I know and the equipment I have used and currently own. Obviously communication is a very wide topic and can be split down into several different areas. Verbal / Sound Communicatoin Visual Communication Radio Communication And probably some areas that I didn't think of during the creation of this post. My personal focus will be on Radio Communications and that is where I'll start. 1 - Frequencies Obviously in order to communicate you must be on the same frequency. If you have a CB radio or a set of 'family radios' they call these channels. You may have seen signs that say 'police monitor CB channel 9'. Or if you are a boater you know that channel 16 is monitored by the coast guard. However CB channels are not the same as boat channels which are no the same as family radio. Channel 1 on any of those devices will not be on the same frequency as channel 1 on another device. For most of us we will only work with frequencies in 'kilohertz', 'megahertz', and 'gigahertz'. If you want to learn more about hertz click here (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz). 1 gigahertz = 1 megahertz = 1000 kilohertz. Your favorite FM radio station, 100.3, is in megahertz. Your 1020 AM radio station is in kilohertz. CB radios work in the 29MHz range, marine radios in the 140ish MHz, and family radios are in the 400ish MHz range. Here is a pretty good link that goes into a lot more details about radio waves and frequencies (http://www.cybercollege.com/frtv/frtv017.htm). 2 - Modulation In order to communicate your radio must be at the same modulation as another radio. Think of "AM" radio and "FM" radio. Just know that it is different. In addition you have subsets of modulation, specifically in AM radio called side bands. You might have hear of Upper Side Band or Lower Side Band or maybe even Single Side Band. The important part, again, is to know that there are differences and unless you are using the same modulation you'll have a challenge communicating with one another. 3 - Licensing In the United States you must have a license to operate on certain frequencies. Some frequencies also have power limits. CB Radio for instance has a limit of 4 watts. I do not know the license requirements for aircraft or boats, but I'm sure there is one. Amateur radio (ham radio) also has a license requirement. Through out this series I'll be specifically talking mostly about Amateur radio since I am one. 4 - Equipment Yeah, I listed this last because if you don't know what is going on with the first 3 items you can't very well start talking about equipment can you. That's it for the first post. I'll work on posting more tomorrow. Stocker 09-07-2012, 04:00 AM Hey Phil, what in your opinion would be the best radios to invest in for the everyday prepper. I know there's alot of options for one to choose from, but knowing how complex the decision can be, what's the best user friendly radio to stay in contact with people?

PhilTheBiker 09-08-2012, 01:45 AM CB radios are easy to get and run off AC or DC. Family radios are usually only rechargeable. CB is an AM band so you are not limited by line of sight communications. Your signal could bounce off the ionosphere and go a long way. Family Radios are line of sight. Fewer people have a family radio turned on. If you need help no one will probably answer on a family radio. However if your mission is OPSEC and you have established a patrol you might just want a family radio. Personally I would rather have my primary radio be one that can talk to as many people as possible. I have a quad band radio that let's me talk to just about anyone. I know I have not directly answered you question but in the next few days I'll review some equipment I have and why I have it. Stocker 09-08-2012, 07:31 AM To give you and anyone else an idea about what I'm working with in my truck I have the cobra 50th aniverssary 29LE, a galaxy 150 Linear Amp, a Wilson 5000 antenna, a Bearcat Scanner with external Antenna from Hustler, and a PA Speaker from Radio Shack. In the wife's truck she has a uniden (cant remember the model#), Wilson 1000 antenna, a old BumbleBee linear amp, and a PA like me. Except hers is louder for some reason! Their great because when we both take our lunch during the work day we talk on 32 and see how eachothers day is going. Most guys that I run into think CBs are silly with the Cellular phone being as wide spread as they are. But I'll tell ya, when her and I were traveling to Alaska with the trucks, kids, and dogs, what a life saver. And this was in the dead of winter on the Alcan. Weather reports all along the way when there was no other radio signals in the mountains and what not. Girls got a kick out of it to, talking to eachother from one truck to the other. Maybe another topic you can hit on is Amps, I've heard that HAM operators hate CBers with amps. What's your take. 10-7 PhilTheBiker 09-08-2012, 08:55 PM One thing to be aware of, it is illegal to use any type of amp to increase the output of a CB radio beyond 4 watts. So if you have any equipment that does this, i'm sure it's not hooked up to your radio *wink*. CB radio runs in the ~27MHz range. The reason why ham operators frown upon CB'ers with AMPs is that they often have no clue what they are doing with the equipment. They don't realize that you can actually cause bodily harm by transmitting to close to someone. The average CB'er says "the more power I have, the further I can talk", the ham radio operator says "if I tune my antenna with my SWR meter I can talk twice as far as a CB'er with 1/4th the output power". Most CB'ers simply boost their power so they can simply talk over someone else if the need to. The other issue is that untuned antennas and amps that are too powerful for the antenna that the person is using can actually cause their signal to bleed over into other frequencies. 28Mhz - 29.690MHz is the amateur radio band. So again Ham operators can become upset when trying to make lower power long distance contacts and then hear a "breaker breaker" over their frequency. That aside, I currently do not own a CB. I'm not to worried about it because my next radio that I purchase should be able to transmit in the 11 meter band (CB) and I should be able to limit the output to the FCC limit. Now the setup you have should work fine. Between ionosphere skywave propagation (your CB signal bouncing off the atmosphere) and the signal characteristics of what you have there is no reason why that setup wouldn't be GREAT in Alaska! Even if there is a mountain in your way there is still a very good chance that you'll make your contact. So I say keep doing what you are doing because it's working well for you! One exception to the 4 watt limit. During an emergency you are allowed to transmit on any frequency and at any power in order to make a contact. Even frequencies that you are not licensed to transmit on. hope this helps. Stocker

09-09-2012, 06:26 PM Thanks, didn't know about the emergency bit. I'll admit that I've known since the day that I bought the amp it was .....how should I say, Naughty Naughty. I originally had it hooked up to a Cobra 19 and I was talking to guys 25 miles away in Columbus, SC. I thought that was hot shit. Anyway, think it's kind of cool to be stopped at a red light and watch the car in front of me brakelights dim and brighten as I key up and talk. From what I've heard in the CB shops, the FCC doesn't even pay amps any attention unless they start getting letters from your neighbors complaining that your voice is coming through their TV. In any case I usually just keep mine on Med. I've bought the SWR and power meters to keep the radios in tune and check them on a regular basis. One ? you might know the answer to, is it true that amps have to be tuned to the specific radio that they are going to be used with or can you switch radios without worry? Oh and another thing, noone up here talks on CB. I think they are all on UHF freqs. Once again thanks for the info! PhilTheBiker 09-09-2012, 09:00 PM think it's kind of cool to be stopped at a red light and watch the car in front of me brakelights dim and brighten as I key up and talk This type of interference technically violates the FCC rules. Guessing from the energy you are actually exposing yourself and those around you to RF radiation. Now imagine what that could do to someones pace maker if they have one. As for how dangerous RF exposure is, I guess that depends on the type and how much you are exposed to. I don't think you will really have much of a problem as long as the exposure is limited, and I'm sure you rarely key up for 10 minutes at a time. Here is a link I found about RF exposure, I'm not an expert on this, so I really don't know how serious this can be. http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/radiofrequencyradiation/ From what I've heard in the CB shops, the FCC doesn't even pay amps any attention unless they start getting letters from your neighbors complaining that your voice is coming through their TV. True. SWR and power meters to keep the radios in tune An SWR meter is a device for tuning your antenna. It measures the difference between your transmission line and load to figure out your impedance. So I'm not sure how it keeps your radio in tune. When I have used an SWR meter I put it inline between the radio and antenna, transmit on lower power and take my reading. I then flip the swr meter, transmit a second time and take a reading. I then lengthen or shorten the antenna in order to have the two transmission readings equal one another. There are various SWR meters, maybe you have a combination SWR meter/Tuner. A Tuner essentially lengthens or shortens your antenna within the tuning device. is it true that amps have to be tuned to the specific radio I'm pretty sure your amp needs to be made for the frequencies that you are transmitting on. In your case a HF amp should work fine as the 11 meter range that CB's talk on is in the HF range. Oh and another thing, noone up here talks on CB That's a huge bonus! As you head south you hear nothing but people talking over others. I think they are all on UHF freqs So I had to look this up and my initial thoughts are correct. There are no 'public' 'cb' type frequencies in the UHF range in the United States, however, there are commercial frequencies that companies lease from the FCC to use. Down in the lower 48 usually tow truck companies or gas companies doing work lease these frequencies. I'm sure it's similar up where you are but probably more of like logging companies and what not. Something interesting, remember those old TVs? You would have channels 1 - 13 (I think it was up to 13) then you had those other TV channels that were 14 through 50 or something like that. Those higher channels were actually UHF frequencies. Stocker

09-10-2012, 05:04 PM Glad you opened my eyes to that, never even crossed my mind. Start using it only when it's needed, thanks! Well I've included pics of that equip. I've been asking you about. Guess all I really want to know is, is this enough to set up a reasonable Base station should I go through with getting a license. Granted I would still need to set up the antenna and all. Let me know what you think.548549550This last pic is just for shits and giggles. 551 PhilTheBiker 09-10-2012, 09:11 PM Guess all I really want to know is, is this enough to set up a reasonable Base station should I go through with getting a license. Wow, have you pulled out some old equipment :) Honestly I don't know much about what you have here, but what I can tell you is the equipment you have appears to be good equipment for communicating with people. You clearly have CB frequencies and it looks like you have access to some 10 meter HF ham radio frequencies. The frequencies that you can hit with that radio in the 10 meter range are limited with technician class licenses. This means you would need a general class license to legally transmit on the all of the 10 meter frequencies however techs can transmit on a portion of those frequencies. See my other post which has the graph of frequencies http://www.zombielyptic.com/showthread.php?1072-Amateur-RadioTechnician-Class-Licensing-and-Use so again, yes, this is good long distance communication equipment. The second photo down you have a siltronix fs-9dx. You'll notice there is a separate switch position for SWR. That is probably used for turning your radio antenna. When using this normally one puts their radio down to the lowest power setting. You might be able to find a manual online that teaches you how this works. You can talk from Alaska to Japan with the equipment you have if the conditions are right. Stocker 09-12-2012, 03:56 AM Thanks, I've got some homework to do once i get back. Good Luck with your move by the way. Cowgirl 10-08-2012, 06:21 PM This is good info. I know we are very weak on communications, and it is a serious hole in our preps. We rely on cellular, which is BAD in SHTF situations. We have talked about CB radios but that is as far as we've gotten - TALK. I would really like to get a couple, but I've been unsure where to start. From what I've read, it will be expensive to get equipment that will actually reach out any distance. And I've been unsure what equipment we would NEED to start and what we would want to add later. I'm interested in any info from a limited budget standpoint. PhilTheBiker 10-09-2012, 10:30 AM This is good info. I know we are very weak on communications, and it is a serious hole in our preps. We rely on cellular, which is BAD in SHTF situations. We have talked about CB radios but that is as far as we've gotten - TALK. I would really like to get a couple, but I've been unsure where to start. From what I've read, it will be expensive to get equipment that will actually reach out any distance. And I've been unsure what equipment we would NEED to start and what we would want to add later. I'm interested in any info from a limited budget standpoint. CB radios in cities are not all that great. Too many truck drivers, too many people over powering to be heard. If you are in the country CBs are great. Line of sight range is 5 - 10 miles and you can get some skip signals that bound off the atmosphere that can send the signal over mountains. To get into Ham Radio figure $200 per mobile station, or ham radio hand held radios, which can access repeaters to give you greater range (10 - 100 miles), for $50 - $75 per radio. To get into CB figure $100 per mobile station. If you don't think you'll be further than a few miles from one another you can always look at those GRMS radios. Two handhelds run about $40 - $100 depending on what you buy. Those radios are VHF 400mhz radios that can communicate over 1 - 5 miles (line of sight).

Radios are like guns. Everyone thinks they know what is best :) You really should base your communications needs on what your specific needs are. If you work 10 miles or more from your significant other then I'd recommend getting a ham radio and working with a local club to learn how to use the repeater. If you get involved with Search and Rescue, find out what they are using for radios and look into getting one of those. Scout 11-04-2012, 09:54 PM What about putting up an antenna to boost the signal for a CB radio set up? I am putting up a 40 foot pole for some other commo we are working on and I was wondering if putting an antenna for the CB on the pole would help with sending and receiving signals with a CB? I was hoping we could have as many methods of commo as possible. Our commo guys recently had an exercise weekend to check out how the GRMS radios would work for us since they are the most affordable and most folks have a set. They had one guy at the base location and the other guy started heading away from base and checking signals as he went. They drove all of the local roads in all directions and marked all of the places to get a signal with the GMRS radios and then marked the locations on their topo maps. We got signals out to around 18 miles, but it had to be line of sight to get signal. Luckily our base is on elevated ground so we can get line of sight to a good many positions. I was hoping to be able to use our CBs too so that we have more options for communication locallly. A lot of folks have CBs and if I could get a better send/receive signal by putting the base radio's antenna on a 40 foot pole, then I would like to try it. Any suggestions you have would be appreciated. Thanks Scout PhilTheBiker 11-04-2012, 10:42 PM For a CB radio the first thing you want to do is tune the antenna. You will want an swr meter for the 27 MHz frequency range or a tuner. Legally a cb radio can only output 4 watts with a cb. As for concealing an antenna, you can look at making a wire antenna which are really hard to see especially if hanging in a tree. Cb radio runs in the 11 meter range, what I can tell you is that when the frequency is open you can talk great distances on side band. Most cb radios are AM, but if you can find them with the upper side band range your signal could go as far as 2000 miles 'if' the band is open off 4 watts. If it is not open you will have line of sight similar to your frs/GMRS radio. GMRS technology does exist for setting up repeaters. Which if setup correctly could increase your range two or three times with a hand held. The higher any antenna the more likely you'll have longer distance communications. But the key really is a tuned antenna and antenna placement. My radio in my home is a 2 meter (144mhz) which has similar characteristics to GMRS radios and is at 50 watts and the antenna is above my 2 story home. My furthest direct contact was ~90 miles but there is a guy up north who I've talked to consistently at ~30 miles. I believe he has a directional yagi antenna while mine is a vetical 5/8ths wave. Yes, you should have better communications putting the antenna up the pole. Don't buy a cheap thin cable or you'll be prone to interference. Scout 11-05-2012, 01:58 PM Thanks Phil, I am going to try it. I am planning on running the cables inside some grey pvc. Would you happen to know if I have to have any distance between the cables to prevent interference? CB, HAM? I had just planned on running all the antenna cables inside one 1 1/2 pvc pipe. But if this is going to cause interference, I will run a few 1/2 pipes. I just want to keep UV and weather off the cables. Also, if I have all the antennas on one pole, is that going to cause me grief? Thanks!

I imagine I have a lot more questions as this thing progresses. I appreciate you being here to help answer questions. Scout PhilTheBiker 11-05-2012, 11:18 PM What frequencies do you plan on running other than CB? You should put antennas a few feet apart, you can always set it up on the ground and see if transmitting on either radio causes you interference. If the CB stays at 4 watts it is unlikely to cause any interference. Scout 11-23-2012, 07:05 PM I imagine I can run a t bar on the pole like the ones they had on the old telephone pole lines. to separate the antennas if I get interference. I am still at the building the ladder for the pole stage right now. Seemed like an easy quick idea to get rebar and make a ladder weld the rungs and attach it to the pole, but it is a bit more time consuming in actual practice :) PhilTheBiker That's why lots of people like to get old sail ship masts. 11-23-2012, 10:51 PM

1.

Long Range Radio Communications Question

In my current Rifts game, one of the players has been bugging me about the lack of longrange communication ability (no sattelites in Rifts so only communication is radio signals). Specifically, he wants to know why he can't radio a couple hundred miles back to HQ. Now, I'm not a radio expert but I have done a little research. And everything I've seen suggests that a man-portable or vehicle radio would not be able to communicate over that distance. If I'm understanding correctly, you'd need a decently-powered radio tower to effectively communicate over that kind of distance. Does anyone else think that's correct or have better info? Now Planning: Cthulhubusters - A Call of Cthulhu / Gangbusters-style campaign. I've started an actual play thread here.

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2.

02-23-2006, 08:46 AM#2

Bailywolf

Professor of Applied ZingValidated User Join Date Jan 2002 Location Athens, GA Posts 32,330

Re: Long Range Radio Communications Question

Back in WWII underground resistance radio operators would send signals from Paris to Moscow all the time (with clarity based on any number of factors- the conditions of the socalled 'Heaviside layer' for example). Radio transmission can propigate in such a way as to go around the world and back.

However, on RIFTS Earth, with all the supertech, mystical crap, and general disruption I could easily see limiting broadcast ranges to line of sight, over no more than a few tens of miles, without being a dicky GM. -B

Well, looks like no drinking money for Bailywolf forever... Operation Babywolf II - the Adoption Adventure is go go go. Know my friends that every dollar spent on my quality craft homebrew writing will go to ensuring the next generation is rich in Bailypups.

Monsters and Other Childish Things (Monstrous and Pocket editions) The Dreadful Secrets of Candlewick Manor (all creepy all the time) Bigger Bads (when you really need to know if a giant building robot can beat up monster made out of giblets) The Kerberos Club (In OREginal , Extra Savage, and the great new flavor, FATE'O'Licious)

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3.

02-23-2006, 08:48 AM#3

LeftWingPenguin

Registered UserValidated User Join Date Oct 2003 Location Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States Posts 1,985

Re: Long Range Radio Communications Question

I dunno man, this is a world in which most vehicles are powered by an on-board fusion reactor. That's a lot of juice. "A stupid plan executed with vigor is better than a good plan executed timorously." -Fade

Member in good standing of the Super-Secret Squirrel Society and the International Order of Risus

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4.

02-23-2006, 08:57 AM#4

jgants

Registered UserValidated User Join Date Jul 2005 Location Cedar Rapids, IA Posts 4,049

Re: Long Range Radio Communications Question

Originally Posted by LeftWingPenguin

I dunno man, this is a world in which most vehicles are powered by an on-board fusion reactor. That's a lot of juice. Strangely enough, all of the built-in radios for vehicles, etc seem to list a range of only 5 miles. But maybe they just have too small of antennae? In my campaign, the PCs sort of have access to a larger military field radio. So my guesstimate of its capabilities was around 200 miles over relatively flat terrain. But now I'm not sure how accurate that actually is. Now Planning: Cthulhubusters - A Call of Cthulhu / Gangbusters-style campaign. I've started an actual play thread here.

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5.

02-23-2006, 09:09 AM#5

Phishtrader

King of PrussiaValidated User Join Date Jan 2002 Location The Land of Beer and Cheese Posts 3,674

Re: Long Range Radio Communications Question

How much MDC do you think an antenna has? Anyway, for the most part, practical, radio communications are limited to line of sight, which is why you see cellphone towers all over the place and the reason for communications satellites. At certain frequencies, it is easier to bounce the radio signal off the ionosphere (IIRC) and then back off the ground. The signal can then propagate very long distances. I had a shortwave radio in high school and I was able to pickup signals from all over the world. However, it wasn't very reliable and the signals were often weak and garbled. I could pick something up for a while, lose the signal and never get that station again. So, no, not very practical. ELF, extra low frequency radio, uses very low frequencies to communicate and the signals can travel through miles of ocean and I believe the earth itself. However, the antennae must be huge, covering many miles. The US used ELF in conjuntion with the sub fleet, but has since been shutdown due to bugetary reasons and concerns about it's environmental impact. phishtrader_@gmail.com Currently GMing: nothing

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6.

02-23-2006, 10:42 AM#6

EvilSchemer

Beautiful and deadly!Validated User Join Date Jan 2002 Location Vancouver, Washington, United States Posts 5,483

Re: Long Range Radio Communications Question

Besides, do you know how much radio interference and static a ley line nexus generates? Neither do I, because they don't really exist. But my point is that it could conceivably and, more importantly, PLAUSIBLY be quite a bit! Not to mention ancient buried nuclear reactors causing all kinds of static interference, and magic warping space-time, which would affect radio traffic. Christian Conkle Hit that bullseye and those dominoes will fall like a house of cards. Checkmate!

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7.

02-23-2006, 11:26 AM#7

Jezrael

Traveshamockery Join Date May 2002 Location In the Tiny Room of Death Posts 2,174

Re: Long Range Radio Communications Question

Originally Posted by EvilSchemer

Besides, do you know how much radio interference and static a ley line nexus generates? Neither do I, because they don't really exist. But my point is that it could conceivably and, more importantly, PLAUSIBLY be quite a bit! Not to mention ancient buried nuclear reactors causing all kinds of static interference, and magic warping space-time, which would affect radio traffic. On the other hand the ley lines could provide the perfect environment for some awesome ducting phenomenon, depending on their properties. Grimace is the demiurge, the creator. From him all things in McDonaldland have sprung. He is not a sin, he's not a menu item, he's just Grimace. He exists. He rolls his lidless eyes and flaps his lipless mouth, formless and terrible, a protean idiot thing from the depths of prehistory.
Awesome Points (1): Tonto, Laugh Points (1): Lord Minx

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8.

02-23-2006, 12:02 PM#8

theltemes

Registered UserValidated User Join Date May 2003 Location Madison, WI Posts 415

Re: Long Range Radio Communications Question

If you have a powerfull enough transmitter, you can bounce radio signals off of the moon. The US used to do this to communicate with the UK during WWII. Of course, it will only work when the moon is visible to both the sender and receiver.

In the words of Socrates - I just drank what? Thad A. Heltemes

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9.

02-23-2006, 12:28 PM#9

wilper

I design games.Validated User Join Date May 2005 Posts 329

Re: Long Range Radio Communications Question

Don't know about Rifts, but I was a Communications Officer in the army.. :-) If we ignore handheld units it is generally no huge surprise if you reach across a continent given that you use sensible frequencies (Wave length has lots to do with range, but large wave length means long antennas, which may be a problem when you want to be mobile.) and have good antennas at both ends. And know Morse-code. :-) Around the world is possible by bouncing the signal on the moon or in the stratosphere (IIRC, some of the higher layers of air high up there anyway). We used some old US Army surplus from the Vietnam war. The standard backpack-sized radio used in the field had a range of about 12kilometers, under good conditions (no mountain between you and the other guy).

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10. 02-23-2006, 12:31 PM#10

ModernKiwi

The 1% of RPG.netValidated User

Join Date Jun 2005 Location Auckland, New Zealand Posts 841

Re: Long Range Radio Communications Question

Radio range is highly dependent upon the transmitters power and the size of the braodcasting antena. Basically, no hand protable (or backpack portable) radio has the power to transmit over long distances. Vehicle transmitters which also have a large antena can broadcast for much greater distances. However, in certain circumstances, radio waves will bounce of one of the upper layers of atmosphere (I forget which one). This can enable people to pick up transmissions from a very large distance (hundreds of miles), but this is by no means constant, and leaves large areas where the signals can't be picked up inbetween the two locations. (Apparently the desert skies at night were notorious for this during WW2). One final point: Every time you transmit, you're clogging up the airwaves. It is in the interest of all militaries that the transmissions from (say) a platoon leader to their company commander don't occupy the radio waves for every other platoon leader for hundreds of miles. Previous known as GrumpyOldKiwi

http://modernkiwi.blogspot.com

3Radio-Frequency CommunicationUnit 3 Page 31. High-Frequency (HF) Communications 413. Structure of the atmosphere 414. Ionospheric variables related to communications 32. Radio-Wave Propagation 415. Polarization and propagation paths 416. Atmospheric effects on propagation paths N this unit well examine discuss specific aspects of radio communications across the radio-frequency band of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since HF is the primary mode of our communications well look at it first. Specifically, well cover examine HF wave propagation, the ionosphere, and its effects on propagation. Well also examine HF engineering ideas, limitations on the use of HF, and satellites and their effect on HF communications. Next, well look at the lower frequency bands and the upper frequency bands. Again, well examine wave propagation and limitations on the use of these frequency bands. 31. High-Frequency (HF) Communications Weve been using high-frequency (HF) communications for many years. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s HF sky-wave systems were was the backbone of our long-distance communication. The advent of communications satellites in the late 1960s and early 1970s brought a change of philosophy about long-distance communications. The feeling was, "HF is dead." People were eager to switch to satellites because of the simplicity of operations. No longer did we have to study the ionosphere or calculate what frequency would work. In satellite communications all you had to know was which direction to point your antenna and what channel to use. As more reliance was placed on satellite communications, we discovered it wasnt a perfect system. Military planners realized the vulnerability of communications satellites as they orbit the earth and saw increasing congestion on the few satellites we have. With this realization, philosophies again changed. HF was "reborn" as communicators realized the reliability and versatility of HF communications.

In your AF career you will will learn more about the art of HF communications. To achieve this goal you must be knowledgeable in many areas. You must understand what a radio wave does when it leaves an antenna and what controls the waves behavior. You must understand how the atmosphere, solar activity, and the influence of the ground affect radio waves. 413. Structure of the atmosphere The key to successful HF radio communications lies in a workable understanding of ionospheric phenomena and its effect on radio communications. In the early days of radio communications, it was thought that all radio waves propagate in a straight horizontal line from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. This reasoning was based on the fact that, in the LF and MF bands, radio signals could only be received a relatively short distance away (100 to 200 miles). After much experimentation and theorizing, however, it was concluded that radio waves actually have specific propagating components and these components have predictable characteristics. Early reasoning on radio-wave propagation was faulty because transmitter power and the frequency band being used have a direct bearing on how far the signal will propagates. During the development of HF radio, we found that radio waves in this band could be received at much greater distances than was previously thought possible. Investigating this new phenomenon proved that the earths atmosphere has properties that affect radio waves in different ways. Wave propagation deals with the properties and the nature of the atmosphere through which radio waves must travel. As you already know, the atmosphere isnt uniform, but varies with the altitude, geographic location, time, season, and year. Knowing atmospheric characteristics help solve problems that arise in planning or using radio communications paths and in predicting path reliability. For radio operations purposes, the atmosphere is made up of three basic regions: the troposphere, the stratosphere, and the ionosphere.TEST The troposphere. The troposphere is the part of the atmosphere extending from the surface of the earth to about 11 kilometers (km) or 7 miles. Within the troposphere, bending of radio waves by refraction makes the distance to the radio horizon exceed the distance to the optical horizon. Tropospheric refraction (bending caused by sudden changes in the characteristics of air in a lower atmosphere) affects the received signal at distances beyond the radio horizon. The stratosphere. The stratosphere lies between the troposphere and the ionosphere, about 11 to 48km (7 to 31 miles) above the earth. The temperature in this region is more nearly constant than in the troposphere. The ionosphere. The ionosphere is the portion of the earths upper atmosphere where ions and electrons are present in quantities sufficient to affect the propagation of radio waves. Normally the ionosphere extends from about 48 to 1,000km (31 to 600 miles) above the earth. At certain times and

locations however, it may reach even lower. Long-distance, HF communication is made possible by reflections of radio waves from ionized layers in this portion of the earths atmosphere. Formation. The ionosphere is the portion of the earths atmosphere thats sufficiently ionized by the suns ultraviolet (UV) and X-ray radiation to affect radio-wave propagation significantly. Before we go further into the structure of the ionosphere, lets get a clearer idea of what ionization is. The sun radiates energy that enters the earths atmosphere at different wavelengths. The atmosphere is composed of neutral atoms (neutrons) and negative atoms (electrons). When UV rays from the sun reach the atmosphere, the neutrons split into positively-charged atoms called ions. This process is called ionization. In the upper levels of the ionosphere, ions are thinly spread and remain highly charged. In its the lower levels, of the ionosphere, ions are more densely concentrated and tend to turn into neutrons more easily. This relationship of electron density with height leads to the subdivision of the ionosphere. The ionosphere is divided into layers. These layers are called the D, E, and F-regions or layers. The different layers in the atmosphere are caused by the different wavelengths of the UV rays expending their energy at different heights. Radiation and particles from outside the solar system also contribute to the formation of the different ionospheric layers. A highly variable source of ionizing agents is solar wind. Solar wind consists of ions thrown out from the surface of the sun as a result of its turbulent processes. there. As particles travel out through space, some come close enough to the earth to be trapped by the earths magnetic fields. Structure. Figure 31 shows typical day and night profiles of electron density in the ionosphere. The figure shows several regions in which the electron density increases with height (the D, E, Es, F, F1, and F2 layers). The existence of layers is caused by the fact that the atmosphere is a mixture of gases that differ in their susceptibility to ionizing radiation, and thus produce maximum ionization at different altitudes. The degree of ionization and height of these layers is affected by time of day, the season, and variations in solar activity. Figure 32 shows the daytime ionospheric layers. The Es (sporadic E) layer is omitted in this figure because of its irregular occurrence and limited geographic extent. Ionization is less in the lower layer (D layer) and increases in the higher layers. TESTWhen a radio wave enters the ionosphere, the free electrons are set into motion by the alternating electric field on the wave. The energy that is transferred from the wave to the free electrons is lost when the electrons collide with a molecule. Therefore the greatest energy loss is in the D layer. TESTThis loss of energy is called absorption loss (attenuation). Experimentation revealed that absorption loss is inversely proportional to the transmitted frequency. In other words, the higher the frequency, the less the attenuation by absorption.

D layer. The D layer extends from about 48 to 90km (30 to 55 miles) above the earth. Normal D-layer ionization is produced by solar UV light and X-rays during daylight hours. This ionization effect is very low and there is little or no refraction of radio waves. As a result, the D layer accounts for the majority of ionospheric noise and radio-wave absorption. Because this layer disappears at night, variations in absorption and noise of the transmitted signals from day to day are apparent. Additional D-layer ionization may be produced at any time of day or night by high-energy electrons and protons originating from the sun. This type of increase in D-layer ionization is likely to

Figure 31. The ionosphere.

Figure 32. Daylight ionospheric layers. be associated with geomagnetic disturbances. HF radio waves arent reflected by the D layer. TESTThis layer is important because of its adverse effect in absorbing energy from waves traversing it. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday. Its quite variable, generally increasing with sunspot activity. Ionization is less in the lower layer (D layer) and increases in the higher layers. TESTWhen a radio wave enters the ionosphere, the free electrons are set into motion by the alternating electric field on the wave. The energy that is transferred from the wave to the free electrons is lost when the electrons collide with a molecule. Therefore the greatest energy loss is in the D layer. TESTThis loss of energy is called absorption loss (attenuation). Experimentation revealed that absorption loss is inversely proportional to the transmitted frequency. In other words, the higher the frequency, the less the attenuation by absorption. D layer. The D layer extends from about 48 to 90km (30 to 55 miles) above the earth. Normal D-layer ionization is produced by solar UV light and X-rays during daylight hours. This ionization effect is very low and there is little or no refraction of radio waves. As a result, the D layer accounts for the majority of ionospheric noise and radio-wave absorption. Because this layer disappears at night, variations in absorption and noise of the transmitted signals from day to day are apparent. Additional D-layer ionization may be produced at any time of day or night by high-energy electrons and protons originating from the sun. This type of increase in D-layer ionization is likely to be associated with geomagnetic disturbances. HF radio waves arent reflected by the D layer. TESTThis layer is important because of its adverse effect in absorbing energy from waves traversing it. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday. Its quite variable, generally increasing with sunspot activity.

E layer. The E layer extends from about 90 to 140km (55 to 85 miles) above the earth. Since ionization is produced by solar UV and X-ray radiation, ionization drops to low values at night. As a result, the E-layer critical frequency is practically nonexistent and little, if any, nighttime reflection will occurs. E-layer effects are irregular. During the day, reflections from the E layer are useful for communicating at distances up to about 2,000km (1,250 miles). Sporadic E areas. Within and somewhat above the region normally occupied by the E layer, a thin patchy area of high electron density sometimes occurs. These sporadic E areas are thought to be caused by sudden increases in solar activity such as solar flares. When bursts of high-intensity solar energy enter the ionosphere, areas of high ionization may occur in the E layer. We refer to these areas as sporadic E (Es). Es are spotty in geographical extent and in time. When theyre formed, these areas are so highly charged that frequencies that normally use F-layer refraction never reach the F layer. Instead, frequencies are reflected to earth from the sporadic E areas. Notice, we used the term "reflection" and not the term "refraction." This is because signals returned from sporadic E areas are almost the mirror image of the signals that enter them. TESTVirtually no penetration or absorption takes place. In the arctic regions, sporadic E is often associated with auroral activity. The existence of Es may be detrimental or beneficial to communications. Although very temporary, the Es area may offer a useful reflection medium that lets us use higher critical frequencies, thus improving communications during daylight hours. The Es area may also interfere with use of higher ionospheric layers, thus degrading the communications path. F region. As a factor in HF communications, the F region is the most important part of the ionosphere. TESTMost sky-wave transmissions involve one or more refraction from the F region. During the day there are two separate layers in the F region, the F1 and F2 layers. At night these two layers combine to form a single F layer. The F1 layer is the lower part of the daytime F layer. It extends from about 140 to 240km (85 to 150 miles) above the earth, and it exists only during daylight hours, disappearing at night. Maximum density of the F1 layer occurs shortly after noon, local time, when the sun is directly overhead. The F2 layer has a range of from about 245 to 400km (155 to 250 miles) above the earth. It is present 24 hours a day but varies in altitude with geographical location, solar activity, and local time. TESTThe critical frequency for this layer will peaks after local noon and decreases gradually throughout the night. It is most useful for communication at night. 414. Ionospheric variables related to communications Long-term variables. Since radiation from the sun is the principal cause of ionization in the earths atmosphere, solar activity and conditions in the ionosphere are closely related. This correlation seems to hinge on certain cooler, darkened areas on the suns surface that we call sunspots. TESTAstronomers have developed an index of sunspot activity, called the sunspot number. Records of sunspot numbers date extend back about 200 years. Sunspot numbers have a well-documented 11-year cycle.

Figure 33 shows how noon and midnight critical frequencies vary in phase with variations in the sunspot number. The curves in the figure are based on smoothed data. Knowledge of each phase of the sunspot cycle is useful for predicting average sunspot numbers a few months in the future. Attempts at forecasting years in advance have not been successful because of variations in the 11-year cycle (fig.ure 34). Another type of solar phenomena affecting ionospheric communications is solar flux. Flux is the amount of something (X-rays, radio energy, etc.) passing through a specified area in a given time period. Solar flux is the amount of electromagnetic radiation being emitted from the sun. It is measured by a solar flux unit that is the standard unit for reporting solar radio background flux and bursts. Normally, a higher flux indicates high ionization levels in the atmosphere. Measurements of solar flux are taken daily at the Dominion Astrophysical Radio Observatory (DARO) in Penticton, Canada. A solar radio flux summary is transmitted four times daily near 0015Z, 0640Z, 1240Z, and 1840Z by the Automated Weather Network (AWN). This summary contains a list of current and previous days background solar flux measurements. Short-term variables. An important characteristic of the ionosphere is its daily variation in structure. The D layer is ionized during the day but weakens and is unimportant at night. The E layer is useful for shortrange communications during the day, but not at night. The single F layer that exists at night becomes the F1 and F2 layers during the day. These regular variations dictate the need for at least two frequencies for all around-the-clock sky-wave linksa day frequency and a night frequency. Besides the predictable changes in the ionosphere, there are unpredictable variations related to disturbances on the sun. The effect of these disturbances on communications can range from a decrease in circuit quality on a few circuits for a few hours to an almost complete blackout of all HF sky-wave circuits for a day or two. Generally, high latitudes are more affected than low latitudes.

Figure 33. Variations in sunspot number and noon and midnight critical frequencies.

Figure 34. 11-year sunspot cycle. Since ionization in the ionosphere is caused mostly by the suns radiation, any variation in solar activity affects the ionosphere, thus affecting sky-wave propagation. The actual number of layers, their height, and the intensity of ionization all vary from hour to hour, day to day, month to month, season to season, and year to year. There are four regular variations in the ionosphere: diurnal (daily), seasonal, 27-day variations, and 11-year sunspot cycles (fig. 35).TESTAnother type of solar phenomena affecting

ionospheric communications is solar flux. Flux is the amount of something (X-rays, radio energy, etc.) passing through a specified area in a given time period. Solar flux is the amount of electromagnetic radiation being emitted from the sun. It Solar flux is measured by a solar flux unit that is the standard unit for reporting solar radio background flux and bursts. Normally, a higher flux indicates high ionization levels in the atmosphere. Measurements of solar flux are taken daily at the Dominion Astrophysical Radio Observatory (DARO) in Penticton, Canada. A solar radio flux summary is transmitted four times daily near 0015Z, 0640Z, 1240Z, and 1840Z by the Automated Weather Network (AWN). This summary contains a list of current and previous days background solar flux measurements. Short-term variables. An important characteristic of the ionosphere is its daily variation in structure. The D layer is ionized during the day but weakens and is unimportant at night. The E layer is useful for shortrange communications during the day, but not at night. The single F layer that exists at night becomes the F1 and F2 layers during the day. These regular variations dictate the need for at least two frequencies for all around-the-clock sky-wave linksa day frequency and a night frequency. Besides the predictable changes in the ionosphere, there are unpredictable variations related to disturbances on the sun. The effect of these disturbances on communications can range from a decrease in circuit quality on a few circuits for a few hours to an almost complete blackout of all HF sky-wave circuits for a day or two. Generally, high latitudes are more affected than low latitudes. Since ionization in the ionosphere is caused mostly by the suns radiation, any variation in solar activity affects the ionosphere, thus affecting sky-wave propagation. The actual number of layers, their height, and the intensity of ionization all vary from hour to hour, day to day, month to month, season to season, and year to year. There are four regular variations in the ionosphere: diurnal (daily), seasonal, 27-day variations, and 11-year sunspot cycles (figure 35).TEST

Figure 35. Regular ionospheric variations. Diurnal effects. Obviously, the suns radiation is not present at night. When solar activity is no longer present, the D, E, and F1 layers disappear, leaving only the F2 layer. The F2 layer decreases in altitude with the setting of the sun and combines with the remnants of the F1 layer to form a single nighttime F layer. (These variations were illustrated in fig.ure 31.) Seasonal effects. The seasons affect atmospheric ionization because of the varying distance of the sun to certain areas of the earth and the varying angle of radiation on those areas. TESTThe height of the F2 layer increases greatly in summer and decreases in winter. Also F2 ionization density is stronger and rises earlier in the day during winter. Ionization density in the D, E, and F1 layers is weaker in the winter. What this means is that in winter we have a wider range of critical frequencies and less absorption of all

frequencies. There is more variation between nighttime and daytime operating frequencies during winter than during summer. Sunspot effects. Both the 27-day sunspot variations and the 11-year sunspot cycle have major effects on atmospheric ionization. They are called regularvariations because they are predictable and occur at regular intervals. Sunspots are dark or cooler spots on the sun that change the suns radiation intensity. TESTWhen the number of sunspots on the surface of the sun facing the earth is high, the amount of solar radiation from the sun is much higher, resulting in higher critical frequencies for the E, F1, and F2 layers, and higher absorption in the D layer. The number of sunspots on the surface of the sun facing the earth varies every 27 days due to the suns rotation. Along with the 27-day variations, sunspot activity varies in 11-year cycles. The overall effect on HF communications is that there will be higher critical frequencies occur during years of maximum sunspot activity. Operating frequencies will will normally be higher during these years, too (fig.(figure 36).

Figure 36. Ionospheric variations due to sunspot activity. Irregular ionospheric variations. There are a variety of irregular variations of the ionosphere that affect our ability to communicate by sky waves (see fig.ure 37). The main cause of most irregular ionospheric disturbances is solar flares.

Figure 37. Irregular ionospheric variations. Solar flares. Solar flares are large, sudden releases of energy on the sun that are indicated by relatively short-lived brightening of localized regions. They erupt suddenly and have lifetimes from a few minutes to several hours (average of a half-hour), and they can have energy outputs equivalent to that of an explosion of a billion H-bombs (fig.(figure 38). When this energy enters the ionosphere, variations occur. Some of these variations help while others hinder sky-wave communications. Increased X-ray radiation, which often accompanies solar flares, can increase ionization in the D layer and decrease HF signal strength. The signal strength decrease varies with the intensity of the flare, the location of the HF path relative to the Sun, and the design characteristics of the HF system. Duration of signal strength decrease may be 45 -to 90 minutes for a large flare. The two major types of phenomena associated with solar flares are the immediate effects and the delayed effects. The immediate effects occur simultaneously with the visible flare and consist of phenomena known as solar radio bursts and sudden ionospheric disturbances. The delayed effects occur

15 minutes to 72 hours after the flare and consist of ground-level events, polar cap absorption, geomagnetic

Figure 38. Solar flare emissions.

Figure 38. Solar flare emissions. disturbances, and aurora. Immediate effects are most pronounced with large flares, but important effects may also occur with subflares. The two major types of phenomena associated with solar flares are the immediate effects and the delayed effects. The immediate effects occur simultaneously with the visible flare and consist of phenomena known as solar radio bursts and sudden ionospheric disturbances. The delayed effects occur 15 minutes to 72 hours after the flare and consist of ground-level events, polar cap absorption, geomagnetic disturbances, and aurora. Immediate effects are most pronounced with large flares, but important effects may also occur with subflares. Solar radio bursts. Solar radio emission originates as background radiation and as enhancements from bright regions and transient disturbances such as flares. Many flares are accompanied by increased emissions at the radio frequencies. The cause of this increased emission is believed to be the passage of particle streams through the earths atmosphere. Sudden ionospheric disturbances. The high degree of radiation from solar flares produces abnormally high ionization in all layers of the ionosphere. This increase in ionization occurs very suddenly throughout the daylight area of the earth and is called a sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID). SIDs occur almost simultaneously with a flare and may last from minutes to several hours. Normally, frequencies from about 1 or 2MHz to about 20MHz are made useless because of high absorption in the D layer. During a SID, higher frequencies (above 20MHz) may be used for long-distance communications. These frequencies refract off the increasingly denser F layers instead of passing through the ionosphere as they normally would. Lower frequencies, however, are will be absorbed so much by the denser ionosphere that they are will only be useful for short-distance ground-wave communications. SIDs only occur during daylight and are the most unusual of all atmospheric disturbances.TEST Ionospheric storms. Ionospheric storms are actually strong magnetic disturbances in the upper atmosphere from 18 to 72 hours after SIDs. The occurrence of SIDs doesnt mean that ionospheric storms will follow. Unlike SIDs, ionospheric storms can be present during the day or night. Critical frequencies will drop below normal, which limits use of higher frequencies. The worst effects occur in the auroral zones near the north and south poles, decreasing toward the equator. These storms can last

from a few minutes to several hours and all effects will disappear in a few days. During ionospheric storms, communicators should use lower operating frequencies, especially at the higher latitudes.TEST Self-Test Questions After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit. Self-Test Questions After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit. 413. Structure of the atmosphere 1. Name What are the three basic regions of that make up the atmosphere.? 2. How are long-distance, HF communications made possible? 3. What causes the different ionospheric layers? 4. Name the different layers within the ionosphere. 5. Which ionospheric layer is responsible for most ionospheric noise and radio-wave absorption? 6. What is thought to be the cause of sporadic E (Es) layer ionization? 7. Which ionospheric region is the most important factor in HF communications? 8. When does maximum density of the F1 layer occur? 414. Ionospheric variables related to communications 1. What is the length of the sunspot cycle? 2. How many frequencies are required for around-the-clock sky-wave communications? 3. Name the regular variations in the ionosphere. 4. What are sunspots? 5. What is the main cause of most irregular ionospheric disturbances? 6. What frequencies are normally made useless during a sudden ionospheric disturbance? 32. Radio-Wave Propagation We have learned that radio waves can take several paths from a transmitter to a receiver. Long-distance HF radio transmission uses sky waves; and short-distance transmission uses ground waves as figure 39 shows. Ground-wave propagation is affected by the earths electrical characteristics and by the

amount of diffraction around the curvature of the earth. These characteristics vary in different localities, but theyre relatively constant with respect to time and season. Sky-wave propagation is variable, since the constantly changing state of the ionosphere has a definite effect on the refraction of the waves. 415. Polarization and propagation paths. Polarization. Radio waves consist of an electric field and a magnetic field. The polarization of an electromagnetic wave is defined as the plane of vibration of itselectric field. For instance, a wave with a vertical electric field is said to be vertically polarized. A wave with a horizontal electric field is said to be horizontally polarized. The electric lines of force and the corresponding magnetic lines are always at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation. A horizontally polarized wave has an electric field parallel to the earths surface. A vertically polarized wave has an electric field perpendicular to the earths surface. Figure 310 shows horizontally and vertically polarized waves. The polarization of the propagated wave is determined initially by the type and arrangement of the transmitting antenna. As a rule, a vertical conductor radiates a vertically polarized wave. A horizontal conductor radiates a horizontally polarized wave. More complex forms, such as circular and elliptical polarization, in which the direction of maximum voltage rotates in space at the frequency of transmission, are also possible. These complex waves are generated by special antennas (e.g., a helix antenna), or may be developed accidentally when linearly polarized waves pass through nonuniform media such as the ionosphere. Horizontally polarized waves are weakened more rapidly in traveling over the ground than are vertically polarized waves. At high frequencies, the polarization of sky waves usually varies, sometimes quite rapidly, and often is elliptical because the wave splits into several components that follow different paths. Ground waves usually retain the polarization characteristics they had when the wave left the antenna. The performance of a receiving antenna is improved if it can be oriented to take advantage of the polarization of the incident wave. However, as a consequence of random changing of the polarization of HF waves as they travel through the ionosphere, matching the polarization of transmitting and remote receiving antennas is not essential. If possible, both vertically and horizontally polarized antennas should be tried. Where circuit requirements dictate surface-wave propagation, its important that the antennas at both ends of the path have the same polarization. However, vertically polarized antennas provide the most effective surface-wave coverage.

Figure 39. Radio-wave propagation. 415. Polarization and propagation paths

Polarization. Radio waves consist of an electric field and a magnetic field. The polarization of an electromagnetic wave is defined as the plane of vibration of itselectric field. For instance, a wave with a vertical electric field is said to be vertically polarized. A wave with a horizontal electric field is said to be horizontally polarized. The electric lines of force and the corresponding magnetic lines are always at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation. A horizontally polarized wave has an electric field parallel to the earths surface. A vertically polarized wave has an electric field perpendicular to the earths surface. Figure 310 shows horizontally and vertically polarized waves.

Figure 310. Vertical/horizontal polarization. Horizontally polarized waves are weakened more rapidly in traveling over the ground than are vertically polarized waves. At high frequencies, the polarization of sky waves usually varies, sometimes quite rapidly, and often is elliptical because the wave splits into several components that follow different paths. Ground waves usually retain the polarization characteristics they had when the wave left the antenna. The polarization of the propagated wave is determined initially by the type and arrangement of the transmitting antenna. As a rule, a vertical conductor radiates a vertically polarized wave. A horizontal conductor radiates a horizontally polarized wave. More complex forms, such as circular and elliptical polarization, in which the direction of maximum voltage rotates in space at the frequency of transmission, are also possible. These complex waves are generated by special antennas (e.g., a helix antenna), or may be developed accidentally when linearly polarized waves pass through nonuniform media such as the ionosphere. The performance of a receiving antenna is improved if it can be oriented to take advantage of the polarization of the incident wave. However, as a consequence of random changing of the polarization of HF waves as they travel through the ionosphere, matching the polarization of transmitting and remote receiving antennas is not essential. If possible, both vertically and horizontally polarized antennas should be tried. Where circuit requirements dictate surface-wave propagation, its important that the antennas at both ends of the path have the same polarization. However, vertically polarized antennas provide the most effective surface-wave coverage. Ground-wave propagation. A propagated ground wave takes three separate paths to the receiver. They are the direct wave, the ground-reflected wave, and thesurface wave, as shown in figure 311. The effectiveness of ground waves depends on the radio frequency, transmitter power, transmitting antenna characteristics, electrical characteristics (conductivity and dielectric constant) of the terrain, and electrical noise at the receiver site. Low and very low frequencies are propagated much better by surface path than are higher frequencies. TESTWhen high-powered transmitters and efficient antennas

are used, the surface path has a maximum range of about 500km (300 miles) at 2MHz. Surface path range decreases as frequency increases. About 80km (50 miles) represents the usual minimum range.

Figure 311. Ground-wave propagation paths. Direct path. The direct wave is the ground-wave component that travels directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. In terrestrial communications, the direct path is limited by the distance to the horizon from the transmitter. This is essentially line-of-sight distance. It can be extended by increasing the height of the transmitting antenna, the receiving antenna, or both. The direct path is also useful for extraterrestrial communications. Its useful in air/ground/air communications because most short-distance air/ground services are now on VHF or UHF. Ground-reflected path. The ground-reflected path reaches the receiving antenna after being reflected from the ground or sea. Upon reflection from the earths surface, the ground wave undergoes an 180-degree phase shift. Since the reflected path travels longer reaching its destination, a phase displacement somewhat greater than the 180-degree shift caused by reflection results. The net result near the ground is a weakening of the direct wave. This weakening is roughly equal to the strength of the reflected wave. Surface-wave path. The surface path is the ground-wave component thats affected mainly by the conductivity and the dielectric constant of the earth. When both transmitting and receiving antennas are close to the ground, the direct and ground-reflected paths tend to cancel each other. The surface path is not confined to the earths surface. It extends up to considerable heights, diminishing in strength with increased height. Its intensity becomes negligible at about 1one wavelength over ground and 5five to 10ten wavelengths over sea water. The ground absorbs part of the surface paths energy. The ground attenuates the electric intensity of the surface wave. This attenuation depends on the conductivity of the terrain over which the wave travels. Figure 312 shows the relative conductivity for various types of terrain. The best type of surface for surface-wave transmission is sea water. The electrical properties of the terrain that determine the attenuation of the surface-wave field intensity vary little. This type of transmission has relatively stable characteristics.

Figure 312. Surface conductivity and dielectric constant.

The earths short-circuiting effect severely attenuates the electric field of a horizontally polarized wave. It has much less effect on vertically polarized waves. Thats why we normally transmit a vertically polarized wave when we use the surface path for communications. Radio waves travel slower over the earths surface than in the air, resulting in a forward tilt of the wave-front. This forward tilt means that the wave is being directed toward the surface. This explains the satisfactory performance of antennas only slightly above the ground. Poor conduction surfaces cause high loss and greater tilt. Sky-wave propagation. HF wave propagation takes place by ionospheric refraction. As an oblique radio wave enters a region of increasing electron density, its phase velocity increases in proportion to the density. This increase in phase velocity results in a refraction of the wave away from the direction of increasing electron density. Refraction gives us the ability to communicate by radio waves beyond the optical line-of-sight. The normal HF propagation methods are by refraction in the F layer for the single hops and by reflection between the ground and the F layer for multiple hops (fig.(figure 313). Notice the difference between refraction and reflection. Radio waves are refracted by the ionized layers and reflected by the earth. Refraction decreases with an increase in frequency. This course follows the usual practice of referring to reflected waves when no ambiguity in meaning will results. Propagation distance also depends on the angle at which the wave enters the propagation medium (in HF, the ionosphere). TESTThis angle is called the angle of incidence. As the angle of incidence increases, the amount of wave refraction decreases. From this you can see that we can change the frequency, the angle of incidence, or both to get different degrees of refraction.

Figure 313. Single/multihop transmission. Propagation distance also depends on the angle at which the wave enters the propagation medium (in HF, the ionosphere). TESTThis angle is called the angle of incidence. As the angle of incidence increases, the amount of wave refraction decreases. From this you can see that we can change the frequency, the angle of incidence, or both to get different degrees of refraction. Virtual height. The point of the ionosphere from which a radio wave appears to have been refracted is called the virtual height of the ionosphere. Thus, virtual height is the altitude that refraction occurs. (See point H in fig.ure 314.) Critical angle. Figure 314 shows the sky-wave signal that is not bent back to earth because of its high takeoff angle (line CD). The critical angle of a given frequency is the highest angle at which you can send a radio wave into the ionosphere and have it return to earth. Unlike the critical frequency, the critical angle is not applicable to any single ionospheric layer. The critical angle applies to

the refraction of a single frequency from any part of the ionosphere. When radio electromagnetic energy is radiated from an antenna, it travels as a wave-front thats like the contour of a balloon. Waves radiate from the antenna at many different angles. The wave front thats at the right angle of radiation is useful to sky-wave communications. Waves above the critical angle will pass through the ionosphere. Those angled too low are will be absorbed before refraction can occur. In figure 315, frequency "A" is shown entering the ionosphere at two angles. At a radiation angle of 55 degrees, frequency "A" passes through the ionosphere. At a radiation angle of 45 degrees, the same frequency is refracted back to earth. Figure 315 also shows a frequency (frequency "B") thats not refracted even at 45 degrees, because its a higher frequency. That means that the critical angle of radiation for frequency "A" is somewhere between 45 degrees and 55 degrees. The critical angle of radiation for frequency "B" is below 45 degrees. In HF communications, the takeoff angle of an antenna can determine whether a circuit is successful or not. HF sky-wave antennas are designed for specific takeoff angles and are used for short-range communications; low takeoff angles are used for long-range communications. Our antennas give us some control over the takeoff angle of our signals. Sometimes we can change their angle of radiation to match our operational frequencies. However, most of the time our antenna radiation patterns are predetermined and cant be easily changed. Those antennas are also directed toward certain receiving stations that may not be reached if takeoff angles are changed.

Figure 315. Critical angle, critical frequency, skip zone, and skip distance. In HF communications, the takeoff angle of an antenna can determine whether a circuit is successful or not. HF sky-wave antennas are designed for specific takeoff angles are used for short-range communications and low takeoff angles are used for long-range communications. Our antennas give us some control over the takeoff angle of our signals. Sometimes we can change their angle of radiation to match our operational frequencies. However, most of the time our antenna radiation patterns are predetermined and cant be easily changed. Those antennas are also directed toward certain receiving stations that may not be reached if takeoff angles are changed. Frequencies also have a bearing on our critical angle of radiation. If we know that one of our regular operating frequencies will will not refract off the ionosphere (due to atmospheric variations) at the angle of radiation required for our communications path, we can simply change to a frequency that will. To do this we have to know the maximum usable frequency (MUF) for that particular path. The MUF is

the highest frequency that allows a wave to reach a particular destination on a given path. The MUF for a certain path will variesy according to regular and irregular ionospheric variations. Later well discuss two ways to predict ionospheric variations and to determine the critical frequencies, critical angles of radiation, and maximum usable frequencies. Critical frequency. As we increase the frequency of the transmitted signal at vertical incidence, the wave is returned to earth from successively higher ionospheric layers. As the increase in frequency continues, we reach a frequency that will penetrates the F2 layer and wont return to earth. The highest frequency at which a vertical signal will will be returned to earth is known as the critical frequency. Frequencies higher than this critical frequency pass into space. TESTFrequencies that are too low are absorbed in the D layer, and frequencies between the two boundaries are refracted back to earth (fig.(figure 316). Since the critical frequency increases with altitude, a signal that has passed through the E layer might be returned from the F1 or F2 layer. The critical frequency also varies, for a given layer, at different locations on the earths surface. Generally, its higher near the equator, where more of the suns radiation is intercepted by the earths atmosphere.

Figure 316. Critical frequency propagation. Maximum usable frequency (MUF). The MUF is the highest frequency that allows reliable long-range HF radio communication between two points by ionospheric refraction. The highest frequency that can be refracted depends on the angle of incidence, and hence, for a given layer height, on the horizontal length of the hop. The maximum frequency that can be refracted back for a given transmission path is the MUF for that path. The MUF is closely related to the critical frequency. Like the critical frequency, it changes with the time of day, season, solar activity, and geographic location. There is a range of usable frequencies, between the MUF and the lowest usable frequency (LUF), that needs to be predicted for operator use. The MUF and LUF vary with solar activity, season, and time of day. At times, the available range of usable frequencies may be reduced to zero. Frequency of optimum transmission. Because of the strong increase of absorption with decreasing frequency, it is desirable to use as high a frequency as possible. From a purely physical point of view, a frequency very close to the MUF would be most suitable. This is impractical, since the MUF changes considerably from day to day and (for operational reasons) the working frequency cant be adapted to these changes. Even the monthly median of the MUF is unsuitable, since its reached only during 50 percent of the days. In practice we chose a frequency that corresponds to a 90 percent probability of refraction. Its considered to be roughly 0.85 times the monthly median value of the MUF. The frequency thus chosen is called the frequency of optimum transmission (FOT). FOT is also called the optimum working frequency or the optimum traffic frequency.

Ordinary and extraordinary waves. In general, a wave propagating perpendicular to the earths magnetic field has will have components of the electric field both parallel and perpendicular to the magnetic field. Such a wave in the ionosphere will splits into two refracted waves that travel different paths with different time delays. The process is termed magnetonic splitting. The waves are called the ordinary and the extraordinary. wave. TESTThe ordinary and the extraordinary waves are shown in figure 317. The extraordinary wave suffers greater absorption at higher frequencies and has a slightly higher critical frequency than the ordinary wave. Measurement of layer heights and critical frequency. The simplest method of measuring heights of ionospheric layers is by vertical-incidence sounding. TESTA vertical-incidence sounding station is a combination of a transmitter and a receiver placed side-by-side, often using the same antenna. The transmitter sends out pulses of electromagnetic energy, which, during a period of about a minute, sweep in frequency through the range from 0.75 to 25MHz. The receiver is synchronized with the frequency of the transmitter. The output of the receiver is coupled to a display unit (usually, a cathoderay tube). The display unit indicates the time required for the transmitted pulses to be returned as a function of the sweep frequency of the transmitter. We can get a permanent record by photographing the display. The travel time is used to determine the virtual height of the ionized layers. A plot of the measured height versus frequency is called an ionogram.

[Figure 3175. Ordinary and extraordinary waves.

Figure 317. Ordinary and extraordinary waves.

Measurement of layer heights and critical frequency. The simplest method of measuring heights of ionospheric layers is by vertical-incidence sounding. TESTA vertical-incidence sounding station is a combination of a transmitter and a receiver placed side-by-side, often using the same antenna. The transmitter sends out pulses of electromagnetic energy, which, during a period of about a minute, sweep in frequency through the range from 0.75 to 25MHz. The receiver is synchronized with the frequency of the transmitter. The output of the receiver is coupled to a display unit (usually, a cathoderay tube). The display unit indicates the time required for the transmitted pulses to be returned as a function of the sweep frequency of the transmitter. We can get a permanent record by photographing

the display. The travel time is used to determine the virtual height of the ionized layers. A plot of the measured height versus frequency is called an ionogram. 416. Atmospheric effects on propagation paths Skip zone. The skip zone is the area between the most distant point reached by the ground waves of a particular signal and the point at which the ionospheric wave first returns to the earth. Close to the antenna, strong ground-wave signals would be received. The signal strength of the ground wave drops off as you move away from the transmitting antenna. At a certain distance out, it is so weak that it is of no use. You now have reached the limit of the ground-wave range. Now, if you were to continue to travel outward, you would experience a zone of silence, called the skip zone. In the skip zone, no radio signals are received. Eventually, you would again begin to receive strong signals. This is the point at which the sky wave first returns to earth.TEST Skip distance. The skip distance of a frequency is the distance from the transmitter to the point at which the refracted sky wave first returns to earth. Figures 39 and 315 illustrated both the skip distance and the skip zone of a signal. The skip distance is determined by many factors. The two most important factors are the frequency and the angle of radiation. These two factors determine the specific ionospheric layer in which refraction will occurs and the subsequent skip distance that will results. The relationships between these two factors and the skip distance are easily understood. The higher the frequency, the higher the ionospheric layer required to refract the wave, and consequently, the longer the skip distance (direct relationship). The lower the radiation angle, the further out the wave must travel before reaching the ionosphere and being refracted, and consequently the greater the skip distance (inverse relationship). Figure 318 shows skip distances at various angles of radiation.

Figure 318. Skip distances at various radiation angles. Multihop paths. The wave paths in figures 313 and 317 have shown a single refraction from the ionosphere. In multihop transmissions, radio waves arerefracted from the ionosphere, and they are then reflected from the earths surface. Multihop transmission occurs when radio energy returns to earth, is reflected back into the ionosphere, and is refracted back to earth again. As a result, the radio wave reaches a distant receiving point after two or more hops (fig.(figure 314). Several such refraction/reflections can take place, and paths involving multiple refraction/reflections are called multihop paths. TESTEach time an additional hop is made, considerable signal strength loss occurs. This loss results primarily from absorption. Multihop transmissions cause the radio wave to enter and re-enter the D layer as well as reflect off the earths surface. Signal loss can be significant, and noise levels will normally increase. For effective

communication with a station at a given point, its desirable to use as few hops as possible. To a certain degree, we can control the number of hops by varying the angle of radiation. This is shown in the radiation angles of frequencies "A" and "B" in figure 314. This angle, in turn, depends on the frequency and the type of antenna used. Long circuits may require multihop paths, but each reflection increases the signal loss and increases the possibility of multipath waves. Where possible, use a higher frequency for communications, and thus avoid a larger number of hops. Multipath effects. A multipath signal occurs when a transmitted signal travels over two or more separate paths during transmission. When a signal is refracted more than once in different layers of the ionosphere, one refraction may return to the earth slightly ahead of the other. If your receiving antenna picks up this signal out of phase, distortion, fading, and complete cancellation of the signals can occur. On the other hand, if the two signals arrive in phase, the signal is strengthened. Looking back at figure 313, we can see that the receive antenna is receiving a multipath signal caused by the multihop and single-hop transmissions. In a previous section, you learned that multipath effects also occur in groundwave transmissions and are caused by multiple reflections from the ground or other objects. No matter what the cause, multipath transmissions are extremely critical when youre transmitting digital or data traffic. You should try to avoid multipath transmissions by changing frequencies if possible.TEST Self-Test Questions After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit. Self-Test Questions After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit. 415. Polarization and propagation paths 1. What do radio waves consist of? 2. How is the polarization of a propagated wave initially determined initially? 3. What type of antennas provide the most effective surface-wave coverage? 4. What is the phase shift of a radiated wave after reflection from the earths surface? 5. At what height over sea water will will the field strength of a surface wave become negligible? 6. What results from the short-circuiting effect of the earth on horizontally polarized surface waves? 7. What process allows sky-wave radio communication beyond the optical line-of-sight? 8. What is the angle of incidence?

9. Define What is the critical frequency.? 10. What percentage of time must a frequency of optimum transmission have a probability of reflection? 11. What types of waves are created by the process of magnetonic splitting? 12. What is the simplest way of measuring heights of ionospheric layers? 13. What is an ionogram? 416. Atmospheric effects on propagation paths 1. What is the zone of silence between an HF transmitting station and an HF receiving station called? 2. What are the two most important factors that determine the skip distance of a frequency? 3. What is the main reason for signal strength loss in multihop transmission? 4. How can the number of hops in a multihop transmission be controlled? 5. What is will be the effect of an in phase multipath signal being received? Answers to Self-Test Questions 413 1. The troposphere, the stratosphere, and the ionosphere. 2. By reflections of radio waves from ionized layers in the ionosphere. 3. The different wavelengths of UV rays expending their energy at different heights within the atmosphere. 4. D, E, Es, F, F1, and F2. 5. The D layer. 6. Sudden increases in solar activity such as solar flares. 7. The F region. 8. Shortly after noon, local time. 414 1. 11 years. 2. Two, a day frequency and a night frequency.

3. Daily, seasonal, 27-day, and 11-year. 4. Dark, or cooler spots on the sun. 5. Solar flares. 6. 1 or 2MHz to 20MHz. 415 1. An electric field and a magnetic field. 2. By the type and arrangement of the transmitting antenna. 3. Vertically polarized antennas. 4. 180 degrees. 5. 5Five to 10ten wavelengths. 6. Severe attenuation of the electric field. 7. Ionospheric refraction. 8. The angle at which the wave enters the propagation medium. 9. The highest frequency at which a vertical signal will will be returned to earth. 10. 90 percent. 11. The ordinary and the extraordinary waves. 12. By means of a vertical-incidence sounding. 13. A plot of the measured height versus the frequency. 416 1. The skip zone. 2. Frequency and angle of radiation. 3. Absorption. 4. By varying the angle of radiation. 5. The received signal is strengthened. Do the Unit Review Exercises (URE) before going to the next unit.

Unit Review Exercises Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle the corresponding letter. 56. (413) For the purpose of radio operations, how many basic regions make up the atmosphere? a. One. b. Two. c. Three. d. Four. 57. (413) Which is true concerning ionization? a. Ionization is denser in the E layer. b. During the day, there are seven layers within the ionosphere. c. The E layer is quite a regular occurrence in the ionosphere. d. Ionization is less in the lower layer and increases in the higher layers. 58. (413) Which ionospheric layer(s) does (do) not reflect HF radio waves? a. The D layer. b. The E layer. c. The sporadic E. d. Both the F1 and the F2 layers. 59. (413) Signals returned from what ionospheric layer(s) is (are) almost the mirror image of the signals that entered them? a. D layer. b. F layer. c. F1 and F2 layers. d. Sporadic E layers. 60. (413) As a factor in HF communications, what is the most important part of the ionosphere? a. The D layer. b. The F region. c. The other E layers. d. The sporadic E layer. 61. (413) Which ionospheric layer is present 24 hours a day? a. D layer. b. E layer. c. F1 layer. d. F2 layer. 62. (414) Sunspots are disturbances a. beneath the suns surface.

b. in the suns atmosphere. c. on the suns surface. d. in the ionosphere. 63. (414) Which of these effects deals with the night and day differences in the ionosphere? a. Diurnal effects. b. Seasonal effects. c. 27-day variations. d. 11-year sunspot cycles. 64. (414) Which of these ionospheric effects results from the suns distance from the earth? a. Diurnal effects. b. Seasonal effects. c. 27-day variations. d. 11-year sunspot cycles. 65. (414) Sunspots are both a. dark and cool. b. dark and hot. c. light and cool. d. light and hot. 66. (414) Sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs) can occur a. 24 hours a day. b. only during daylight hours. c. only during the hours of darkness. d. only when the sunspot activity is high. 67. (414) During ionospheric storms, communicators should use a. frequencies above 20 MHz. b. lower operating frequencies. c. higher operating frequencies. d. medium operating frequencies. 68. (415) Low and very low frequencies are propagated much better by a. ground-reflected wave. b. surface wave. c. direct wave. d. sky wave. 69. (415) The angle at which a radio wave enters the ionosphere is known as the a. skip angle. b. critical angle.

c. angle of entrance. d. angle of incidence. 70. (415) Frequencies higher than the critical frequency are a. returned to earth. b. passed into space. c. the most desirable. d. refracted by the F2 layer. 71. (415) Magnetonic splitting creates two waves called a. direct and indirect. b. ordinary and abnormal. c. in phase and out-of-phase. d. ordinary and extraordinary. 72. (415) The simplest method of measuring heights of ionospheric layers is by means of a. pilot reports. b. MUF-FOT charts. c. weather balloon. d. vertical-incidence sounding. 73. (416) In dealing with sky-wave/ground-wave propagation, the area of silence where no signals are received is the a. skip zone. b. dead zone. c. skip distance. d. propagation distance. 74. (416) Multipath transmissions are extremely critical and should be avoided in transmitting a. voice or IMC traffic. b. digital or data traffic. c. operational traffic in the clear. d. traffic intended for one station. Unit Review Exercises Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to ECI Form 34, Field Scoring Answer Sheet.

Frequency Modulation

Objectives Basic System Modulation FM FM Spectrum FM Performance: Bandwidth ,Efficiency , and Noise Summary

Objectives 1. Know the relationship of carrier frequency, modulation frequency and modulation index to efficiency and bandwidth 2. Compare FM systems to AM systems with regard to efficiency, bandwidth and noise. Basic System The basic communications system has: Transmitter: The sub-system that takes the information signal and processes it prior to transmission. The transmitter modulates the information onto a carrier signal, amplifies the signal and broadcasts it over the channel Channel: The medium which transports the modulated signal to the receiver. Air acts as the channel for broadcasts like radio. May also be a wiring system like cable TV or the Internet. Receiver: The sub-system that takes in the transmitted signal from the channel and processes it to retrieve the information signal. The receiver must be able to discriminate the signal from other signals which may using the same channel (called tuning), amplify the signal for processing and demodulate (remove the carrier) to retrieve the information. It also then processes the information for reception (for example, broadcast on a loudspeaker).

Modulation The information signal can rarely be transmitted as is, it must be processed. In order to use electromagnetic transmission, it must first be converted from audio into an electric signal. The conversion is accomplished by a transducer. After conversion it is used to modulate a carrier signal. A carrier signal is used for two reasons:

To reduce the wavelength for efficient transmission and reception (the optimum antenna size is or of a wavelength). A typical audio frequency of 3000 Hz will have a wavelength of 100 km and would need an effective antenna length of 25 km! By comparison, a typical carrier for FM is 100 MHz, with a wavelength of 3 m, and could use an antenna only 80 cm long. To allow simultaneous use of the same channel, called multiplexing. Each unique signal can be assigned a different carrier frequency (like radio stations) and still share the same channel. The phone company actually invented modulation to allow phone conversations to be transmitted over common lines.

The process of modulation means to systematically use the information signal (what you want to transmit) to vary some parameter of the carrier signal. The carrier signal is usually just a simple, singlefrequency sinusoid (varies in time like a sine wave). The basic sine wave goes like V(t) = Vo sin (2 p f t + f) where the parameters are defined below: V(t) the voltage of the signal as a function of time. Vo the amplitude of the signal (represents the maximum value achieved each cycle) f the frequency of oscillation, the number of cycles per second (also known as Hertz = 1 cycle per second) f the phase of the signal, representing the starting point of the cycle. To modulate the signal just means to systematically vary one of the three parameters of the signal: amplitude, frequency or phase. Therefore, the type of modulation may be categorized as either AM: amplitude modulation FM: frequency modulation or PM: phase modulation Note: PM may be an unfamiliar term but is commonly used. The characteristics of PM are very similar to FM and so the terms are often used interchangeably. FM Frequency modulation uses the information signal, Vm(t) to vary the carrier frequency within some small range about its original value. Here are the three signals in mathematical form:

Information: Vm(t) Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin ( 2 p fc t + f ) FM: VFM (t) = Vco sin (2 p [fc + (Df/Vmo) Vm (t) ] t + f)

We have replaced the carrier frequency term, with a time-varying frequency. We have also introduced a new term: Df, the peak frequency deviation. In this form, you should be able to see that the carrier frequency term: fc + (Df/Vmo) Vm (t) now varies between the extremes of fc - Df and fc + Df. The interpretation of Df becomes clear: it is the farthest away from the original frequency that the FM signal can be. Sometimes it is referred to as the "swing" in the frequency. We can also define a modulation index for FM, analogous to AM: b = Df/fm , where fm is the maximum modulating frequency used. The simplest interpretation of the modulation index, b, is as a measure of the peak frequency deviation, Df. In other words, b represents a way to express the peak deviation frequency as a multiple of the maximum modulating frequency, fm, i.e. Df = b fm. Example: suppose in FM radio that the audio signal to be transmitted ranges from 20 to 15,000 Hz (it does). If the FM system used a maximum modulating index, b, of 5.0, then the frequency would "swing" by a maximum of 5 x 15 kHz = 75 kHz above and below the carrier frequency. Here is a simple FM signal:

Here, the carrier is at 30 Hz, and the modulating frequency is 5 Hz. The modulation index is about 3, making the peak frequency deviation about 15 Hz. That means the frequency will vary somewhere between 15 and 45 Hz. How fast the cycle is completed is a function of the modulating frequency. FM Spectrum A spectrum represents the relative amounts of different frequency components in any signal. Its like the display on the graphic-equalizer in your stereo which has leds showing the relative amounts of bass, midrange and treble. These correspond directly to increasing frequencies (treble being the high frequency components). It is a well-know fact of mathematics, that any function (signal) can be decomposed into purely sinusoidal components (with a few pathological exceptions) . In technical terms, the sines and cosines form a complete set of functions, also known as a basis in the infinitedimensional vector space of real-valued functions (gag reflex). Given that any signal can be thought to be made up of sinusoidal signals, the spectrum then represents the "recipe card" of how to make the signal from sinusoids. Like: 1 part of 50 Hz and 2 parts of 200 Hz. Pure sinusoids have the simplest spectrum of all, just one component:

In this example, the carrier has 8 Hz and so the spectrum has a single component with value 1.0 at 8 Hz The FM spectrum is considerably more complicated. The spectrum of a simple FM signal looks like:

The carrier is now 65 Hz, the modulating signal is a pure 5 Hz tone, and the modulation index is 2. What we see are multiple side-bands (spikes at other than the carrier frequency) separated by the modulating frequency, 5 Hz. There are roughly 3 side-bands on either side of the carrier. The shape of the spectrum may be explained using a simple heterodyne argument: when you mix the three frequencies (fc, fm and Df) together you get the sum and difference frequencies. The largest combination is fc + fm + Df, and the smallest is fc - fm - Df. Since Df = b fm, the frequency varies (b + 1) fm above and below the carrier. A more realistic example is to use an audio spectrum to provide the modulation:

In this example, the information signal varies between 1 and 11 Hz. The carrier is at 65 Hz and the modulation index is 2. The individual side-band spikes are replaced by a more-or-less continuous spectrum. However, the extent of the side-bands is limited (approximately) to (b + 1) fm above and below. Here, that would be 33 Hz above and below, making the bandwidth about 66 Hz. We see the side-bands extend from 35 to 90 Hz, so out observed bandwidth is 65 Hz. You may have wondered why we ignored the smooth humps at the extreme ends of the spectrum. The truth is that they are in fact a by-product of frequency modulation (there is no random noise in this example). However, they may be safely ignored because they are have only a minute fraction of the total power. In practice, the random noise would obscure them anyway. Example: FM Radio FM radio uses frequency modulation, of course. The frequency band for FM radio is about 88 to 108 MHz. The information signal is music and voice which falls in the audio spectrum. The full audio spectrum ranges form 20 to 20,000 Hz, but FM radio limits the upper modulating frequency to 15 kHz (cf. AM radio which limits the upper frequency to 5 kHz). Although, some of the signal may be lost above 15 kHz, most people can't hear it anyway, so there is little loss of fidelity. FM radio maybe appropriately referred to as "high-fidelity." If FM transmitters use a maximum modulation index of about 5.0, so the resulting bandwidth is 180 kHz (roughly 0.2 MHz). The FCC assigns stations ) 0.2 MHz apart to prevent overlapping signals (coincidence? I think not!). If you were to fill up the FM band with stations, you could get 108 - 88 / .2 = 100 stations,

about the same number as AM radio (107). This sounds convincing, but is actually more complicated (agh!). FM radio is broadcast in stereo, meaning two channels of information. In practice, they generate three signals prior to applying the modulation:

the L + R (left + right) signal in the range of 50 to 15,000 Hz. a 19 kHz pilot carrier. the L-R signal centered on a 38 kHz pilot carrier (which is suppressed) that ranges from 23 to 53 kHz .

So, the information signal actually has a maximum modulating frequency of 53 kHz, requiring a reduction in the modulation index to about 1.0 to keep the total signal bandwidth about 200 kHz. FM Performance Bandwidth As we have already shown, the bandwidth of a FM signal may be predicted using: BW = 2 (b + 1 ) fm where b is the modulation index and fm is the maximum modulating frequency used. FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio band is also larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels about the same. The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in the AM case (recall, the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the maximum modulation frequency). In FM, both the modulation index and the modulating frequency affect the bandwidth. As the information is made stronger, the bandwidth also grows. Efficiency The efficiency of a signal is the power in the side-bands as a fraction of the total. In FM signals, because of the considerable side-bands produced, the efficiency is generally high. Recall that conventional AM is limited to about 33 % efficiency to prevent distortion in the receiver when the modulation index was greater than 1. FM has no analogous problem. The side-band structure is fairly complicated, but it is safe to say that the efficiency is generally improved by making the modulation index larger (as it should be). But if you make the modulation index larger, so make the bandwidth larger (unlike AM) which has its disadvantages. As is typical in

engineering, a compromise between efficiency and performance is struck. The modulation index is normally limited to a value between 1 and 5, depending on the application. Noise FM systems are far better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise generally is spread uniformly across the spectrum (the so-called white noise, meaning wide spectrum). The amplitude of the noise varies randomly at these frequencies. The change in amplitude can actually modulate the signal and be picked up in the AM system. As a result, AM systems are very sensitive to random noise. An example might be ignition system noise in your car. Special filters need to be installed to keep the interference out of your car radio. FM systems are inherently immune to random noise. In order for the noise to interfere, it would have to modulate the frequency somehow. But the noise is distributed uniformly in frequency and varies mostly in amplitude. As a result, there is virtually no interference picked up in the FM receiver. FM is sometimes called "static free, " referring to its superior immunity to random noise. Summary

In FM signals, the efficiency and bandwidth both depend on both the maximum modulating frequency and the modulation index. Compared to AM, the FM signal has a higher efficiency, a larger bandwidth and better immunity to noise.