AS Chemistry Revision Notes Unit 1 Structure, bonding and main group chemistry

Warren Rieutort-Louis Topic 1.1 - Atomic Structure

Atoms are made up of electrons (-1 ~ 1/ 1860), protons (+1 ~ 1) and neutrons (0 ~ 1) The unit of mass is 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the isotope Carbon-12 (12C=12 exactly) The Relative Isotopic Mass of a nuclide is the ratio of the mass of one atom of that nuclide to 1/12 of the mass of a Carbon-12 atom The Relative Atomic Mass of an element is the ratio of the mass of an average atom of that element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the nuclide Carbon-12. The Relative Molecular Mass of a substance is the ratio of the mass of an average molecule of that substance to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the nuclide Carbon-12. Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in one atom Mass number (A)(or relative isotopic mass) = number of protons + neutrons in one atom Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus but the same number of protons and the same chemical properties. Relative Atomic Mass is the weighted (to take account of relative abundance) average of the Relative Isotopic Masses of all of the isotopes of that element. Average mass can be determined from a mass spectrum the peaks show the relative abundances of each isotope, which can be multiplied by the mass of each to give the average mass. The RAM is the sum of these.

Molecular:Chlorine Molecular ion Ethanol

Fragments

Warren Rieutort-Louis 2004

In a mass spectrometer: a. Ionisation The vaporised sample is passed through an electron beam, from an electron gun, forming cations. b. Acceleration The cations are attracted to negatively charged plates, passing through a small hole to focus the beam. c. Deflection The magnetic field of an electromagnet deflects the beam, so lighter ions are deflected more. The ions passing out of the electromagnet will be of the same mass. d. Detection The ions reaching the detector are counted, to give the relative abundance of each isotope. Ionisation Energies: o The first ionisation energy is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous atoms of an element each lose an electron to form gaseous ions each with a +1 charge.

M(g) M+(g) + eo The second ionisation energy is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions of an element each lose an electron to form gaseous 2+ ions

M+(g) M2+(g) + e The graph of successive ionisation energies against ionisation number shows electrons grouped with similar energy levels.

With successive ionisation energies, big increases in energy will occur between electron shells because the shell closer to the nucleus will have a greater attraction for the electrons, and less shielding from complete shells. The graph of first ionisation energy against atomic number shows the grouping of electrons into sub-shells within the energy levels. This is evidence for s, p and d orbitals.

Warren Rieutort-Louis 2004

It takes more energy to remove an electron from a full or half full sub-shell because it is more stable. As the number of protons in the nucleus increase, the nuclear attraction increases, therefore making it more difficult to remove an electron. NOTE 1: Boron has a lower ionisation energy than Beryllium i. Beryllium has stable 2s2 sub-shell ii. Boron has an unstable 2p1 sub-shell which it wants to lose. NOTE 2: Oxygen has a lower ionisation energy than Nitrogen i. Nitrogen has a stable 2p3 sub-shell ii. Oxygen loses its 2p4 electron easily to become more stable.

Ionisation energy trends can be explained by: o The distance from the nucleus. o The nuclear charge / attraction. o The amount of shielding. Down a group, 1st IE decreases because outer e- is further from the nucleus and has greater shielding All s-block elements have their outer electrons in s-orbitals. All p-block elements have their outer electrons in p-orbitals. All d-block elements have electrons in their dorbitals, which are in the process of being filled. When filling orbitals: The Aufbau principle o The lowest energy orbitals will be filled first o Orbitals of the same type (e.g. p) will only pair up electrons after there is one electron in each. o The 4s orbital will always fill before the 3d orbital.

Warren Rieutort-Louis 2004

o When forming ions, electrons will be removed from the 4s orbital before the 3d orbital. o For chromium and copper, an electron will be taken from the 4s orbital and placed in the 3d orbital to make half-full or full 3d orbitals respectively. Electron Affinities: o The 1st Electron Affinity is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous atoms of that element each gain an electron to form gaseous 1 + ions

X(g) + e- X-(g)
o The 2nd Electron Affinity of an element is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous 1- ions each gain an electron to form gaseous 2-

X-(g) + e- X2-(g)
The elements in Group 7 have the highest electron affinities, they form negative ions easily and as you go down the group the electron affinity decreases so reactivity decreases. The Second Electron Affinity involves adding a negatively charged electron to a negative ion. Lots of energy is needed endothermic

Warren Rieutort-Louis 2004

Topic 1.2 Formulae, equations and moles

An empirical formula is the simplest formula which shows the ratio of each type of atom present in a compound. A molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula showing how many of each type of atom are present in a compound. To calculate empirical formulae: o Write down the symbols in columns. o Write down the mass composition (either percentage or mass). o Divide by the RAM (i.e. convert into moles). o Divide by the smallest value to get the simplest ratio of moles i.e. the empirical formula. A full equation: Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq) An ionic equation: Fe(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Fe2+ (aq) + Cu(s) mass RAM The mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles as there are atoms in 12.00g of carbon-12. This is 6.02 x 1023 Avogadros constant. moles = The concentration of a solution is the mass of solute per cubic decimetre of solution (g/dm3) or the amount in moles of a solute present in 1dm3 of solution (mol/dm3). Standard solution solution of known concentration. moles = Volume Conc. 1000

Molar gas volume: Volume = moles 24000

Warren Rieutort-Louis 2004