The Pure Theory of Law. Hans Kelsen

PURE THEORY
OF LAW
bJ HANS KELSEN
.......... _..........
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I,BJ>J n, 0-31 (p'''''!'''')
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ISBN III (do'h)
TilE UWROOK EXCIBNCoE, LTD.
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PURE THEORY
OF LAW
by HANS KELSEN
rr.o<W.... " .... 11.. _d
(R..u.ld German edi.ion
of Ham Keben'. Rei.., Reelt41.It,., publi>htd in '960, a com
pl ly revi>td v....ion of lh. Ii... tdi'ion. pubUohtd in '9H. In
the firn edition K.lIen conlintd him"'lf I" formula.e Ihe ch"ac
tui"k resulu r>f hi. Pur<: "f Law, 1n the I<!C<lnd tdition
hc au.mpu to oolve the fundamen",l probl.m, of a g<-ner.tl
lheory of law """rding to th. principlco of mc:'ho<k>logical
purity of juri'prlldcn<ial <'OgIlilion and '" IUI..",ine to a grater
at.." than bdor<:.1M: petli.ion of the ociencc of law in thc
of the ";mcca.
It Randa to r<:U>Il that a lheor.,. w....... lint draf..... con",incd
in Rd.... Hallp'I"'Dblnlit; ur StMUredtbklm<, publiahtd ill
'9". doa tIOl ,..,.,."i" en<irdy unchanged dunlll ouch a 1""'8
time. Scm. <hallie> wac i_poIated earlin--in K...... en.-
c-ral T"-ry 0/ U. SUI. M...... '9U) and in
the rrmch tnmlalion of W fin< tdiliDn by Prof....... Henn
T!>eYCPal, Thhwic PIl 4.. Droil (Pari&, '031- In the pnom.
wort. the moot importanl dwtll'" arc pointed oo.tt in thc foot
noo:........ally changes pcnaining to a ......... ripow apooitia:>
of pnncipJ_to the mult. of a den-lopmmt originating from
Imd..,dco that ar<: imlmn....t ill a th""'1' which, in ;txll, hao
wnaincd 'ially unthanp, polemical footn", ... /law.
..'cr, omintd in Inn,la,inn,)
With ,h. divcnity r>f thc cemcnlO of pooitive legal ord.... in
creasing, a general ,heory 01 law i, in dangtf of mi..ing 10m.
Icpl phenomena among I" fundamental leg.1 concCfl'1: tom. of
.h"",, concepu may ,urn Out \.0 be too narrow. othcn '00 wide.
K.IKn U much aW1l.r<: of thi, dangtt and has ,tr"*led that h. wd
ccm<s comtrua;v. cri.icillll. He rcgam ....., tho: p<etCllt edition
vi TRANSLATOR'S PREFACJ;:
nOl a, the final woro but'" an ent..p,i.., that would wne/i' by
CQutinued additi""'_ "'linemenu. Ot improvement. in ~ e n L
Thi' tnn,lation, camully checked by the amhor, "'present,
cOJtlpromi'" bo,tween a content,-wn.ciou. auth", and a furm-wn-
JCious transl.t"". Kel'en', irom""'" ."pe,ienc. with mi,intttpre.
tation' of hi' worb as a mmlt of "elegant" tl"anslations had to be
the deciding faetol" when .."",ingly repetitiou. "" G..manic_
"""nding passage,. e"punged from"" pbr.ued. in an e..litt dult
of the t'an,lation .. too literally milT01"lng the ""iginal, w..e ..-
.un-ed. In view of the de..iled Contents po.ge an ind.,. was
di,pen.!ed with.
A pe",onal note moy bo, pennitt.d. It w.. my good fonune to
Oludy under Profe"'" Kelsen lJoth a, the UOlve",ity 01 Vienna
and at the Un;"e",ity of California. My admint'on r", the JCQpe,
integrity, and con,'oteney of hi' the"'Y hoo Wen mateh.d only
by my '''peet for bi. humanity and mod..ty, and my aHrctinn
for the man him.elf. The long work.ing association with him pr0-
vided me with my most """'an/ing intellectual experience.
I would like to expre.. my appcinion to hofessor Albert
Ehm;weig of the Uni,..,i,y 01 Califomia L.a.w School in Betk..
ley wh_ initiative made thi. work. possible, and whose good
ollie'" srcu<rd the ,pon..,nhip 01 the Imtitute of Social Scienc,,"
and of the L.a.,.. Schoo!", Committee f"" In'e-.nation.l UgaJ
Studi...
M"" Knigh,
CONTENTS
I I.AW AND NATURE
,
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j_ Ib, SOC,,[ Oiikt
o Sod,] OrdCTI pr<><rih, $OO<l'ono
re ere ,
nnKtn to" .n
6.'
'f Til< 1.>"" ,\.n 0 o .....n t "tot
1EIF-e;:;g;;;,woruer. Upl C\>unooni"
'I Ygal l'lP""'" ",}'Mo,
'. r<_
'- Th< "Pure"
I. The Ac, .nd ]" !.<g.l
s. Th< Subj<o;tiv< ,od ObE''''' of \h< Act; It. !kll-
in'<tpre"Oon
i. "Th< Norm
o Th, 1>""", A> , re,.,_
ottn ,
e ".,.
,,"< ,n .uv< 0
"mg. """'" ,or;
ej Nonn ,nd 1I,IUi"
II JAW AND MORALS
,. Mono.! 1>0,,", A. Soci,I No"'"
S_ Monl. A> 1l<r:1"oon 01 '",.....llli'hi"."
.. Mot>I 0 Pooi,.., !<OTK<><JC'>< Oid"
IQ I,,, A. 0 P.... 01 MOl1!li
1I. lltlotivity of Mor>1 VIllU<
n. Sepon,;"n 01 Leg'] .nd MOl1!! OtdCTI
's. IUI.-Guo" <>t Lilt ,hTOiijib Moral>
Ill. LAW AND SCIENCE
' . !.<gol So,,", A. the Obr' 01 ,ho Sci<"", 011.>",
59
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,6. Log.1 1'0'01111 and Rule 01 1..0.. 7'
'7 Ca_1 S<'kno< and Notm SdtlIn ,n ,n >ng i,l.., M'n 8
'" Th< 01 tM Principl< 01 c._li'y;n tbo PrI"';pl< of
1l.,,,butlOJl.
II. C._I ana No.....ti.. Social Sci,,...
... Dill.",,,,,,, 1><,..= lll< Prin<.Lp!.. Of CO_li'l .nd Imp",.,I"n 8g
.,. 1h, Pi'Obliiii iii 'Jl< Fi'ftdDm'" W,I) 9'
. h<to o,ki 11I.n lI
um
n IkhaYiOi AI Co.,"n, 01 Wi,!
No,... 11'1
'1. c.'<gortCI1 So",," ''"'
.G. TIl< D<nml 01 Ollb'i ,II< 1..>.... Itl<ology '0'
'1- The S'ndK>n
'I Tho s..,>ronn ol N.tion.1 .nd Im""";"",,l 1..0"
b Th< 0<11<:, ('ho Wrontl io No, />loP'>:>n bu, Condi,io" 01

.8. Lq;,j Obllg"ion (D",y) aoo illblll'J
'I Log.1 Oblip'ion and s.."",lon
b Lq.1 Obllll',ion .nd ''(Iugll'"
<) Liab.ill'y
d) I"OJ,Wo.1 and COUtiV< Li.oblll'J
Liob.ill'J llJoed on F.ult 'nd AbooI"l< Li.blll'J

1'h< ul Il<l'"""ion
GnU",,;., Li.bili'J .... A_ul< Liabl]iry
'9- .. in SUbjoni.. 5<no<; Rlgh, and Ao,bo:i..tion
a) IUfh' aud
bj Jw od ..", .nd Jw in 1><"""""'
<l Th< "R13h'" Lenlly P",,,<t<d In'......
d) Th. "lUib'" l4:a1 Po_
2
Til< "Rlgh'" AI l'oo.i,i,. P,rnlJ"iou
Th. Poli,lcal Righ"
,u. to Ac<; Comp<"""'; <I" Gnn",p' of
a) Capaci'y to Au (H.ndlt<nt"iihi,k<ilj
b) Gnmp<l<no<
<) Th. Gn,op' 01 "(lopn"
". L<:f;.1 Capaci'y (llu/u'li/UtUil); R'p1U<"..tion
, . Tho !.<pI R<l.Ition
55. Th< L<pI Sl.lbj<c!; the PaooD
aj Th. Lq;.l Subi'
h) Th' Pbltical P""""
, Th, jUm'l< P"""n (Corpo"""")
d) Th' u,ioti, P"""" A,.n Acting Subjot'
.) The "ri"ie P.""" a Sl.lbj< 01 Oblip,lonl .nd R13h"
l} Til< ",;,t", p.,...,., n Au.ili.ry eo.;",p, 01 L<pI
Sci.n
tl The Abolition of '''' Du.I)... ol RJgh' .0<1 Obliption
IY. THE STATIC ASPECT OF
LAW
108
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Nornl
a The Mnn;
>to<' ,
Th. R...,n for <he

..-
THE DYNAMIC ASPECT OF
LAW
v
VI. LAW AND STATE
'79
n PubUc and Pri.... La.. . ~
Yl. The ldoolop<>l Ch.I.,ctu of tb< 0...11"" OJ Publk .nd I'ri.."
Law .B,
Silo The Trodlio...] Du.li... of S..., and La.. . ~
to. The Jdoolof;ial FlInCl;". of th. Dn,li"" of SuI< .<>d Law .8B
i', The l d ' n ~ ' ! of S"It ond Law .!lS
Th, St", ., I Onl<, tl!&
at< ........"
.., , "on
w ,,1,It.. 5"
.rol'" n,n
,,,on 0 < W ... .."
VII, STATE AND INTERNATIONAL
LAW 310
t,. Tboe a<n of lnt<'tn....nal L.aw
.j Th, Lerl N.,nl'< of Inl<tfU,.,..l La..
b) Ime",.tioll.l! Law ... him;,i.., L<g>l On!
,-
,-
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oj ,, U>Piil'" "'WHn lntetll."on.l .nd , ~ " ..,..I l::>. "0
'I IlL. MUll", ",,"llIMi,p ..'W""" I"", Norm 'ro,tri'ii 511
d) A Mon,,'k Co"""''';nn J! 1....."b1. '"
..' , lkOl, 01 La_ .nd II.. o[ ,.. Wotlo ,it
<) The Hkmehyor rn,,,,n,,;on>l 1.>... ,.,
oj ,"M'" OOlill""l Inn Adl""ft"l13 by In'.......''''...' l::>. "4
.,. Intetu.,,,,,,.1 1..> nd Notlon.1 I..>w \
j The !In',, or 1 n".".,1 and "'.,io...l 1.>... ,.3
Vlll. INTERPRETATION
lS Th. N.m", of [n'''p ''on
'j Rob,;,. [nde.ni or ,he L.....ppl,;ng A<'
bj Intention.1 'ode.n'ten"" of the 1.>"'PP'l'ng ,I.e<
ej !In;n,,nd<xl lOO<bn;,,,",,,,.1 the l.>>M.pply'o& A<'
dj n.. I..>w '0 /Ie Appll"" 1J F"'me
e) The Sn<>ll<d Meth.,,, nf 10'<TJ,'''''''ion
~ 6 . Inte',,",'''''''' .....n ,I.e< of Gogn''''" 0' WlII
01. I"terp",.. ,lon bj' th, S<ience of La.
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I
LAW AND NATURE
t. TH THlI:*Y
T
he Pure Throryot Law il a thwryof pos;';'-c law. It;, a theory
of positive law in gcnent not of a .pccifie legal order. ]t i
g.""ulll>oo.y of law. nOI an in'eTp.....'ion of .ped/ic nuion.1 or
i",emational '"pI norm.; bu' it offen a thtory of in'ttp,e,.liOll.
As a ,htol)', i .. ex.;ltuive ""'IX"" i. '0 and to dncribc ill
obift'.. T"" til"".,. an....pts to anI...". ,Itt question "'N' and how
<he law is, not how it <><>gIn to be. h i ..:Knu 01 law (juri>-
pnodellU). no< poIitia.
It is <I1ltd:o. thmry 0( I.w_ bcauoe;\ only detocribf:t; u..,
law and aU<:mplS 10 elimina,e &om u.. objea 0( thi. deleipt;""
l'\""'J1lU1l( tha. is nol IUictl, law: h. aim is to frtt tbl' ociMtt of
bw froca ali,.., demen... This ;. 1M IDftho<IoIogica basis oi the
"-1.
Such an approocb _. matter of counr. Yet.. s1.nu upon
1M tradition.ll ocien oi law "" i. drYdoptd duti... oM nme-
'ttllth and ("""riel dnrlr shows how fu Trmovcd it is
from the postula,e of puri.y: uncritically the 01 law h..os
bcal miud with .Jnntnu of p-ycho!ogy. aodol<>gy, and po.
lilial Thi. odultcn.ion is undcnunda.bk b:au...... !:l,.
t.... diociplin.. deal whh .ubj......un'S that an <I.....ly connected
with law. Theory of uw undertow to cog.
nition of law ag.inn these dillCiplin... nOt it ignot.. or
cOIlntttion, but ooause it wi.h.. to avoi,l uncritie<tl
mixture of di.dpHnei
which oblcun. the e.. of the "ienee 01' law and
oblit..... tcs the limi .. impoocd upon i\ by ""tUn ol it> wbjttt
maneT.
. Til. Acr ....... ITlI "lEAS'S"

If we dilI "'ia'e b<:,ween wllunli and JOCial aeJ(nc..-,;ond rhere-
by betw mlUrc and .ode'y at two diuin'l obj('C.. of ocicnlif..::
JgIlitloo tht' quntiOJ1 an- ",h<1htt .he ..irncc of 1.>.. ;. ""unl
or alOtiaJ lCknce: wh<oth.... law is. natun] or a..aaJ phCDOCD<1'lOll.
SOl' 1Mdan drlu..iPOioo becwfm ",,,"'....... -'ny is DOl euy.
b:a_ ooxirtr. undeuu>od as ""..... li,-"" "'I"1hcr 0( human
bei........., be rhou&f!. aI as pan 01 life in JrDftal aad i>nIa: of
.....urt- JInMin, Ia........,.. wbat is ,""'.'niEr 10 calle<l--alU at
lcau panly to be fOOCed in ... and to ""v M .... ""ill
ma.'0'1" If }"" 1NIl"" any body of fa,i,'c act, a judgment, a contract, or a crime. two cle-
men.. arc diwlI&uishablc: one, a.. act or ..".iet of
ing oa..rring at. entain lime and in. en...in p1. pn-cci\'Cd by
OUT _, an of hUJDUI oonduct; twO, .,..
kpI aw,oing of this:llO, ,hat is, IIw: mani.. C1DOIInnd upon""
act by <he b . r aamplc: People lIMmIbk in " b:rJle -.
....b 'f'""":Ix ni.. tbrir handI. othcn do l>Ol-tlis is the
aumal "'ppmi,.. I .. mnni"l il <hat. """ule i. being paMtd.
tho, llw <.TOOted. We"", faced hoeu wi.h tht di.,inni"" (famil-
iar '1> juri.u) belW.... !.he procesJ <>f legiolalioo and iu pTfXlu<;l,
lbe Ilalltle. To gi.'e I>ther illullnl;on" A m.n in a robe and
!r<>m a dail uyo rome wDTdJ '0 a m>.n ....nding before
him; lflally !.his UtenW hoppm;ng meanl: a judicial dccWon
was ""wd A men:hant writn a I 01. a COIlttnt to .n-
moerchant. ..1>0, in lUm i!.h ltt,tr; thi> ....,....
m.-, hoyt rnDdudotd a lqall,. biDdiQ,g 0DCIuxt. .sc-.bod, CU.lfO
tht d...th nll<Gltbod,. doe; Iflall,.. th.U -.nomutdtr.
,. ""I>
M....."'NCS OJ' AcT;
In
Th. ltpl meaning ot an act, at'n u,...-nal foct. is not immtdi_
...1,. prrttptibl.. by W wn.... .w;/t as, for ;o ne. 1M color.
""nl-. ><right. or otbe< pbpic:al properties of nbjoa con be
.....w ..,.11 ....T1JU
,
pnulvcd. To """, tbe man Kling ratiDoully. (Ul.nt(u hi. act
wilh a dC'6ni... mDIlina tlw ap<UOel i_If in _ way and is
IUldo:ntood by 0Ibrn. This ..,bjoni"" roeaning may. but need .....
lltCNa.ily. coincid.. wilh itt objecti"" meaJI.inc, thai it. the 1I>C'aIl'
q the :oct haucwniina; to 1M I;Iw. F<Jl" a;lJ:Ilplt, _bl .....los
_ dispooiliom, ....ti... in writi"ll wh.>. is to h.>pptn t(l Ioi< tor.
lortcinfs wbtn ht dits. Tht ..,bjoniv........ni"ll of lhil KI is a
t_....L Objecti"""" how....... it is DOt, Iota..... _ lqpl
formaIiti... wft.. 00l obltrvtd. Supp<>lt a otCttt organiat;"" In.
t ding to rid lh.. 1Iaiion of ...bYtni,.., tl.........ts, condtm... to
d th a man IlMIught 10 be a traitor. and has a nwmhtr tlttCU...
what " wbjtl""ly he'li..... to be and all, ". d..ath ptnally"; oJo.
jtc.iv..ly and legally. how.."... not a dealh ptnalty but' ftmt
murd... wo, "arrinl out, alillough th...x,....n.1 ... of a
F.mt murder at<! no difFt'tnt f.om th.. cxecOltion 01 a ltg.l de.,h
ptnahy.
A wri....n 0' 'J'Ol..n lICI can .......n say oom..thinll abonl its own
ltgal meaning. T.......in Ii.... a J>"CUlio.ri<) of , .... obju of 1<'8"1
cosni,ion. A plant i. unable 10 , ..n lht daaif)'ing bouniot any.
'hing about i_If. 11 ....k... no a"trIlpt to aplain iU.lf ocitntifi-
ull,. But an :oct of hullWl tondU<1 an indftd "'lTJ a ItpI otlf
interp<tUtion: i. an indlld.. a ............... indio.inlJ iu 1qal
mtani... ThC' m.... _b1td in parlw......t an ....."'....y ckdan
that they a..,..-ainIJ _ .....u...; a mao malinI: a dispGi,ioa abou,
his ",optl,! marall i, "Ia" will and tDUmttl.,"; t_mm can de-
d_IT thai thty art making _ (On'ncL ThC' tdnuill in......lgoti"ll
tM law......... ilDC'l indo a lepl ...If.inttrpr.....ioa which ant;";'
pa... h.. oom Inltrpt'ftllinn.
4. TII1' N..-M
.) TIr.. NOTm I'll $(Ir...... 01 /nlnpd_/i,,"
Th.. cxltmal fact objtive m..aning i. a ltg.al or iI1tg:o.l act
it .l....).. an ",...nt that can be' ptrc..hed by th (beau... i,
occun iu ,imt and .paCt) and th"Teferr.. a na", l ph..nomtnon
d.ttrmined by cau..lI,y. How..v. this ",...'" as .uc:hn el.
m....t of n.lu..... ;, no< an object of l<:g.al rognition. Whll< tum. Ihi,
....mt inlo a legal or illegal xt i. not its pbyoical "",iIlC'llCe. d..",..
mined by th.. Ia,.. of couIIlilr pr....ailing in noWIT. bu. the obja:.
......w "NO N"TUU
,i"e meaning ,..,.uhing lro", i.. imerpr.""ion. Thpecifically
l.gal m.aning of this act i. derived hom a "norm"' wh""" comem
rd." \0 th. a", this norm conf... legal meaning '0 'he ac', so ,ha'
it may be in,erpre,ed according '0 this norm. Th. norm lunc,iom
;u sch.me "f interprela'i"". To pm i, differently, The judgment
tlla, 'n ac, of human behavior. perf"rmed in ,ime and .pace, i.
"legal" (or 'illegal"') i. th. ,esuh of. 'f>'ific, namely norm.,i'e.
in'<rprela'ion. And even the , ' i ~ 'M' thi, act hal 'he charac,er of
a na'ural pllenoo"non i. only a .pecific im..p""'ation. dif!erem
from tllc nocm.,h'e, namely a causal interpre'a,ion, The norm
which conlen upon an act ,lle m..ning of legality or illegality i.
i,self c,e.,ed by an ac" which, in ,urn r"".i.'", its legal ch....c..'
from }et another norm. Th. qualification of a cer... in act ,h.
e".cution of the death penal,y ... ,her ,h.n a. a muroer----<t qualifi.
",,,ion ,ha' ..nnot be perceived by the senseo--re.ul .. lrom a
,hinking proce..' from ,he confron...,ion of ,h" act with 'he
eriminal code and the code of criminal procedure. Th., the men_
tioned eJ:MnS' of l.tt... I><.ween merchan" con"itu'''' legally a
comrac'. ,e.ul .. exdUJi.'ely from ,he lact ,ha, .""h an exchange
conlorm. wi,h condition. defined in ,he civil code. That a docu_
men, i. ohjectively jec,iv.ly a ".lid ''''''men, result,
from ,he fac' ,hat i, conforn" to condition, .tipulated by this w.k.
Tha, an a...",bly of people i." parHamem. and ,hat ,he meaning
of ,heir act u a .<ta'u'e, re.ul" from ,he conformity of .n these
fac" wi,h the norm' laid down in ,he con"itmion. That me.m,
,ha, ,he conten" of actu.l happenings agree ",i,h a norm accep,ed
;u valid.
b) Nonn and NOT'" en'''!;on
Those norm;. ,hen, which have ,he charac,er of legal norm. and
which nlak. ",,"ain ac" legal or illegal are ,he object. 01 tlle .d
en.., of la"', The legal oroer which i. ,he ohject of this e<>gttition i.
"no,mati,-. oro..- of human I><havior-a 'l'ote", of norm. regul .._
ing human behavior, By 'norm' we mean ,ha, ",me,hing oughl
'0 be or oughl to hap!""" e'f>'ially th,t a human being ought '0
I><have in a .pecilic way_ Th" i. ,h. meaning of <en.in human
act> dir.eted ,owaro the I>chavior of mhe". Th.y arc 50 dirc<;tod,
if ,hey. accoroins '0 ,h.ir con,,,,,,, command .uch behavior, bu,
LAW Al<D J<"T1lJ,Z; S
alto if thq pnmj' [I" and-ponicubrly-if thq authoritt i\. MAu
thoJinoM moeam lO conler .. poa 10m...... dlt a uruln power.
Jfl"<"iIiaU, lb< puwtt lOmxt norms hirnoclt I" <hi> tenIt ,IK at"
..hooc _ina i> a IMWDI an acts <If .ill. If an individual bJ hi>
acu ""prn>n a ..m .. a unain brh......... <If anolher. thaI
is lO uy. if IK QOOIm ...u, perlIlil.. or au"-,,,," ouch btha;yior_
,tim the ......"inll: <If hi, acu cannot br dcocribtd bJ 'IK $UlI:menl
tha, ..... other indiyidual ..ill (fu, ..te ""'''') behaY" in lha, way.
b.. , OIIly that II<: ",,&It,lO btha;." in that way. Ttw! individual ..ho
commands. pnmlu, or au'hor"", ..nib; "'" man to ..hom "'"
comm.nd, """"l!.!ion.. or ."lhoriu';on i. directed Oll&1tf '0. Th"
..'ord "ough." i, ust:d h",,, in a broad" th.o.n .h" ..oual "'nit. Ac
cording '0 Cll"omary "ought"' correspond, only to a com
mand. whil" "may" corrr.pond, ... a ""rmluionnd "can" '0 an
.u.horiu'ion. Bu. in ,h" lIT""'''' work .h. word "ougl,." is ust:d '0
.xpr." ",,, nor'....'iy. m"a"ing of an act direc,,,d .ow.rd ,h" 1><.
hayior 0( <>then: ,hi.......gh... includes "may" and "can". If. mall
..-110 i1 commandffl. ""nnilled. or .",hoti:d to brhay. ;n a c"""
uiI, way oW for 'M rcuon of 1uch """,mand. perm; or
aut.I>Dri-D'...... bran OII1y do 00 bJ uying: Why"ough'" I brh "
;'1 this ....y? Or. in CUltOP\ll'1' "'"fl'" Why ...., I or wh, can I be-
loa,,,,, in 'his ....,?
""'orm..' is tbt meaning <If aD IICt bJ which a aruln bthaYior i>
pnmi.. or authorized "1M 1OQnD.... ,he fp:ci6c
""",oin3 <If an .... dirttted toward tbt bdu.vior <If _""" d..,. is
to be arduJly di.c-rnttia.ed f...... tlK aa ol ..ilI ......." _ing
the norm is: !he IMWDI is an o..,ltl, bu. lb< an 01 ..ill .. an u.
H...." the si.ua...... c"""'i....td by ouch an act mwe be deacribed
by lit" OUternent: Th" on" individual ..-ill1. tha, lit" Other individ-
ual ough' '0 btha.,,, in a cau;n way. TM 6 PO" of ,hi. "",.
..ne" .rien toan ;', ,"'" ""i>l;''3 ("", of 'M Ii indiyidual', "'" 01
.'oIitlon: .h" oewnd pu0 an o..,ht, '0 a TI(lnn.1$ doe of
that ac'. i. is incorrect to ....n_. i. of,... done-tha
' ... "An individual ough," n',,"" .h ano.h"r
illdlyidu.l will, oom",bing: ,h., ,h" QUll'h, can be '0 an
il.
dillerroa be,w""n iJ and OU&hl cannot be uplailled fur
ther. W. ore ...a..., o( 'M "'obody ean
that ",,, ,"re"",n!: i,H-----<hal i ",,, 1U'nnm' by
,
...hic:.b an locI it dttcribed-io fuodammlalll dif....mt
m.a .... oatemml: "ODI1>fthing ougb. 10 ..hieh it l.hoi'
lDm. by ..Itio::h a tI<JnIl it Nobody an .-en IN. f.....
....trm=t WI -.ethill( is, foIloon a IUlnDCD. d"" -
,hina: ought '0 bot .,.. ..u \'ft1;l.
This dualism of is aDd ought don DOC _, !ha. <hon
i. IlO rdatioomip between is and ....,/11. DDt ..ys: an iI conform<
'0 an ougb.. which -..nf lIla. oomething is ". it oup. 10 bot; and
one up' an ""pt is MdirWd" n1 ..... it-in otha worth:
IOlDcthiRg ought 10 be. 11>e cxp ,on: "an it oonfomu 10 an
ough," i, no< conK" bauoe it is Dot the it that coafonns
'0 the BUgbt, but Ihe "IOmC1hing' 'hal one tilDe ;1 and Ihe other
time ought '0 ""-it i. ,he "_thing" ",hich figuutivtly cao be
dnignotod as .he can'en, of ,he is (>I" "" the colllent of the nughL
I'u. in dillerelll woro., one ca" .1", ...y: a ecruin IOmc'hing_
lpi6c.Uy certain b<hariQr-a.n ha,'" 'he quality of i. or of
ought. For cumplc: In the two lta,,,menu, "'he door it being
c1ottd" and "the door ought to bt c1<1Otd," ,h. dOling of 'he door
in the fonn<'T .Ulrmml is pronOlln<n1.u _thins IlIat i.. in II><
lalln ... .......,u,ing lhal ""'ih. 1O!>t. The klu....". t1u, it and Lhe
.Iu. ough. '0 a.e no< identical, bu. thcydilfn onlJ"
br u 'M one it and othtT ough' It and ought are .....
diWcrcn' InOdi. One and <he bdu.'rior ""'J prnm.rd in
the ...... or <he other 01 .he 'WO InOdi. "I1<crdorc it .. ncuosary to
dill'rrmtiue <be brba..ior .ipul>ted bJ a ntInZl U a brhayior that
ough. to from the act..al bdu.rior tIu. cornopoods to iL We
.....y compo", the brb>.,ior ";pubted .,.,. !he not"Dl (n con..... 01
<he not"Dl) with <be llCtoW bdu.YK>r; and ..., can, <bCt't'fo...,. judge
.,h htT the ........1brhayitlt" conforms to <he norm, 'ha' u.. to <he
con, , of the nom<.
The .. i.x,..ally ...k", place may tit" ""'y not be equal
to .he it ough' Bm equali.,. i. noc identity. The
th.. i. the (Omen' of 'he nonn ('ha' is, the behayior thal
ought ,n and the actual (th.. i. the bchayior thal
i.) are not identical, though the nne may be rqlUll tn 'he other.
Therdo..." the u.ual way to dncribc .hr relation between an
actual and a nOrm to whkh the (""'",pond"
,h. xt""l u tb. brlLJ.Ylor '0 'he norm-
LAW ANt> N A T < t ~ ~
,
ough, to k. i. not con",,'. The Ixhavior ,hat i. canno, k ,he be-
havior ,hat ough' '0 be. They differ wi,h ""p' '0 ,he modus
which;' in one casc ,he ii, in the other ,hc ough,.
ACIO whOM: me.ning i. a notm can be porfOTmro in va,iow
"ayo. For example. by genu"'" The ,ra/lic policeman, by a mo-
,ion of hi. anIli. orden ,he pcd..trian to ",op Or '0 con,inue; or by
a .ymool: a red ligh' constitutes a command fot ,he driver to h.lt,
a grUIl ligh', to proceed; ot by .po"'n or wri"",, worth. ei,her in
,he imporative fonn_be quiotl--<>t' in ,he fOTm of an indieo,ive
IlUtemem_1 orderl"U '0 be silent. 1n ,hi< way also po"ni ..io'.. or
authori ..,i""s may be fonnulated. They .rc "atemenlS .bou, the
aC' wh_ mc.ning i. a command. a permi..ion. an .n,hOTi.."tion.
Bm ,heir meaning is not ,h.t something is, but ,hot "'mc,hing
ough, '0 lJc. They arc nO'-<I. ,h.y linguistically ..em to be-
,tatemen!> abou, a fac'. but a norm. th.t is to "'y. a command. a
penni";on, an authotization.
A criminal code migh, comain ,he "''''ence; Th.it i. punished
by imprisonment. The meaning of ,hi. ""'ence i, no', OS ,he
wording ..em.'o indicate....atement .!:>nut an ",,'ual even'; in
"cad, the meaning i. a nonn, i. i. a command ot.n .mhorr..,ion.
'0 punioh ,hef, by impri",nmem. The iegi!lalive p'''''''''' comi,,,
of a octi.. of act. which. in ,heir 'otality. h.ve ,he m<'3ning of a
norm. To oay ,hat acts. espially legi,I.,i"e 'C". "cre.te" or
"posi,,, a nonn, i. merely a figutc of .peech lor oal'ing tha' 'he
meaning Or ,he .ignificance of ,he act ot acl5 ,ha, con"im,. 'he
legiolativ. pr<>cno. i. a norm. It io. however. nrcr...ry to distin-
guish ,he .ubj"",;'e and ,he obj"".;ve meaning 01 the ac,.
"Ough'" i< the 'ubjec,ive meaning of every ac, of wili directed "
,he beh.vior of ano,her. But no, every .uch act h... aho objectively
,hi. meaning; and oniy if ,h. act of >l'iH has also ,he objec,ive
meaning of an 'ough'." is ,his "onght" called. "norm." 11 the
"ought" is also ,he objec,ive me.ning of the .ct. ,he behavior at
which ,he ac, i, directed is regarded as something ,ha, ought to be
nO, only from th. point of vi.w of 'he individual who has po'.
formed the .ct. bu' also from 'he point 01 vi.w of ,he individual a,
whose behavior ,he act i. directed. and of a ,hird indi,'idual not
invoived in tb. ,.,.Ia,ion bctw..... ,he 'wo. That the "augh," i1 ,he
objec,ive meaning of ,he 3ct m'nif.... l,seif in ,he foct that i, i.
"
...ppootd to ais< (<ba. m.. is if lhc: will.ea>eI

lO u.isI oubjcctin mnning i. io----H we UIWlX that an ladi-
"id..... ought > b......... in TUn. "'....,. nn:I if to. dots not boo.
ollhc: let ..-llooot mcanin& is <.bat be ought 10 bd\a..., in lbi. way_
Th.nI the> Moupt, tlx objoaive mnnin&" 01 an act. iJ olid
...... binding upoe lhc: addraKC. lba the incI''''''.... It whom
i. is dilftltd. Tbt ousb' which is bjtin II>aDi.ni ot an an
of will ;,; aloo <he objta".., mean,..of this act. if <hi, act baI; be>
invest'" with th.. meonilllo if ;t hu beftI by. norm.
which lhttrk..-e hu the chat'ICtC't 01. "higherw norm.
The command of I pnpter 10 tum o'".r to him I rUin
amoun, 01 m.,,,,"I' h;u ,he ...me wbjtt.i".. mnning "' .he com-
mInd of an income..... oIIiel.I, namdy ,h.. ,h. individual It
"'hom ,h. command i. diroculd ought to p"y """,..,hillg. Hut only
,h. ",>mmlnd of Ihe ..fl\c,.I, nOt ,b.! of the gang>'cr, hal ,h. meln-
ing of. valid non'll, binding Up"" the add.aocd indiyiduaL Only
1M om oldc., nO( the olher. is nOTl'll'p""i,ing aco. lhe
oII">cioJ', ""t iulhoriztd by ...... law. "'ben:u Lbe pupler'. act is
not baKd on such an luthor;.unl nonn. TIu: lo:giolati,'c OCI, which
lUbjlinly Iw the ot ....'ltl. aloo I\.u 1M objtcliW'
mcaning----thal is. of a mid nonn---b<IuK the mn-
sUIUI"" hal OODftrmi thit _inti up"" !he IqilJatiW'
act. TM art ",hoM -inc io !he coruti<ution hao not only the
but aloo lhe objecti"", _inti of that it to
lay. cbano<..... of a bindi.. no<m. if-in """" it it the hiltan.
ully "-a>nKiIUlion-wc prcsuPf'lle in .... juriJUc tltinki"lilta'
..., """,,I to _the constiluti"" p<a<ribeo.
If a a:wt in .-.:I .u another ....... loo- bdp, tM ...
mo:aning of tltil it t1u1 oth,.,. ought 10 help bi",. Bul in
an objeaiW' sntSt I>t ought 10 Mlp (tha, it to laY. "" it morally
oblip to ""Ip) only if a gatenl """" eSlObli.Md, for ilUt20ntt.
by the of. uliSioo-b valid that CQffiIJlJlnW. you.
And this lauu nonn iI t>bjttt.ivdr ...lid only if it i.
ptt$uppoKd thai one oughl to beh...e a. religious found., has
eomm.nd.,d. Such a p't$uppt><i!ion, establi.hing the objeclive
validity or the nomu uf. moral or I'lal otd...., will be called
/J4Jie no"" (Grundno","),' Therefore, the obj,;vc nUdity of
'alill
L
lAW "''0 ~ ' ' ' T U U
,
a nOl'IIl which i. the .ubiceti_e meaning of an act of ",iIlth.t m....
ought 00 bthave in a certain way. d<>a not loll",,' from the factual
act, that i. to ....y, from an iJ, but .gain from a nonn .uthOTi,ing
thi.""t, that i, 00 say, from an ought.
NcmtU "ceOTding to which m.... ought to btha_e in " c......io
way can abo bt created by cu.OOm, If m.... who JOCially live to-
ge,her bth.ve lot Klme time and undet the ..me circumst.oce" in
the ..nle way, then" tendency_th.. i. psychologically. a will_
come. into an exi.tencc within the men to bth,ve a' the membt...
of thc group habitually do. At fi ...t the .uhjcetive meaning of the
acll ,hat constitute ,he CUStOm i. not an oughl. But lattl', wh....
thel<: at.. have e"uted for some time, the idea arises in the individ
ual membtr th.. he ought to bthave in the manner in which the
othor membtrs customarily behave. ,nd at the same time the will
ar;oes that the othet member. ought to behave in that ",me way. 11
OIle mttnbtr of the group dOt> not bth.ve in the mannet in which
the other membt", n",omarily bth.v., th.... hi. bthaviOT will bt
di....pprm'ed by the othen," COntrory to their will. In this way the
cu"om htcome. the exptesoion 01 a collcetive will "hOOt .ubice.
th'e meaning i. an oughl. However, ,he .ubicetive meaning 01 the
acU that constitute the cullom am lit intctprtted .. an objec,ively
nlid oOtm only il the custom h.. betn in"ituted by a higher
nolm .. a nOtm<Teating f.ct. Since c"'OOm i. comtituted by hu_
man acts, ",'tit nOTro> created hy custom are created by acU of
human bthavior. and are thttefort-lile the nOl'IIl' which are the
.ubjecti.. meaning of legi.la';,', acu--"pooited" or "poohive"
norms. C""om may "eale moral or l'galoorms. Legal norm. a",
c",.ted by cu.tom, if the cot",itution of the social group ins'i'ut..
Cu.tom_ .pecially delined CUstom-a> norrn<",ating fact.
Finally it is to bt noted tha,. norm need no< bt only the mean
ing 01 a ",al act of will; it can abo bt the content of an act of
,hinking. Thi. i> the cue if the norm i> only p""upposed in our
thinking, jU5l'" ",e can imagine things which do not I<ally eei"
but "exi,t" only in our thinking. we can imagine. norm which is
oot ,he meaning of a ",al act of will but ",hich exists only in OUt
thinhng. Then, it is not a pooith'e norm. But .ince there i. a
cOT",Ia,ion between the ought 01 a nonn and a will whOOt mean-
ing it i., there must bt in our thinking a1Jo ott imaginary will
,
'"
...11_ meaning io ,he norm which;" only presupposed in ouc
thinling--.>.'l iJ <he ba.k norm of a po<itin ["PI order.'
cJ and Sphere 01 Validity of the Norm
By the word "vaHdily" we d..ign... the 'p""ific ni,<cncc of a
norm. Whe" we d...,ril>< the meaning or :<.ignir.c...nc" of a nmm
e",.'ing act, we say: By thi, act ""me human behavior is OroCT"",
comm....dcd, pn,.cribm, forbidden, Of permitted, allowed. au_
thori",d. If we u,,", ,he woTtl ought <0 comp';,,, all th...., meanings.
.. h sugg..,ed, we can d<$Crib<: the validity of norm by
"ying: Something ought to. or ought not 10. be done. If we d.
Jerib< the .p.,<ili, exi,tence of. norm as "validity," we Upt_try
this .he .pecial manner in which the norm-in rontradi"in"ion 10
natutal be._i. exi""",. The """i'lI"''''''' of a positive norm_
th i. to "y. it> v:o.1idity"-i. not the lame a, the ""i""",e of th.
a<;, of will, whoac norm i!. A nonO C1n be
valid, ev'll if the act of will wh"", ",caning norm i., no longer
. Ind=!, norm doe< not valid 1ct of w;1I
wh".., norm iJ l,a, been aaomplimro and hence h..
c.....,.'1 to The individual who ""' legal nOnn by an
act at behavior of nero not '0 win
thi. oonllun in order .hot nonn be valid. men who
act .. have passed a .lalute rrguloting certain affain
and pUt thilatute into "force" .. in'o validily). they
'urn ;n d""i>ion. to ,he regulation 01 oth.. affain: and
"aml<s pUt into validity may be valid long dt... th... men have
diro and are to will anything. It i, inco.......,t,
to eharacteri... nOTm' in gcrJcml, and legal norm. in
panicular, a. Ihe "will" or "command" of the legi.lator or
.tal<, if by "will" or "command'" a acl of will i.
mc,nl. The norm i. thc meaning of an aci of wi\!. nOl the ,""I 01
will.
Since Ihe validity of 1 norm ,. an ougM lI11d nOl:ttl ii, it i. ncceo-
..ry to di",ingui.h thc vaH,t!ty of a norm lront it> cff""tivene,",
EffccI;"co"" i. an "iJ-fact"_thc 1,",,1 tho, Ihe norm i. ,""Iually ap-
plied 1nd obc)'ro. the fan .hat poople ,"",,,ally beh1vc according.o
lhe norm. To ..y .ha, a norm i. "v1lid:' however, mean. SOm.,.
ct, p,.
"
.... w ANI> NATlIU
"
thing Ihan Ihal h il actually applltd and obtytd; i. that
it "YEAI to and appliw, although il il orue tllal there
.....y connK.ion br.wn ""lidi.y and ...ao. "-
general norm il U only if ,!w: huIlWl be-
hnlor that il .quLo,W by i. ac.ually conlonnl wich iI, at least to
A norm chao il not "bo'yfd by anybc>dy in
ochn ..onIs & norm tha. it no< ac ... to degJO:<:. it
not .cprdwasa oalid ltpl....."q. A minimum of dfcc.ivmtsl it a
cooditioa 01 Y:llio;li.y. ''Validi''''' 01 a ltpl norm f'TnupP""'", b!>w
........ tha' i. it in a r.ly CDIllnlTf to it: a nona
that w... proaibr ''''''1 lOClICIh'ng ough. to done 01 which
t.-l tIw i.e cctllSl bappen ..........ruy ac
carding to lhoe laWl 01 nat",.., alwa)" and would all
... a AOrlIl which _ to preKribe tha' lOnlfthing ""gbt
10 be<io:lM 01 which u- before'band tha' i' it ac-
cordina; to doc laWl 01 .....u,..,.
N.... do Yalidi'T and elfun'ttelf co<ncio:Le in u...... A kpI oorm
becom<s nJid btl..... it .. that it, it it ap-
pIitd and a law court tha. applin a imlDCdialdy
allCt" btl..... lhoe Iota.utt bad a cbancc to
htJc ; _pp1iel a oalid Itp.l norm. Bu. a Itp.l DOrm is
no Ion coouidtNd 10 be .'l1id, if it .-aim pnmat>ttly in
...ro E.Itiftt>ft& it a -.di.ioo 01 validi.y in eM lmSt Wt
ckcti>'mnl Iw ... joia lhoe pooitina: 01 a Itp.l nottlI if <he nonn it
D(lI to 10K iu r.tlicUty.
By 01 a ltpl norm. whid! a.tadla a aanctian to a
anain bth.J.vi.... and Ibus qualiia Ihe lima....... coodi.tionin! the
aanctian u iIl<pl, that it, all M lWO bcu ""'y he tce>dtt.
acood: (,) thai chiloorm by lhoe ltpl Otpnl (pan.....
brly Ihe la.. coum). which mcam, that chc IInclioa in a coacrete
GIlt it O<dered and tuCliteel; and (I) that this DOnD it by
<he individuall IUbjocctd to lhoe Itp.l order. which mnm, thai
thty in I way ..hid! aYOitlllhoe SlnCtioa.. l tht Mipulation
01 aanaiont inltBdo to prcwtnt the comm'-io<t 01 dtlicu, 1<t ue
!acW wich cht ida! calot 01 <he validhy 01& Itp.l DOnD if thisnonn
is On"... applied. beet .... the a.... InICII ........, thooo IUbjtctw to
1M ltpl on:itr of cht aanctian to he nUttd ill <tit of "'" com
million 01 & delict bat bomt the motive '0 .tfraill front com
milling.he III Ibis .i.ua,inn, ..ati,,,,,.. 01 <he lcgal
"
....w AND NATUU.
norm " to ubedicnce to it. But obedience to the lrgal
norm can be induced by other molive", If. for inotalKC, the lego!
delict i. at the ..me lime a religious delict, obedience <0 the bw
may be cau-lCd no, by ,he wish to avoid ,he legal """"ion, bm to
avoid the rdigiolU ."nClion. 1n this taS<' ,he law i. ellect;"., that i..
ac'U.1l1y obeyed, I>ecaU5e ..ligioo is <freeti"... The relatioll be-
tween validity and effectiven... will be diocul4ed b'....
Let UI take the ,Utem"''' ''The Dorm refe" ,,, a certain human
behavior." 11 by thil behavior we mean th. behavior that cOlUt;
to",," the (OJ,ton, of the nonn. then ,h. nonn Call aloo rde, to
oilier f;u;u than human behavior-how..,.." ooly '0 ,h. exten, that
th= are Mndi"onJ or (if ni"cn' in rulity) .gew of huma"
behavior. For .><amp!", A lrgal norm can prc",ribt that in the
evem of a lIatun] catalltrophe ,lime not immediately aff"",ed are
obliged 10 render aid t<. the vi<tim.... mud> a' If a Itgal
nonn penal,y for the delict a.
wen the ..nction do not only ,on.i" in a certain human
behavior-dirccted to.....ard the tkath of another human being
_bu' abo in a .pecific df"", of .uch behavior. namely death 01
a human being. which ;. a phpjological not a human be-
havior. Sin"" human behavior. a. wen ... ilS conditions and .li""...
occur in 'pac. and tim. ,h. legal norm mmt rei.. '0 'pace and
The validity of norm. regulating human behavior in gen
eral. and the validi,y of norms in panicular, tberelof<', mu"
be defined in te=. of .pace and time. ,i""e ,he.. norntJ rcler to
.patial and evenU in content. That a norm is
"valid" mean. always tha, it i. valid for .pecified 'pace ond
time: it meam lha, it relates '0 a behavior that can take plac. only
and sometime (although it may perhaps no, ac,ually
rak. pia",,).
The of the norm to.pace and time is .patial and
temporal .phere oj validity 01 the norm, Thil 'ph..e of validity <;.1.n
be limit"'" or nnlimiled. The norm C2ll be valid either for a defi
ni'e.pact' and time (that ii, determined by norm itself or by a
norm): it t"egUlateo, then, only those evenu thai occur
within a ceruin 'pace and during a '<ruin time; or the n<>no can
ct. I To >O>d""" ,_Ill< fu< 'N' """" " .."d ",,'y II " " dl<ul..
to ......, n ,la, "ti Id ...Ud"y ' ,. "",,101 b< .. 10'_
.. """"udl"I f..- ,b um,""", ""', "plomu..- on1, "p''''"''" 1. "p><!;
,.., "p><!- md pl<uu"' 1bl.
u.w AND NATUU
.,
be valid e,'erywhe", and always, Wt i., i, can refer to evem. no
malter and when they occltr. Thi. !aller alternati,'e would
be the meaning of a nonn which doe. n"" "omain any .patial or
temporal Hmi<a,ion. Such a norm i. nOl valid beyond .pace and
,ime; ,he .phere of i.. ",Iidity in ,hat ca."" does not lack .pace and
lime; it merely i> nOllimi,ed '0 a .pedfic 'pace or a
ill .patial and temporal .phere of "alidity;, unlimited. The .phere
of validity of a norm i. an element of its eontent; and ,hi. content.
a. "'...hall _, can to ",me ex,ent bl' prede,ermined by .n""her,
higher norm.'
A. for the ,emporal .phere of validity of pmi,i"e nonn, it i.
nec....ry 10 diS\inguWt betWUn ,he ,ime belore and aher ,he en
,,,,olent of ,he norm. fn genenl, nom.. rder only to future be
It.1vior, but ,hey may abo refer '0 the p.st. For example. a legal
norm which .ttach.. a ",nc,ion to a certain behavior may 1"""
lCribe tlt.1t an individual ought to be puni.hed e,'en for bclt.1vior
,ha, had occurred before the legal nonn was enac,ed whe",by ,he
behavior i. qualified as a delict.' In this """" we "'y Ih>! ,he norm
i. ret"""'tive. Bu'. legal norm may rder to the past no' only with
=peet '0 the d.lic, bUI abo wi,h re.peet to tf><, ,""clion. A legal
norm may .tipulate not only tlt.1, under cerlain CQndi,ion" ful
filled bcforce ill enactment, a coercive act a. a ..ne,ion ought 1<> be
exocuted in the fu,ure, but al", ,hat under ,h.,. condition. a
coercive ac, that ac,ually has been performed in the p,lIt without
being prc><ribcd by norm then ",lid, ought to hav'e bun per.
formed; .., th'l the ,,It.1racter of a ",net ion i. conferred upon ,hi.
coercive act with "t....."'iv. force. For example: In Nationaliot
Socialist Gennany c.rtain cuer,,;v'e ac" which at the time of their
performance wore legally munier, were .uhsequenl1y retroacth'ely
lcgitimi>.cd as "..nc,iolll"; and the behavior of the victim which
elicited the munler wu ,uboequently qualified as a "delict:'
A legal nonn can retroactively annul the v.. lidity of an eorUer
norm in ,uch a way that the cocrcive ""IS carried OU' .. ",nction.
under the earlier norm are dive.,ed of their character a. punioh
men" or civil execution.; and that ,he human behavior that "la,
the condition 01 ,he unction i. div'coted of iu charac""" a deliCt.
For e""mple: A go,'emmen, ,hat It:u COm. '0 power by revolution
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.r.. ,l"
.....w ANI> NATOU
.,
alway> human b<havior--<IIIly il co.n bt T<gn]atro by nonDO. Fact>
than human b<havior can b< made Ihe content of nOftm
only in (onnection with human conducl--<IIIly ... a coudition or a.
the elfecl of it. The concept of a m>l""ial 'ph""e of validity is ap-
p1iro. for ""ample. when a totalll order-.uch a. that of a fed
eral .late comprUing >cynal member .1.1..o-inkulated into
.e....<n.t partial legal order., whooe .ph".. of validity are delimited
with ....pect to the objects to b< by th= partial orden:
For example, if the legal order. of the .laleS 're Wm
p"te", to tegttlale only thooe objeclll whkh aTe .peclfically enu
merated by the ,""itution; if_in o,her words-the regulating of
thoe object> fall. within the competence of lhe .late.,
whereas ,he regula,ion of all olheT objec.. is r...rvro for the leg.I
order of the federa,ion. whkh, in itself ibo a pani.l legal ordtt.
The rna"rial .phere of validity of a lotal ll ordn is alway> un
llmiled, in lhe .e"se lhat .uch an order, by i.. naturo. call
regula.. the behavior of the individuals .ubjectro to it in all direc
tion>.
d) Po,ili"" dnd Negative Regula/;on"
Commdnding, Aut/ior;zing. Perm;lIing
The b<havior regulated by a nonnatiye order i. a der.nite
""tion or the omi...ion (nonpttformance) of such an action.
Human b<havior, then, i. eitber positively or nti,ely regulaled
by a normati'e order. when a defutite action of a defi.
nile individual or when lhe omi..ion of ,uch an action i, com
rnandro. ('.Vhen lhe omi..ion of an action i. commanded, the
aclion i. forbidden.) To say that the b<havior of an individual i.
commanded by.n objectively valid norm amOUn" to the SaIIle as
..ying the indi,idual is obliged to b<have in this way. 11 the indio
yidual bthav.. a' the mmn command. he fullill. hi. obligalion-he
obey> lhe norm; il he b<h.ves in lhe opposite w'y, he ..viol.t..
the norm_he viol.tes hi.> obligation. H"man b<havior i.
regulated aho, when an individual i, authorized by lhe normative
order to bring about, by a certain acl. certain cortse<]nrnc..
mined by the ord.... PartIcularly an individual Can be authorized
(if the order regulat.. its own creation) to create lion", or 10 par.
tkip"e in 'hat creation; or when. in ca.. of , legal order provid-
"
LAW A"" "ATtJU
ing for wcfCive acts .. saneliom. an individual i uthoti,t<! to
perform 'hese un unMe .he oondi,ion, Itipulated by the legal
or<kT; or when a Ilorm permits an individual to ptTfonn an ""t,
othttwi.., forbidden....... llorru which limits 'he .pha. of "",lidilY of
a general norm th.t forbido the act. An example for 'he I...
mentioned aherna'ive i....If-dof.nse, ahhongh a general norm
foTbid, the "'" of force of one individual again" anothn-, a special
norm p<>nni" ouch no< of fo",. in ...If-defense. When an individual
acto a, he i. authorizM by 'he norm or beh,,.. a. he i. permiued
by Ilorm, he "applies" ,he nOrm. The judge, amhoriHd by
lUtute (lha, is gt'fIeral norm) ". d<ecid. ConCro" "'...,. appl'..
'he .... 'ute to a coneret<: case by a which con,,"u'.. an in
dividual norm. Again, authorized by. judicial deci>iOll to execute
a certain punishment, 'he enforcement offi<:er "'ppli.." the indio
.idual norm of the judicial deci.ion. In ."erei,ing ..,If-defense,
one appli'" the nonn that pennits the use of force. Fnrther, a
norm i. aloo "applied" in rendering a judgment rhar an individual
doe>, or doe. not, behave .. he i. commanded, authorized, or per.
mitted by a nOrtO.
In the broadest ..,0.." any human behavinr de"'nnined by a
n"'mative order a. conditinn nr consequeoce, <;an be ron'idered a,
being authori..:d by thi' order and in thi. "'nse a, being p"'i,ivdy
regulated. Human behavi"" i. regulated nos.,i'ely by" nonnative
order if thi' behavior i' n", fnrLidden Ly the ordtt witMut being
p"'i'ively pumiued by a norm that Hmi" the 'phe... nf validity nf
a forbiddiog nonn, and therefore i' permilled only in a negative
len..,. Thi' merdy negative funuion nf permitting loa' to be dis-
tingui,hr<l from the I""'itive funoion of
becau.., it i. the function of a f'O'itive norm, the meaning nf an "I
of will. The positi"e cha""'ttt of a penni"inn hrwme. particu
larly apparent when the limitatinn nf the .phere of validity nf a
nonn that f",bid. a c.,,-tain conduct i' brought about by a n""m
that permit. the othetwi.., forbidden cnnduct under the condi'inu
that the penni..ion loa' tn be given by an 0'1l"n of ,100 community
au,hnrized. theretn. The negative a. wen a. !>",itive funetinn of
pennit1ing i' theref"'e fuudamentally connected wi'b ,he fune.
tinn of commanding A definite human behavior can be per-
milled nnly within a nonnat;"e nrder that rommand.t dilierem
kiuds of behavinr.
"
.....w ANO NAnJU .,
"To permit" i. also u"'" in the oeme of "to emi,le (b""h!ig.").
II If i. command<d to tnduro that B beh.'e. in a cOT....in way, it i
..id that B i. pennitted (that i. entid<d) '0 behave in thi. way.
And il If i.< command.d to ronder a cOT.... in oervk. to B, it i...id
that B i. pet"min<d (that i., emid<d) '0 r"'eive the oervke of A.
In the Ii"t e..ampl., then, the ..ntenee "/l i. permilled '0 behave
in a cottain way" oay' the .\ame .. the ..nt.nee: "If i. command<d
to enduro that B behaves in a cOT.... in way." And in th.lIOTId e..
ample, the oenttnee: "B i. pet"miued to ""cei,. a cottain ,",...ice
(rom A" oays the ..m. A. the ICIltencc: "A i. command<d to ,..,ndcr
a oe",k. to B." The quality of In behavior "to be permitted"' "
n'OT.ly the reAex of the quality of A'. behavior "to be com
manded."' Thi, kind of "'pcrmitting'" i. not a function of the nor
mative order diff...nt lrom its function of "commanding.""
e) Norm lind VIIlue
If a norm "ipulat.. that a c.min b<h.vior "ought"' to take pl"e.
in the "",," of "commanding" the behavior, the actual behavior
mayor m.y not conform to the norm. The b<havior conform.
to thc norm. if it i. ,uch a, it ought to be according to an obj"",
tively valid norm; it does not cunfom,. if it i, uot.uch., it ought
to be according to an objectiv.ly "lid norm btcau.. it i, the oppo-
.i.. of the behavior that <onfonm to the nonn. The judgmtnt thot
an actual b<haviot iuch a. it ought to b< accotding to an objec.
t;vely,..lid norm i, a value judgment-a positive ,'alue judgmem.
It me.n, that the actual behavior i. "good."' Th. judgment that an
actual b<ha,ior i. the opposite of tho behavior that conform> to the
nonn, i. a negative ,alue judgment. It mcan, that the >ctu.l con
duct" "had" or "evil." An objrctively ,'alid norm aceotding to
which a cOTtain behavior "ough' to be,"' c""stitute positive or
negative value. Th. behavior that ron(orm. to the norm hal a
positive value, the behavior that does not conform a ncgati,e
....lu. Th. norm that i. regarded a. objrcti'ely valid, functiono a'
a , ....ndard of valu. appli<d to aClual b.ha,iot. Value jndgments
affirming that an >c'''''] behavior conform> to 'n obj"'ti"ely
.Coftt<mlnt: ,hi< "p<-ro>''''.... (;. u.. I<no< 01 ""'U";.(1 t fo:m<d, "';mod
,II< dW;",,"'" b<,_ 'mporaU,.." aod "J'<""loU.... bw, nil <lUll""...... how_
,va. bo. ,. b< ma;nlaID<d w;th >np<rt In n.< ",II m.an;np 01 <b< _ - ......
..;",,,,," ..".<I,lIy whel> .po,.,,,".... _ ...u"""'....... C/, lGa,
"
valid norm and is, in 'his ",nl<', "good:' ",. dotJ not confonn and
i.. in ,hi, .e".., "bad:' must be diOlingui.hed from judgment!
about realily thaI affirm-without ",fcre".e '0 a nonn ,..,guded ..
valid. "hidl mearu, in ,h. la<t anol)'.,,, without refeT_
on.e to a pre>uppooed bui. norm-lhal something i. and how it
".
The "".nal "'havlo. to which the value judgment "f...-th.
behavior thot conn;,u'" the objt of 'he valuation and that hu.
pool'i..., OT "<gatlv. valuc-i. a fact ""'''ing in time and .pace, a
parI of 'eality. Only such a fac' can, whw compared with a norm,
be judged to be good or bad. Only .uch a (ac, can La,'. a pool,iv. (>1
".-gat;v. value. II i. reality tha, i. being valued. In:wn''''h a, tbe
Dunno that are the .,.,i, of ,he value judgments are enacted by
human, not superhuman, will. the valu.. con>ti,u,ed by tn"", ate
arbitrary. Otb..... huma" 'en of will can cr.'ll. other nonn. 0PP""
site to the former one.; and the'" other nonno, 'lien, ron"i,u,e
valne. that are opposite to th"'" rom'itutod by 'he onn... Tha'
whkh i. "good" according to the one norm may be "bad" accord
ing to an",he'. Th..eore 'he norm enacted by men and not by
divine authority, can only con"i,ute relative valu... Thi. means:
The validity of a nonn according '0 which a certain behavioY
ought to be,:U well:u the value cornlituted by tlli' norm. does uot
exdude 'he p<>!lIibiH,y 01 the validi'y of a norm according to
which the opposite beh..ior ough' to be ronOli,uting an opposi'e
value. For exampl., a norm could be valid forbidding 10 commit
.uicide or '0 lie under all circum'ta"".., and an",her norm could
be valid permitting or commanding 'uicide Or lie. under cer
lain circum'tanc.., yet it would be impcwible to prove ra,ionally
,Ita, only one <>1 ,h... 'wo nOrm" but nol the Olber, i. the lruly
valid one.
II howev.., 'he nonn preocribing a <;ortain behavior and thu'
con.timting a certain value i. suppo:sed to mlanate Iron' a ouper.
human authorily-fr<>m God or from a nature created by GOO-
thm ,hi. nonn claim. ,h.t the l'O'"ibility of a norm preocribing
'he opposite behavior is exduded. Tb. value COnSlitUtcd by .uch a
norm i' d....-ibcd "aboolute," in conlra,t to the value conn;
'uted hy a nonn .nacted hy buman wHl. The object 01 a "'iemilie
theory of v.lue can only be norm' macted by human will .n<!
valu.. constituted hy ,he.. nontlS.
"
LAW ... NO N"'ruU
.,
i( ili. value i, con"i,u,cd by an objec'i"ely valid norm, ili.n the
judgment that ",,,,ething r.al. an actual human behaviOI. i,
"good" or "b>.d." expreaoes the idea ,ha, ,hi, behavior conform,
with an objec,h'ely valid norm: that the behavior oUgh' to be the
way it i,; or ,hat it doe, no, conform wi,h the objectively valid
oorm: that the behavior oUgh' not '0 be ,h. way it i" Th.n ,h.
,'alue u an "ought" i, placed in jux,aposi,ion to ,ht ttali,y as the
"i,"-,'alue and reali,y belonging to 'wo differtn, .phe,,,,, j"" a,
,h. "ough'" and the "k"
If the sta'.ment tha, a behavior- conform1 or doe, not conform
with an objectiv.l)' valid nonn i< de,ignOled as ....Iu. judgmtm,"
then thi, valu. judgmUlt mu" be di"ingui,hed lrom ,h. norm
tha, com,i,u,e, ,h. valu., Th. , ..Iue judgment can be ,rue or un
,rue. becauoe i. refe... '0 a norm of a valid orde., For example. the
judgment ,hat .ccording '0 Chr;"ian mo",lity it i, "good" to lov.
on.', friend, and to hale one', enemi.. ;. umru' benu.. a norm
of the valid Cnri"ian mo...lily command, to lovt not onJ)' one',
friends but also one', enemi.., The judgment ,ha, it is logal '0 in.
flic. upon a thitl the 01 death i, unITu. if 'he valid law in
qu..tion comm.nd. '0 puni,h a thief by deprivation of l=dam
hu< no, by depriva,ion of life, A nonn, how.ver, cannot be eith.r
<ru. or un,rue, bu< only valid or no, valid,
The judgm.nt..-......lled-pronounced by a judge. i, no mOre
a judgm.nt in the logical oen.. of the wor<!, ,h.n lh. norm ,hat he
applie., That "judgmem";', in"e.d, a ""rm-an individ=J norm,
limi,ed in i" validi,)' to a concre,e ca.:. as di<,ingui>hed from a
gentral uonn, called a "law,"
The value comti,u,ed by an objec'i.ely .alid norm mu" be dis-
,ingui,hed (rom ,h. value tha, con,i,.. (nOl in ,ht rtlation '0
norm. bu<) in ,he relation of an object '0 the wi,h or will of an
indi.idual directed a, thi, objto. If ,h. object i, in accordance or
nOl in accordanc. with the wi,h or will. it ha, a pooitiv. or n.ga-
.iv. value: i, i, "good" or "b>.d," H ,ht judgmtm d<'1Crihing ,he
relation of an object to ,he wi.h or will of an indi.idual, i, d.,ig_
nated a, a value judgment and ,h. objec' which i, in accordance
wi,h ,he wi,h or will a, "good:' lht object which i, not In accord.
ance wilh ,Itt wi,h or will a, "bad," ,hen ,hiJ judgmtnt i,
not difJ...", from a judgm.nt abou' reality, Fo.- i, d.soibe, only
tht rel ..ion belWten two fKu, not the r.lation be,.,'.en a fac, and
aO LAw ANu NA-ruU
an ,- 'j,ivdy valid notm; i, i, only a .pial judgment about uaol_
ity.
If somebody "'l" that IOmething i. good or bad, but if ,hi, " ..e-
ment is m..ely ,he imm<:di..e up,,,,,ion of hi. emotional attitude
toward a certain objl, if it ex",<:ss<:I that be wi.h"lOmethiog or
<10<:. nol wiob it but it. contrary, then .h
e
.tatement i. nO value
"judgment,"' bau'" it i. not a function of 'ognition, but a lunc-
tion 01 the emotional component of consciou.n...; and if this emo-
tio","l reaction refe,.. to the beha,'ior ofanoth.. individual, then it
i. the up,,,,,ion of an emotional appr""al or disapproval, akin to
the exclamation "bravol'" or "phooeyl"'
The value tMt comi", in the rda.ion of an objcct_patticubrly
of behavior_to the wi,h or will of an individual can be dcsignat<:d
a. Juhjec/iw ,.. Iue, in con.ttadi"inctiOll to Ihe val"" that con.ist>
in th. rela.ion of a behavior to an obj<:cti".ly valid norm that ,an
be designated .. obj<:rliu. valu. 1 the judgment ,h.t a behavior i.
good me,..,ly "'eam th.t it i. wime<! by another individual. and if
the judgment that a behaviur i. bad me""ly mean. that the oppo-
.ite behavior i. wi.hed by an individual, th.n the values "good"
and "'had" ui" only for 'he indi,'idual who wi,hes tbe bellavior.
but not for tb. individual wh= beh.vior i. wished. If a judgment
lhal a behavior;' '"good"' mea", thaI the behavior conform. with
an objlively valid norm (and if the judgment that a behavior i.
"'bad"' mcan. thaI i, docs not confonn with an objtively valid
nonn), then the ",loes "'good" and '"bad'" e"i" 101" ,he individual.
who"" behavior i. being judged, that i., lor an individual. wh<l$<:
behavior i. rcgutat<:d by Ih
e
objectively nlid O<lnn ,egardl"" 01
wheth.. th... individual. Ihcm..\ves wish this behavior or not.
Their behavior, th.n, h.. a positi." or n,galiv, ,..10', no' bccalU<:
it is wished or not wished. bill bccau"" it ronforms. or docs not
'onlorm. with a n01"m, Th, act of will. whose objective mcaning
the nOrm is, docs not com, into colUid.....tion .. far .. the ",Iue
judgment i, concern<:d.
Value in the .ubj<ctivc sen... lhat is. the value tba. con.i", in
the ""Iation of an objcet to tl><: wi.h 01" will 01 an individual i. dis-
.inguiilicd [rom value in tb, obj<c.ive ...... (tha. i., ,be ",Iu.
thaI coMi", in the ""lation of a behavior 10 an objectively valid
norm) allO by the bet Ihat th, .ubjtlv, value can ba,', varion<
"
LAW ">10 >I"TUn
"
<kgrtt:s. For ,be wUh or will of an individual i. ""pable 01 '!I,fIer
em degr<:.. of in,emily. But a graduation of an objective volue i,
not p<:>Mible beeau.. a bebavior aln only <:<Inform or nOt conform
with an objectively valid notm, but cannOC do '" more or I....'
Value judgm.nt< ,ha, "ate an objroive value arc designated as
oLjttti..-volu. judgmen,,; th""" that "ate a lubjecti .. ".lu ..,
lubjttti,'e."lue judgment<. If thus d.fined, the adjec';""' "objtt_
live" and '",ubjective"' ,-dn- to thtated valu"" not '0 ,h. judg.
""n' function a. a lunction of cognition. AI a lunctWn 01
cognition any judgment h.. to be objective, that ii, it must be pc"
lormed without regard to the wi.h.. of the judging individual.
Th;' i. """ibl. lt II """ihle to determine the telotionlhip of a
specific hum.n behavior to a normative order_namely whether
the behavior doc. or docs not conform 10 the order_wi,hout tak
ing an emotional "",ilion, either approving or disapproving,
towanl thlo order_ Take for example, the qu."ion whether accord
ing to ehri..;"" morality, it i. good '0 love one', enemi... The
atuwn- to this qu..tion, and ,he,..,lore the value judgment that
goes wi,h it. can and mu" be given wi,hout regard to whether the
one who h.. to gil', the answer approv,," or disapptov.. loving the
enemy. Or another example: The amw.. '0 the question whether
according to a valid law the d.ath penalty ought to be imposed
upon a murderer and consequently wnether-legally-the dea,h
penal,y in case of mutder i. valuable. can ond must be given with
out regard to whether the one who h.. to give the an,wer approve<
or dioapptmcs 01 ,he death penalty. Only ,hen I, the v.lue judg.
"'en, objective_
To sum up: If ,he judgment pronounce, the re1a,ionlhip of an
obj"", (..pecially of human beha"ior) '0 the wi.h or will 01 an
'1/ norm p...."l............\0< ..hkh I. pooo;bl< !D dll<ri", ~ I, look>
so If .... nocm mold b< ob<y<d ;ft dikri"l _ ,hot 10. mot< .. 1<00. Tb;, ;,
1>1l><,. h.......... If. "" =mpk. norm JW""rl"'" tha, m..."'" _, ,. b<
1"'"1""" by '''''''1 l"'n 1ft priooa. ODd If. tkn, _ .,.", f'lI" ...... ",u",," by
l;lt-""" Imp""",....t oM ._",.n f'lI";"'" "'.""" by "" Ttl'" ;m".......
m<nC it " "'" 'n>< that .... Judlt"""" io ....00--.. 'ft ""''''''''''T with the
no.m , ppllo<! ..1 tho ""''''' ......" bu' no"b ;, in """....'1 If
..... p...rn"" .,.,iT "", mu",," ""lih' tQ b< p"ftlobed by prl""" wli t ""-
...... '"1.. ,It< l<r1Ith 01 I.,p,'-""'. ,,,,",, l.""""t l",pooI"lI lil.,.""" "......
;, .....__" '" ooolQnnl'T with th< """" tQ b< .pp]lo<! ' , . < d ~ ....., Impooi"ll
,_.ft'l"" "",..n ftO, - " bu,.11 ,hr J""_t< """y;ft <000"""'''1
w , , ~ the ........ Tb< " "I<a- do .... rn.-. '" II>< _fono.l"I ho, '" ,lI<
puniob"""'.
..
lAW ANI> ""Til""
individual (that i., a value). then 'hi' vallie judgment
i...obj<eti....," if th. judging individual p,onounc.. it without re-
pro of "'M,hor h. him..U appro'-.. or di..pprov.. of ,h. be.
havior, bUt .imply .""rta;ns th. r..Ct tltat one individual or many
individuah wi,h 01 will an nh]"", (or i" oppooite), particularly
'ha' they 'ppTOVC or di..pprove a .pecifie l>ehavior.
W. ue making a di.uru:'ion, 'hen, 1><lw" value judgment.
<hat ....1. an obj"'i",, value describing. ,el.,i"..,hip betw" a
b<havior and a norm a. objectively valid, and an' ,h".
fo.e fundamentally diff.r",,, from a judgment aOOm .Iily; and
value judgme"u that su,.. a subject;ve value by d.""ribing a rela-
tiomhip ""twn an objtt. {.pc<;i/iaUy a behavior} and the fact
that an individual or many individual. wi,h ,hi, obj"", or it>
op",,";,e (."""iocally approve or disapprove 0 delini'e khavior)
-,h..e b1tct .....Iue judgment> ,h..ero" king me'ely ,?"cilic
judgmenu about rroli,y. Again" ,hi. di",nct;on i' i. objected 'hat
the ronner value judgmon" Or< al.., judgment> a!>ou, .eali,y.
bc<:auoe---J<> it il said-the nonn 'hat i. 'he ba.<iJ of 'he value judg-
mem i. crea,ed hy a human comm.nd ",. by cuuom, therelo,.., hy
fac" of =piri<;.ol r.,..lity. It i. further argued ,h., 'he ,..,Ia,io" 01 a
fac' (.pedfically of actual khavior) '0. norm i. the,..,f",.e me,..,l)
the relation ktween fact> of empirical ,..,ali'Y. Thi. objeCtion /ails
to diuinglt'sh between 'he fac' of the .ct of command or the 'ct>
coTUti,uting 'he custom .nd the norm that i' crea,ed by 'h..e .ct>,
'he lormer iJ. fact, 'he IaueT' me.ning. Th..efore 'he reladon
ktween an actu.l khavio' and. norm; .nd 'he .el.,ioo k ....eon
this khavi",. to 'he fac' wh<e mean,ng 'he nOrm i,. are two
differen' "Iatiom. It u on,i,ely posJible to delCIik the ,..,I.,ion
k,ween 0 khavior .nd the norm "'pul.ting 'hat ,hi. khavior
ought '0 k. without taking into coosid""'ion the ac' of command
or custom by which 'he nonn was created. Thi. i. .. for e"
ample. when We of norm. 'hat w= c:st3bJi.h
e
d a long time
ago; 01 nonn' created by ,he ac" of men long dead or fo.-gott",,; or
or norm. e.peda]]y, created by the custom of earlier gene..ti""
so that the men wh"'" conduct iJ regulated by th..e norm. are
.wale of them only meaning>. When a .pttific conduct i. judged
to k motally good or bad (because conform,ng or nOt confonning
to. moral norm regatdcd as v.lid). one i. u.u.lIy not aware of the
cnstom cha, created 'he moral norm on which the judgment i.
"'W ASI> NATtIU
.,
baed. Alxn"e all. '-ever, the _ br which legal n""",, are ere-
IUd...."., into oomidera.;,;.. ... 01>;.0. ofl<pl Jgnil;';" ...Iy ...
br they are detmnirood by Iqal DOmIS; aDd tht: buic t>Oml, tht:
u1tUmle fur tht: n1idhy of thcoe nonDt," DOt anted br a
rc:;tI .,ilI at all, bu... p'.....pptIItfd i.. legal thinl<ina;.
By "nh",N we aIoo _ tht: rdation of........min&- op<d5colIy
h"man beh:tTi.,.., as :0 IOteUtI to :0 cerulrt mel .,.. purpooe. Suitable-
1M*, tho. it, to be ..,table for a a ......' .. purpooe... the p:lOitiye
Y;llue; ...btn>.... the nepLi"" n1ut. Tho! purpooe may be
obp"" Itt ItIbjeain. An objt.ive pulJl'05" i' OM tho. ow,hl to
be .nlued, thot m....n.. a purpooc thot hal been Illpulaled by ..
nonn regarded ... objecliyely n1id-a purpooe. in oc.her words.
pl"QCribt:d for nature in genenl Itt for .....n ;n particular by
,upern.tu...l or .upnhu.....n .uthority. A JUbiecliw purpooe ..
One eo",!:>li.h"" by ",an hi",..II... putpo!<' that he ... i$h(l 10
uhieye. Tbe nlue. III"dore, that consisll in the eonformity ... ith
a purpooe. ;. Identkal either willi the Y;tlue that <:on1;'11 In con
fonnity with. uonn Or with the nlue tN. conJoo in ronf...."'lty
with a wi$h.
If _ disregard that a realiud purpooc .. ootrtahi", tha .......
fomu to a ............. to a w4h, tbm the rdation bnWl"l fOQ and
mel maoifests itidf .. a rela.ion bean a.use and dect. Sotne-
til,,,, ....itable for a P'''POW if it is Ii. to rnlize the pU'f'll: to
hoi.. about, as "'...... the d"ect thol oonst.ituta lhe pu1"f'O'l"- "",
judplet>t .. oomnhi,. ill p."po"tful om be a ..bjeoive .". objec-
Live n.1.... judgment. dtpmtIiat ... tht: IUbjeoive or objt.ive char
KU1 of <be purpooe. ButltlCh a n1... judgmen... ....ly ...
he baPo of ... insigbt ,nto 1M causa1 rdationlh,p bnWtttl the
facts .. are ro:pn:lalu ma and 11oooo:: reg;;ord"lI_ end. If it ..
l'U<l8"ized tha. a rela'ion of 0 and dfect noo bnWtttl" and
b (Iba. " iJ the "'..... and b the ell:.). 'hm. and ...ly 'hen.
Oln we arriYe at the (SUbj:liye or objtiye) Yalue judgment; U
b i. wislted as .. purpooe or "ought to beN aoctmling '0 norm.
'hen" iJ purposeful. that it, .ui"'ble for the pUtpolC. The judg
nll:1\' .onceming the rel..tion between .. and b i. a--<ubJcctl,e or
obJcctiye---value judgmen, only 10 <he extent Lltat b i.
a. a 'ubjec,i,e or objective ""tpo!<'.
(;1.,"'_1*
S. TK. SocLu. o.x..

.) SiC Or4cJ I'rucribi"f SaIoctiMu
beh.>.ri<:r of an iudMdu.al c:u> be-bu.1 need not be-in reb-
lion 10 O<htt a man CUI bdIa.... in" ,""",,,in ><lOy lOW1nI
atIOtber man. but r.. an do 00 ,,100 tawnd "njmalo plan... aM it>-
ani.... obja:tJ. "1M relation of or>e ind'wid..w to othu ind;rid...
ab can M dit-tn or indi,fU. M'urdn is bddovior of. llIurdnn
tOWU'd the mun;k,cd , di,ca relation betWffD """ individu.al
and anothtt. He "00dcHfOJ'f " valuable objtcC xli dim:tly in ,..,-
La,;oo 10" thing, bUI indirtaly in relation to m.., who arc inleT-
nlM in ,he "bjocc, particularly i" own.,.., A norlI\llti", oroeT ,ho,
.'Sul.,.. human behavior in Its dirt,,,, or indi."", r.l"tionJ '0 oth.r
human beings, is " 0.,0;;.1 ortle. Moral, and law are loch lIOCial
orde...
0" ,h. other hand. JOllie hal as ,ts bjtel n"U", normative
oro.... that don not ha""" _ill] chano FOT act.! of hunun
.hought. which at<: .cgul,"cd by 1M OOOUllof this Older. do J10I
rdn toothn human btingt; ...... not think HIOWUd" a.....htt
...... in the w:a, 1":11 on<! _ tow:Ird ano<h<:r man.
n.. behavior of ..... individual toward 0lhnI1IUJ be ...mol 0<
dnrimmr..! for theIn. From " point of
....... the function of ......,. oocial ardtt is '" btitla about " unain
bcha....... 0( c.M indiridual'JUbjecc 10 thisoodn-; 10 mocinu tMm
10 rcfr.Iin from unain XU dumed "_ally," .hat is,
10 Othn iDdirid""ll; and 10 perlonn a:naiD _ dftmcd lOCially
uodul. ThiI DlOIivuiOS function ;. n:ndo:n:d b,. Ille idea m.... have
of nornlI, whidl """""'nd or forbid a:nain hullWlllCll.
I>q>n>dinl!" OIl the IlWIner in wh;d\ hUlD2>l :octI"'re con""...ndcd
or forbidden. diff...... ' tyl"'" nuy be Ire ideol
lypeI. "'" Ivtngc lypeI. The lIOCi.o.l order nuy comnund I ttrt.\;"
humIn behavior withOut It ....chinl!" Iny CO<l""'lumce to the 0!Je'y.
inll' or dilObcying of the commlnd. Or the IOd.l order nuy com
mInd I de6nite hunun bcl....v;or and It ,he ..me time (Ol'''tXt wi,h
,hat ""hovior ,he gUnling of ,n Idvantage,'" re......rd: Or with the
oppooi ""hovior , dil.l.dvontagc. puni"'mcnt ;n the broad..t
..me of II>c WOTd. TI>c princ:;ple. to react upon ... e......in hum,n
behavior with or puni"""..", ;.. Ill. principle of I.,ribu
.,
lioD. a.......-d and pwtil.hmn>t .....y be cUled .,anctions," b...
....wI, only pm,"'_ ;. '"alkd..
fI...J.IJ.aoocialordoor to'm'nda
anaia bdlm... by j_altaehiDc a to the oppooIlC
behayior.!oI" c:umpl... dqlri.,.t.ion of be>lt.h, heedom, ""-'<.
..wuw thai. it, br punbhooeol in tbc _ of tbc
word. Therefore, <lOX mar ...y d:J,;ot a urtain bo:ba.ior is Rcom-
....ndc:d. by a tocial ordtt I.Dd-i.D. aoe of a lcpI onkr_is 1q;lIly
nwmanMd, only imobr ... the (OI\tnl'J bdlavior is a QOndition of
a W>Ction (in the narrowtT of the wonI). If a _ial onl....-
lik Lbt Iqpl a bch,;ov;or by p'lS(fibi"l a sanc-
lion in <alot of <be oppooile "'''''''Y;OI, !hi>..,t of drcunulancQ CW
be dexribcd by a xnlCMc lIating that ill the ."ene 0( a certain
behavior ,"<...-...in ..nCl;ono.. be cxecuu:<!. By this il implied
th.. dl< Ixh"Yiot condi,iooiog ,he ...ncti"" i. ('Tohibitl, the 0PP<>-
,ite bellaviorcommanded: The bchaviorwhich is "commanded" ;.
not the behavior which "ough,".o be attuted. That a bcl..vior is
".OflumUlde<!" mum ,ha, the IflltuT behavior i. <.he a>ndition
of a unctiou which "ought" lO be uocuttd. The nccu.ion of the
..nction is (i.e...1 is the waten' of a ltpl obliaa
tioa), if tbc is the conditioa of a oanction. If Ihit ..
not the caot, tht sannioo is only ,"..thorned. DOt commanded.
SiI'lCC tIlii rqrcaion 001>0< SO on ioddiDi.dy. "'" a- anctiocl iD
thilcbaiD emcaly bl' autbooUcd. nOll oommo.nded.
It folI-. that withiD ouch a IloOl'1Do.ti.-., ordtt "'" """".......
may be-iD thil...... :om:n'oded and focbiddoero a. the _
aDd tIw this oi"...tion .....y IN: d<a<ribed without Iop:;al con-
tndiai<llL Thil .. "'" cue if a anain condua is "'" condition 01 a
lllllC'ioD and at the ....... ti_ the omiMion 01 this conduc, is also
,he conditiOD 01 a 1lDl;t>oa. Th( tWO nonns: ough' to booN and
".....ght nOll to IN:" aduck nell och.... insofar .. ClID"'" M
obc:ym or applied by ,h( lllm( at ,h( lllm( ,im(; only
onc can M valid. BUI ,hc ''''0 nOTmo: "Il. is, x (lUght.o Ix"
"If non-<l is," ollgh, '0 M" u( l\Ol mutually nclUli,(. tWO
norm. can be valid .. thc lOme ,ime. Under a lcpl ordcr a .illla
lion may ""i" in which a c.......ln hum.n khavior and a, ,he ilaJJte
time ,he oppooitc Mh.-ior is the condi,iOll 01 a sanction which
Otlgh' to M nocUled. Th( tWO nornu can k valid .id( by >ide.
Tbqr can be deocribed wi<l>Oollogical co,:undic.ion, bu, they ex
pr_ two con8icW1s poli.ial lDW!encin a l.elcological ((IIl.8ia..

li.uati<>n is poooibJ... b\lt p:.IiLi<:U.ly ...,...jJ><"l<lrf. Thnd.....
kpI Okn uou:all, CO<Iaoifl nal... I<r<lniiJIc <0 which OM 01 Ilor
two DOmIS is inVlllid or IILI, innlidal:od.
lMol:or ... U>e m WI f\lllClK>no as a ..ncr_ Ilor pullilhmm.
in 1M wi&>< ...., I ha$ 10 Ix inAicud apilUl Ihl: will cI w
dtcd iudiridllal; and iNobr _, iu hai
10 Ix infIio:torl by tortt.1lor eanctioo. """ the duo_..... of a ronriw
act. A ..........uw onln, which prn<ribn conri.... ICII a. unctions
(that is, II t<:actions ..im< a cnu.in human bollaviCll"). is
conei.... ordn. But cotrei.... Iof;,. an be arc ...
llCribed in a legal order. u we oluoll oce-nOl only as Ul"lClioo., l>u.
II reac,iorn .gainst oocially und..luble leu that do nO. ""v.. <Il..
choracttt of human behavior and arc ,herclorc DOl to be .tg:Irdro
u probibiWI.
}'rom a .odologicalplychologic.>1 point 01 vicw, reward or pUll.
ishment arc onlcred III make the d..iu ror reward and th. fur 01
punWuncnl the moti_ for a _wly d"';roblc behavior. But
actually thil bo:h.aviOT may be b,"",,&h. about by 0<11... moc;vCl.
According 10 ilS "'II......... moning. .he order may ..."".
lion> .',hou. '<gud 10 !he _i_ tint xtually. in _It. sinp,
ax. b......gb. about l.Iu= bth,,,ior conditioning 1M ",noions.
lD02fiiog of the O<'dtr .. ap<ftSl:d in <he ....lI:IMI>l lila. in l.Iu=
cue of a oem... bdl:lvior_b<oughl about by _i.-eo--
Y""m[m u.. be...", ........ 01 u.. wOl'd, tha, ... """"m"" pw>-
ishmulI) cugb. 10 be cucutal 1Ddet:d. an onkr _y auxh a
u-ward 10 a bduovi".. only if i. had 001 bttn DlOlino:od by 1M
dfaift f".....-..anI. F.,. a moral 0Idn may honOf only u..
om who d.... good dHds for wir -.. san, noIlor hQnor'IJlk.e.
Sina in d>t I<ftgoins pIlgtl ,Ite liditr of a 1OCi.1 ord.... has
bem diltinguishcd from iu dI'.iva> i. mould be noot<\.ha. a
klCial onl.... prdCribing rewom.".. i. ellli.'e in 1he
li'enlleme of ,Ite wort inlOU. only .. the beh.vior condi,ioning
,h. reward il cnued by ,he desire lor ,he """'Td, .nd the behavior
avoiding punWunen, b hy ,he fr'T of punl.lhmrn,.
How......... " i. ulu.1 to <prat of .n elftivr order al", if the be-
havior of !hi: individuob IUbj'rd to onler by .nd I.'it' cnm:.
spondo to ,he order, tha, i. to Hy, if ,he individu.b by and l.rge
by ,heir behavior fulfill .hr condi.iono of .... , .....n!nd ..oid
"
., :... n'''''
"p;lAO.I<1<l"'!P AlI....olU Jl"''',,!q "OW
pu. "\I....DWlU! <:>"oq>q "''1' '.lOl"",,>q :lll.oddo ''fl .,.'lO.ldd
.lO 101"4"'1 p"pU.WlllO:> ''1' "Ao,dd..!p ,(po<pm", Jl 'p"AO,dd"'fP
.lO!u'l><l ,,[,oodo ''I' "-"'1'0> ''1',('1 p:I.>OJdd. "'I <" '!l:J>!qn. ,uo
''l'lo .IO!A"'lXJ. ""PUIUIlOO:> ''1' "l(l AjOo:>UO'ljOW" 'pUClUUlOJ 1]
"O!A0'l><J "!'tl. p".mWOJ JJp10 \ ....OlU. JI :'"'1' Im0ll >q "nm
If "'pro I""om "'jUOjPu,,", J<' A'fll'l!"'od ''1' 01 J.:Ipm "I
."'ll''' .0018
"H" ,n",. 1"'11 '" pUt "OO!""'rl \-.nu'p"',,""l!.l' '1'1'" "IUo uo
lnq 'ouop"",," Inolll!" J.:Ip.lO [UOlU. >OIl f! 11 'PI'''"'' "!'l' II! 1I1,m
"l{S!und!OJ .p!Ao,d IOU Pop 'Pi'!'" JOp'" l""'w '1'1' ul p>pnpU!'1
ppo.. J.:I'I'O:l'" "! 'lQ<D'l'lUnd ""IV "poo.\l 'Il]M poo.\l >tIl "tOO 'OU
pUt '1'1'" 11"" :>11,,1, lOU =pO<j..._ppo.... '!'11 U! IIollnqlJ101
JO 'Idpu!,d ''Il jO UOl'''''!1dd. "1' ..,.mo"'" 0'1'" .1l0 ''1' 01
UIOJd '1 PJ\!1>1.>J (J"ltl.J'>O ,ou qS""",[") AjU'''''''H '!"'pop"" AI....!'
.u;> '00 '! jO ,[dpopd ,,,, P'q>U"" ,.,,,8!,, JO "p'o
[UOW "'" O! u;>A> ""oJ""'''' po. 'p'L"'" .1[0,.\0'" ,,,, 01 "",,, u'J
",J ,,,,,,,r ""m.. ,,,, 01' "., ,,,, 0>," 'OU O{l
,n"" '''0,/ P'''''''' '0,/'" 'noA '''OJ 0,/'" "",/1 '''01 n"" JI .>0.'1
"Im.o> ,no, ,MI, no" 0, A'" 1 '''II :Aw,u, ,no....." 1'''. "'"
,,,S!'U ,noA II"'" no}., '1'1'" '" '! ,.", 1".'" "." no}. .
1!.....! 0,/"'00 "I''''' 10" oa no" 0' ..'" 1 ,ng :,,'00' ,oJ "'001
.1'''. , .., U. 'OJ'l.> uY. '1'1"' ...'" 'I ,.", '''"1/ no.\" :poooS
JoJ poooS '11"'.>Oj !1,;>-,u;>m.,"'.L 1'10 ''/' JO 'Idp"!m ",,!In,!!,',",
'lJ1 11[" "1P"p!p ,,, "'''oq ',uoIP"'" "'I'" JOp.lO luom "
,[ood 01 ''''''<IS lug ,. ru". lOU 0>0Jl ,,,, Uo uow.l>S 'I" U[
'."ur 'JOp.lO [olbl ''Il wo;q P"ll'lnSU!"!p "'I""'''' '! puo '...,p.lO lOP
..,.," 'PO"'1 0' P"""P!OUO"I "plO l1Uow'lJ1 Allon.o 'p"!lddo 'OU
'! uo[,n'l!'''' JO 'ldpUIJd "'I' 'P!"'" "! "plO u" 't[
111 'OJ ,u,m'l'!und '0 'I '01 p'L"'" .lIU!'!,.,," InO"'!'" :IO!'mj
"><] U!"u>:> pUOtuIllOO '"lJ1 'Uo '! (pro." "'l' jO >1["" "1'1" 'lJ1
U!) '00"""'" SUIQ!J:>t>,d JO!,-,o I"!""" " lllO.Ij '''''".!lIP "IPUp'la
1'''''!l'u"S /no"m "'P'D IOPOS 'U'I.L ',V ('I
'SU!""",U 'I",n., " IOu
"'" ""O>'!l"JP JO ,d"uo, ''I' ...." '!'1' U! p:ooO 'JO".,,>q Jl'''' JO
"!IOW 'II' 01 p.l.lb, ,nolJ11'" 'tlu,wqt!und "'l' 10 tOO!'!I''''''''Il
"
"I<V MY1
LAW ... '<0 NAT1JU.

"" die <II. the _unity an: JmKd as motam and
putJi>hmen. rnd .....,. thndon: be inlerpTeted as o;lIlCIi_ Somt-
li"".,..My:oK mote JanCtionJ than Olho:r f_0#. Tt;1O'ini
UId puniohmmt, "'i<fy 0.- hllrl man'. <ksi", for
n:p<1ta.ioa,. ...hid> .. OM olihe _ irapanan. componmu of ,he
inuiDn 100- " iloo be noud <luI the , .... monl
ntw= the one command"" a o:rooin bchariur and 1M(lilt I"""
tcribinll dioopprunol for the opptasitc bchariur_" -...iall,
conna:ltd, and Ionn a uni,y. " is ,hnriort doubtful wllKhcr a
di$linctioo between iOWol Olden with and wilhout NJICtiom iI
paulb!. The only "'I nt dilf....ence ""... social orden il not
,II>' """" prncribe OCt"'" and the hen do noc. bu. that they
prescribe dilf""mllypn of ..ntl;ons.
c) T"m,unlfcnlal and $od.Uy ImmGnent Sa..elio'"
The unctions p,ncribo:d b, a oocial ord a.., citl>er ,nnocelllkn
...1 or socially immanent. Tn.nl(cndcn l ..nCli..,," arc ,,,- ,hal
xmrding to the fai'" of .he individuals '0 .he ordtt
orillinau from supnhu....n aull,onty. SI><:h wth is.
clnnmt 01 a primi,;vc mtnwi.,. Early l>Iart IU.lUnl
C",...u that alfcct hi. ialmmialC in_acmrdiDg to <he principle
of tftributioo: f.nonbk "en.... ,..,...,.,u for the ob... ':ona. un
.. as for diJ<epnl. of the ""itlins oocw
ooda"... Originally i. w probably lho opirilS 0( the dtad which,
ocmrdin, to the rei....... idao of earl, ....n. 1'n':IIrd JCIcialIJ I""'d
bd>a,ior with .....,.. in the hWl" a ri<:h h1n..... ricIOC'J ill ba..
hnJth. Intili...,. and long and which. puniob bad bd>aYi<w
with and death. Nat"". llOciJ.ll, interpretedppean ""
oocial ordc.-oonnf:C\i ... a h,,=n behavior with
anc.ion.. This order has a rdigioul chataet.... Bu, even
within of the hlghal ...",bnh, .uch "' J"""'"
Chrilolian. ,he nonnative of na'ure phyla part that
Is not to l>< und...n.im..ed. [.'m mod"", man. hi, by mio-
fortune. will ohm instinctively uk: Whl, hIve I done to deserve
such puni>hmentl will be i!>Clined to Int...pret hit good
fortune ao I'Cward for conscientiouo obocrv;otM:C of Cod'o com
mlt>dJ.. In thi; n:tptet hip... religionl arc diJtinguiihcd
-(I. ,.
LAW ""0 ""T<IU
.,
from the primitive 00'" only"" far a. th.y add to th...nction. to
be executed in thi. w()Tld tho:oe that are impo:oed in th. other
world-by God nther than by the .pirits of the de"". Those ..nc
,ion. are tt01tt.\ttnd.ntal not only in 1M ..noe that th.yoriginal<
from a .uperhuman and th.,-"fore .uper.odal authority, but that
they are executed ou"id. society and even ouuide thi> world
within a transcend.ntal .phere.
Diff...", from the tran.\Cendental ",nction. ate ,h"", that not
only take place in ,hi. world and within society. but are e ~ " " u t e d
by ,h. members of the IOdety and may therefore be de>cribed as
"socially immanem" sanetion.. Those may con.i" mer.ly in ,he
approval or di",pprovaJ expre...,) by the f.lIow members or in
.pecific actJ dirrcted against othen, that i., in act. to be perfonned
by CCItain individuals de.ignated by the lOCial order in a pro-
erdu.. regulated by this order. Th.n one can .peak of socially
organized ..nction.. The old"'t ..""tion of thi< kind i. blood
rrvenge as praCtic.d in primiti," society. Thi. i. a ..nction by
which the primi,iv. social order react. against th. fact 'hot a
mrmber of a gr<lUp con"ituted by blood ..lati<ln>hip (the nar
rower or wider family) kill> ,he member of another group of this
kind in a natural way or by m.gic. 1t i. to be ex,,",uted by the
member1 of ,he laner again.t the member1 of ,h. former group.
Murd.r wi,bin a group originally Wi< probably ..nctioned only by
th. r.v.nge taken by thpirit of the murd.red on the murderer.
But inJOlar a. the .piri, of the d.ad has power only within hi. o"'n
gr<>Up, a murder committed by a m.mber of anmher group can be
re....na:.d only by acts of the victim', relati,. Only ,be nonfulfill
m.nt of the obligation for revenge i. ,ubject to the transcendental
..nction of r"".nge from the lOul of ,he murdered. It .hould be
noted that blood rev.nge, this old.., socially organized ..nelion,
originally work.d only in the rel.,ion between group. It d...'el
oped to a "lUerion fonctioning within one and the .. m. group
only when the social cQlflmuoity cornpril<'d. 'Veral groups con"i
,u,.d by blood ..latioo.hip and hence wos larger than a mete
lamilygroup.
Sociologically, the ,..,1Igi<>U. dev.lopment was characteri,ed by
centralization of ,huperhuman authority, in...... of it< powet,
and in.....e of the di nc. be'ween the autbori,y and man. Th.
many .piri.. of the d d ",e,.., teduced to a f.w god. and finally '0
so l,AW 4tm NATUU:
one a11-powerluJ. Cod tnnSfo:rred Ul aoothtt world. How lIluch tIu:
IDcial MIca of .etribution doalilWftl this developlllent "-' tIu:
fact Wt wllm ""'" in his faith in .:oddition Ul this world
UI<It.b!T world. thm this otiIeT world. in with tbr prin-
ciple ol .ewm and pu.ttisltmml" lpIit inUl a bclym fO< the pId
and a bdIl<Jt the nil
It i mw-bhle tIw of the two AlK'lions nwvd and ptUlioh
tDml" the Iat= pl.I,. a much ItMIn: illlpot'Wlt role in mal n:ali.y
than the f"",,". This is shown ..... only by the fact that """ ......
important social ordtt. the ItpJ ordtt, essmt.ial.ly "",Us UK ani,
ol punishmenl" but "'fially dearly uoda" a ..,ial de.. which
..iU hu a purely .ellgioll. characteT. Wt i ..,ial order gua....n
teed only by tnnSCenderllal suw:tiom. The morally or Itpl1y cor
rc<:t behavior of primitive men. espe<:ia.lly in the observance of the
numer(lU' pmhibitionl-,he oo<alltd t>.bul-i. de.ermlntd pri.
marily by .he fear of milfar.unet imposed by a ouperhumllt au
tllorit}'---dte 'piriu of the dead_a rt3<:tion againn the viol..i""
of the t....ditional order. The hop<' ofrcwud. if compared with the
fear that domina..,. 1M lile of the primitiv.... pial" only. tubordin.
ate role. II. the religious belieb of civiJiICd mm. too. attordinr'o
which dioine .e'"bution is IlOI (or not onI,) impooal in thi<
world hut in the world boeyoad, fear of punisJtmenl after death
IUa ...... pb. Tbt i.a:lI&e of hell '" the place of punisltmmt is
lIlucb ID(Ir'C >i'rid th.s.a the uaually ......, idea of a lile in hea'"m
which is the TeW3T'd for piet,. Evn wbct> no limiu are imf"*d 011
1IWl', wisb-ful6lli"l phulwy. it p'oouca. a cwder
which is ..... fund ....... wly dikrm. &om that of the _piria1
tocieI,.
6. Ttli Uc.u. o....a
.) Tite lAw: A.. Ordtr of Hu.......
A theory 01. la.. mu.. btgin by deSning iu object ....tter. To
arrive at a definition of Ia... it i. convenient .o.....rt from the Ugge
of language. that i '0 determine 'he meaning of the ..ord "law"
.. equivalem '0 ,he Gennan word F..nch d,oil, Italian
dir;/IO. Our ta>lr. will bt to examine whether the oocia1l'hC11Oll1ena
f...u&, .., N... I................. "' .... e..- ...,".. , die -"'"0(
""'-11<0. elk <100 W...._ 10 .. __St><>Ik -.I _ Aoot"'-
.. __ ....- (_. _,. _,. -",,-.- -n. _"1oW- ..
___........ _ .... __.... Ia.. "' ...,-.
UW AND NATIJU
,.
by word, ba"e common char.u;<eri>tiOi by wbich
tbey may be distingui,hed from 'imilar phenomena. and wb"h""
th..., characteristic> arc ,igni6GU\t enough to aerve a, for
a concept of ooci.l...,ien,ilic cognition. The roul, of 'w:h an in
v..tiga.,ion could conceivably be 'hat the word "law" and its
equivalmts in oth"" language> d..ignat.. "" nuny different objcet1l
tha, ,hey canno' be comprehended in one concep'. Howev"". this
i' no< 10. Becau..,. whm we compare 'he objects 'ba' have been
d..ignated by 'be word "law" by different peopl .. a' dilf""mt
'imo, we see 'ha' all ,he.. objec.. ,urn out <0 be onl..,., 01 hum40
b'havioT. An "ord.,... i. a 'y""'" of nor"", whose unity i. comti
tUted by the fact tMt they an has'e 'he ..me re:uon lor ,heir nlid
ity: and the rea",n for the validity of a normative order i' a basic
norm-a< we 'hall oee-from whicb ,he validi,y of aU norm. of 'he
ord"" aTO derived. A .ingle nOTm i. a valid legal norm. il it cor......
pond. to the concept of "law" and i' part of a Irg.1 OTder: and it is
patt of a legal if its validity i' ba>ed on tbe b..ic norm of
that orMr.
The nor"", of a legal order regula.. human behavior. At lint
,ight it ,..,m, at if this ..ntentt applied only to the toeial orden of
civili>.o<l peoplo, in primi,i"e toeieti.. the behavior of
animal planta, and inanimate objects is .bo regulated by a
legal OTd... For we read in tbe Bible that an ox 'hat hat
kllled a man ought to be a' a punilhment. In an
cient Athen. th.... wa. a ,pecial COUT<. in wbicb a ""ne or 'pear or
any nth.. object coold be tried by whicb a man_pr..umably inad
v.....en'ly-had been killed. In the Middle AS" it w"'l"""lble to
sue an animal. for example a bun 'hat had cau,"", the death of a
man or gra..boppen tba' had de"royed a harvot. Tbe accu,"",
animal wa, oondemoed and executed in fonnal logal procedure,
exactly like a human criminal. If tbe ..""tlon" provided by the
legal order. are dirted nnt only .ga.in" men but .bo again"
.nimal,. rhi, mean< that nor only human behavior. but .1", tbe
behavior of .nim.b i' legally commanded. Thi, mean, further: if
,hat wbicb i. legally commanded i. to be regarded., tbe content
of a legal duty." not only men. but abo animal. arc re-
garded., being obliged '0 behave in a certain way. Thi,. in OUT
modem point 01 view. absurd legal conte", i' ,he roult of .uim;;'
tic id..... according to which not only men. but al"" animal Ind
ac<'IL
,.
inanimate obju have a u>O\1l" and are 'herefore basically not
different from human !>olnv- CononJuemly ",o<1ion., and ,heTe-
fo,"" nann, 'hat ..."bli,h legal dutie. are applicable to men .. ",,<:II
as anim.l. and things. Although modern legal orders regulat. only
,h. behavior of men, nol of an;mal.. plant., and things, " uno,
acJuded that th..., "roB> p",Kribe the behavior 01 man toward
animals. plan..., and thing>. For cumpl., the killing of urtaln
animalo <in gene",1 OT at .pttific tim",). 'he .tunaging of rare
plant' or hi'tori<ally valuable building> may be prollibited. But
the.. legal Donn, do not r<'gUlar" 'he ""havior of ,h. protec'..!
animal., plam., and thing:!, but of the men against whom the
tht.., of puol.hmem i, di'e<ted.
Thi, behavior may"" a po.itil'. action or nomctioo-o. lack of
:u;ti<>n. an omi,ion,' forbtarance, a refrainment from action. Th.
legal order, as " social order, 'he b"havior
of indivldualo only", far a. it dir""t1y or indir""tly. to
individual.. Th. object of tegulation by a I.gal u th. be.
haviOl" of on. individual in ""Ia'ion ro ""', ....l, or all oth...
mutual b"havior of individual . Th. rda'ion of
th. b"havior of on. man to nth.... may b. an individual <lno: lot
,h. norm th" <lMigeo """'1' man t<l ""I....;n from killing
<>thot men; <It the nmm that obUg th. d.bwr '0 pay the c""d
itor; <It ,h. nOTm that <lblill"" ""l";body '0 to.poet the prol"'rty <If
"'h..... But rhe tolarion may al'" h.v. a colle<;,i.,... chanct.r. For
the b"havloT preocril>ctl by the norm <lbliging a man ro
do mmlary ..rvice, i' no' rhe b"havior <IF an individual v.rsus an-
",h.,. indIvidual. but v.rsus th. entire soc'al communlty-v.nus
all individual. oubje<;' ro the legal <>rdot, The .am. i. tnt. whot
attempt is Aud in the "'me way ,h. mentioned
norm, pro'<'<:ling animal., and inanima'" obj .... may b"
.. social norm. The legal authotity command. a c...
tain hum.n b"havior, !>cou.. authority, rightly or wrongly,
n'g:Irduch b"ha";or a. n..""",ry lor the human legal commu
nity. In ,h. la" an.lysi., ir is ,hi. tola'ion to the l.gal communi,y
which i' d..i,iv. for the legal '<gulari"" nf ,h. b"havi.". of "".
individual '0 anoth.T. FOT the 1"R"1 norm oblig.. the not
only and, perh.p'. not '" much in otd.,. '0 pro,<'C1 tb. creditor.
but in <>rde' '0 maintain a cottain economic .ptem.
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"
7lIlt.LVN <INV "'....
"
.....1 tor interpttttd ....... ac.ioa of tbr .-.muni,y coruti...ud by
tho: Iqpl ordc'r and npociaIly,.. a reaction 01 the lqal comm""itr
apinsI a tocialIy dnrim(ntal !au. Tha. """"'" lh.a. th<: >ttri
XI ....' bo: IIllril,,"e4 '" lItio oommu";ty; whi<.b is:o. n"
prnoion 01 m. ......tal opttotion by which we rdn 1M conciY.
XI p'acribal by thr Ic:pI order '" tbillcpl order. !.he \Ill;'" 01
..hid> _.....-ify ...... IlUing mLi". lithe -wly dnrimmtal
faa api......hid! th<: (OOl1lDIIUi'J mea with :0. loCI is a
definite humm behavior. m., T'CXl1on is as a 1Ia"Ction.
Tho. the low is a com:i ordn mnm W. the lop! nornu ptt-
Kribe cottci"" acu whidl """ be .uributtd '0 the lopl commu
nily. This don 1>0. metn thaI ,he nttu,ion of tbr ..nc.iol'sia.l OK<; ,hi, is n:.....,.,.
0'111 if execution mo.U ...istanec, which ordinarily dlle' no. hap-
P'".
Modem legal orders oomc.imc. contain nonns that provide /0'
reward>, luch u ,itl.. or donlliollJ, for c.........in ",eri,oriou.:ocu.
Bm ."""",ds arc 1101 an dement common to.lI socilIJ ClOrtkrs d..ig.
""'ed ao law: thty '"no noc an function of chot ordnt.
Within these conri.... ordn:s <hey pLay:o. wbanlin.;ote role. Besides.
t"- l>I)rIm authoriling cl!1Uin organs '" cool.... ,itl.. or decr:n.
tions on indiridwoa ..boo tuvt: distinguisbftl tMmotlv,," in .......
_, or iUIOthtt han a a.Jncction wi'" dw annion.
prncrib;ng D<lnD'l: Far I"'" ... or a lilk ar or a <:\teo.
....tion iI ridln lqalIyllOl prohibited, that is" ""Ptinly pmDiltal.;
or-tId !.hil iI US<lal .I....tion-it iI paoitinly permitted,
wltidl..-no il is lotbiddm, unkss lellpr",",y prnailtm lopl
oiluation, then. aD. ...Iy bo dacribod lU a nD.T1D.-.tipuLa.td rncric.
lion or 1M nlidity 01 a """"; in <>tMT worda. by
fnTing 10 a norm.
AI a conrive otda. law it du.inguilh<d from ochcT IOcial
orden. criluion is 1M do:mem 01 f=-hat mean.
thu ,lte acl prtseribed by Ihe order :as a <:<>nocquenu of ooc"lly
delrimental !<leu OIlght to be cxeculed even againlt will of the
individual and, if he ....im. by phy.ic.ol force.
Tht eOn'dw octs prescribed by lhe legal ort/n,a, sonellOIlJ
1noobr u r.hc CO<1'Ciw ace p.......ibed by lhe lopl oed"" Iw lhe
funcllon 0( a ",acliOD "",iM< a bll.lI>an behavior by
lAW ""0 " ..-ruu
the ltpl ord..... then this coerci,'e act has the char.u;ttr DE a lanc
,i"". The human behavior against which the coercive act i. di
rted is to be coJUid<!rMa. prohibited. illegal_a delie<. It i. ,he
DppOiIi'e of lhal behavior ,hat i. regarded a. commanded or legal,
namely ,lte behavior tlt.t .void. the applicalion of lite ",,,,,,ion.
That the law i. chacact....ized a. a "coercive order" doe. not ",elln
_ i. >onteti", .. a....rted-that it "enfor="' the legal, tlto, is, the
'ommanded. behavior. This behavior i. not enforced by the coer-
cive act, beeauoe the coercive ac, is to be executed prioely when
an individual beh.vel in the prohibited. noC the commanded.
manner. It i. exactly lor thi, caoe that the coercive act as a ..nclion
i, prescribed, Perhapl, how""..., the men,ioned ....... tion .hould
be talen to mean that the law, by prescribing .. nctiow, triel to
induce men ro behave in ,onformi,y with ito command. in th.t 'he
wiob to avoid tlte lane,iono becom.. the moti'-e tlt.t bringo about
thi, behavior. 1I0wever. the motivation in qU<:$tion i. only 'l'O"i-
ble. not a nec....ry, function 01 the low; ,be legal-that i., the
commllnded-behavior may be brought .bout by oth... modv..
also, especially by re!igioo. and mOIal ""es. And this happens Ire_
quently enough. The coercion that i, implied in ,he motiYOtion is
p'ychic coercion. which i l'O"ible effec' 01 ,he ide. an individ_
n.l h.. oE ,he l,w, .nd which tak.. place wi,hin tlti, individual.
And thi. psychic coercion muR not be: confnsed wi,h ,he prn<rip-
lion of the coercive aCI. which tal.. place within the legal OTd.....
Ev....y effective social OTder ex" >DIlle lind of plf<'hic coercion.
and some orders-.uch a. ,he religiou, OTder-in much higher de-
gr' than the legal order. Thi. plf<'hic coercion, then, i, not.
charac,.riltic th>! dhtingui,h.. ,he law f'om oth.... social orders,
The l.w i. no, a coc,d"e order in the .en", th.t i, .x....... plychic
coercion; but in the ..,n$O that i, prescribe. coercive acto. namely
the forcible depriva,ion of liEe. freedom, economic and other
valu.... a conocquence of cen.in conditions. Thcoe condi,ions are
in the first place-but not exc!wively_ definite human behavior.
wltich preci>ely by being a condition of a ..nction ...umeo ,he
charactCT of legally prohibited (illegal) bchavior_ delict.
Th. m<mopol"} Of foru 01 lhe legal communi"
Although the variou, legal orden largely agree .bou' the coercive
,.." which may be attributed to 'he legal c.ommunity_th<')' always
"
....w ..."" " ..
in the <kpri..,..ion of mm,iannl. p><h---<hae onkn
diB'C'< rnr....."lliJIg the conditions 10 which 1M con1:ive acU arc .1-
txbcd.. Tbq di panicularly .......",ing the hUllUn behavior
_t.. Id bot brouIh' about by >t.ipuLuina thoe 1aDe-
'>oru, that;s, 1M oocially ckstrftI. Katul, which o>miw
in oMltpl kha...... pracr;t>m by l.be kpI onkr. in D<hcT wordt.
toac:","io. the "'pl 00lUti.... by the kpl nomu. Tbt ok-
O'dopmm. 01 10.. from boginoinp to ill JIK'ft"
.up in the """"'"' IUlle dil.plal"'. ccncemi"ll: the lrpl ,."luc to be
rullzcd. a lD>denq chat is COllI_ to aU legal on:kR. It ts the
.mderq gradually and irocreuingh to pr<>hibit the uM: of physicll
force r,..,,,, ",a.. to m.on. UIC of force is prohibit.ed by making it the
COIIditioo for ...nel;on, Ullt ,he unction i!$elf il ...'" of force.
Thudore the prohibition of lhe """ of {,,=can only!>c:. limited
on...; and on... must di"inguiJl\ bt.wc"" a pefmillM an,l. prohib-
ited ux of 101U. JI i. pe,mitted "' TO,clion againlt a _iaUy un
b<;., npecially agaln$l "",ian,. detrimental human 1>0_
mvior.... sanction.ha, is, u an l ..,hori<ed ..'" of force
..uble to the legal communi.y. Tbi.d"'inclion doet not yn mca".
boooreYn.II.... the "'" 01 oth.,. than Icg;Illy au,ho'Iiud "" re-
:IlClion:opiwl;an lac.. is and ill...
pI. kpl ord<n do no< prohibit all 0lhCT tinds of IUt 01
fon:e. E""" till.ns of 111m i.o p<obibilCd CO only a li",ieM de-
er. Only 1M L1ling of Ir .. comi<krl'd to
tw a cri_ ill primiLiw 1Ocietia,. """ 1M tilling 01 al"". Of ola.......
The tillinll; oIlhc bu.,.. 'nmr:u i. i.o """ prohibited. it-in lhc
nt'puw oeouc Flloiued.. But i' is no< auoborin:d at. tattet.....1
C"""ually............... is rtuJgUized tha, rtttf IUt 01
p1t"'c:ol is unl........-d this is a limitation of
ptinciplt-it is apoOally authorirt<! ill a run'on apin.. a IOCUlIy
<kt:rimrntltl bet '0 tis<, lcg;ll communi'Y. In thi. c:u<.
the Icg;Il on\.,. exhau.. ively cou.ditiOttJ und...
whkh (and the by whom) ph,.;';"l force maT be uOfd. Since
individual authori"'d '0 use 10= be l"cg;Irdl'd at In organ
of legal ord.. (or of the oornmunity con"i'ull'd by ,he lcg;ll
order). the execution of coet"('iye:arlO by th.... indiyiduIl! m.y be
.t\ributl'd II> communl,y." Then .. are confroOlI'd with a
monopoly of fora of ,he legal communi,y. The monopoly is d,..

LAW AND
if the individualuthmizM '0 u.. force do not h",e
'he character of >peei.1 organ1ltC,ing according to lhe prindplc of
division of Jabor but if lhelrgJI order ,ulhoriz...ll individlL1l. 10
uS< force who consider lheir inter..u ,'ioJated by 'he illegal con
duct of others; in o'her wmd. if the principle of >ell-help "ill pre.
vails,
Legol order collulive ,ecurily
When the legal order determine. 'he conditi"", under which, and
the individlL1I' by whom, fortt i. '0 be UlM, it proleen
the individuals who Ih'e under 'hi' order again.. lhe u.. of force
by olher individuals_ When 'hu protection has roached. ""rtain
minimum we .peak of collective ,""uri,y, bee.we the security I,
guaranteed hy the legal order a. a JOei.1 order. Thi' minimum of
protection again" the we of phy.ical fo"," can be reg.trded "'",,-
i"iug even when monopoly of foree is that is, even
when sclf.hdp "ill pte,ail. It is possible 10 conoider ouch a .tat< ..
the lowe" degr'" of colleclive KCllrily_ However, we n,.y 'peak of
collecti .. occurity only in a narrower "n" if the monopolj' of
fortt of 'he legal community ru.. re",hed minimum of centrali
zalion, so that ..!I.help is e""luded, alleast in principle. Collecti,'e
securily, in lhi. narrower sense, exi." when at lea" the quc<tion 01
whether in. concrete .lmalion the law""... violated and of who i.
r"pon.ible for it, i' not an,wered by the parties involvM, but by a
,pedal organ,.n independent court; when, thordote, the question
of whether in a concrete case, the use of foree u a delict or legal
and an act lhat may be attributed to the community. particularly
a ..netion. can be ohjtively decided.
Collli"e .ecurity, then. can ha"e different dege... depending
on the degr", of centralization of Ihe prOCedUTC by which in con
crete ca.... the exi".nce of lhe condition. i. dctcmlined to whidt
the coercive action of a ..nion i. att",hM; and by which lhi. c0-
ercive aClion i. carried oul. Collective ...urity teach.. ito high..t
degree when the legal order i"'talh law courts with compulsory
juti..Jiclion and central ex<:cuti,'e organ< wh"'" cocrei,'e mea", are
so effective thot te.i"ance ordinarily;" hopeI.... Thi. i. 'he
lion in the modem >ta ... which repr...n.. a highly cenlralized
legalordct.
The aim of coll<c'ive oecuri,y i. peace, becau"" pcace i. lhe ab-
"
UW ANt> ,....T<JU:
..nee of ,h. u.. of physical force. By dc",nnining th. condi,;OJU
and Ih. org:on. fur lh. we 01 f""",. by c'tablishing a
monopoly of forre of <he legal community. the l<gal order paci6es
this community_ BUl the peace of law i. only a toluiy. pe>cc. Th.
law does not exclude the nit of phy>kal force'" man venus man.
Th. law ill no' a folcel= order, .. postulalM rOT by utopian anor-
chi>m. The law i. an order of emmon and, ... coercive ordcr_
ao:wrding to its evolution_an ord.,. of ..curlty. that ii. of peace.
But precisely .. the concept of eoHoed". """urity may b< ddintd
in a IUrrower ....... and applied only whore the m<>nopoly of force
of society is Cffitf1l1ized, "" _ may iMum. that a pacification of the
l<gal commun'ty tak.. place only on that l.."cl of legal d",c]op.
ment in which ..If.help i, prohibited, a,I""., in principle, and col.
1,,<;11,-. _urily in the narrower ..n.. of the word prevail. Acto.
ally, we can hardly ...ume ""on a J"'Cification of IrpJ
(ommunity a. loog a. law i. till in a primilivo: condition. As
Jong a. no (mIn. ""i.t that a"""tain a pm_
hibitM we of has tak"" pIa; as long as e>'ery individual
who con,ide" his rights viol"M by .no,h.,.;. attthorizM to u""
fo",e a .. nc'ion; as long a. the individual again.!l' "'hom for<;<:
wa, U.M i. authori",d 10 reacl again" thit we of fo",e by Ihe u...
of loree, which he tan jwtify .. a unction (tha' i., a. a reaction
against a wrong ",ff...-cd); ., long a. blood Wlenge i. a legal insti
ullion and ,he duel pttmiucd and even rcgul.tM by law,
.. long .. only the Hiling of free feUow (ountrymen, but not ,he
killing of alien. ond .lav.. is reg.roM,. a crime; long. finally.
a. war i. nO' prohibited by international law in the rela.ion. be-
,ween Ita,e" one cannot very well a""'l 'hat the Slate of law i.
n=rily a .taft of p"a.:e and that the securing of peace i. an co-
.....ial function of ,he law." An one can say is that the develop-
ment of .he la"- run.;n .hi. dircclion. Th"",fore, even if pea is
Tcg:udcd an abool",e mo....1 value or as. ,..luc COmmon to all
pos;ti'-e motal otde..-whkh. as we >han ..ela''''';' nOl the cue--
,he sceuring of pea. the pacifica,ion of the legal community.
cannot be con.id.,.ed .. an ...en,ial moral value COUtmon to an
legal ord....: i, i. not the "mor:al minimum" common to all law.
The prohihition of aU use of for<;<: reveal. the tendency to en-
MThl. """,",.", .-lIiao,"'" 01 ... vb "" .......to,,,,,, ""_.
r.....nd p<>" p,.,..,trd 1."1 """.".1 "0"", 0/ '--...., Joo". ""_ ...
LAw ...........n.ru: 59
la"F tho 0( faN thlol arc aubliobcd by tho lepl order ...
aIOdi..... aI. coercive acu; Ibis Ift><IeDq bu ck.dof"'d. far bqood
IhiI pruoIUhition. by tho macbmml aI. conci.., xu AI COIIK'"
'l.UU>Ca ooc ool,. 10 tbr '* III Io<u. bu. all<> 10 othn acu. and
....,.. 10 ....;.;,..,. 0( acu. U tho eom,he ac< eubl.i$bed by Ihoe law
d a raaioa apino< beha....... .and if tho fuDc
...... 0( IUCb '"" aubliIl:I....... is 10 ponm. wc.b a beha....... fondi-
ridlUl or seoer.U p"eYuuioa). Ibm IhiJ ac< bu <he dwx..". aI. a
in <he opeciIic and nanow............ aI. tbr word; and <he
faa that a nain bduo..lor U m;ode Ibe cot>dirion for a _Ii... in
,his KlIse meaDI thlo. ,his lIdIa..ior illeplly p,olIlb,ud, a delic..
TI>ere is a <Drrd..i"" !K,wn Ibis <0'''''1'' of sanell"" and
conP' of delicL The ..nc,ion i, Ibe ronscquena of th. dellel;
lhe d.lict ihe condition of ..netion. In primitive lcpl ..
Ibe reaction of lb...,,<<ion again" ,h. iJ dtcClllnl.
lied. rucrion iJ left 10 the diocretion of the indi.iduall whOM:
in<Clem been violated by lhe d.licL arc au,ltoriud 10
Idcmily ift <Oft<>"elo AI a delict wha, has!>ttn 10 idcmi6ed by Ibe
lcpl order only ill and Ibey are au<horid 10 CC01<C
1M oanction aI<lblilhcd by lhe lcpl onI..... The pt"inciplc of Klf.
help f""'&ils. In Ibe (.'OIIf'R of cmlutioo this -roo:oion apinK <he
cklia is inct-asin&IJ ccnonliled, in <hat <he id....t.i6cation 01. tbr
ddia and <he caccutioa 01 tho Andion is ' .... "cd for lfICCiai or
pns: Ibe alUTU and excculi.., alltboritia. I1>efeby 11K p"iDCiplc
of oeU-belp is limited. but il anOOC be ..,,<i,dy elim.inloted.. Eo.."
i!l <he 'lI><Jd<Tn llta%e. in which centn1i..,ion bu <Iw hip.
... dqrtt. a minimum oIlCll-bdp remains, IClf-defmx. ""id-.
Ihctc Ott 0Iber <aJQ i!l1DOticm, cenonlizcd Icpl thai
have !>ttnlargcl,. ipoTcd in lcp1 theo" in which, 10 a limited
ntml, the uoe 0( phys;al fmu is noc ,eservc:d f.... opecial OTpnl,
but left 10 the d.....tt;on of individuah in<CrCsttd in il. We .pt:ol
of Ibe right of corpnnl puni.nmcnt Ibat ....en modem legal orden
conctde 10 pa,en.... a mea", of educa.ing ,hei, <hlldren. I. is
limited to lhe ext.nt lhal it m.... not hann the child', health; bu.
the dc.:i.ion, which bcha.io. of the child i. 0 <ondllion of co'"
poral punishment, that i., which i. pedagogicolly and
hence .odaUy undcsinble, i. in principle left 10 the pa....... who
....y pass lhisngltl to profCJIional cducato",.
....w ..."" ....nzu:
C..,....;",. Kt> lAM ...., ......
As "'" .... froIQ a judicia/IO .... adm.iDilln..i..., CIDallIlU-
Ilily.u "'" oplIoor-t 01: faocu and _if.-
si<:lN bu. a1.. ",i>tr facu, no< ha.-iIls oM chaTaurr of d<licu.
indudtd. Among <how fa<u;' "'" ,,'spirim WI a dt6niu: iIldioid-
ual has commiu<"d a delia. Special orp.... 1M chanctn III
police agenu. may IcpUy au<horiud 10 cltpri"" "'" IIUf""C'Cd
indiyldual of hillibeny in order '" uftguanll<pl I'nx.o<di"A'
apinn him, in which it will did<d whnh... ha.. in b,
cammilt<"d cltlic. 01: which iu.pccted. condilion for
ollibnlJ I. not a of lh. individ.
ual. .u'picion of auch a beh.vior. Simil"ly. Lhe police may
be aUlhorired by lh. lcpl cnder to talc ptuon. in oo-calltd pro-
c....ody, ,h., iI, 10 deprive of Iheir liberly. in order 10
prCK' against ilIcpl aggrt.lOion lha. thrca", Fur
tIt<1', modern legal ardns pr.....ibe 'M lorad in in"i-
tu.""" of corulilu,ing a public alMi in
boopitaJI of JI"1'SO'" .i.h concogious diocascs. Fun......,
""'y I>c nprnpria.led II nnoary in "'" public inmes<, dontruic
....i....... """y be d<$uoyo<d if inf..,ed with .... o:pidcmic ill......
buildir>Ko .....y be 10m cIowrl by '0 p""""" oolb""'" or
dw: spond of a rnnlIagntion. Thor lqIJ otd.tt of ......Jiurian Ilates
au<horizto tbrit nn-.>u to in OKKa!'ra,iotl (:II"'P'
pe....... .m.- <>pin .. ,..,.. <hey do "'" litee; to Iorcr
them to pe.lccm y kind ()/. bhor; tvm '" kill them. Such _
..rei ......,. morally be violendy ...ldcmncd; bul <hey an"", be
....sidncd as tatJns pbct oulside .he lcpl ord... of ,hcor sutes.
All ,hnc :tCU ..,.,.,i.u,", forud dcpri'''li.... of lilc. lib-
my, and properly as ,he gue<ions of <he death penally. imprhon
mCtll, and nceu<i..... BUl, as ..., >aid, dill'... from
uue<lan. ;"",lat as they ore n", lh. conscq..enct of I IcpHr aleft"
tained, "",ially undesir.>ble acdon or omiu;on of .n indi.ldual;
lhe condi,ion il not. legally u:ertoin"<1 commilltd lor an
nelin il a h"man behavior (an action or omis-
lion) which, btc>.... "",ilily undes;r.>ble, il prohibil'" by
lopl order: and it il prohibi'''' imobr ... tm. legal cndtr ."..clles
,. .".
LAW ANI' NATUU
.'
to i' (or, more correctly formula'M: '0 'he Oct that it i. """'"
.. inM in a legal proeMure) a coercive act, a' thi. fac' i, made by
'he legal ordcr 'he condi'ion of coercive act. And ,hi. coercive
act i. a ..nction (in the ..,n", of a reaction agai",. a ddi<;,) aod.,
,uch diotiogui'hable from other legally otabH,hM cocrcive acu
only in 'hal the conditioning fact of 'he form...- i. a legally a",...-,
lainM human behavior, whe.... Ute coercive act> which have nOl
'he charac"" of ..nction. arc condi<ionl by o,h...- be..." Some
of the coercive act> belonging '0 'he J;OT1d ca.egory may be iOler
prClM as sa"ctio"" if 'he of ....""'ioo" i. no, linti'ed to
",ac,ion. again" a definite human beh.vior wh"'" .ctu.l ex'.'ence
i. legally ...eruinM, but i. ex,endM to .ituation. in whi<;h 'he
coc"'ive act i. provided for a. reac'ion agai"" a deli<;t-hut again"
a ddi<;, whO!lC c"",mi..ion by a definite individual has no, yet
been legally aJCC1"tained. ,hough ,he individual may be .u.pee'ed
of h,,'ing commiued i' ""d may therefore be arrestl by 'he p0-
lk<:; and '0 .i'uatlon. in whi<;h the coercive act i. a reac'ion
agai"" a delict 'hat ha. not even been commluM ye'. hu' I. ex
pected in .he fu'ure .. a powbili'y-a. in the ca>eo of internmen.
of d.ngerou. psychopath. or per10lU of und"'ired. opiniOn>, reli,
gion. and rae... insofar .. 'hey arc intoM in concen"...ion
campo to prevent 'hem from a oocially und",ired behavior of
which. righ'ly or wrongly. in 'he opinion 01 'he legal au,hority.
,hey are con.iderM capable, Apparently, ,hi. mo,i,,, i. Ute b..iJ
lor 'he limi'atio'" of lib<rty '0 which, in a war. 'he ci,i"n. of the
one b<l1igcrcm par,y living on the rerri'ory of 'he other arc .ul>-
jcc'ed by 'he lauer. II we ex,end 'he con..pt of ....nction.. in thi.
",n"" i' i. no longer congruen, wi'h of a delict,"
Sanc'ion in ,hi, wider "'n'" of the word doc. not n""",,"'Uy follow
'he delict.
Fi",lIy. 'he concep' of "'netion may be ex,ended '0 indude all
co<r<;ive acto coubli.hed by .he legal order. if the word iJ to ex
pr... mcrd}' ,h.. ,h. legal order ,eoc" .dlh ,hi. action again.. "'"
dally undeoinble cire.."",anc", alld qua1i.. in ,hi, way 'he eir
cum"anceo a. und..i",ble, Thi. indeed, i. 'he commOn ch.rac'er,
i>tic of an c""rci"" action. commanded or aUlhori'ed by legal ""
den. The concep' or ....netion," undcntood in ,hi. broa-d.., "'n....
tben. 'he fo,ce monopoly of .he l"l!"l communi'y. m.y be formu

,
....w Il/<D .....
bud by <hit alternatiw, '"T'he UK of fo<u olllWl .ntlllWl is
ritM'r a delict or a IIlInCtion.
r ....i"i.."", of tiM"
As a IUlCUoa-poucribi"llClCial ...dcr, Law humul be-
ho.riot in twO""ys: in a pooitiw ocme. commandi... RICh bcba..
iClO" and tl=eby prohibit"" lho b"h.:n.".; and, nep.iytiy'.
by not a.tadtit>g a conciu act 1(1' cnu.in btbarior. <herefQft .....
po-ohibitiDg <his bth"'iar and not com....ndi... the oppooite be-
Beh>vior thatlfllolly i' not p<ohibi<td io legally permiutd
in Lhis negative snue. Sine" human btha"ior is "iLher problbiwl.
or not prohibi.td,.OO .Inee, 1 no< !",ohibiotd, is to be rtgardm ...
permi.,<:d by Lhe legal order, '''y behavior of an ....l .ub-
jee'td '0 l<gal order In'y be r"g.rde<! OJ regula.ed Ly it_poooj.
lively Or n<gati....,ly. I ruor.T OJ the bth.vior of an indlvidu.I il per.
mined by Lhe l<gal order In d.( n<ga.ive oenoe-:o."d th mean"
Me prohibi.td--the indi.idual illeg.lly free.
The fttedom left to the ....1 by the legal order .imply by
nol prohibiting a "nuin beh..ior mUR bt cfutngtoi.ned lrom 'he
f'ftdom which is "",i.i.dy to Lh" by <ha.
ordt-r. Tl>e fretdcm of.n indi'ld....1 wh;m cnnoi'" in pnmilting
him a =uin by noc pn:.l>ibi.iDg it. is guaranleed by the
kpl ordtt <mI1 10 the exten. Lhal the O<der CIllOIImUIll.t the 0Iher
indi>iduallto rnpoct <his frftdom; IM...dcr orbids w... to inter
fere in <his op/IoeK of frudom, lho.. is., the ordt-r {.".bids a bcbarioo"
by which an indiri<bW is P""""1ted from doing wbal is noc prohib-
Iud and what tberdoo-e in ohis Iemt is permi.wI. 1(1 him. On'"
,hen can lho _po-ohibi.ed (In a ..eg:Il"e pnm,ued) be-
"",.;.". "" looted upon :to ri&",ful: <hal is '0 ..y the contenl of a
righl. which i' the rdIex 01 a corrnponding ol>ligolioa."
Hcn-"'\/tt, not ...ery bd\a.ior 10 pennillal--in ohe
len.. 01. nOl!>eing f<nbiddetl----"IOf"l""'rdtd by the prohibition 01
'he op"",i,e btha.ior of ath",",: nOi e,'tty permitted beha.'or 01.
on" Indlvid.... 1corre.pondllo an obliga.ion o .nother ....l.
h is f'OI'Ilble tha a beha.'or I. not prohibiled by the legal order
(and therdor in thi, ..,me, p"""i..edj. without an oppotlte be-
hlor 01 othen bting p'o1I,bl'e<! by ohe legal ord""10 that thil
oppooile behario<- i. at", permitted. A behavior may not be prohlb-
-u.... '...
UlW AND NATUU
itrd. for """rnple. beau.e il i. not related to ""her individual. or
al ltan does Dot hurt anybody. But no' e,.."" e"ery behavior tha'
othen i. prohibited. For example. it may oot be prohib-
ited lhat the owner of a hou.e im",]] a ventilator intO a wall .itu_
ated directly at the borderline of his property. But, at the ..me
lime, it may DOt be prohibiled that lhe owner of tbe neighboring
property build< a hou,," whOil. Qne wall directly adjoino Ihe ,,""ti
wall of the l1m home ond ,hereby nullW.,. the
elleel of the vemilator. In ,hi. ""ampl., one p.tty i. permitted 10
p.....'em "'hat the other party i. pennitted tQ do-n.mely '0 pipe
air into Qne of his room. by a vemilator.
If a beh."iQr opposite to the IlOl: prohibited behavior of another
individual i. not prohibited, ,hen a conllic' i. f'O'"ible against
which the order mak.. no provi.ion. Tho ot<ier doe.
not ..el: to preven, this conflict, like other conAicts, by prohibiting
the opposi'e behavior. lndeed. Ihe order cannot try In pre'
venl all f'O'"ible conflicts. Only one Ihing i. prohibited practically
uni..rsally by modem order" In prevent another individual
by force from doi"3 what i. not prohibited. F01' ,he exerci.. of
physical f01'ce-roerch'e action-is prohibited in principle. except
wh.... il i. positively petmiued f01' cer...in auth01'ited indi,idu.1s.
A ord.r_like any n01'mative .odal order----<:an command
only specific acts or omiSJioDl of acts: therefore, no ordor can
limit the httdom of an individual with ...pee' <0 the ,otality of
hi. ""tnn.l and internal behavior, that i. his acting. wi.hi"3,
thinking. or feeHng. The legal order can limit an individual'.ftce-
don> more or I... by commanding or prohibiting more or I.... But
a minimum of frttdom, that i., a .ph... of hum.n e"i.teDCC no<
interfered by command or prohibition, remains te"'''''ed,
Even under the moot totalitarian ord... th.... ""i.ts oomething
lil:e inalienable freedom: not aJ a right innate and DaHl...!. but ..
a con.equcnce of 'he tcchnically limited J'OiI'Iibilityof positively
regulating human behavior. Thiphere of freedom, boweVtt, on
be a' legally guaran'eed only to the ""..nt that th. legal
order prohibits interference, In ,hi. r..peet the conMitutionally
guaranteed .......ned civil libertits are politically particularly im
portant. They are tstabH.hed by PTtwi<ion. of the coustitu'ion
,h
a
, limit the competence of the legi.l.tor' to the "",en, that the
lattet lro nOl authorized (01' 50 amho'ired only under .",,"ptional
....w "'''0 " ... ruU
condi,ion.) '0 ;$Ou. norm. ,hat command or forbid a COTtain be-
!tavior, ouch at ,h. p='ice of a ce'tain religion or the expre..ion
of certain opinion.,"
c} Th. lAw AJ a Norma,ive Coercive GrdM;
Legal Communit), ond Gong oj Robber.
The low u a coerei,'e ord., i. oome,im.. characterized by ,he
.tatement ,hat th. law command. a certain behavior "under
thr....' .. of coord actJ, that i., of certain .vil.. Bu' th" formnla
,ion ignores the Donna';'-e meaning with which coercive act< in
general and oanct;ono in particular are otipula,ro ,he lepl
order, The m.aning of a ,hrea, i. that an evil will b. inAieted
under COTtain condition.; ,he meaning of a lepl order;' that cer
tain evil. ought to b. inflicted und.r certain condition> 0<-
=preooed more gene",lly-----that cert3;n coercive aCt< ought to be
""ecuted under certain condition.. Thi. i. not only the .ubj,iv.
meaning of the ac" by which the law i. but .0100 ,heir
objecti'-e meaning. Only l>ec.>u.. ,hi. normative meaning i. the
objective meaning of th.... acu, do they have the chanc,er of law-
llipulating, norm<.....'ing, or norm-.exce:u,ing acto. Th. "",ion of
a who undel threa, command< ",mebco:ly 'D ",rren
der hi! mDn.y al", h.. the .ubj,iv. meaning DI an "ougbt." If
the .itu.tion cre.zed by .uch .. command i. del<:,ibed by ",ying
th.t one individual up,..... a will directed .oward the behaviDr
01 another individual, th.n one mer.ly dcsctibco the action of th.
Ii"... an actually happening .vent. The beh.vi<>r Df ,he o,her in
di.idual, how"".r, which;" intended by ,he will of the Jim, con-
no, be dcscribed as lIOIItething ,hat .ctually takes pi""., becau.. he
d.... not y behave and may not beh.ve at all in the way th.. the
lim one had intended. It can only be d....ibcd .. ",mlCthing that
according to ,he .ubjective meaning of the command ought '0
take pl.ce.
In thi. way every .iluation mU>t be d",ibccl in which one in.
dividual .xprc.... a will directed toward .he behavior of another
individual. 1n lbi. respec' (namdy, on far .. only the .ubj.ive
meaning of the act< .re con,idered), the.. i, no difference be
lween d.scribing the comntand of a robber and the command of a
elll'll.
"
lqal orpa. n.. diller",," appan only wborn lht objrc:'i.... _.
i.. of the avnm.nd io dettribtd,.he command dirled (fOIl>.....,
iadividual I<n<U<I anotbeI. Thm _ only 10 d,e com-
llWId ollht Itpi "'"P". no< '" lhat of lht..-obbtt. !he objeuivc
lDCaAi.. of a ""'"" biDdiac lht acIdrnKd individual. tn othn
wordI,. we inlefpl"O'l one ooaunand. bu. not <.he otIwr, asall ob-
juti>'C:ly valid norm; and .bm lnlefpl"et in the one asr tIw:
of 1M nonfuifilllllm, of lbe commmd ",itll a coen:i....
act -'01, as a (i.<:.. a >ta.....,." ,ha. an nil ...11 k in-
Aiclrd), whn'al in the other aK, we ;otnpret ,hi. connection 10
mn.. WI an ...il be inlliclCd. Therdorc we interpret ....
Icmal inlliction of the <",il in the accood oltu:>.,ion:Oj 1M applica.
tion or cx<:01tion nf an objectively vaJ;d norm, Jlipula,ing .,...-.
dve act ... a ""net;on, but in ,he fiTS. "Illation_if we offer a nor-
mative illl...p,e... a criruc.
8ul why do we imerpret the meaning of .he one :let
alto .. iu objec';'-' m.... i"ll. but not '" of ,he o,h actl Why dn
we ,bIt 01 ,he ,wo acu, whkh both ha he ...b;..:.i,.
maning of an only OM <sublilMd a lid, th.. is, bind_
ing. norm/In nthn WOI'lb: W..... ;. <he moon lor .... ,..IOdi.y 01.
the nona th........ comitkT to be: the objeo.i'-e _in, 01. <h;' aet1
Th. ;. the 'I-.iOtt-
8y.u>aly.ting .... .. ,h:o., in'npttl .... _ as lfglll (tlul
it. _ ..lime mQning is ..........) ..e 1ft the anfWft to
, 'IU<:Ition.. Such an the th:o.,
.....keo ouch an intnp<_,Oon flC*ible.
Let no .sun from nrl ....."""'tionoed in,ttpreu.ion 01. the
killing 01. on<: indi"",...l by anotheT ". the <OlttUlion 01 I <lath
KntnJ and no< ". mutd". Our baJftI .., the
ucosnilioo, .h:o.. thc XI 01 killing conSlilu'eo .... tuCU,i.., of
.....n decision ,h>t h>. commanded ,he killing'" a ""niolt""",..
Tbi. meom: We luribute '0 tl>t: acr. of the coun ,he
meaning of an ir>divid...l norm or>d in this way in'...pre, ,he indi
vidual. who perrOTm ,he ac" II cour<. We do ,his, beau.. we
recognize ,he act of the COnrt a. the eXe<:u,ion of. llotlO,e ('hat i.,
of genen.1 nontU "ipulo,ing coercive actl) in which ..... e lee no<
only the .ub}rcti,e b", olio ,he obje<:,i,e meaning of an OCt tho'
Md been ...... bliohnl byc...t.;n individuah whom we con.id.... f.,,-
,hi. re"""'.;oS legi.!>to... F.,,- "'e ,he "'" oI.leglol..ion:to the
"
.....w AND NATUU
exttution of ,he com,;,ut;on, thai is. of gen.,."l nann. Ibn, ac
cording to their meaning, au,hori.., th... individual"
""abli,h gm=l norms preocribing """rch'e acts. In ,hi. way we
imerpre. lhese individual.... JogioJative organ.. By regarding ,h.
norm, authorizing the lrgi,l.,ive organ no' only as ,he mbjti".
but al", a> ,he objective meaning of an act by definite
individual>, we intpret these norm. as "com,;.".,,,,,." For ,h. hi..
IOri<Allly fin. con"itu,ion .uch an interpceta,ion i. poMible only,
ifwe PHJUPP"'" that one ought to khaT' acwrding to the .objec-
tive meaning of the act. ,hal one ought to pttform coercive acta
only under the condition. and in ,he mann.,. the con,titution stip-
ula,n; if, in otherworW. we presuppose. nOrm according ... which
(oj ,he aCt wh"", me.ning is to be interpreted as "collMitu,ion" i,
'0 k rcgard<d .. e....bli.hing objectiv.ly v;t1id norrm, and (b) the
individll3b who ",abliili ,hi. act a. ,h. eom,i,u,ional .uthoriti....
..... will he developM later," this norm i. ,he !>.ui<: nmm, of the
,,"tionalleg.1 order. It i. not e"abli.hm by a pooi,i"elegal act, but
U p....ul'f""C<l' if the .ct mentioned under (aJ i. interpreted '"
cuabli.hing a constitution and ,h. ac" based on ,h. comtitutiom
are interpretm a.legal aclO. To make manif... thi. ('TC$uppooi,ion
i, ... ....",11.1 fUflCtion of legal .dence. Thi.< ('TC$uppooi.iOll i. ,he
uhimate (bnt in its ehanocter <Mlditional and ,h..efore hypotheti-
<:al) ,ea"'n for ,h. validi,y of the legal ottl...
8y making ,h....ta'em.n" we a,e comidering, at .hi. point.
only a u.,ion.llcgal <mI.r, ,hat i., a legal ord.... wh..... terri'orial
.ph... of validity i. limited '0 ,h. '.rritory of a "ate. The ,eason
for the validity of international law, wh...........i.orial .phe.e of 1IJ..
lidi.y i. not so limited, and the relatiorcltip of the in..mational
legal order to the na.io"allcgal <mI'""" arc, fOl" the p-r=t, OUt
.ide our ditcu..io"."
It wa, olm'ned tadier ,ha, .h. validity of a ,,<>no (which me""
h". one ought to hehave a. the nOno "ipul.t..) .hould nOl; he
with ,he .ffcc.i".n... of the nmm (which m$Ilha,
one, in be', d.... SO hehave); but ,ha, a" ...."'i.1 relation may
exi" between the two COIlCCplO, namely, ,h.t. roc-rcive ordM", pre.
..u.ing i...1f as ,he law, i, regarded valid only if it i. by aod
large effective. Tha. mean': Th. ba";c nono which i. ,he rc''''''
ho.
Ct_ I ,.h-J ."" "d_
uw NATUU
fD' the validity of a legal order, rei..... only to a eomtitution which
iJ th.. ba.i, of an effectiv.. cocrciv. ord.r. Only if ,h...ctu.l b.h.v_
ior of the individu.l. conform.. by .nd larg.., wi,h ,h. 'ubjectiv..
muning of th. aell directed ,oward thi. hehavior_if, in other
words, thubjl!Ctiv.. m.aning iJ recogniwl the objectiv..
mning-<>nly th.n ar.. th.. acts int...-preted a, leg:ol acts.
Now w..... ready to amw...- th.. qu.,ion why ..'e do not at-
tribut. '0 th.. command 01 a robber, i..ued und...- threat of de.th,
the object;-.. m.aning of valid norm binding on th. addr.....,.)
vN:,im; why w. do not int..rpret this act a. a legal act; why w. ",.
gard the realization of th.. th",", a', crime, .nd not as ,h.. execu-
tion of ...nction.
An i",l.ted act of on.. individu.l dllln<)' be regarded as a l.gal
act, its m...ning C2WIOt be regarded a, a legal norm, be<:."", law,
as mentioned, i, no< singl.. norm, bm a 'J'5l.em of norm'; and a
particul.r Oorm m.y be regarded a legal norlll only as. part of
.ltCh a 'ystem. How .bont a ,ituation, how.ver, in which an organ-
ized gang jeopardize, a ... in territory by forcing
the living ,h.."" und...- tll",at. to .urrend...- th..ir mone-yl
In thiJ .ltuation ..... will h,,'" to distinguilh betwe.n the order ,hat
.. th.. mutual behavior 01 th. memb." of thi. rubber gang
and th. external ord.r. that is, ,h.. command. that ,h.. members of
the gang direct at under ,h.. ,hreat 01 inflicting evib. F.".
it i. only in rela,ion lOou"id.." that ,h.. group beha'... "'. robb...
gang. If and murd...- w.r. no' forbidden in ,h.. relatiom
be'ween th. rObben, nO conlmunity, no robber gang would ..xi.t.
N.......th.I ......v.n the int.m,,] ord..r of ,h.. gang may be in COli
flict with th.. coerciv.. o.d", con<id..ted to be a legal order. valid
for th.. t.rritory in which th. gang i, acti,'". Why il th.. coercive
order that consti,ut.., ,lie communi,y of th.. tobbet gang and
comp.'''' th.. int..rnal and ext...-no.l ord.r no, inlerp"'ted a,
legal ord..1 Why i. the mbjecti,.. m.aning of thi, ooen;iv.. ord.r
(th.t on. ough, to beh.v. in conformi,y ,.-Ith it) not in"'rpr..'w
a. iu objective m... ningllkcau.. no ba,ic norm i, presul'l""""! ac-
oortIing to which on. ought to behav.. in conformity "'ith ,hi.
ord... But why i, no ",eh ba,ie norm p....uppoocdl Becau.. thi.
ord.. don not hav.. th.. laning ..rrectiv.n.... without which no
ba,ic norm i, presuppooed. Th.. tobben' metci,.. ord.t don no,
hav.. this .ffec,iven..." if the nonn,of th.. ]ega] ord..r in who.. ' ..r
"
lAW AND ","TVU
"",rial 'pheT" <>f validity ,h. gang opc...., .. arc actually applied to
,h. robbers' activity .. b<ing illegal behavior; if <he members of
th. gang arc deprived 01 their Jihttty or their Ii,c. by COCK;'" octo
that at. illtCTptclro .. imprisonment ""d death ",mene..; and if
thus ,h.. ac,ivity o( the gang j. renninaltd_in ,hon, ii the coercive
order fCgaro".) a. the lopl order is rno,.., elIre,;". <lun the COOt
.h"c order constituting the gang.
If the validity of this coercive on:lor i. , rioted to a <.,(;Iin tn-
.itory and if it i. effective within <hi< "'rritory in .uch " way ,hal
the validity of any other coercive ordot of thi< lind ii eJ<LJuded,
then the coercive orda may inde<d be reg.roed ... a l<gal order
and ,h. communi,y cotl>tituted by it may be regardrd as a ".latc"
-.,.."cn if it< cXlcnul ac,ivity i. illegal according to positive inttt.
national law. Thus, lrom the .;x\<I,mh to the beginning of
century so-<:alled "ates exi"ed along the north
west roast of Africa (Algiers. Tulli., Tripol;") wfIos<, .hips pr<rye<1
npon navigation in the The.. communi tie. were
"pin,.." only wilh r..pen '" their exerci.. of on sltips of
other lI.at .., in defiance of imematio""l law. Y<t, their internal
order pt..umabJy prohibitw mutual employment of force. and
thi. prohibition was by and obc)td, 10 that the minimum of
collecti,'e security ex;"ttd which is coudition fnr the existence
<If a ...,lativeiy fasting wmmuni,y wnstituted by a
order.
seeuti,y 0< pe><:e--a. oaid_i. a function
,ha, nrder. d",igna'ed a' "law" in variou. de-
grtts when 'hey have reached a ...ain of Thi.
funCtion i. an determinable fact. The .tate-
ment that a l<gal i. pacifying 'he legaf community, i, not a
judgment, Specifically, this statoment does not mean that
the realization <If justice i, essential to faw; ,hi, valu., there.
10..." cannot an c1emcm of the of law and em
therefore nOt a. a critrriou 1
0
< the di>tinction a
fegal community and a gang. Thi. h""e>'er. i. di"inc.
tion by St. Augustine who oays in his Civitas Iki: "S.t jn..
tice a.ide then. and what are kingdom. but thievi,h putcha...' be.
CaU"" whal purch.... but littl. kingdoms?" .. A stat.
-,.tn' A_,... n. c;/] ./ G<>d, 'no... by joll" '1<0.1, ("""'bu"", ."",).
,'01. t. _ ", <hap. ,.
UW AND NATlJIlL
which i. according to Augu",ine a legal community, unnot exist
without justice. "Whe", 'rue just;';e is wan,ing. ,here un be no
law. FOl" wha, low docs, ju.'; docs, and wha' is done unju",ly, i.
done unlawfuUy:' Bu' whal i. justice? '"J""ke i. I "irtue distrib-
uting on,o everyone hil due. What justice is ,h., then. ,h.. take.
man f",m ,he true God and give< him un'o ,he condemned fiend.?
",hil dimibu,ion =tding '0 due? 10 no, he ,ha, take< Iway 'hy
po<lCISion. and gives ,hem to ""e,hat has no claim to them. guilty
of injustice. and i. no< he II<> likCloo'i"" ,hot tak... himself away from
hil Lord God, and give< himself '0 the oavice of ,he devil?""
According to ,hi, reuoning. ,he law i,. ju'" cow:i,'e orde, and
i. di",ingui.hed from ,he cow:ive ordcr of 'he robbe.. by 'he jU5-
,icc of its conten,.
That ju"i," cannot be ,he criterion diotingui,hing law from
o,her cocrd"e order. follow. from the relative character of the
value judgmen, acwrding to which a social ordcr i. just. Saini Au
gustine rccogni... U "just" only tha, order which giv.. each hi,
due, .nd appli"'lhi. emp'y formula by saying ,ha' an order i. ju"
only when i, gi".. the true God-who. '0 him, i. ,he J"dco-Chd..
lian God. not ,he god. of ,he Roman<--wh.t i. hi, due, namel)' ,be
"'on!lip ,hal i. expre""'" in a cenain cui.; ,h..,...fnre, according to
Augustine, In order tll>' docs not conform wi,h ,hi, """ulate, can-
not be law, and ,he con,munity ba.led on ,hi. order canno' be a
".te, but only .. robber gang. Wi,h 'hi., Roman L>.w is denied ,he
character of law. If ju"ice i, ""limed '0 be ,he criterion for a
norma,ive Ol"der 10 be d..igna,ed ... "law," ,hen the capitalistic
t<><:rd,'e order of ,he W.., i. no, law from Ihe point of view of Ihe
Communist ideal of j""ice, oor ,he Communist cow:ive orner of
,he Soviet Union from ,he point of view of the capitalist ide.l of
justice. A concept of law wi,h 'uch cnn!C<]uenc,," i, unao:<;eptable
hy I posi,ivi" legal "ienee. A legal order m.y be judged '0 be un
jn" from ,he poin' of view of a certain norm of j"'tice. flu' the
faCI ,hat 'he con'ent of an elf"".i"e >cn;i"e orner may be judged
unju", i, no TOMOn '0 ..f"sc to acknowledge ,hi. t<><:rrive "rner ..
legal order. Af'er Ihe victory of the French Revolution in ,he
eighteenth cemuryand after .he victory oJ ,he Ru"ian Revolu
,ion in ,he ,,,,entieth, the other "at.. , h o " , ~ d ,he distinCI indin.
,inn no, '0 interpret Ihe ce>erdve orden ..tahliobed by ,he rev"lu
'016" \'ol. II, _ "" tll.>p. ".
"
;0
UW AN" >lAT1JU
,ion u legal nrders 2nd <he ae", of .he uvolu';onOTy governmenu
.. toga! a<:lJ, l>ta.u.. the onc government had violated the monar-
chic principle of legitimacy and ,he other had aboli>hed privau
pr<>J'<'rty of the mean, of PTodu(tion. For the l."n.m.d rea>on,
even American COurt. refusod to aclnowledge ""to of the revolu
.;onary Ru<si.n gov..-nmen,,.. legal ""II; ,he COUtU <kdOTed ,hat
th..., ....re no' 'en of. "ate, hut of robber gang. However,
SOOn" the remlut;on_bom .",erei,,, orden .uruM OUt to be .rec-
ti,-c, 'hey w<Te recognized a. legal o.okn. Ih. gm'.mmelll' a. ,taU
g<>vcmment1, and their an........'e a<;U, ,hat u, legal " ...
<i) ugal Obligo/iollJ without 54nelions'
If the law i. COll"",vrd of a. a coercive order. ,bC'll the formula by
whi<:h tbe b..k Donn of a nation.1 legal order i. ""prew:d run. a.
lollows: "Coercion of man agai"" man ought >0 be ex<"tei""" in
the mann<'r and under ,he conditio", dotermined by the hi.tori
cally Ii.., con.titution." Th. ba'ic norm d.legatesth. lim oon.ti-
tution to preMOril>e the procedure by which the nor"", .tipuloting
"""",i.'e acU are to l>e created. To be intapreted obj<,<;t.iveiy as a
legal norm. a norm muU be the .ubj<,<;tive meaning of an act pet.
formed in thi. procedure. hence in a<:rordance with the ba,ic
norm; besid.... <he norm must stipulau: a roereive act or must be
in ...ential relation to .uch. nonn. Together with the l>a.<ic norm
the defini';on of law .. a <:<>ereiv. ord... i. pre,uppooed," From ,he
defini,ion of law ., a <;<>erdvo ord.... follows ,ha, a beh.v;or m.y be
regarded as legally <;Omm.nded (i.. a' ,h. con,.n, of a legal obli.
gation) only if the contrary behavior i, nude the condition of a
coere;ve act dir<,<;ted ogain.. the individual <hu' beh.ving. I, i. to
be noted. how.,..... that the coercive act ;....11 need not be <;Om.
manded in ,hi. lenle' i" ord....ing and may be mer.ly
authorized.
Against lh. definition of law a. a coerciv. order, that i. ag.in..
the inclu.ion of lhe elemem 01 coercion imo the concepe of law.
the objection. have been mised ('l that legal orden actually con
tain nonn. <hot do not .tipulate coercive ac", norm' ,h.. permi,
or authori.. a behavior. and also nonn. ,bat comnund. beh.vior
.. But 'ho "" ..... " no< KIm""'t wit. "''' ""'nil'"" ..... am.. ,ho bo,I<
"""" b DOt >n<q>L
LAW ANI> NATUllX
,.
withou, attaching '0 the opp<j'e bl:havio. a coercive a.ot; and (oj
t1u, ,m, nonapplica,jon 01 ,he norm. that "ipulate coercive "",.
a,e ftequemly not made the condition for at", funCtion.
ing as "",niono,
Th. sond obiff.ion iJ not valid, bcc.au$l: the definition of bw
... a coe,dve otd", can m, rnaintainN e"en if the norm tba' stipu.
I.t... a (O<'Tcive an is not it>ell.....,mially conn<'CtN with a norm
tha' .tt.och.... in a concr<:te ca"" a ..nction to the nonordering or
none"""uting ol the coo,dve act-it therefore, ,h. GO<'T(iv. an $l.ip-
"lat.d in the g<"nOTal nonn io to be imerpre,t obj<'C,ively not a.
commanded b", only as authorized or po:sith'ely permitted (al-
though subjective meaning of the act by which the &ttletal
notm "ipulat ... th. a.o, iJ a (ommanding), A> lor the li....
objection, the definition oE law .. a Old", can be m.in
l.inN with r"'pt to norm, that .uthorize a behavior not
having c""-raet'" of a co<,dve OCt; or nonn. that
permit .lUh a behavior insofa, ... ,hey are no.m., be-
cau", they are ",n""ted with no,m. ,hat stipulate the
act._ A typical e><ampl" for norm. dtN a' argumenlJ
against inclu.ion ol coercion Into ,Ihe of law .re ,he
ootm. of It irguN that the norm. of con
alitution that r<gttla'e ,he p'oced"re of legislation do no, stipula"
oan.:tiono as a reaceion ag.in" nonobsavan<e, Closer analpi.
oho..... that 'h.... are dependent nomu ..... bli.<hing only
one of UndCT which coercivc 3ClJ stipuI."d by
othot" norm. 31" to be otd...ed and Constitutional
nornu .u,hoti.. the legisla,or to cratC norrtU-,hey do not <om.
mand nation of nanns; and thc .tipulati"" of $On(-
"ons do not into qu=ion at alL 11 ,h. p,o,i.ion. of the con
stitution are not obs<Tved, ....Iid legal norms do not into t'X.
i.trnce, the norm. tt<:ated in thil way arc ,'oid or Thi.
","am: the subj"",ive meaning olthc ",u e.t.oblisbed un<onSlltu.
eionallyand therefore not according to the ba.i< norm, is not in-
ter[>fCted as ,hciT objecti,'c meaning or .uch a t"mporo'Y intcrp,c
tation inn"lled."
The moo, importam cas< of norm. which according to trodi.
tional S(icnce ollaw legal obligatio", withont stip"lat.
cqk.
-ctll')'
,. LAW ANI> NATUU
ing .ann;"n., i. <he O<llllrd n,tural oblig";on. Natural obliga.
!iom a,e obligations ",hoo< fulfillment (.OnnO' "" .=ned in a
(oun, and whoM: nonfuUillme", u not the condition of. civil exe
<",ion. Still, OIle 'pealto of. legal obligation, bccoUl that ,,'hieb,
in fulfillment of a 5O<3lJed n.tunl obligation, hu !>ttn given b ~
one individual to anothor unnol "" ,,"m'ored a. an unju"ified
enrkhmen,. 11 ,hill ought '0 be dir"'ted into ,he pfOp<Tty (>;
the beneficiary; and (oj Ih. vaHdi,y of thi. "",rrion..uipu\.ting
nonn U TOmkIN with , .."",,1 to ca." determintd by lhe legal
oroer, Thi. 'i'uotiQl1, ,horciore, am k d...,,-il>Cd a. a ""rictlon of
the validity of .,,"ction..,ipulating nonn: it i. not nece>oary to
a..ume ,he eJ<i<'<'l>ce of a "'nclionl .... norm.
It i. possible, of COD...... for a l<'gi.l.tor to e.tablish, in" proce.
du... conforming with the ba.ic norm. an ac' whO' 'ubj<'Ctive
meaning i b..havior<ommanding norm, withou, (t) ...tablioh-
ing an act wh"", oubj<'Ctive m""ning i. a nOl;Jn pr<'O<ribing a ",oc-
tion aJ a ,eaction ag.in" the opposi'e beh.vior; and without (.)
,he posoibility of d<'SC1"ibing ,he .i'na,ion ,.. ",.,.triction 01 the ....-
Hdhyof a ..nClion...ipul.,ing nonn." 1n thi> case the mbjeCIi"e
meaning of 'he 'C' in ques,ion cannot be inrerp.eted iu obj...
tive me.ning; the norm, which i. the act'uhi,ive m....ning can
not be imerp...,ed legal norm. bill mn" be regarded .. legally
irreleva",.
And ,here .... other reason. why the .ubjective m....ning of an
aC\ ..tabli<hed in conformity with ,he ba.ie norm may be regarded
.. legally irrelev.nt; n.mely, if the .nbjeCIi..... m...ning of .uch an
act i. nO!; a norm th", command., penniu. or authori,.. human be-
havior. A law, es...bli<hed ",iclly according to the comtitu'ion.
m.y hne content that i. not. IIOrm, but the expre..ion of a
religiou. or political theory-lor example, ,he 'ta,ement ,hat ,he
law i. given by God Of ,hat the law i. ju" ot" that Ihe law ...Ii....
the int....., of the emi.. population. Or, to give ano,her example,
in the form of cotutitution.lIy ...tabH.hed >latute the nation'. ton
gratulation. m.y be con<'eyed to ,he he.d of the ,,>Ie on the 0''''''
.io
n
ol.n .nnivenary of hi. ><;c....ion '0 power; ,hi. may be done
in ,hi. lonn merely '0 inve" ,he congr;uulation. with .pec;al
"
ooIft1lDi.y. Af,.... all since QllftM..i.u<iorully ..."blWwd KII ..... a-
praonI by wonk. u.. xu mar ba,.., ""y mcanin .. DOt
...., the mnning of ......... If la.. i. ddU>ed at """" at aU. lop!
oci<aa anD<lt diipmot with u.. (J;>Ottpt oll<plly irnl"""". con-

SiDu w law lhc procaIurc by which it it iudl <no
.t.... one might diKinguioh lhil loplly rqubtt:d P<"Xtdurc ..
k,.t ,.".. from ,h. Icpl CDftleo<l ftlablisbtd by ..... pnxlOClaaK.
and "P'""k of. Iq;oJly 1"P1 ront"".. In ondi.iooW Id
m of "'.. this though. is CpI'..-d '0 oomc "",ft.. by lhc di.inc-
lion t>o.",ttnla.. in the fonnallnUC and law in tht' ma'er;,,] stOUt.
Thi, dis,i"",i"" ,h. rae. that not only be-
lu.viur.rcgulallllg norm. arc isluod in 1M lonn of I...,s. but .110
.dmini.'.... ';'. thell.turaH"";oll of. ptlSon, ,h.
approval of ,he " hudget, or judicial dedI;"'" (when, in toin
(ala, ,he l"1lil<!>lor >1.. u. judge). Bu< it would be mo'. conte.
'0 .pul of form of law and content of law r.uhe. ,han of la.. in
1M fonnal and in ,he ,nalC1i>.1 ..n... However, lhe word, "legal
fonn" :and "Iogal cont"m" ... unpreci>c and ...."" misleading in
,hi,reopctt; in order to be in'eJpre.ed as a ltpl ace it is not only
u'luired tha< tk .... be o:m.b1iohed br a certain but
Wo that tk an hI...., a cnu.in ....bjK1in meanilll_ n.c tnftni"l
ckpmds 011 c.hc ddnition of law. prauppaord If>llClh.er wi.h .he
baoic norm. If tk law .. 110I bu. only ...
an oo-dcr .-bI.iWd aoxotdi"l to tk baoic DOnn (and if.
c.hc basic l>OrIIl. is fonnubtftl ...: ....., oughl to behl."" ... tbe h;"
lOrially Iirs! constitution preoaibeo). thm Yll<tionae. ltpl ........
COtlkl aisl. that if. Itpl ........ tlDt unde'r certoin condilion, C(JlIto
maud a human """"vior withoul anotbn norm Aipubting a YII<_
tion ;co a reaction :lpilUt In this 01" tubjco-
mnni"l or an loCI. (OlabliWd in ar.cor<bna with the buk
norm_if this mcaning i. not a norm and in no ion to
r>omI-would be ......nt. Then, a nOTm ts bli.hed t,.,.
lilt cormitution.l l'1li.l.tor .nd commanding. en in hchnior
wi.hout ..,aching. to in nonob""rvancc. could be di..
,ingui.hed from. m"",lnOfm only by its origin; .nd. legal nann
tsl.blithed by cullom could not he di.t;nguid,ed rrOl'!l c"..
,omarily csta.h1ithed moral norm ...11.
II the constitution h.a. (Olabli.hed CU.lOm ... ing bet,
"
Ibm all -.nl """"" by CUOU>m con>lit.. a port of the
lotplonkr.
TMrdore.lhm, '" ddinilion of Ia.... whidl. docs not de,......,""
laWai '" onkr. "'_ njcaed (,) Maute onlJ by;".
d..:tin&; the d"""",. of weldon in,o the ddnition 0111... ill ,he
lIw dearly distiopiobtd from any other IOci:al onkr; (a) bea....
cocoa.... is a fx&or oIlP""t u..pom.ace for the ODIIi..... 01 toeial
rdatiomhipo and highly ollbc ookn <:>n"",
t...... ; aod. 00 particul...ly. b;ouot by ddining law ... coc<civc
onkr. a conntttion iI o.c<:oW\.td lor thaI ""'1lS in the calC _
impoTUul lor the ""S"i.1on 01 the law. the law of the n>odern
5UlIC: the conn,;"" betwta> Jaw :rnd ....le. The modeTl' ....c i.
cloIm,wly a rone;.'c ordet'-ll centralized <:oercivc 0'(\(:', limited
in iu ,nntOrw validi,y."
No,m. ,hal ar<: .he .ubj"C,lvc meaning of legi.l ..;.,. acts and
llllo. ImlDllnd a cerlain behavior without the opp<l\lltC behavior
being mode the condition of a ..nction are V<fY rare in mod<'Tn
lqal "'den. If lhe oocial orden d..ignat.d .. law did COlualn .ig.
nilian. IIl1mbns of ..""tionl... norm.. <hen the definition of law
u a coercive ord.... could be queotioncd; and ,llrom the elIisting
_lal orden at law the c1n1lm, of contion were to d...
apptar_ p<ediuat by Man'.oo<iaIimo-lben l.hQe IOCiloI on:Ins
_ld fund.,.",mpl1y th,.;, dL;onc;I('. would
-fromthe poi... of ....... of <be olfttcd definition of thei,
lqaI cbanacr. and the _ial ......... cautitnlai by lhml woulcl
... their as lUI.... III. MMiian __ <bc ....
aloof with thc ........ the bw-would wilber awar.
It ...... pointed 00. nrtitt ""'" if one nonD """,,,,,,ndo I cemin
bchlvior :o.nd I oe<:ond nonn ..ipubla :0. ..naion II met.....
again.. nonoboervlnce. the tWO nornu are tied 10 "llch Thi.
uplrticularly true if a _ial OI<kr_ the legal ordu-eonn"and.
a certain speciAcally by auach,ng I co<rdvc act as I.1ne
lion 10 the oppoliu: bchav'or. a behavior accotding 10
such an OId.u may bc .egatdcd a, commaRded-<J.nd 'II. cue of a
Il'pl ordn' as legaUy comnundcd-<>nly so far '"" the oppooil. be
-a. I" ..
LAW A ~ O sAnJll
havior i. 'he condition of a .unc,ion. If a legal order, .uch ;u a
"a'n" pa..cd Iry parliament, oomai'" One norm ,h., preocribe. a
cetlain behavior and a second norm ,h., a"ach", a "'netio" '0 tI,e
oonob"'rvance of 'he Ii..." then 'he Ii..., norm i. not and independ
en' Dorm, but fundamen'ally tied 10 'he """ond: the Ii ...t norm
me,..,ly d...iglla'es--neg.,i"ely--<he wnditi"" under which ,he...,
Olld "ipulale. 'he une,i",,; and if the ><:<:ond one pt>litively desig.
na'e. the condition under which it "ipolat'" the ",uction. 'hen
'he Ii ...t one iuperAuouo from 'he point of view oi legi.lative
'echnique. For example: 1 a civil code OOIItain. the norm 'ha' a
debtor ough' to pay back the rcaived loan 10 the creditor; and the
<ond norm tha' a civil execution ough' to be dirtc'ed intn the
property 01 the deb'or if the deb'o" doe. nOl repay the loan; then
overy,hing pre<cribed by the Ii...t nonn i. contained wnditionaUy
;n 'he second. Modern criminal cod'" u,ually do no' contain
norma tha' prohibit, like 'he Ten Commandment<. murder. adul
tery. and other ctim... : they limit them..lv", to a"ach penal ",nc
,ion. '0 cenain behavior, Thiho"," dearly ,ha' .. nonn: "You
man not munler" 1. "'pernuo",. i1 a nOnn i$ valid: "He who mur
d.... ough' '0 be puni'hed"', it Iho\V$, lunher, that the legal ordet
indeed prohibi.. a certain behavior by a"aching '0 i' a Anction or
that it commands. behavior by ."aching a "'netion to 'he "PJl'O"
'ite behavior,
Dependent ate al'" those legal nonn, 'hat pt>li'ively penni' a
certain behavior. For....,.. mown before-,hey me,..,ly limit the
.phere of ',didi,y of a kg.l norm 'ha' prohibir.. thi' behavior Iry
attaching a ...nClion to the Dppt>li,e. The example of ..Ifdelense
h:u been ci'ed earlier. Another example i' found in the Uni'cd
N"ion. Challer. Article " paragraph ~ , forbid' all memben to
me force: (he Charter ",tach... to the ult of Iorce the .. nctions
"ipula<ed in Anicle 39. not (he Charter penni .. in Article 5' the
we of fotce:lJ individual or collective ..If-<icfenlt by limi,ing the
general prohibi'ion of Article., paragraph 4. The n.med .rticles
form a nnil. The Charter could ha"" combined (hem aU in a.ingle
artide forbidding all members (0 Ult force which doe. no' Mve
the character of individual or collecti"e "'If-<iefeu", by making the
thw remicted u.. of force 'he condi'iou of a Auction. Ye, ano'her
example: A nonn ptohibits 'he ..Ie of alcoholic beverag.., that i..
mal.. it puni,hable; but th" prohibi""" i, , ..,,>eted by ano,h.t
"
....w AND NATIJU
norm >ccording to wllich 'he sale of "'_ beve.ages, if a Ii"""'" is
obtained. is no, forbidden; that mt3m that 'he sale i' no' puni,h
able.
The ..,.,and norm, restricting the 'pheTe of validity of tbe lin,. i.
a Mpendcnl '10=; it i' rnuningful only in connec,ion with 'he
Ii",; both ferm a unit. Their COnten" may bt in ,he
.ingle norm: "If somebody ",lI, alcoholic ",ithou< a stat.
Ii""".." he ought to bt puni,hrd." The function of ,he merely
ncg;o.tiv. p<rmi.\Oion, oomu,ing in the nonprohibition by the legal
onlor of a ceTtain behavior. no, bt con.id<ted here ..
negative penni..;"" i. not granted by a P"';';'" norm.
A legal norm may nO, only the .ph..-. of validity of an.
other norm, but may entitcly annul the validity. Th..., derogating
n<>ton 100 arc dependen, norm., meaningful only in connection
with other, ..nclion'tipnl'ling nonn,. Furthtt, l<gal nonn, .u
'hmiring a certain behavior a"" dep"ndem norm. like",i.., if ",u
thoTi.ing" i, nndttstood '0 m..n: conltt upon .n individual.
l<gal )'O"'er, tM' i., the pow...- to <Teat. legal nonn., The'" att.
thori.ing nonn, designate onir one of the conditions undtt which
_in .n indcp"ndem norID-the co,""i"e act i' prcs<:ribcd. Th"",
are the norm. th.t authoTi.., 'he c"".,ion 01 general norms: (I)
the norm, of the conl'i'u'ion which rcgttlate legi,lation or in"i.
tute c""om a, a la"'-creating lac,; and (0) the nom" that '"8"I.,e
judicial and admini""'ti"e procedures in ",hich the gene..l nOTm,
created by statute or cullom ore opplie<! by authorized cOnrt< and
adminillrative official' through individual norm, created by ,h...
organ"
To give an example: Sup""," the l<gal orott 01 a "'''e pmhihi"
theft by attaChing to it in a ".tu," the P"""lty of imprisonment.
The condition of the puni'hment il not merely the f.ct thot a man
has "01..,. The 'helt ha' to he 'lICcruined by a court authorize<! by
'be l<gal order in pTocedure determined hy the norm' of ,he
legal order, the COUtt has to pronoun... punilhment, d....mined
by ,Utu," or c,,"om; .nd thi. puni,hment hal '0 he executed by a
diffttcnt org.n,The Coutt iuthori'ed to impo.., in <crtain
proced"re, a punishment upon the thiel, only il in a con"i'ution.l
procedure' gene"'l norm i' cre.ted th....",h.. '0 theft. <crt,in
puni,hment. The norm of the c",,"innion, ",hich ."thori,.. the
creation of thi, g<neral nUTIn, d..ermin.. a condition to whkh the
....w ""11 ".<TUU
"
Annl"" iI auached .,.., 01 Ia.. lha. &tcribts thit .......<ioo
$lll'" ul{ lhe individual, .uthorilcd '0 lcgi.... hn., iautd. VD-
naI.-m armo-ding 10 which. thief 0. 10 boo puni<bed in 'room
way; and i1l.be ooun aul!lorited br lhe Code 01 Cri",inal pl'OCftd.
inp ill a Jl""'"'dUK po"aaihtd br tho. mdt has :ucnuinftllh.a':aD
Indindual has llwf,; and ir lba. coon has ordcm:Il.be
kpIly punia!>mwl; .hm a CIO"Uin..pa ou,gh. 10 P'-
the I""'Uhmmt.N By thus pl.....ing the ru'" of Law tha. dot-
lOibts the law. i. 0. thaI .Itt: DOfIIII 01 1M ctINI.itutioa
... hich the of not'1IIt by 'tfULa.illg lhe
onplliUlion and proeMU.... 01 and \be nor.... 01 a
of Criminal ""'cture ,,'hieh authon.. the crea.ion of
individual nonm or the judicial COIlTt dcci1.ioru bJ rquling
organ,... ion and procedure of Ihe iminal courLt, are
nonn.; for they only condilions und.... which lhe puni
.i"e sa"nion. aT< 10 be exUled. The execution of all cow:ive
.euI.ipulalrd by a Irpl ofd...._including Ihose .ha. are oniued by
au adnliniltnni"e procedure and u- thaI do r>ot have lhe chaT_
acta 01. ..o><:.i.,.._i, wnditioocd in that \11111""'" The con"i.,,-
.ional (lotion of the general non... to boo applied br COlI,U and
"IIrnci.... and \be t:mItion of the individUlI u""",
br whicb tJ>es<, orpm ha.'e 10 apply the gcnnaI norms. a.... as
mIlCh CIlndiu.- 01 \be aectr.ion oIlhe coaciYC act as lhe...."...
....in"""'. 01 the bet 01. .... delia or II oohn dial_a ..hid>
.be lcpl.-..... haw rnao:Ie \be condition 01 connre _ ..... '"'"
not anctions. But tbt ....,.,...1 roor-rn \hat ..ipulatft the act
undcT all thac condi.iont 0. an indqlmdm......r -.R-nen Ir
the coo:rcm: .act 0. Dol COIIImandcd ba::aux its IIoO<trXlttioa it DOt
rnao:Ie lhe condilion 01 a further oonci"" an. If WCll1 lhal in Ihito
"- the COCfCive act .. oUlhorilcd the won!. "au.horilCd' is
used in a wid.... ..,.,..,. It .hen don not lr mnn <onferrin, a
lrpl P""'Cf in lhe ........ 01 a power.o lrpl norm" bm abo
conferring Ihe 'n pcrfonn <ot:Kiyc acts >tipulaled try Ihe
ltgal norm. III a .en.e, then. Ih.. POW" may 01.10 be deoig.
"Olcd a. a legai pow.r.
D'p"ndent norm. ore, finally. abo Il,.,.. Ihat furth....
Ihe mUlling of other nonn., by a concept uoed in tee-
on<! nonn '" by ou.ncn.allr ime'p1'eting a occoo:uI norm ot.her
wi..,. 1'.....umpl., a Criminal C<o:Ie might rontain an arlicl. IIr-
..
.....w ..",n NAnru:
i"l' MBr munkT i,.o Ix <he JM,hayioo- of 211 individoW
wttith int=oooall, CO'*l 1M deo.th of another ind;vidml.
M
This
dc6na IDUrtkr, howtvu. lho utide has
Ie oaI, in connection ..-;,h anick that lOY" Mlf a man
committ mu""",", 1M autbo:JriHd .....n ought 10 impoK 1Mdo'h
paWt}'.- And tItis articlr. apin, is iDsq>anbly o:oonKttd wi.h a
'hird article lhat "P' -n.. darn pnuoltJ is 10 bt' canifd OUt br
Iwlcig-
II follows. lhal a Iqal onkr ....y tot dlaraoctttUtd ... a ooen:i...
order. c>_lhough 00'1 all ia conci .... acts:
nOm" that do not roeI'd..., IoCU (and hell do
nO' >mm.ond, but au,hori!c l!>e creation of norm. or poIi'i.,]y
penni' ... definite behavior) are depend.1ll nom". ,.. lid only in
COflnt<;',on wilh nonnl. that do nipul>!.e """rei.'e acu. Again, nO!
all norm, that stipula,e a coercive ac, hut only those .hn ltipul..",
the coercive 3<1 a. a rnclion "'lIalo.' a <ttuin ht:havlOT (th.., iI, ""
a ..nction), command" specific. namely 1M OppooilC, !>eba.ior.
Th4, ,,,.,.nore, is another TOuon" why tho 11w don not have ex
a commanding or imp',.,";"e chanacr. Since a [egol .
dtt. in the ........ jUit d<octibtd, il. on:In, it may bt d...
lCrihcd in ICntmal f"'O"O'''.tilll Wo' und.... tpi6c conditiool
(Wol it,. undtt aJDditionl <kcnmiDftl by tIMo lopl ordn) 1pKi6t
conti'" _ ought 10 bt prrfollucd.. All rdCV1lnt ....I....ial
c"rllainm in kpI ordn fill in lb.it td>nuc 01 01- bw
","""bled by ""K 01 ... whidl 11 '" be dis.
linpilMd from kpl __ esublishcd by 1MkpIIUI'-lty.-
"a. 1.
-a. TL
II
LAWAND Jl.IQRALS
B
y dc,.rmining Ia",-oo fa, U it is the .ubjec. of a .pe:d6c science
of law---al nonn, it is dolimit<: l . natural "ienec. nut in addition to legal nor""" ,heT.
arc other norm' regulaling the behavioT of men 10 each other, that
iJ, social norm.; and the science of law i. th<:Tdor. not the only di..
ciplinc directed lowud the c<>gnition and dt:sctiptioll oE social
norm. These o,her """iat nonn. may b< called "morah," and ,he
discipline dirttttd toward lheir cognition and description, "eth.
ics." So hr a, jll"i.c i. a pootulat. oE moral., Ih. relation,hip be
tween ju>tice and law j. included in the rclatiomhip between
morals and I.w. It .hould be noted that in ,he common n<3.vof
language, mont! j. often mi,,"" up with c,hia, jUOI .. law i. mhed
up with ,h. ""i=<If law: and ,hat to ethia i. auribnted wh.t;. a
function of moral>: that it regula,.. human behavior. that it "ipu'
lau. duti.. and righu. in other word., that it authoritatively posiu
nonn. wherea> actually it. function i. the cognition and dc.crip-
lion of the norm. that have bttn crcatod by a moral authority or
by erntom. Tho m<thodologieal purity of the .denee of law i.
jeoparditc<! not only httau!oe the bar that separate.;1 from natnnl
science i. ignored, bttt ""en more.lO b<c.au.e the !<:icttce of law;,
not (or not dearly enough) separated from elhia-that no de..
di.linetion i. made betw..... raw and moral .
The "",ial ohar.scttt of moral. i. IOmetim.. called in que"ion
by pointing to those m<mll norm. th I""",ribe a behavior "ot
toward other individual, but toward oneself-.uch a. the norm,
that prohibit .uidde or I"eocribe rour"8'" or eha>lily. But even
th"", "orm. neCur only in the aware"ess of ",,"l1y living people.
The behavior 01 the indi,idual, which ,h"", norm, ptncribe, TO-
f,," directly-it if true----<>nly to thi, individual; but indirectly to
O1h.. merubet, of the community. For this behavior become' the
objttt of a moral norm in tl" con",iou,n"", of d,e community, only
beam", of its consequences 011 the community. Enn the so-called
obligation, toward on"",]( are social obligation. They would be
meaningless for an individual Iiving in isolation.
B. MoULl' AS RUU"'"rION
OF IHTllNAL
A distinctioo bot",.en 010131, and law cannot relate 'n the behav_
ior to which the norm, of these two social orden obligate man.
Suicid. may be forbidden not only by moral" but also by Jaw;
courage and cltot.l,ity may be mnral as well a.logal obliga,ion'_ Nor
is the frequently a.""",d opinion Correc' that law prib.. oxta_
ml and moral, intemal behavior. The norm. of bo,h orders deta_
mine both lind. of behavior. The moral virtue of courage con,i".
not merely in the intetn.l quality of feadeom""" but also in.n ox
ternal behavior cooditioned by this quality. And if, On the other
hand, a legal order prohibits murder, it prohibits not only the
btinging abou' a man', death by the e"temal behavior of ano,her,
but aloo an intemal beha,-ior, namely ,he intention to bring about
ouch a result_ The "imemal"' behovior_po"ulated morally a<;<;QTd
ing '0 lOme moml philooophen--i, .uppo<ed '" l11.i" in behav
ior which, in order to be qu.lified a, "moml;' must be directed
.gail"t O1,e'. inclinatiom or .gain!t one', egoistic;>1 inte..... So far
a. thi.< merely meam an obligation cre..cd by a moral norm to he-
h,,-e in a cetlain w.y i. 'o"'y that ,hi. norm i. valid,
even if inclination or egoistical imerest ate opposed '0 the COm
manded hehavior-then thi. also applies '0 obligation. "',....d by
legal nonn. It i. una,-oidable tha' a social order "'ill pr..cribe a
behaviot that i, poSlibly directed against some inclination. or
egoistical ;ntere't> 01 the individ"ah whose beh.vior the oro...-
ulates. It would he ,upern"o". to prescribe onl)' a belravior tha,
c""form. '0 all inclinat'o,," and imerest. oJ 'host wbjrctrd 10 ,h.
nonn. People follow their indination. or try '0 re.lite their in'.r
em even withoU! being oblig.d to do 10. A soci.l order i. mean
ingful onl}' if a .llil.,ion i. aimed., other ,h.n ,h. O11e ,h.. re.ult>
LAW ANn MOI<ALS
0,
when evcrybody follow. hi' inclination' or tri.. to Teali,e hi. in-
'''''''', which would be pTe..nt 'he , ...1idhy and
n... t>f a .odal order,
It i. '0 be noted that, if individual,mbjected to a ,oda.! ord... ..,.
,ually IJc,have in conformity wi'h 'he nOrlltS of that order, they do
10 only because ,hi, behavior with their indina'iun Or an
egoi'tic.ol int.....t, which wa. elicited by the social order and i.
possibly-but no, nw,,,,,,rily--oppos<:d '0 the indination or in'.,-
e1t that would be pre..nt wi'hou' thc intenerence of the social
o,der, A man may have con,radictory inclinati"". or inter..u. Hi.
actu.l behavior then dcpcndo on which indina'ion i. more inten,
,ive, which inlere" monger. No social ottler i> able to eliminat.
m.n'. inclina'io... and egoi"i...l imer.... '" motiv.. of hi, actions
and omi..ions. The social ottler Can only create. if it i. to be ellec_
tive, the inclination or the interes. to behave according to the on-
order and oPPOOC them to indina'ion. and egoistical imeresu
thaI would be pte..nt without that order,
The mention<d ethical doctrine i. somelim.. unde"'oo<! to
mean that only a behavior dir",,'<d again" inclination or egoi",i.
cal im.....t h.. any moral value. Since "to hav.. a moral value"
mean. to conform with a moral nonn, ,h.. doctrine impli.. that
morab prescribe t<upp,.... one', inclination' and not .0 Tealiz<
one'. egoi,,;cal intere.u, but to OCt from other motive., Th"
mea", that the moral norm refen only to th.. moti"e 01 one'. be-
havior, Apatt lrom the lac. ,ha' the fulfillment of the postul.te to
oct (rom motiv.. other 'han inelin.,io", and egoinical int.....t i.
p<ychologically impossible. moral order wh"'" norm relate. only
to the moti,'C o( the behavior pr..uppo.." dillCTent socia.! order.
which prncribco an CJfternal behavior, A notm of morals which re-
lates only to th.. motive of the behavior. i. incomplete; it
em be valid only together with tlte nonno that prescribe the exter-
nal behavior, and tit.,.. norm., too. mull be moral nunnl.. Not
every behavior i. moral wh.n ir i. pcrform<d again" inclination
and ego"tical im....." If one obel" somebody .1.. command to
commi' muttler, then thi' act cannot have any moral value, .ven if
performed again" hi' incHn"ion or egoiotical inter.... a, long ..
murder i' morally forbidden, A beh.vior can It...e moral value
only if not merely th. motive but tb. behavior i""lE conform' to a
moral norm. In pronouncing a moral judgment. the moti,. and
.. LAW""," .......U
IlK -,v;ltcd beha..ior c:aonoo: be ..,pu:olCd. For this ru...... ""'-
1M concq>t 01 monls cannot Ix limited to the nona:
your ioclina<iont, Iorqo the raliD.<ioo 01 JUUr qoielic:al in..".
nt. Bu. o:>Iy by '" 1iOl;';<II tfw: ..........pt is it 10 diJtift.
JUish IDlInh llIlId law ... tlK former rebtiD to in,,.,..,,,,1 bdl.I,ior
mol <.he lau.". prucribiJII abo ..... 1t,,,ttI:I.l1 bdnvior.
9- MOIlAu, " POII.,1\"1: 0t.Du
Nor is it to diJIinguiJlllaw and"..,.,.1s by rriCl'CflU to tile
CR'llion U1d applicaliOll 01 ,heir nornu- Moral norml, p.i>cly
lik,. It:gal n<>l'UlS, arc created by cUllom and by "'u of will (for a;.
ample, of a prophet or the founder 01 a ",Iigion, .uch .0.1 Jesl1l). In
Ihi, ..noe moral!, lih the law, bec:oU-Ie actually posited, are pos;.
"ve, and only positi.",. morals are the object of ",ienLific e,hics.
even a. only posi,ive law il ,he object of 'he lciencc of law. II i.
true <hat a mor.ol or<Ier don not p"",idt lor OTJ!"nl workin8 ..,.
cording .n the principleJ of division of labor, thaI is, central or
p'" lor 1I", appliouion of nomu.. This appl ication COO'WlS in ,he
moral ......Iualion 01 othtT individ....Jo' behavior ill rqul.ttd by
lhis onkr. BIlt, a primitirc lopl oRIn too is denIQli.ltd and, in
!hi< nspt<:., is jrwli.. inguilJ'lable from a monJ. ord<:r. " is loir'"
cant that 1M gmenl inttrnalionallno_
tin>cl. io comickrcd m<:rrly :as in,""""",! ",crall.
A diJl'"",,," ben<ua law and monls <1nnIX be found ill ..Nit
tlw tWO oocW onkn oommand or prohibit, but <>nly in "- thq'
(O<TImond or pwbmit a cnuin behavior. Tbt furwfammtal diln-
mel!' httwrm la.. and <nonb iI: \.0.... a cocrci..., ordtt. w, is, a
n-..t;'<e ord<:r <bar '0 bring abou' a CClUin behavior
by attaching '0 1M oppooite behavior a -nlly orpniz.ed
10: ..h....u. moral. ill a ooc:ial ordtt ..ithout Iud> pnc,ionl.
...l1oCtion. of """"I oppmval norm
conforming and di...ppronl of norm-<>ppoting behavior.
and no cotrdvr al:u art :as oanctio.u.
10. LAw AS .. P..IT OF MOIAUI
Oner la.. ond mor.lo are rognized .. dillr"",1 kinds of norma
Ii ... tyRrms. thr 'l .....ion of thr relatioonahip of law and monlt
LAW ANI> MOt.ALS
"
.ri.... Thi, queo'ion h.. ''''0 meaning>: One, What i, ,he relation
,hip be'we"" the 'wo? The oth...-, What "ughl i, be, If both q"....
,ion. arc int.tmingled, miounde"'tandings re."II. Th. fim qu...
tion i. rornetim.. amworttl by uying th.. law by its very na'me i.
moral. which m""nl th" ,he hehavi", commanded. or prohibi,ed.
by legal nor"" i, al", commanded or prohibited by ,h. moral
nonn. Furth.rmore, tha' if a ><>cial order command. a beh.vior
prohibited by morab or prohibits a beh,vior commanded by
mornb, thi, om.r i, no' law. because i, i. not jnu. Th. q"estion is
.1", an,wered, bowever, by .",tiog ,ha' ,h. law may, bu, n.ed no<,
he moral_in ,h. m.ntioned scruc, that is, "j""'"; ,ha, a IOciaI
ord.r ,ha, i5 no, mornl (which m.an>: jn") may neverthcl... he
law, ,h. po""la i. admitted ,ha' ,h. law ough' to be
moral, which mns: ju".
If th. qu."i<m of ,h. rclation.<hip he'w.en law and mornlJ i.
und.....'ood a' a que"ion conc.rning ,he con,en, of law and no' a.
a que"ion conccrning ilS form; if it i, ..id ,ha' law according '0 its
nalUr. has a mo..1 con,en' or co""i,u'", a moral value; 'h"" one
a"""" by .tatemenu ,ha, law is valid within thpber. of
morab. ,ha, ,he legal ord...- " a part 01 ,b. moral order, ,ba, law i.
moral and ,h...-c1or. by iu nalUr. just. So fa, ., '\lch an ....rtion
aim, a' a j""ificotion of law....... nd ,hI' i. ita 'ru. m.aning_i, m""
preo"ppooc ,ha' only one moral order i. valid cons,ituting,n abS(>-
lute moral valu.; and ,ha, only norm. that conform wi,h ,bi.
moral order and therelou comti1\l'. an ab",1 u'. m"",l value. con
be regarded.,.. "law," Thi, means: one proceeds from a defini,ion
of law, wbich determine> law as a part of m"",]" which iden,ifies
law and ju"ice.
11. OF MOItJlL VALUE
But if an ahoolu," nl". in gene",l and an ahoolut. moral nlue in
partkular i, ujcc'cd from ,h. point <>f view 01 >cientific cognition,
bccau.. an ab",1 ute ,,,I u. can be a.. "med only on ,he ba." of reli-
gio". faitb in 'be .hool"t. and ,ran"""nd.nt authorIty of a dei,y; if
one m,," admit ,h.t. from th;. vi."'poin,. an ab",lu'e moral ord.r
excluding ,h. po..ibili,y of the validity of .no,her motal <lrd...-
doeo no, .xilt; if on. d.ni", ,ha, wbat i1 go<><! or ju"" according to
,hat moral order il go<><! under all drcum'tane<:'. and wba, i. evil
"
I.AW ""D MORA'"
1<c<nding '0 that order i. ,,,il under all circum...."""'; if, further,
one admiu lhat at diff,,,,,,, dme. and with different nations and
""." within ,h....me na,jon. depending On .arion, d""". and
profession.. very dill"'''1 and contradictory In",...l aTc
"did; if OIl. grams ,II" under different cin;um".nc" different
MharioT may be con,idOT.d good or evH. just or unjust, and noth
ing h", to b<: con,ider"" good or ""il, jn" or unjust. unMT all P"'"
.ibl. circunnlancc.; if. in ,hott, one aclnowledge> that monl
val"". arc only T.l.,ive: 'h.n, ,h. assertion that "",,;,1 nOTIT" rnn",
have. moral cont.nt, ro"" be ius' in order '0 quAlify a. bw, urn
only man that ,h... norm. mn" contain something common to
all possible moral 'l"''''", as 'f"'''''" of justi
c
. In view of
,mordina!)' heterogeneity, how.,,,,, of ".11,. mcn in fact h",. con.
as good OT nil. just or uoju.. , "' different time. and in
different phccs, no clement com,,'on to ,he cotllentl of ,he variou.
mnral on:lcn io de"ctabk It ha. been ..id ,h.. all moral 'j'Olem.
pn<tul..e to f'T""""'e the peace, to ioflic' force on no one. But al
ready H....di'u. taught that war i. not only the "fath",," (hat i"
the ClUIe, 01 e"erything, bu, al", ,he "king:' ,h.. i .. the high..,
norm'Cr..ting au,hori,y. the highe" 'alue. hence "good"; that
righ, i, figh,. and figh' therefore in... And le"" "YO' "Do
you ,hink ,h.. I have come '0 gi"e peace on earth? No, I tell you,
but rath.... divi'ion...
lem, proclaim. thereby tha, peace i, no, the high." value, at
lea" no' for 'he moral md.... of ,hi, world. h i, possible '0 deuy
'h>t tnday many ate cO""inccd that war h.. mnral ,alu.. be.
caule i, mak.. JXl"'ible ,he prac,ice of vir'u.. and ,he realiza,ion
of ideal. that arc higher ,h.n the "alue of peace? Or i, the mnral
ity of pacifi"" uncont""cd? lloc. the philosophy of liberali",,_
,ha, compe,ition, cOIl'.", guarantee the best .tat1l' of .odety-
conlurn, with ,he ideal <>f pe.ce? Thi. ide.l doc. no' reprelen' the
highelt \'aille in an moral .yo'.m. and no vaille at all in IIOnte, But
if on. conld detec, an elem""t common '0.11 mor.l ,yotem.
",,-lid 11(I far. ,h"e would not be 'ufficiettt rcaton to regard a, no,
"moral" or not "ju"''' aud th.-rdore not .. "law" a CO<1'Cive order
that doc:t no, contain thi. elemen" tha' commatld. a behllvior
'hat 11(I far in no communi,y hat bc.-rJ co",iderd to be good or
jus< and th.t prohibit.< a behavior ,hat'" fur in no
h.. heen cnn,idetcd '0 be o'unjult, For if one dnct not pr<,-
lJIW " ~ D "'0.....'-'
';
.uppooc a" a'pTlon, that U, ahsolute. ",oral value, one is u""ble
to determine what mUll be <:onsidered good and e,it just and
unjUSt, uud... all circulUsta""",. And theu, undeniably, aloo th..
which ,he mentioned co<:TCi"e orde, command. may be con.id,
ered as good and ju", aud that which It prohibi'" as e,il and
unjust; so that thi> OTdet too i>-relati'eJy-moral Or just. All
moral orders have only one thing in common: namely, that they
are social notm. that i. nOT"'" thot order a c<rLoln beha,iOT of
",e"-directly or indirectly-toward other ",en. All possible moral
.y.t=. ha'IC in oommo" their lorm, the "ought": they p,eoerib<
something, they ha"e normati,'e ch"aer. Mor:ally good is th,t
which COllform. ,",'Ith the social norm th.t pr.....lbe. a certain
human beha,iOT; mOTaHy evil thaI which I. oppooed to .ucb
nonn. The ",l.tl'e mo",l ...Iue i. cstabli"'ed by. soci.l norm that
men ought to be beha"e in. cert.in ,",'ay, Nonn and ,alu. are OOT-
telat;"e oon..,plS.
Unde, these pre<uppositiOll' the .tatement "Jaw i. moral by n.-
ture" does not mean that law has a certain COlllent, but that it is
nonn-n.mely a social nonn that men ought 10 b<ha-. ill a ..,'tain
way. Then, in this ,dative len", e"ery law i. moral; e"ety Jaw
con.utute. a_relau,<-moral "alue. And this mrans: The que..
tion abou, the relationship between l.w and morals is not a qu","
tion about tlte cottlent of ,he law, hut one about its form. Th.n
one cannot ..y. as is sometim", said, that the Jaw i. not only nOTm
(or command) but also cot",i'ute. or rraH>es a value-sueh an as-
..r,lon i. meaningful only if an absolute, divine ....lue i. p",.up-
posed. For the Jaw com,;,,,,,,,a value preci..ly by the fact ,hat it is
a nOTm: it <:omtit"'''' the legol volue which. at tbe same lime. I. a
(telati"e) moral value: which merely means that the law Is no,m,
The theory, howe,er, that the law in ito ."..,nee repr....,,'" a
moral minimum_that a c""reive order. to he r.,..rdod as law,
must fulfill a minimum moral poo,ulate_u nt>< th....eLy accep'ed.
For '0 assume the ",i"enee of this pootula,e ["",upposes an abso-
lu,e lUor;olity. determined Ly i ... oo",ent, OT at leasl. con,ent c.om_
mon 10 all positive moral 'y"ems-usually ,he ideal of peace. Fmm
what has been ..id it foHo....that ,he 1.,..1 ""lue, os uord h....e. does
no, rep",sent moral minimum in this sense--tha' .pecifically,
the pe.ce v.lue is not an element es:sential lor the con..,p' of law_
,
..
, SU'loaAnoH or LK.u,.
... Mooo..u. o...as
If i. it:oooumed that 1.1... monl by then, PfeM>ppooi......
monl ........,. it it _"'Iess 10 dClWld dw <Iw law
"",ItI to bt monI. Sl'Cll is IQMniogful ...Iy (and tile
prauppoocd .....-alit)' yanhticl for the II. only). if
<Iw pa;o.iblli.J' of the Qiileou or an immonllaw is
in 0lhcT wOldl. thr definition of low doa no< inchock ,hot
olm"..l O)n'OD'" J( 1>eooy of pooiti..., la. &m.andJ. di"inction
bttwem law and monol. in gene",I, and law and justice
in panicul,., thm ,hi. i, di,,,,,,M .inot ,he ,,,,ditioml
view, r<gardtd " obvious by moot juri ..... which prelUPpostt ,hat
only cne absolu,ely ""lid moral order and there lOT< only <>'" .bso.
lute junk"j".. The demand for ...""ra,ion be......" bw and
monlJ., law and ju"ice, "",.no .hat ,h. nlidi.y of. poIoitivc lopl
order it ind<pendmt of ,he valid;,y of wit one, 001.1, .,.lid, at-
IUl<: mont ord...., "lb." moral order. the moral or<kr".r u<d
I...u. If only Tda,i'-e moral ""lueo aTO pr....ppooni. 'b.....hot f'<""
,ulate Lh>.. the law "",101 '0 be moral, tho, it, jUOl:. can only ",un
tho. the Ionnati... of pooitin law ""llh. 10 conform 10 OMopocilic
nw:w:al among tM many S)-.tnm. Thi" J>oo,,'nTI".
<loa not adlKk the poooibili.y of II... pou:ulatt tlw tlw lorma."'"
of pooiu.-e law ""&fl. 10 COGl....... w,lh ano<hrr monol _J"C1n_nd
oo....lIy perbaF- <Xl<Ifor<m wi,b i._hik i. do<. ..... coni"",, wilh
a monI.,....... th>.. i. dilf...m. I 'l. It prouppooi"l only .da-
.ive valu.... !he dnn;,nd u madot 10 ratt law and ..-.1. in gm.
.....1. and la.. and j ......... in panicolar, <ben l.hio dnnand <loa not
mean th>.l La... and """"I" I.w ..... af<' unma.ed; i. doeo
..... """"n lhal !he conrqx of law il ouWde conrep' of
Good. For Ihe rol""'p< oil"" '.good" cannOl k tk6ned Olherw,,,,
lhan al ,ha, whid> ought .0 be: tha, "'hid> confo"", 10 a lOCia]
norm; and if law il .. nonn. then ,hi, Impliel ,ha. wha' il
lawful i. "good." The postulate, made under .he ,uppo,ition 01 a
rellti,'i"ie '"eory of valu. '0 "pan.e law and ,noral. and III......
fu.. law .nd jUllie m...ly m.an' thu: (I) if a legal ord.. i.
judgcd 10 be moral or immonl, jult or unjwI, II>oc .""Iultions
"'prtM the relalion 01 the legal ordn to on" of manJ f>C*ibl.
....w ANn MOa",...
"
monl '}'Ite.'" but not to "the" moral ..m therefore con,d
tu'" only a relative, not an absolut. valu. judgment; (o) ,he
of a p",iti".legal ord<"r does no, depend on itJ conformity
with OOme monl '1"tem.
A rela,i,i"ic theory of .....Iu. i, often mi.und....tood to mean
that th",.., are no val".. and. particularly, that there i. no ju,tice.
It mean. ta,h., Ih.t "olue, are tel ..iv., not .b$Olut. that j""ice i,
,.Ia,i"e no, ,,!oJ"'e; that 'he "alue. as e"abli.hed by Our ItOTm-
crea'ing acU caltnot claim to e""lude the I"""ibility of opposite
"alue.
It i, obviou, that merely rela,;'. mor.l. <:anno' render th" func_
tion-<Dnrion,ly or ttO<;<>nJCiollJly demand.d_to provide an abJo.
lute .tandard for ,he """Iu",ion of a poslti ... legal order. Such a
ltandard of evaluation .imply cannot he found by >eienti/ic cogni_
tion. But thi. d.... not mean tha' ,here i, no ,uch 'tandanl-e,,,,ry
mor.l '1"'''''' Can ..-rve a"lIch. But olte must he aware, in judging
a po,;,i"e legal order from a moral poi", of ,iew (a. good or bad,
as just OT unjll") tha' ,h" n.ndard of """Ination i, ,el.,i,e and
that alt evalnation baJed On a differ.ot moral .y"em i. nO, .,,_
cluded; fllnher, tha' a legal ord.r evaluated on the of on.
moral .y".'" as unju", may well he ev.:Ju""d a, just on the ba.i,
of ano,her moral '}'I'em,
'3. JUSTIF'CATtON 0 .. LAw nrROUGI< ;\f"""...,
A juoti/ic.atiOtt of posi,ive law through morill i. po"ible only if a
COntra" can "xi,t betwe<n ,he moral and th. legal nonn_if 'h.....
can be a morally good and a motally had law. If. motal ord.r.lik.
the one proclaimed by Paul in hi. Letter '0 ,h. Roma", pre>eribeo
to observe under all circnmstance. ,he nOrm, enact<d by ,h. leg.l
,",hOTi,y .nd 'herehy """Ind.. any di..,epancy between it and
po.iti,'.law, then it i.< not ]>OMible '0 legitimi,. th" positive law by
,he ord.r. For if all positive law, a, willed by God, i, just
(like everything .1.. th.l ."i,,, i, good in$Olar a, it i. willed by
God); and if no posi,i,'. law i.< unjust, beca"se no,hing that exim
can be .vil; if law i.< identified with justic.; and if ,ha' which i, i.
id.ntified with that which ought to be, then th. concep' of justic.
a. well a, 'he concept of the Good have los, th.lr m..ningt. If
no,hing bad (unjus') .xim. then nothing good (jllst) can exi".
u,w .."" MOMoU
The to difeTrntLotl: law and monb, and
this: from "andpoint of cognition of
Jaw, it. justification by a mo"u oroeT diffeTrnt from
legal order, i. hnl"""ttI. ba:au... of of Jaw i.
not 10 or its .ubj<'Ct, bue '0 btow and d""CrilH'
it. legal nonm.:u prescriptiom of wha, ought to IH'. rom,i
value>; YOt funCtion of sci.nce of law i. no, ,h. evalua
tion of iu .ubj<'C' hut iu valu.,.fru dOllCTiption. Th. legalllCicnti"
docs not id.ntify him..lf wi,h any valu. no, even wi,h the legal
value he dellCTibcJ.
If ,h. moral order d"", "ot prcocribe to obey 'he positive legal
oroer under all citeum,mnc,"", if. in o,h.. word., a discr.pancy be-
a motal and a legal otd., i. possiblo. ,ho" ,ho pos,ul.,. to
sq>arate law .nd moral", sci"""" of law and ethics mean' that the
validity of positive legal nonn< doe, not depend on ,hdt confonn
ity with ,itc moral order: i, mean., tit., from ,ho '<andpoint 01 a
cogni,ion diTCctod toward positive law a legal norm may be con
.ideTed ....lid, e,'en if it i. at ....'i.n.. with tho nlOral ord....
I' i. par>monttl and cannot be cmpll..izct! cttough '" nndeT
.tand tha' no' only on. mor.1 order ....i.... but many diff"",n' and
.von conflicting on..; that a po.itiv. logal order may on ,h. "'holo
conform with the mo",1 ,i.... of a certain group of population
(e.pecially the lUling ono}. yet may conflict with moral vi.w.
of an",h.. group: and th.., abov" all, ,ho judgrnctt' of wh.. i.
monlly good OT ""ii, morally ju"iliahl" OT unju.tiliablo, iubjtet
tocOll,;nuouo al i. tho I.w. and that. legal ord.. (or
of iu normll} tha, at ,ho timo of iu validily may have conformed
wilh lh" I"'''uht.. of th. moral or,u,T th.n preval.n'. may .. iIl be
judged to be immoral loday. The lh..i., "'Idoly acccptcd by .radi
lIonal.don.. 01 law but T"jcetcd by the Pu,.., Theory of Law. thaI
the law by in natute mUll IN' mo",l aod ,ha' an immoral """ial
oroor i. nOl leg.1 ordor. 1""'''1']>0''' an absolute mornl order.
th., ill, on. valid at all ,imo. and plac... Other",i.. i, would nOt be
possible to evaluate a """;al ordor by a 6xO!d ".odard of
tight .nd wrong, indopend..., of .nd pia...
Th. tll ..i. lh" law I. mo",1 by n"uro-in ,h" ..n.. ,hat only a
mo",1 "",,;al ord.r i, T.jO:Cled by ,h. Pure Thoory of Law
not only bo:c<tn.. thi, tIt",i. P""'PPO<O' .n moral ord...
hut .1", lH'cou.. in It> acu",1 .pplication by tho lICico<;" of. I.w pT'"
Qiling in a unain ltpl communi.,. this tb<sis amotlD.. to an un-
ai.icd ju<ti5<:a.tioI1 of tho: national onkr that eotuti,u,..
",i._uni.,. For i. io takm for pnttd tha, """......... na.ioaaJ
cnnci"t ordtr io" Iqal ord.... 'Tllc dubiouo tt.ar>dattI of an abto-
lu,e ....,..Ji..,. io appl.... 0011, to tht: mnci"t ordtr of otI>C'f .....iom.
Onl, thty art disqualil'iod at immonl and thtrrf...... ao nonlaw,
wlom ....., do not coalonn with tttUin ",,",ub'tt. with wttich
OM" ....... mncin ortkrcoal<H= lorCPttlple, whm thty fcctlg
or do nrnsni: pri""tt p'''P'''''. or whm""" are d........
cno,ic or democn'ic. Bm tincc one'. own coerrin order u
law. thm. according to ,he above-meruioned .hai.. it mutt a1Jo be
moral. Such juttification of the pooiti"e law m', poli.ically be
convenient. "'en ,hough logi<:aily inadmi..ible. From ,he poin' 01
"iew 01, .denee or la... it mUlt be rej,m. i, II n<>l the
tuk of thi donee '0 ju"iry thela... bj' aM.>lu,e or rel",I"e mnub;
bu' to 1now and 10 d<ICribe i,.
III
LAW AND SCIENCE
'4. N....l M TIIZ OaJItCT
no: Scu."C& OF lAw
T
he obvious SlUemenl that the obj<'\Ot of Ihe ",irnce of law;'
the law Include. the I... ohvioul 1t.>leme1lt that the objte. of
'he ocienee of law "Ittdl MTml, b,,' human b.thavior only '0 ,h
,Uent tha' it i. by Iq:al norms:u colldition or t_
qll""'., in oth... words. to the ""'ntl thai human b.thavior it
con,..., of legal Ilonru. 10''''''''_ nlatio<e
1Cic<lce of bw I.tpJ rdatior>l only. tIw is, "" rtlatioas oomti.
tUted b'/'Irpl """""". no.. ocimce of law end.eaWln '" UIIlIpte-
bend iu object "I..,.n,:' lWDdy from u.. ......-point of the law.
To comprctlmd ......ething l<plly """'". to coa>prd>md lOme-
thing law, that il,:U lep1 norm or .. the""".", of a legal nOrm
......... determined by. legal nonn.
S.....TIC AND Dv"'.... 'c T"UIO.Y
w. ditci"",ioh a ...tic and dJ""'Mit tMorr oIla <kpmding on
wlwther the OIIe or l.hc other .. .....pha..m:I_d...
h........ belLa....... by nonm .... 1M noor= rogubUI\II
h.......n b<'1uo'';0I" {thaI is, wb<:lher the togllition iI ditt:Ul:d IOWllm
lhe legal '-1DS cua,fd. applied, or obtr<d by acu of h..""", .....
havioror toward the ocu of <TCIltlon. application. or obcdimcc de-
terminC'd by lqrotl norm.)." A<:<:ording to the lin
objecl of the lheory of l.w i, law a, a 'plem of v.lid nonnl-
lhe law in it> >lale of 1'<:St. Ae<;o:>rding 10:> tM 5CCo:>nd. tM <>bjecl e>l
.0..,..
.0. .., .....-...
,.
,.
logal th>ry is the proce. in which law is croated and applied
_the law in motion. Wh.... by it i. 10 be noted ,ha, ,hi> pn"'...
jn"n i. rognJa,<d by law. For it i. a most ,ignifiant p'0uJiatity of
Jaw ,ha, it regula,es ill own crea'ion and applicotion. The crea-
tion ollhe no,ml-\h. pmc... of legi,lodoll-i, regu-
lated by the constitution; ,he formal or procedural ....'nto. regulate
the appl""'t;On of the malmal .... lU'.. by the con'" and ..dmi,,;'"
,ntive OTWin', Th...<fore. ,he aclI of law creation:rnd la"" applica.-
,ion" th>.t <OlUli,n'. the legal process are comidcred by legal
cognition only to the """01 that they lorm ,h. wn'<'I\' 01 legal
norm.-lh.t they are determined by legal norID'; h<m<:c ,he dy
namic of law i 1.., di=,ed toward legal nonn., namely
,oward ,h= ,ha, regulate the creation and application of ,h.
law.
,6. LG..L No..... RULI: OF LAw
The .aen<e of law, by comprehending human behavio, only 10
thxt.1ll that it i. ,h. 'ontont of_which ",cans. d"'ennined by
-legal norm>, <epT<$<llts a no,ma,ive int.rpretation 01 it' obj..:'.
Th. "i.ru:. of law d",ribe. tho leg.l Dotm. (Tted by",," of
hum.n !>ohnior and to be applied and obeyOO by ouch acu; and
,her.by d.seri,,", ,h. notm-<:ostitutOO la,ioo. be'wn the fa'tI
d<t.nnioed bj' tho no,m'. Th. """0'" by which tho seieoce of
I.w d<><ribos ,h... no,"" and r<lationships muot be diotiogui,hOO
.. "rnl", of l.w" fTOm tho I.g;ol OMm, that aT< cre..oo by the l<gal
authori,i". app1iOO by th.m, and obeyOO by ,h. logal .ubj.cu.
Rul" of law (in a des<riptiv. seose). on tho other ltand, ar. hypo.
tltctical judgm.nu .tating that according to a n..ion.l or illlcma
tion.ll<gal ord.r, uod.r ,h. condi,ioo. d.tctmincd by this ord'T,
co,tain consequeoc d...nnined by tb. ordeT ough, to take place.
usal norms aT< not judgmonts, th.t i., th.y arc nO, otalCm'nts
abom an obj..:t 01 cognition, According to th.i, meaning they ne
command,; th.y may be .lso J"""11i..ions and authorizations: but
they arc not instruction. a. i, often maintainOO wh.n law and ju,
i.prud.ncc are .rroncou.ly <qualcd. Th. law comm.nd. pcTllli",
or authorn... but i, docs oOt "teach." How.va. when l<gal nornu
are linguiotically .xpr...ed in wo,m and "menees. they may ap.
"C/,h.'
,.
pear in the i<>rm of ....rtiontaling be.... Fo< the norm
that lhd. ough' to "" puni.hM i> h"'luently formulated by ,he
legisJaoor in ,he ",menee, "Tholl ;. puni,hw by imprioonmen,";
the nOlm ,ha, the head of .ta,. i. authoriud to .""dude i.
""pr<.-ed by ...ying: "The head of .ta,e conclud.. "<,,,i..:' 1m
pan.n" i. not ,he lingui.(ic ferrln, hut the meaning 01
,he law<tt.,ing, llorm'po>iting act. The meaning of lhe act is
diffe",,,, from the meaning of til<, law-<!""'ribing mi. of law. The
dif!<relltia,i(>ll between "rule of law" (in German: RcchI$-Sat<J
and "legal nono" (in GemLOIl Rech...N",m) ""pr..... the cliff....
enee be,w""" lhe function of lopl cognition and ,h. entirely
diffe<en' function of legal authority ropr...nted by the organ. of
thelegalwmmuni,y. The ><ienee of law hn to know ,he JoW-<lJ it
"eTc from ,he ouuide-,md to describe it. The legal org.n.. a,
legal authoriti.., have to c,."ate the law "" that afterward It may be
known and described by the seien of I.w. It i. troe that the law
applying organ, al", ha"e to know-u it were Irom the imide-the
law they are applying. The legi,lator who appl i.. the con'titution
ought to know the con"itution, and the judge who appli.,. the law
ought to know the law. But thi, knowledge iJ UOt the .,...,ntial ele
mem o( their (nnction.; it i, only the preparation for their func-
tion....
It i. further true tltat, according to Kant', epi"emology. the
science of law a. c<>gnition of the law. like any cognition. has con
"itutive chancter_it "cre...,. iu object insofar as it comprehend.
the object as a m.aningful whok Ju" a, the cha", of sensual pet.
ceptions become. a cosmOl, th.. i.. "nalUre" ... uni6ed .y"em.
through the cognition o( " .. ural science, so the multitude 01 gen.
eral and individual legal nonm. c,."ated hy the leg.l org:"'., be-
comes a unitary 'Y'tem, a legal "order;' through the ..:ience of law.
lIut thi, "creatit\ll" ha, purely epi"emological ch.tlI"er. It i,
fundamentally different from th. <:rcation o( obj" by human
lahor or the c,."adou of law by the legal authority.
The difference between the function 01 the science o( law and
the functIon of the lepl authority, and th<tchy th. dIff<t<JtCe be-
tWeen the pT<.dllCt of the on' and tha, of the o,her. i, fre,!uently
ignored. Lingui"ic.allj law and science of law a,." often used
.ynonyruoUily. For example by .peaking of "dauical intern.tional
Ct, JOlt, ",Da<ctl... -Tt>< """,1,",1,.. wn<>rr '" tbe jooJid>1 d<tiMoL
"
b .... one aaually me:uII a <nUln lheol'J of internationalla..; .,..
by opeakingol 01. law ". IIOU= of law, one mnm lhal 1M
tcimct ofla.. an t.! a bindi,. .s..;.ioo of a Law cue, Bu. (ho,
oOmce of law an ' Jamk Ibe law. it CUIDOl jlfnaibt a =-
Wn bdlarior liU w law crated by t/>r lrpl au!heri'T (m thr
form of .. iftdiridual 1>QnIl>). No jurist an <kay Ibe <So-
.....Lial di.""mtt bnWftn. law published in the olliciaI p_
In,,, and a tc;mlilie commmtary '" this bw-bctwcnl ,he penal
CUlk and a ,,,,,,boot on crimi...llaw. The .... formuL:"td
by the -:oinK" of law that, occon:Iing '" a una", Ilpl ordtr. oomt-
thing ....p 0 be done or """ 10 be dOM. do nOl impolt obIig:o
,ion. nor conf.... right< upon :lnybody; ,h., may .... ,rue or blse.
nu' <he n<lnm enacted by ,he legal au'hori.y. imp<>:linS' obliga.
,iOll' and conferring "gIll" upon ,he leg:oJ robje<:U 'r. nei,her uue
nOr fob.., hut only or invalid; ju", a. faeu are n,.i,lo.... true
nor f.I .., bu. only "";'Wlt or llonc><U,enl, and only ,'n/eme"t.
abom bel< an b<: ,rue or f.I..,. For e",,-mple. ,he ,.(I'eme", COIl-
llIi"ed in a tal <xl c;v;1 la.. ,"" penon who doa not fulfill
prom.... of mam"i" h 10 compmsa.e for tb< damage CIIul<"d CIr
d..e ciril affUtion o"lht 10 Ill: di......"" into hi, ;. b.he
if <he b .. 01 the .....e...hlch 10 de<ocribed in ,his l<pl,,,,, dots lKX
...bliob IIICh an obIiption bent..... i, dots noI preocrilll: IIICh a
eMI Cl<1l'''''' TI>e antWr to tbe queotion 01 ..hnhtt RICh a
kopl """'" ;. nlid wi,hin a ltpl .,.-<Itt elfI be-lncliucdy-
boaust <be r>onD. 10 be nJid, ""'" have ....... o-ea"d by
an empirically iden,ibble KI. BI.. <be nann maaed by the lep1
aulhurir;y (p<e-ribina eompen.. ...... 1m- <be all<! (i";1 CJ(-
IIlion in <Me of elfin be true or bten.....
i, i, ..... an abolll a fatI--no< a 4nttiption of au objecl
bul a f>rnttiprion-an.d iu, _h .he objecl,o be delo:ribed by ,he
ociena: of taw. TI>e norm con.. itut"" by the (pracrib-
ing ,""""u'i",, '8"i".. a penon who doe> no< "",nl.S"
prnmile and d.......... <ompen\;l,e for <he damaS") and ,he '''',e-
m..,t formula'ffl ,he .<o;i..,ce of bw and drocribing ,hi, norm
(,h., execminn ough, to I>e carried 0'" .ga.in" a pcrson wl,o d.....
nOt hi, maniaS" promise: .nd d..... no' <;<>mpm\;lte lor .he
damage aused)--th"", ,""p.,..iom are differ"". II i,
,httcfote <ot"...,i.." 10 ,hem ..
"I<pl norm" and "rule of 10.:' II foil"," from.hat hal been Did
LAW ...... SClI:NCIt
that d.e ruI.. of b.w bJ """ ocima: of Ia. ar<! not 11m
plr of the lopl _ ontM br the kpl authori..,.
The objeoion that rula of law are a1p<rl1uous is oc-.IO obriousI'f
unfounded. bowntt.... """ thai a ....ttrn.llcimoe is ",peril...
ow baide ....tul""C:. too- DIIun dooo ..... """Iif... judf itl IpOkm
Inc! wriltm wordI, II """ Ia. doa. il>t ,i_ thai I rIIk of Ia.
formu.1.lwd bJ the ocimtc of I is a1peri1uous bnide the Iopl
oorm CUlt"'" bJ """ 14isl110t" (:In be "'" oul'f b1 poinli"C oul
thai ouch ........ would .mounl 10 the opinion thu ocitoli6c
praentalm of I criminal IIw iI IUI'ftllUOW bftide thil criminal
II thallbe odmce of I.w il I<II'ftlIUOUl baide the I.
Si""", lcgalllonnJ, bl:inC prCKripciOUl (.....1 i,. COffil\1l.ndl, I'l'r
mll$lonl1Ithori....i(JIlI). can neitll hoe true nor fllw:. Ihe qu....
don Iri.IQ: How COn logical principl e:!puillly ,lie Principle of
Ih. Exclu"on of Cottl ...dlctlon .nd ,he Rule:! of I"fer.",. lie.p-
plied '0 the 'ela,lon lietw.... I....l "or..... If, accoTdl"l In ""di.
,ion.1 vi..... ,h... prinodpl .. It. applicable only '0 alSCTdoM .....'
con bl: Itu. or "'I..,. Th. a"ower 10: Logical prin<ipl", uc applica.
bl., Indl_,ly, to legal norm. 10 .... c>:ten, lhal Ih.,..n: .pplica
bl. to """ rules of law whidt dncribe th. legal nonttl Ind whicb
<:Ill be ..... or bloc. Two lcpl nOl'lltS arc con.radictoo'f."" ca:n
Dot both be ."Iid .. """ 0ImC time. if the tWO rul", of
Iaw .....1 dcocribe them an: COt\lradiaorr: and one ltpl norm tnIl7
be deduad fronI .t1OIhn" if .he rIIla of law tha. dnt:ribe them ca:n
rorm Iogial oylJosism.'
Thi. i. not lnmmpotibl. with """ bet that thac ...Ift of law an:
OUfl:lI....u:-..a aDd m.." be OUsftt-llllaDCOa, heallit' they de-
x:no. norm. prncribi"l thallQmOClh.ing ougbt to bt. "The ""(to
mm. dCKribins """ valid;,'f of norm of criminal law tha. prt-
Jaiba impriaottmmllor thef. would be fal.., if it._to 117 thaI
accordinC '" <hat norm theft iI punllhcd bJ i"'prj.....mm._i.
would be fal..,. bcc:r.u.., ,hcr<: ar. dtctlm"alVes in whidt dapi'e
,h. ""lldily of thai norm Ihcll i.. in facl. not puni.hcd: fOt" """"'.
plh.n the .hi.f I. nol ough,. Th. rul. of I dClCribing this
..........., .... NoI" .., tor ,II< 'PI"Icobltll' 01 ,''' IoJI<aI ",h><lpl< 01 ,II< .
" ....... '" ""',,..."""'" .. pool,l 1 "...., .... ' .. ,"Ide b, It.n, ,., .
In J .."..... In 11_ 0/ R_ I'ooowl. .... ..., ..I....
l'I n ....... <b< ..,so 01 ' ...._ku 5od<tJ b Up! ""'''''
0D0l 1'1 y_, __........ 'tot). ",. ...1<. _ .. "'" ."'1.......
01'100 _0110_ .. __ -J.<drt_ .......-'..... Xlt: ,
(VIoooo>. Odobtr.,0,). """ .......). .... xn, 'OS (N ,-,il"'l).". __
....w "NO SCIE1<CE
nonn can 1><' fonnuJaI<d only in this If somebody he
ough, to 1><' puni'h<d. But the "ough'" of 'he logal rule dOtl not
have a preso:rip,ive charac..r. Jill: the "ough," of the logal norm-
its meaning i. <kscriptive. Thi. ambiguity of 'he word "ough'" ;.,
overlooked "'nen ough',.....m.nt< are id.n,ifiM wi'h i,npera,ive
itat"",.nl<.
t7. CAUSAL SCU"CE ""0 Nou,
By defining Jaw .. a norm (or. to 1><' pr.,;isc, a' 'ystem of norm<
or ... norma,ive order) and hy limiting the so:icn"" of '0 'he
cogni'ion and description of legal nOTIIU and '0 the norrn-<:<Jn"i.
'ut<:<\ ...la\io,," 1><'twccn the norm-<lctermin<d (act<. the l.w i. <Ie
limited agains' na'ure, .nd the 'dence 01 Jaw a. a .cience of norm.
i. ddimitM .gal",\ .11 other science. that 'f' directM to",.rd
ca.....1 cognition of actual happening>. Th"eby a cri"rion h
been ;u<;"tain<d according to which ouciery can k differ
entiaL<d from n.tu,", "",ial science from natural Itience.
One of the many definitions of naLure identifies it., an order of
'hingo. Or' Iy",,,n of elemen". th.t arc linhd ... cauoe and eff..:t.
which mean. they arc connectM according to 'he principle of
cau..lity. The ..,....1I<d I.w. of n.ture hy which ..lenee describes
nature arc application. of this principle_lor example the "ate-
ment that a metallic body expand. "'hen heatM. The relation be-
t",un hea, and expa",ion i' that of caU.IC and effcct.
J( a social ocience, diff"cnt from natural Itience. exi,t<. it mult
<kscrib<' its object according to a principle different from cau..l.
ity. Socie'y", the ohject of .uch a science. different from natu",l
science, i' a norma,i"e order of hum.n beh..ior. TIl...e i. no
cogent rea"'n. however. why human 1><'havior Ihould not k un.
derstood also ... an clement of nature... der...minM by the prin.
ciple of causality_why it .hould not be explained like the fact< of
natu," a. cau.. and eff..t. 1t canno, 1><' doubtM th.t Inch ",.
pl.nation u possible at lea" to certain "'tent, and ha' actually
been givct1. So far a. a science describes and explain. human be.
havior in thi. m.nn..,., and i. defined science be<a",e i'
h... lb. mu'u.1 behavior of m,,, a, it< ohject, ouch a
canno, be con'idClM to 1><' ....ntiaUy diff..<nt from the natural
scien.....
"
"
.....w AND scrENCE
If we analyze our ".'em.,," ab<>ut hum;rn km.vior. howev",.
we discover that we connect acll of human behavior loward <ach
othor and tow-am othor toe.. not only according to the principle of
"..li,y (i.. a' ooU$e and ellOCt), but abo ."""rding to a princi-
ple ....'ir.ly different ron> 'ha' of caulali,y_ prindple fOT which
science doe. not a' yet have a generally accepted word. If we .uc-
ott<! in proving that .ueh a principle exi,u in our thinking and i5
applied by 'he >tieD""" that 11",-. as their object mutual human be
havim .. determined by norm. (that is. b)' scirnas ,h" have as
their object the norm, which determine the behavior) the" we are
entitl<d to CQmid.,,- "",iery a. an order or 'r.rem diUerent from
that 0{ natnre and .he sciene.. concerned with society a. different
from natural scien"". Only if ""'iety i' undentood.s a normative
onier of human behavior can I>< of., an .,bject
diller.... t fmm th. cau",l.,rder of nature; only th.n <:an sociallCi
.nco I>< "Pf""'d to natural Only il tb. law "a normative
order 01 mutual bduvior can it I>< diff.rentiated [wm nature, a, a
social ph.nom'DOD; only tb.n can ",i.nco of Low as a social ",i
I>< [r(>!II Datural
18. c..U$AUIT AND htPUTATIO";
LAw OF liN" LECAL LAw
Th. diff."nt fr<>m causality. that apply wh.n de.
lIttibing a n.,rmat;v. human I><havior, may I>< caned im.
pulal;tm. By anall"'ing thinking it can I>< d.rnonlrated that
ill the rule>.,1 law (th. ICDt."".. by which of law de
.\Crib<" its .,bject. lh. law; in contrad"tinClion '0 legal nonnl which
aT, preICriptioo,) a principl. it applied which, although aDalogou.
to causalily. i, ... characlOri"i<;ally [rom it, It i.
analogon. in 'hat thi' has a funct;oo in the rul'" 011...
imilar to funCtion of principle or cau!ality in law. 01
notnre. For the following i rul.of law: If,"
individu.1 commits a crime, h. ough' t., be puni,hed; or: If an in.
dividual d".. not pay hi. d.bl a civil ex""",i.,n ought to I>< di.
rected into hi' or: If an individu", contract. an inle<'
tiou.s di...", h. ough' to be interned in an in'titution.
fonnnlated: conditions determined by legal order a
c"",ei .. act. det.nnin.d hy ,h. leg.l order. ought to uk. place.
"
Til,. i. the ...rlin--memiontd ha,k (otm of the rule of law. Pr.-
ciiely like a law 0.1 natu,e, the rule of <""nee" two dement.<.
Bu. the conncclion exprwed in the rule of law has a m<a"ing e,,-
tirely cliffeun' from Qtu<aJi,y, ,he conn"",i"" expr<SS<'d in law of
nature. Qui,. pa..mly crint. and puni,hment, civil delict and civil
tlccm'OII. diseas" and imernmem of the ,jek individual aTe not
connected;u cau.. and effect.. The rule 01 law docs no' My," ,he
law of na,ure doe" when A i" "is" B; but when A is. B "ought" to
be. ,,'en though B actually;" not. The T...", for the dil
ferent meaning of ,he connection of element> in the rule uf
1.10' and in law of nantro i. ,hat the conn",,';on deo<:ribtd
in the rule of taw i, brought about by a legal authority (th>! it,
by a legal norm <..>ted hy an act of will), whrr<oa' d" connt<
,ion of cause and "ff""t U inMpe"dem from .uch human intcr-
ference.
The dilf....nce doeo nO\ app"Of wi,hin ,he f"mework of a reli.
giou..mc<aph},ical view of the world, where cau"" and elf.." arc
rontl.."ed by ,hc will of di.ine crea,or. According '0 thi, view
the law, of na,ure dcocribe ""TOfU th.t .xpr... the divine will-
norm,. Ihat i" which command n.turc to b.have iu a ccruin way.
Con<C<Ju.ntlya metaphysic>llhenrj" of I.w p....n<4 to di",ov... a
U3.tural law imman.nt in na'ure. Fr"", the point of view of
",ien,ific view of the wotld, howevet, within "hich only. pooitivi.
,ic then,", of I." can be eotabl;"hed. the differcnce be''''n th.
(can...l) law of natur. and th. tule of low must be maint.ined with
all emplta,i. 11 the rule of law i, formulated: "Under cenain Con
dition' cen.in con<C<Ju.nt.. ought '0 tak. plate", il. in oth.r
worth. th. norm-creat.d connection 01 the facu d.t.rmined in a
legal norm .. condition .nd con<C<Ju.nce i, .xpr.soed by thc word
"ought," thcn thi, word;" not used in it< u.u.l ",n"" a, h.. be.n
laid befo...,." "Ough," usually cxp..,,,es a comman<l., not .n
.uthori...tion or penni""on. The leg.l "ought." how.ver, thc con
junction whith in the rule of l.w connett< condition and con",,
qUctlce, cmbraces all ,ht rucani"8": the command. thc authori.
lation. and the po,i,ive permission of a con""luence. The "ongh,"
of the rulc of law design.t.. all thr.e normative function'. Thi.
"oughl" mcrcly ""pr...... Ihpecific me.ning in which the two
,,,", of faeu are conn..,<cd by. lcgal nonn, which m.an' in a leg.l
p. ,.
"
.......... "I1>e ociencc of I.l.. ClftnO( "'p'.... thil< notm<.>.fd ((11\""'
ion--particuLuly """ conn<aioo bcn<ttn cklict and unction--
Othctw.... ,h.m by thecopula -""8hl..NToreodcr lhelpOci6cmeon-
U. in whda """ kpl nom1 lddr_ u.. kpl orpnt and log:oI
... the.ocima: of law cannot (onnula... the rule 01 law ooM-'
w;,.. than by ..yinlf' M Aooonii"l 1O:l CftU.in """live Itpi ordn
and uodn- cnuUl condi,ions. amin CCIIlnIllmcc ""Iht to
pIKe.- " is not 00ITUl to uy. a< has been aid: lhc ICimtt 0110...
Il>en"lyawns tlu ltg:>l norm of" ltgal oo-dtt is Min Iom'-""
molD th.ttdo<f: it don not-in rnnm,di..inction 10" lqal
nol'm-4JSttl :on ough." but an "iL" 5i""" an looenion .hat
norm comm.ooing. authoriaing. or pooi,;yely pn-mitting a cerUllo
behav;"" """,lou" or i...... Iid.. annot m""D .hal thit beh.,;.". ac-
lually .al... place. it ClOn only mean that ,hi, behavior "ough0
,.k" pIa""."
SpKi6cally, .he oc:ience 01 law il not in a po<i.iQrl '0 alOC" that,
aocording '0 a ''''<ain lqol ol(r, ml<1tt the condition .h>! a delic,
hoI !>ten commilled. a ,:melion i. " .....1ty If the ""mee
of Jaw ...n,,'o "",kc ouch.n .,..,.,;.., it would conflict with rnJ
iry' deli<......... without Ihc W'Oion
.....ing pba os stipulated..,. the 1<1"1 orde'r; and it ntIC w
objm '" be d....-ribed by ........ of law. Thit it "ill true ........
if tIM: kpl DOnrd ... "" by"'" ocift><e 01 law a..., nlW!.
that ;. .....y that 1M ""hay;"" detmnillCll. by than 001",'1 (in an
objo:ttiye _) ... tak pb only if the bch:orior taually con
fonnt with tho: kpl ooder in ......, m<:a>uu. -no., dti_of
1MIqpl onIer-i, m.... be ou,"""",,-ilonly the eundi,ion 01 1Mn
lidily, ROC 1M nlidily ilXlf. If the: odomoe 01 law hal ... """,,11I
tM ntidily 0I.h,., 1.,pI onI...-hat is. llIe spKi6c lDftl]ing willi
which 1M legal onln add,..,..,. "'...., indi"idualt IUbjea to
it; i, c>n only st>ole IMI according'" a cnuin legal ordn under
Ihe ('OItdition that a <t>oin delict dnnminM br tI.,,, levI onln
has bttn committtd, urt>oin ..nnion d<t<rn>int<l brrMr
ntd.... '" take place; ,he...,by rhe word "ought" ""...... both;
,h, .ho"io" ,h.. ,he <x<cUlion or ,he .. nclion i, "'..... Iy omhor
bt<! or pooi,i".ly petmiutd and ,hi'uation th.t ,h, ,xecu,ion i.
>mn,.nd<tl. Th, ",let of law '0 be rormular<tl by th, .dtn<:' of
law c>n only be IK1ght.",u",,<nu. But in thi, ...pecl w. h.... '0
gnppl< with logical difficul'y; By ming Ih, word "oughr:' ,he
lAW AND selENa
"
rul. of Jaw rotmuJated by the ",i.nee of law doe. nOl. ....um. the
meaning of the legal nnrm delCfibed by the rule; the
"ought" in the rule olla'" hal only a d<>criptive ehaTOeter. On the
othet hand, from the fac. that the tule of Jaw dcocrihe. some,hing
does no, follow th.t what i. de><ribed i. an actual faCl, I>cctuoc not
only actual fact., bu' also norm., tbat i. ,hpecific m.anins' of
facts. may he dcocribed. Specifically, ,he rule of law i. not an im
petative; it i., rather. a judgment, ".temCtl' abou' an object of
c<>gn;tion. Not does ,h. rul. of la", imply any approval of the d.-
""ribed legal norm. The juri.. who de><ribe> th. law scien,ifically
docs n'>, id.ntify himself with the legal authnrity enacting the
n<>Tm. TI,e rul. of law remains objcctive dncription; i, doe> not
beenme p''''''ription. Th. rule does no mnte than 'tate, like ,he law
of nature, the link between two.lem.ntl. a lune,ional connection.
Although tbe object of the science of law i. 1<'g31 nonm and
therefore the legal values con"i'uted by th.se nonns, the tuleo of
law arc n...mh.le... like the law. of nature of the natural ",ienc...
" , ..Iuefr.. dcocrip'ion of their object. "Thi. means, th.. the
description hal notela,ion '0 a meta-l.gal value and d"". not im.
ply .ny .motional approval or di..pprm-aL If a juri", de"'til>ing,
from ,he point of view of 1<'g31 ""i.nce. a posith'e legal order,
O&$Cr" tha, und.r a deterntined by the legal order a
...nction ought to be executed determined by 'hi. order, h. a...rto
thil n.n if he regard. the imputation of the ",nction to the condi
tion .. unju>" and th<rclore di"'pprov.. 01 it. The norms ,hat
con"i,u,. the legal valu. mu", be differentiated from the n<>Tm.
acconliug to which the formation o the law i, ..-aluated. If the
lei.nce of law i. called upon ., all to an.wer the question of
wheth.r a conctet. behavior docs ot doe> not conform to the I.w,
the 'nlw.r can only be an al>ertion to the e!fe<:, tbat 'hi. behavior,
in the legal ottle' d<1Ctibed by the science o law, i.commanded or
prohibited, auth<>Tizcd <>T not authorized, pennitted Or not
permitted_regardl ... of whethe' ,bit behavior i. judged by th.
On. who mak.. the ....rtion to be morally good <>T b:ld. and
whrther he approv <>T di..pprO'.... of it.
Since the rul. of law in a d.scriptive ..ns.c, lik. the law of na.
ture (of the hatural sci."ce) ."pt...... a functional cooncc,ion, it
can al.., be dcoignated a. Icgallaw (meaning law in a legal sense.
German: Rulmguel. in analogy to law of nOlur., A. was em.
ph...iled of law hy wing word "ought" e"
pTe"'" .pccifie meaning ill which condilion and conoe-
quence. particularly delict and .anc'ion, aTe connected by th.
legal nonn; ..h....by 'he ronnection by 'he legal law is
analogo"" yet differ.nt, from connection of cau.. and .ffect
.xpr.......,j in a law of "",ure.
Pteci>ely a. the law of natu,.., (th......nion d=riblttg
I. DUl the >0 legal law (the a""Ttion de>crib-
ing law OT, in othtl word" the of law formulated by
ocienc<: of law) i. not the described object, ""mely the law, the
legal nOrm. lalleT-<lhhough designated a, "law" when it h..
g.II....1 nUl a law In a "'"'" analogou! to a law of
natu,..,. For the legal norm i, no' an a<senlon docTibing a func
tional connection. Tbe legal nonn I, nm an a""nion a' all, but
the m.aning of an act by which something;" puscribed .nd by
which 'he funCtional connec.ion b.tween facts i. first tab
li.hed_a connection described by the rule of law, the legal law.
Th. Tul. of low tltat pr"",nt.< iudf a' a leg.l law h.. a general
char.teter, like the lawof natUT., which m.a", that the legal lawde
>cribn tlte gen....l nonn. of the legal order and the ,elatio",hip"
constitu,td by th"", nonn,. The individual legal norm" created
by judicial d""i'iun or administrati ... acu, are d"""ibed by the ocl
eoc<: of law .. a concr.te io described by natural
.dence by 'detting to a law of nalUre tb.t manifelts it"'lf in the
A tex'hook on phj'!ic. might, for example, contain
worm; "Since, according to a law of a metallic body
.,.po.nd. wh.n b.ated. the me",nic 'phe,.., .ha, physidst X
dropped befo... h.ating througb a wU<><kn ring, did not p"'"
'hrough it alter heating." 0, a on Getman criminal l.w
might ..y: "According 10 a legal law to be formulated wi.h Td...-
.nce to German law, an iodlvidual who committed theft ought to
be punl,hed by a court by imprioonmeut; ,h.....fo,.. tlte Coull X
iu Y, having determined .ha. A ha. committed thel. has decided
that iI ought to be forcibly confined in prison Z for one year." By
oaying that Nil having committed a <:<enain thel. ought 10 be forri
bly confin<'d in prioon Z for one year" the individual norm I, de
tcrlbed which Court X in Y b.. enacted.
If the connection between condl,;ou and consequence. ex
pressed by the word "ough'" iu the rule of law, i. cantd "imputa.
....w AND 0,
lion," !'fih.P' a new wOTd but not " uew conc"", i'
int..wuc<:d into a which UoM 'he coucop' d...ig.
natro h.,-e by tho word "impu,ation." Thi. i' impliro in the
co""ept '"""ponsibility:' That an individual i' for hi.
h<havior mean' tbat he may he puni'hed for thi. behavior; and
that he i' iltt,!"""ibl . 0' not responsible, mean, that h. lor ,h.
behavior_bc<au"" he i' a minor or i",ane--may not be
punisllro. Tha' means. 'ha' in the /irst cr"" a delini'e behavior i"
in the """ond ca"" this behavior i' nol, eonn"",ed with punid,.
ment: 'hat beh.vior i. or i. not a condition lor punisllm.llt;
'hat puni'hnle", is or i. not impw.d '0 'h. behavior. It i' trUe
'ha' by oaying: an individual i' r..pon.ible or nOi respornible for
hi. behavior. one mean. 'ha' ,h. behavior i. or i. not imputro to
'he individual. But the behavior in que"ion is imputed or not im_
pu'e<! '0 the individual (...hieh meano: the individu.l i, ""po",i.
hIe or not r"porr'iblelor hi' behavior) only by faCt that in 'he
fonn.. C>le the 1><ha"ior .. conne<;tcd witb a "'nction and th""eby
qua1iliro a, a d.lict. wh.rea, tlli' i. no, done in ,h. la"er co"'" 10
that. ,h",.fore an i"..ponsible individual cannot commit a del k,.
Thi, means. howe'''". thot imputat,on m.",Iy consi.,. in thi' con-
ntion between delie< and ..net ion. Imputation. which apr......
i,,,,,l in ,h. conp' of rcspon<.ibility, is ,h.,-d_ not 'he connec.
tion betwoen a conain behavior and an individual who titus
htha,._.. a"umed by traditionalthenry: lor thi. no connec'ion
by a legal nom, i' n"'....ry. htcau,,", ,h. behavior and 'he behav
ing individual onnot ht ..,parated; e"en tlte hthavior of a not re
spon,ible man i. "ill hi' b.havior (hi. action or hi. ",Iraining
from action). e"en if it i' not 3n imputable d.lict. Imputa,ion.
implied in 'he coru:ep' 01 'etpon,ibility. i.I 'he conn""tion betwoen
3 cenain hthavior, namely a doliet. with a ""nctiou. Thercl'or. it i'
paMible to ...y: 'he lanction i, impu'ed 10 the delict. but 'he ",nc-
tion i' not "eff"'ICd by" (i. not "cruoM by'") delict. 11 i' obvi
ous tha' s<:ienco of law doe. not aim at 3 causal eKplanation "f
tho legal phenomona delict and ",net ion. In the rul" of bw by
which the science of I>w describe, 'h"", phenomen,. i' i, no' 'he
principle or cru",lity which i' employ"", bu' "no,h., p,inciple
,hat "'e d"'i/;Oat.u as impu...,io'"
'9- TIIZ 1'Jw<o"-& Of' l ..PVTAT1O!'< ".

T"""",so; Of! hn<nt>"I< MA."
All i""tuiIP';'" 01. pri",i.i.'t and of primi"..., .......wi'y
>howl that ,he same iJ :II the buis 01 thc
of by prim,,;..., men." mu> probobly did """ ....
plain ....'un.l phen<J<nmll accordi"ll to thc principk of eo....lit)'.
Thil tht lund>mm.al priDcipk of ""unl oc:icnce--likc
"'lUnllCiencc i ....lf_is ,he xhie<'rmcn, 01 a nla.i"..ly adn.nccd
ci"iliu,ion. Early roan interpreted bcu p""",iYcd by his ..noel
acxording to the .."", principles ",hiell regulated the relatiocuhips
to hi. fellow men, namely a<X,mling U' oo<ial norml.
Whm men li,-.. togethn in l group the ide.. arises cttt.in
behavior is good and another i. bad; in other worth: ,h., ,he
memben of the group oug'" to b<:h...e undor cerl.;" condition, in
"",,,in manncr 10 that ,he individual who in. concre'e ti'ua,ion
tlni ..... the oppooitc behavior and o<,ually behavn accon:Iing '0
!.hi, desire, iJ """,", no< 10 have bd.;,...,d n he ought ,0). Tlli.
""""" <hal in !he comciown.... 01 oocia.lIy li.ing the ide. "".
"u that """"" binding 'M individuals "'i"b.", ir mu,,,,,1 tot.
havior. FltI'tbomnort. mm liring tIlgI:<htt in a poup their
IlImu.ll lxha'rior ao<ordi"110 ouch .-ms that ICl.l1.Illy come inlO
hd.., by cwtOUl, <hclu&h thtJ a", ioterpmed It W am>-
"""""" of a IUpnbU-" authority. okldo. .-nu ol ........kind
a", prnbiIbI, <hoot aiming a. a ftSUinioD. of W ........1 impulot
and w delire of agrosion. Inca< and mllnkr are prllbabl, w
old(M crimes, outb.,.., and blood ,e"tlj\C the oldest IOCiall,
orpnimJ ..octioos. Thcoc unctions were baotd on a nile Iha.
dominated !he oociallife of primi.ive ....n: the nile 01 retribution.
It inch.1dtd both punishment and ,..,..-nd. It rna, be formuLuod
roughly :u folio..., If rou bch..... tightl}'. rou ough, to be ,'"
wardod, .... t is, a ought to be bcslowod on y<ItI: if you be-
h.we wrongly, }'on ought to be p"niohed, that is. evil ought to
be inftic'od on you, In ,hi. buic tnl_, condition Ind consequence
arc not connected with each olller 3ccording to the principle of
ClIuuJi,y, but according to tItc principle of imputation, So for "
-a, tu.. , .. ...... lr'-'" (Dn "_ 'M'). "" '., pol
......,. -' .,...... 'M.\I. pp. ...
lAW A'''o SCINCi:
"
any n.ed lor an explanation of pheno",.nxi.ted in tho mind 01
primiti". m.n at all, it was met by the principl. 01 ""tributiOll. If
an ovent wa, r"ll"rded as harm/ul, it ",as in",rpTOted as. punish.
m.m f<>r bad bohavior; if an .v.m ...as rogard<d a, boneficial, it
wa, in'..preted a' a reward for good boha"ior. 1n o,It.. words;
Mi.rortune_that is, detrimental "".nt. Iik. poor harv.". un.u._
emful hunt, dd....t in war, illn.... Or death_w... imputed, a.
punishm",,', to tho wrong bohavior of ,h. ",.mbon of th. group'
wh.""... heneficial "'""".-.. good ha,,.", ,u=(ul hum. vietory.
health, long Iifo-w..e impu..d, as ...,ward. to tho right bohavior of
tho m.mbof>< II an ,,.nt DCCUtl"Od which, in the collJCiou.ne.. of
primi'i"e ",en, roquirod an .xplana,ion-;ond this wa. only an
"""0< that dirtly alfoct<:d thoir int.ros,-tl,.y did not an:
"What ih. caure of it," but "Who ;, rospon>.iLI. lor i,?" Thei..
was nt>t a co",..I, it was a normative imerpretation of nature, and
>.inco tho norm of retribution, according 10 which thi, im.rprota-
tion tak.. pi""", i. a .pocifically lOCial principle regula'ing tho
mutual khavior of m"". thi. kind of imorpTOtation t>1 not"TO may
k characterized a. oocionorm.th'. int<rp...,tation of nat",.
So<allod animi'm of primi,ive man i. hi. vi.w that no, only
human kings have a soul, but all things. including obj .." that ac
cording to our vi.w are inanimat.; tha' in the ,hings, OT behind
th.m iovi.ibl. bot pow.rfol .piri" .xi.., whieh mean, that all
thillS" arc penon'. Thi. vi.w impli .. that things boltav. 'oward
men ill the .. m. way that m.n bohave toward each otber, namely
according to the principl. 01 tttribution. Primi,ive m"" belie'..e
that th... ooul. or .pirito cr..te mislOTtun. for mOll as puni.h.
ment. and forton. a. TOward. The link thaI exi'll according to ,he
bend' of primitive ""'n bo'...""n wlOng behavior and mi,funun.
as puni,hment. and bot.....n right khavior .nd fortone as reward,
i. based on the id.... that m i ~ h t y "'pethom"n bo' petlOn.1 beings
operate nature in lhi. way, lhal is. according tt> .h. principle of
retribu,ion. Th.....nee 01 aoimi.m i. petsonan"ie. that is. oocio-
nonn"ive. interprctation of nature-an interpretation according
to tho principle of impu",,;on, not acct>rding to ,he law of cau..l.
ity.
Co"""IU""t1y, tho concept of nature a. an om.. of .Iom.o" con-
ncctM together according to tb. principle of causality. cannO' be
It>rmed io tb. thinking of primiti.,. man. To him n.lUre "part of
".
LAW AND SCI"-'ICE
his society .. a nor,nat;ve order whose clementi at. wnn'..! with
ooe another acwrding '0 'he p.in(ipk of imputation. Tlte duali'm
of notu'e a, a <;;In...], and society as a nonnaLi>'., order i, nnkoo"'"
'0 him. ThaI outh a duali,m .xim in the thillkingof civilized man
i, the result of an intellec,ual development during whkh hum3Jl
and other being<, J"'T""no and things, are di"ingui<hro. and the
tau...l explanation of ,he ...,lat..ioo,hipo between things i. "":""it,d
from the llormad,"c interpretation of ,h. rolationmipo be'wecn
men. Modern leienee of natuTe ;. ,h. ,..nit of it< "m>.ncipation 01
the normative from ,he ><Xi"l intc.prc,a'i<.,n of namre, and [ha'
meallS rom animi,m. Paradnxi<;ally fonnulating: thi. p,oc... we
might $Oy: At the IH-ginning of evolution. during lh, animi<tic
pttiod of =nkind, 'hero ."isted only lOCiety (OJ a nonnll,;ve ot
"atuu ... a cau",1 orMr wa, created by only afttt ,he
laner Jiber.lted itself from a"imi.\JJL i,,"rmnent of ,hi. Iibera
tioo i. the of cau...li'y.
00. O..,.IN OF TItE l'J..tNC'PLE
OF CAu$AUTY 'S THE
OF REnIalmON
Law of Cauoali,y probably h.. ilS origin in the Norm of
RelTibu'U>n." Thi1 developmen, i. th. ,.".ult 01 a tran,forma,ion
of principl. of impull,ion according to which in the nOrm of
r.tribmion the "roog behavior i. conne<;ted with punishment and
the right behavior with reward, Thi1 proce.. of tramformati"" be
gan in the philooophy of nature of the a"cien, GT<ek. h iigni6.
canl th.t the Greek. word for cause, 4iti<>, originally meanl guilt:
,he cause i, "guil'y" of the effect, i. for the effec'; the
eff""r i. impu,ed '0 the cau" in ,h...m. way ,hat the punishme,,'
i1 imputed '0 the ddi". On. of the earHe" lonnulation. of 'he
law of cau.aJity i, the famous fragm.nt of Heracli,us: "If ,he Sun
will o...m.p hi1 prescribed path, then ,he Eriny rhe handmaid.
of j_ice. will lind him OUL.. Hen:: the I3w of natUT< "ill appears
a. a rule of law: If ,he Sun doe. no' lollow hi< pr.scribed pa,h he
will be puni.<hed. For ,he Erinyes are ,h. demon. of reveng<: of ,h.
Gr.ek r.ligion a"d Dike i. th. gOOd... 01 retribution. Th. decl
.ive step in the tran.ition from a norma,i"e'o a cau,.l interprell-
K<I.... P....vll, ""d 1< .,.);"" pp_ '59 E..... "'-1'" .n4 "....... pp.... lI.
.,
,jon al nature, from ,h" principle 0( imputation to the principle
of ""uuJitj", in man .ware th.. ,h. rel.,i"", b".
,"'ecn .hings (as di"inguiollrd from rdation. b<-,,,,,,,,, men) 'n'
ind.p,m"",,' of. human or '''p'rhuman will. or, which amo"nt.
10 ,he ..me, aTe nOt dC'e<mined by norm..-i, consisu in man be-
coming .w..... ,h.. the b<,ha,';or of things i. neither ptcocribed nor
pem1;ued by any authority. Only grnduaUy ""uld the principle of
o.o...li,y di'-c,t itself of all ,lags of a"imiuie, ,b.al is, p"nollali't;c,
thinking. Far .xample. the id<:a that """,,,lily m.an. an absolutely
ncttM.1ry tolion b<>'w,,<,n cause:rnd .11_....'1n ide. ,ha, <till pre.
vailed at the beginning of ,h. '"cnli.,h fi'my_i. mainly a
con;cqu"""" of the vicw th.. it is the will of an absolutc an
powaful lr.n",end"",.1 authority beyond ,h. Teahn of hum.n
cxp...-icnce whid> connects the cause with ell:""t. If thi, view i,
.h.ondonM, tllen notlling ,undo in way of eliminating the
of n"".,..ity from the of c.ou",li,y and of "pladng
it by the demen' of prob<lbility. If, however, the clemen' of
n""".. ity i, ","inM, it mm! unde<go a change of meaning_i,
must ftom absolnte n"""<li'y of a will. ""pressed
in eause..ond..,ffect relation. to a of human tllinking,
that i" to ,lie .. ""lidi,y of a p""ul.te of human cogni-
tion.
Ol. CAUM... AND Nott.MATIVE
Soc",.. SoWCO'
Once the of cau..Hty i, recogni'M, it io al>o .pplicable
to lIuman kh..'ioL p'ychology, ethnology, hiotory, sociolngy
di.dpHn.. ,hat human khavior their obi"'" so far .. it i.
detCtminM by cau",l13w', ...bich so lar a, it <>ceutS in ,he
Ifalm of 0' natural a i. charaet.....
ized .. "sociai ",jenee"' b=use it i, dilfoM 'o....t<! the mUlU.1
beh.vior of men, thi. ",ienee, 10 lar as it to e.pbin
human behavior cau..lIy, i, no, """'nti.lIy diffetent from 'he
natullilocienc.. like phy.ics, biology, or phj,.iology. How faT mch
cau...l ..pbn.tio,," of human behavior are possible i. anoth.,
Th. dilfCtence e.i"ing in thio '''pe<:t bet...een the men.
tionM social .dene.. and n",ullll ",i.nce. i. only on. of degree.
not of principle. An ....ential difference ..i... only be'....en nat.
..
un] .oeims and lOCW lIcin>s lha. do .- illterpm <he
mllnaal bd>arior 01. mm KDlII'diDlI;IO <he principle of aouoal'ty.
but:ottor<livig 10 th;at of ilOpuuot.ioll; tbeoe an: the llcialca dwdo
l>(lt how h.._ bdLlorior. &tnmintd by aoUlil b......
uU:o pb<c in <he roalm of MU1.al. nali", bu. bow it """,. to take
pbu. det=Dincd by th>o. is. man-<mdc ""'""" If we
0f'l'0It the of nJuet with ...hid>...., an' hert conarntd to
that ol ...nmoI nality. ohm m- nJua an: ..".."..;,..ted by pooi.i...,
""""'; lhnd<>tt. tht objta oJ. tbeoe I<ICW ICinlUl is by no mcanI
unreal-i. abo hu.. rallt,. bu. ," reality iJ dillcreni f...... the no."
unt ,.-atilT- it U.. lOci.>! ru,li,y. Such ooci.olockneel a: cthia (the:
otiencc 01 morol.) and jUTisprudl:ncc (the tciencc of law). If we
def,ign.o'c lhem a. non'>alive I(:imct.l, thiJ does nOl mun du, ,hey
prncril>e norm, for hun" behavior and the,..,by command, au-
thori,., or pooitivcly permit a 'rui" conduct. but that ,hey dl:.
oo;rlb<: ettui" ma..made nOnll. and the relationships between
men thereby created. The lOCioJ .dcnu.t is 1\01. .. _i,,1 aUI"n,i.y.
iii......k i.o nOl to .tgu.b.tc h......... oocicty. but 10 know and under
lUnd iL Socirty as the objtc. of .. normaeive oociat is a
11.".""."..., o:rdn of the mll'II"; bd.rior or men. Tbcse bcloo'Iz: 10 a
1OCiety.... far ... wi. bth... ior i. rqulll.... by ouch an ookr. that
is. a"lboriz!ed, ... poooitiYdy pnmium by lhoe Older.
II i, is Olid Lb.., a ecruin IOCleey is ccnso.i ted by " norma,i""
onkr ......bti.. lhoe .....twl beltariar of a Itilude of ....... one
....... rClllain a....... Lb.., ordtr and oociny DOl 1_ di6trm.
l.biDgI; tba< they an _ ard <he """'" <hin&- Iba, mo....
in no<hina bu, <his onkT. ard lhat. if is doilJll"ted .. a
communi.,.. <hen aomtially Iba, ...hicb tbex ...... Ita"" ......
....., is nothing doc but the order regulat'''lI m..tual be-
harior.
This becomes ""niclllarty clor in the a... of a ord.... (....
lqat community CO<lJlitu,td by it) which includes mm 0(
dilfnf'n. ,ongu... racft. religions. vi...... 0( tile world, and_
belooglng '0 dHleten, anUtgonillk groups of
;n'er...... They ,II fortlt l.g.l commu"i,y so Far .1 they
lubjen '0 .. legal order, thai mean. so far a. thol, mutual
beltaylm- II regula,ed by ,ho "''''0 nor"",,;Yo ord..... It that a
nonna,ive...-d., II valid ooly if it II by and 1,'S0 elfec
t;ye; and ,bat, if a JI""""lin order, aptcia.lly a lopl order. II
"
effective one can oaf' If the condiL;olU, determined by ,he norm,
ol the '(ldal ord.,., ac(ually eXI'I, the consequences conneclM with
these condition. 101m probably o:or; or, in <:a>e of an effective
legal order: if a delic. detem,in<d by ,m, legal ord has heen
committed. then the sanction prcocribed by lhe order will
probably take place. A..um'ng that the relation hetween <au.., and
ellt i. nOi one 01 absolute """"..ity. but of mere probability. and
the ....nce 01 causali,y con.;m in lh. posoibili,y '0 predict (utuTe
,he" it op.,.'" as 1I1<gallaw. are no dHk,..,n, from la..... of
na'ure and ,hould therefore be formulated a. ";0-""1<"<0" and
not a. "DUght..nten.... " Pl'cd",ly as lh. former prrdici how na
tu," will behave in ,he {uto""",, the 10"'" PT.diu how """iely (or
,he ......) will behave in ,h. future. A law of na'UTe "Y': "If a
metallic body i. heated, it will expand"; a legal law "'Y': "If a man
st..lo. h. will be puni,h.d by a law cou,t." S,arting iron, Illi,
...umption ",m. di"ingui,hed Am.".i,an repro,.nta'h", of ,h. 00-
caU"'" ,oali"i. ""hool of jmi'prude""" ....n th.. the law i.noth
ing bUI a .bom wh.t th. court> will d""ide-that ,he
law i." .<;ienc. of prediction." In opposition to> ,hi, view i, mu"
be said: the ."'teme'" 'hat Iegall"w like law. of na,ure are """t.
110m about fu,ure events <;lInUo, ref"" to norm. enacud by ,he
leg.l authority_ne;'h.. '0 the genr",l norm. e.tahli.h"", by ,hr
legi,lator nor '0 ,he individu.1 norm. oe,ned 1ry <;(>UTt deci,ion.;
that mean., it <;anno' ref"" '0 ,he I.w. bll' only to> rule olla... for_
mula."", by the ..i'''''e of law. deocrlbing ,he law. Legal norm....
otr",,"'" ""rlier, are no, ."'rtiono-nri,her a....,.,ion. about fU'ure
Uor aboUI past events. True.hey u,ually rrIa to fu'ure human
behayior. bu, ,hey do no, a><ert ,hat thi. beh.vior will take place;
in.tea<!. they command, .u'hori"" ptrmit it. On 'he other hand,
,he IrgaJ rules formula."'" by ,h. ",i.nce of I.w are indeed
....rtiono-no>' """Ttion', hnw",,,,, '0 the effect ,hat something
ac,ually will happen (like 1.1'1' of natu",) hut a"."ion. '0 ,he
.ff"", that ",mlting ought 10 happen according '0 the 1.1'1 de_
scribed by .he ""ieno: of law. It i. nOl correcl to object th legal
nann. at. reeogni%"'" hy ,h...ienee of law a. val id only if thev 'Te
elfective and 'hat, il .h. leg-ai rul", describe only effec,i'e l<'j\al
norm.. tile legal rule. a", a.......i"". about ac'ual h.ppeninj(>. For
"alidi,y and elecI;ven"" are no, identi,,!. A leg.1 norm i. valid
...............1T'..".,.., r.- ,..,j ''''', pp. 'OS .
-oI'PM
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'\"'!=d 'lu:>sOJd "'l '''"'''!" lSnm-p.>'>qO.tO p:'!Idd. Jq lOU W
'! ."., 10"P!A!P"! U! '"4'-J"!'''''JpU! llu!J'! Ul.OO ''I' JO
-to<! ''lL 'ntllop JUlOO 01 p.>.Uqo P"" p>'1dd" '! '! JI "! '"'1' .:011-"'1
puv.q.. "'l"'U' '! '! J! ""'1J'" '!->O'!'''''U' '114," 'ou '! '! l! U',,"
n""3':>I' <INV "'VI
..
"
dor<: of legislation. A pr<dic.ion of a jodicial rl""i'iOll,
O1\<n'i.>Hy r"U on the fact that the COUtU by and large apply the
gto"a' norm. cr....ro by lcgi.llator or CU,tom; .he pT<diction
thcfore cOIl.im m=ly in the SUI<'ID... , 'hat the cOUtu will de_
cide .. 'hey ought to decide acrording to the ""lid gon.....l nOn"'.
Th. pH,dictions of realistic juri.\=d<nce differ from the rul ..
of law of nonnative juri.prudence (norm"i,-. Jeiene. of law) only
in 'hn th..., predictiOn> are iH,atemenu not ought.....'.m.nu,
but-being i.-otawncmo-do not tend.. 'he mUlling of
'he law. To the that <ourU creale new law by their d<'Ci-
sion., predictions ale jnlt .. irnp<>Mible ., prrdktion. of general
nOTrru 10 be created by legislalon. General norm., however. con
stitute the bull of the law with which the science of law i. cOll-
cerned. But enD to tI.. """"n .ha. p'cdieti01u po.. tho'"
ar< not Lho wl or of law, which i. abl. '0 d.""il,.,
individual 3nd g""......l nOm" only thoy !>ttn
and valid, Th. prlictioll of. futur< couct deci'ion nlight
I,., co"'idetl part of .. of a pr:actlcal1awj'eT courneling
hi, But cognition of law mu", not I,., confounded with
logal advie..,. E"en if a by aud effccti". legal ordet could I,.,
by which, law' of a""rt th..
uudot condition. cortain con>e<]uell= actually plac.
(in word" that, if i. which according '0 ,hi.
legal ord.r i. d.fined by the law-applyiog organ a, a Ih.
sanction proocribed by legal oro"" will I,., O'<ccuted) .,iII, it i.
not :ieuc. of law .hat aim. at .uch a description, For ,d
enee 01 law. by formulating rules of law, doe.< not descril,., a causal
connection bu. a nortl1"i,. connec'ion of
its object: imputation,
.., DtPFEU"cr... 'rll. PR'''ClPLES
OF c,.,USAUTY A"o IM.UTA"'O"
Th. Hnguinic fann in which ooth of ,"usalit), and
of imputation i. pr=nted, is a judg-
in which a eertain condition i. connected with a cer"in
conl<'<luonc But, a. we Stttl, meaning of Ih. connec'ion
i. differ"'" in two c:uef" The prindpl. of cau",1i.y "'yo: "If d
is, b i' (or will 1,.,)," The of imputation oayo: "If d
lAW ANI> SCIU<CI:
i., then b ought to be." A. an exomple ollhe application 01 the
p,inciple of causality in a delini law 01 nato", may serve tho
eorlie...mentionod ph}'licallaw that describeo 'ho effect of heat on
mew..
Following are examples, in the realm of nonnativo OO(;ial ",i.
"""0', for lbe application of 'he principle of imputation: II "'me
ono h.. rendered to l"u a good servico, you ought to .how grati.
tude; il """oone h sacrificed hi. life for hi. COUntry. hi' memory
ought to be honorod; if IIOm"",ne ha, .inned ho ought to do
penance. These ... ethical sentences or mo",l law. thar oxpr""
pooilive nornu. thal i. nonu. enac,ed by a ..ligiom le3der 0'
created bycu,tom,
}'ollowing are examples 01 legal mles or legal law. in which
pootive legal nornu are expr.,...,.j. th.t i. no,m, en.cted by a I ~
illator or created by CuStom: 1 l<Unoone ha' commiued. crime he
ough' to be punished; if romeone doe. not pay his debt, civil exec
ution ough' to be di'ected imo hi. property.
The difference between cowality and impu,-,-'ion con,i,,,.
mentioned before. in 'he lact tha' the 'elatiomhip be'ween the
condition .. caus" and 'be consequence as elleet, expressed in a
Jaw of na'ure, i. not brough, about by a man-made norm (al is the
reladon between condi'ion and consequence in moral or leg.1
law), but iJ independen' of man', imerf"ence, Since the .pecific
meaning of 'he aCt by which 'be relation be'ween condition and
COtl>equence in a moral or legal law is h'ougbt about is a "norm,"
_ On speal< of "nonn.,i"e" 'elation... dlotinguished from a
"owal" rel.,ion. "lmpula,io
n
" mea", a normative relation, Thi"
.nd nothing else. i, expressed by the word "ought" when It i. used
in a moral or legal law.
Another difference between causality and imputation is 'hi"
Each concre'" canse mUot be regarded .. 'he effec' of .no,ber
callse. and each conc,e", effect a, the cause of another effect. '"
that the chain 01 ouse and ellect i. endl"" in both directio", in
conformity "'ith the essence of caus-,lity. To thi. lOU"' bc added
that "...,. concrete "'em lies at lhe imersection of a theoretically
unlimited number of cau..l chains.
The .ituation i, differen' wi'h re.pea to impUlation. The COn
di'ion '0 which 'he consequence in moral (IT legal low i.
inlpUlro-uch patriotic death to which honor. bellefits to wbicb
....w ..."" XlE.'<CI: 91
sn"'udc. lin 10 whith pcn;uI(e, (Ii_ 10 which punilhmal' a",
ifllpu<M--<oll m- oonditions a" "'" also COI\M<lUftKa
wIUcb mUSl imputed 10 0Iher condil""" And tho COI\M<lun>ca
--beeKw. gmi".ck. pawoot. pun4t=mt........-l "'" t'laWil.,.
f;IlDdi,iCIns 10 wlUcb fUlthcT coaacq:umca are 10 imputed. no..
IIUDlher ollinb 01 an illl....t>otion. <hain is no< unlimited. tho
Iintl 01 a ausal chain, bu, limited. Thett is an end pnUlt in tho
imput>oUon chain. bu, """""t 01 tho kind in tho auAl chain.
The ouppooition of a li.. a_, a pri_ ""....-naIOSO'" l(I !he
CIld poinl in the imput>otioa win_is incompatible with the ida
of au""li.." or, a, an.,. ta'e, with th.. ;,In of awalily as uprnoed
In the laws of das&ic.ol pIIysia. Th. idn of a fin. cau.. which....
th. =..ive will of Cod or ahe frn: will of man. pial" a deci,i ..
role in ..Iigiou. m.taphyoia, il likewi.. _ ".id". of prhni,i,>.
thinking, in which the principle of cau..li,y i. no< emand.
pated from that of imputation.
I,. THE PJ.oou"" Of' nu
FIlUDO.. Of' WILL
On the dillenU bttWttn imputation and caUAii.."
namdy "'... imput>o.ion hao an md poin' wbern> a._li,y hao
noI. rau 'M a>DtrIII K,wun the nca:ssity prnaili"l in Da'U'"
and tbc freedom ctiIl.ill( ill -ir and .. .,.."Iial foo' tbc .-...0.
11", ",lationl bel....... mm.. ThaI man, as pan ollUlUff, is ......
hee mnm tha, his bduorior. IooUd UP""' as a Ila.unol be<. it
a.UKd by ....... lawaccord.... 10 the Ia.. of na'ure-<""t hl1 be-
""rior must be rqarded as the den of tboe fxu and tht:rriOtt
determined by tMm. &11 tha, man. :as a monl or lqal poraon. is
and lben:fore mpoa,iblc bala diffttmt meaning. If a man
Is held n:sparuibk. morally or legall.,.. for his monol or immonl.
hil legal or il1eg:ol thaI i.. if human beh>vior i. in'...
preted uoordi"t 10 a lnotal or I"!PI law as merit, .in, or delict;
and if to ,h. meri, i. imputed a reward, to .in a p"".nce, .nd 10
,h. deli., a ..nedon. ,hen ,hi. Impur..ion .nd. in the \>ehlvior in
terpreted ... merit, lin. or tklic,. To \>e tru. it iI e"'tomary to oay
that the merit. lin, and delic, a", impu'ed to the min ...pon.ibl.
foe Ihi. \>ehavior. But the ..al mtaninll'of thi.l.. tem.nt is that Ih
.....n ought 10 \>e rewarded for hl1 meri, (more prce'"I.,.: that the
.'
LAW AND
rn<ti, of thi, Illan ough, \0 be rewarded): that the man ought 1<>
do:> """ance for hi> .in (more ,hat ti" .in of ,hi. man
ought to h,,'. its penance): that the oiminal ought '0 be pun-
'''",d (mOTe p,;..ly: that hi. crime ought to get ,he pnui,hme",
it d..",). Il j. nol behavior defined a. merit, ,in, or crime th..
i. imputed to the man_mch an impntaton would i>< mptT8u",,',
.inee human behavior c.anllo' be "p"rated from the bchaving
human !>ting. If the qu."ion of imputaMU j. ",i..<1 aher a man
has bchav<d mtTitotion,ly. hao ,innect or h", committed a crime.
,hen ,hi. quell;on i, not: who h.. ""rfoTmed the mtritorion. drffi,
who 11<.. commiutd ,he .in or the crimel-.h;. would be a que.,ion
of fact: the moral or legal qu....ion of imputation is "Ilhe" will> is
,c.pamibl. fOT the behaviorl And thi. que>!;on mea"" ,,'ho
ought to be or who ought to do pen.nce or be puni,hed?
It i, tI.. ,..,ward, the penance. the puni,hment that a,.., imputed ..
,pecific conoequence, to .pecific condition>. And the condition i,
the behavior that ""pt=n" the merit, ilit, or crime. The imputa
tion of the ,..,,,,at<! to the met;t, of .he penance to the .in. and 01
the to the crime includ.. the imputation to the man,
although only thi, imputation i. cle.rly in the common
u...ge of language,
The problem of monl or leg.l "".pon.ibility i. fuodamentally
witlt that of retribution; retribution i, imputation of
reward to merit, of pena""e to .in. of pUlli,hment to crime. The
principle of ,..,tribution a behavior whith i, ill con
lormity to a norm with a ..,,'at<!, a behavior which i. in conflict
with. noml with penance or pun;o!lment. Th", it presuppo... a
norm that command. or prohibit, thi, behavior or iJ a norm tll3t
prohibits the behavior jll.t by " puni,hment to it. Dut
the behavior th.. constitut.. the condition lor the ...
wat<!, the p.",.n, or th. pun;,hment may it..11 be
or as consequence of a d.fin;te condition. If by imputa.
tion we und.rstand every connectioo of " human behavior with
the condition unMr whkh it i, or in a
norm." the" al"" th. behavior to which, as to ic.s con
dition, the ",,,..d, the penance, or the p"ni.hn,ent i.
mal' be to the condition under whkh it i, or
prohibited.
cr, I', ..'d h"'
ro< example: Monl. command that if someone" In need he
oUgh' '0 be helped; if klmeone obep this command, hi. behavior
oUgh' to be appro....d. il be dilObe)'., hi. heha"io< ough' to be di ..
approved. The "'nctiom of approval and di...ppro,,1 are in'p"'ed
to ,h.ir immedi..econdition-4he commanded aid and the prohib.
i'ed nonaid; tbe commanded aid i. imputed '0 the fact whO$<:
;mmedi". condi'on i' io: na",ely tha' ",nlebody is in n.ed. Thi.
fac' is 'he medi"e condition of ,h. appro'..al (Iunc'ioning .. Mne-
,ion) of relld....ing aid and 01 'he d"'pprO\'al 01 not rendering il.
Ano'her ""ample: The law comm.and. ,hat if klm.one receives a
loan and doeo nOt repay i'. d"il execUlion_a. a ,anction-ough"o
be direcred into bi. proptrty. Tbe ..netion 01 civil ""ecu,ion i.
imputed to 'he nonrepaymen, of 'he loon. d.6ned as a delkl-the
nonrepayu,.." being 'he iunoediale condition for ,hi...netioll;
tbe commanded repalme", m'he loan is imputed '0 ilS imm.dia'e
condi,ion, 'he receip, m'he lo'n. Thi. fac' i. ,h. mediate condi-
'ion of the sanc'ion 01 the ."ecution. Beyond 'hi' mC'diate COIl'
di'ion of 'he ..nction nO imputa'ion tak.. place. Bu' the reward.
penance. punishment (including civil execu,ion) are no, impu'ed
'0 their mediate condition, bUl only '0 'heir immC'di"e condition
_meri' ill, deli<:1. Reward, penance. punishment are not im-
pu,ed '0 the condi'ion und..- whi<:h a certain behavior i.
commanded as m",i,oriou. or prohibi'ed as .inful <" unlawful:
they are imputed to 'he man who behav.. in conlormi,y Or in con
fliet with 'be command, or, more preei..I)": hi. bebavior in
confonnitl with 'he command is rewarded, hi. op!""i'e behavior
penanced or puni,hed. In this behavior end. 'he imp",a,ion 'ha'
cons,i,ut.. hi. m""l or legal re.ponsibilit)",
If, how.,..,:, a certai" event is 'he effect m a can"'. and if thi>
cau... a. alway., i ~ l f hu. cause, then thi. caUle, '00, aJ cawa , .
mora, i. a caule of 'he evell' in que"ion. Thi, event i. not only
refe-rred '0 its immediate COule, bnt 01", to all lIS mC'di ..e """",
and thus is i",erpre,ed a. the effect of all 'hOle caUIe' that form au
infinite chain. The deci,ive point is: the behavior that, under a
norma,ive (Le_. a mOT.1 or legal) order. i. the end poi'" of an im
puta,ion. is, under the causal order, no end poi'" (neither aJ cau",
nor a. effect) bu, o"ly a link in an i , , ~ n i ' e (hain.
Thi. then. i. ,he lrue meaning of the id.. 'hal m'n," tho mh
jecr of a moral or legal order, 'h,' i., as a lnctnl>er 01 a society and
LAW ANI> SClUICIt
as a moral or l<gal p'ntm, i> "free:' ThaI man, ,nbj..:led '0 a
moral or legal order, i. "free" mean<: he i. 'he <Ud poin' of an
impnlar..ion that i, poooible only on .he bui. of ,hi. nonna,in
order, A<;wrding to the n....l vi.w, how.ver, freedom iI nnder'
owod a. the opp:jte of caw.al determination. To be "fre." mea",,:
not 10 be .ubj..:led to the law oj causality, It i. wuolJy said: lie-
co"", man iI !fee or has a free w m ~ n d dli.< m..", according '0
the u.ual view thai bit behavior i, not .ubjeeted to .he law of
cau5ality .hat determines i" in.oc.r a' hi. will i, ,h. cauoe of
dfoct.l, but not the .Ilt of auoes-----lle i. r..pomible, which meam.
apabl. of mo",l or legal impUl,a,ion, Only becall'" man i> free
an he be made re.pomible for bi.< behavior: punl.hable for
crim expec'ed to do penance lor ,in.. eligible to be rewarded for
meri The a..umptlon, how."", tlut only man', freed<>m (that
i>, the faCt tba, be i. not .ubjecled '0 the law of cowali,y) ma....
resf"'lll'ibiii,y (and tha, m.am: imput:nion) poooibl. i> iu open
conflict with the fac.. of >o<iallife, The ..ublilhment of a norma,
tive, behavlo.....gulatlng <>rder whkh i. the only ba.i, of imputa,
,ion, at'ually pr..uppooa tha' man', will i> causally d.terminahle,
therefor. no, free, For i, i, the undoubtable Junction of .ueh an
oroer to ind""" human beings to observe the beh.vior com
manded by the order--to tum nonn> ,ha, command. tertain !>e-
havior into pos>ible motiv.. determining m.n', will '0 behave >c.
cording '0 .h. norm., lIu, thi, m.a", ,ha, ,h. idea of a norm
commanding a certain behavior become, the au.. of a norm
conforming beh"ior, Only becau.. the norma,iv. order (ao ,he
Con'''''' of ,h. idea, of m'n who.. conduc' 'he order r.gul....) In-
.....1.1 i,oell in the causal proce.., In ,he chain of cau" and elf..:",
does the oro.r lullill it.l >o<iol funt,lon. And only on ,h. ba.i, of a
normative order, tha' pr..upp""" 'nch Clusality with respect '0
,he will of the human beings .ubj"" '0 it, i, impu'a,ion po"ibl .
Earli .... i, h.. been said it would be ornorle.. to I..u. a nonn
commanding 'hat IlOmething ought to be don. of whleh i, is
known beforehand ,ba., under a law <>f na'ure, it mu" n...... rily,
alway. and ev.rywhere, ,ah plare. Thl. "em, '0 admit that
normativity and .."",I;,y are mutually exc!u,i,". How.ver, this to
nO( 00. The norm tha' we ought to .peak the truth i, not ..n..I...,
forw. have no rea50ll ,0aSlume. law 01 nature 1C<:OTding to whleh
C1'. po II.
"
"
"'0>1 "'us! speak tho lnIth .1...)'0 and kJlow <hat
lIICII .... .put the lru,h and at othc1" tilncs lie. Bu.........
IDlUI opeab lbe ....th or wbm M lies, tI>cn in both o>et his be--
IoaTior is c:o.-IIy d..n='IlCd. lhal IDaDI, dnenniMd b1' law 0(
.... Nor. by. law to wlli<h _ ",we'MY"
IfIC'1.l 1M trUth or .,hAJ'llw, bu. by anotl>tt bw 01 n:ll...... (or n-
by....., attOIdin& to which IIWI. cbooocI WI bd\a.icw from
which M ""pet" tho rrca,tsI ...nan"'l!"_ ideo of the norm
thot one ougb' to ope>t Ihe truth can """form'., with this
1... 01"".....-dt:OClin "'OIiu lor bdlavior llCCOfdinl to the
!>Mm. It norm that would prncri"" that man ""ght not to die
orould b<: ..nsel ... btallS< we know brlDRlland ,hit all rom
m".. die according to. I.w of ,,.'"It. Til<: idu of ,"ch a norm
Cannot be an ,ff""" mo"ve for behavior aOrding '0 ,h. norm
but in COT1.ndic,ion to ,h. I.w e>f n'!IlTO. The ide. of ,"ch nOTm
i, r f>T<'C,,,,ty of ,h. bet of ,h. posoibili,y of au...]
.Woe ....
Somiznn i. i. odmittM ,h nun', will. lit. all kappmi"8'- i.
aetUlllly countly d........;OI. b... it is aurnd 'M', in onI... '"
1WI1<e poIOib'" man mu!ll "" toprd<'d as il
hil,,-i!l ... frte; tho, _ns. _ i. nf:tOl'1' I(l main
tain ftttdoIIl <JI...-ill (tha. i.. aual no:-innmin.a.ion) .. a nOttO-
AryflctioD.
H-..........hen impauUon nnaI7lized at a conneaiOll <JI. fao>
dill,...... f...- augli,y b.n by _ mom in ooollia wi'" it. "'i.
6aioa bKomnoup<Tlh.o.....
Since the dclenll;N'ion <JI. thc -.ill acconli"8 to thc
la.... <JI. au.ali.y an..... bt !lmin!. aome "";",n '0 bt abk
to thc poosihili.y <JI. impaUtion upon thc ... fact rna<
man. ahloough no< nroncoool" bdi"'... to bt fott:
,h.,. base thc aMumpoion .11.>. bt btl;"'... him..11 10 bt Irtt on
'ac' rna. fttls ........orw when h:o< commilled a lopl or mon.1
wrong. Bu' ,hi. i. no< Corr'. Ry no m""", do .11 mon 1..1 ,10-
mone as a .....,,1. of. commhted wrong. .n. m.ny do not
...,gard;oJ, wrong ,ha, which. according '0 .holtga.l 01' moral order
under which .hcy arc living. i. a wrong: t>csid.., wha, is wrong i.
dHIe...,n' aa:ording to difl' ont lcgalor monl Mde... Men f""l TIO-
tt>OrX even if lhcy aTO .on ,II.>, llIc'y have commi"ed. de! thq
,hcm..lv<'S rqard u a wrong. forud by a tko. w,", nrongct
uw AND
,he olle that preued Ihem '0 rd'r.. in from comminillg Ihe
de.,./. E"en a convinc"'/ de,"tmini", can f",,1 ",rnone when he h..
done somelhing that he con.iden to be wrong: ju" a' even a con
vinced determinist doe. by no m",,,, d.,.", Irom hi. view the con.
du.ion that a behnior forbidden by moeal. OT law must not be
disapprov"'/ ot not be puni.h.,./_th.. no irnpu,ation muSt take
place. Imputation pr"'upJ'O"" neith" Ihe fact Ot fiction of Olusal
nond<lerminatiOll. not tlo< .ubje<;,i"e error 01 man to I>< f",e.
Some writer. I><lieve they can use the following way.o solve the
problem 01 the .onnict be.wn fr:<lom 01 "'iIl .. an indi.pen....
ble .upposition 01 impu\3tion and .he principle 01 cau...lity thaI
d<t<rmin"" all "'enlS, Aman u moralll' or legally rpom.ible for a
happening if i, "... caused either by hil aCl of will or by hi.lailuro
'0 ptrfOrIII an a(t 01 "'ill that could have ptevent.,./ the happen.
ing. He i> no' r"poDlible fot a happening when i. wa> no' <aused
by hi. act of will or hi. failu", to penorm .n acl of will th.. could
ha"e p""'en'ed the h.ppening. Th.. man i. froe merely meallS,
accomilll: '0 ,h= wri<crs, hi. a"'aren",. '0 be .ble to :oel he
wishes. The f:u:.., 'hey m.intain. are entirely compatible wi,h
st,ict d.,enn ini'lll because the :oe, of will or the oilure to ac, are
considered a> r.ausal1y determined.
The allernp' to maintain the idea of fr:<lom of "'ill by inter.
preting it as ,he awaten"" of the f'O'o'ibility 10 aCl as DOe wishes
must fail. For ,he awareness to be able to ac' a.olle wish.., i. the
knowledge ,hal 011' acU are caused by our will. Rut 'he question i.
not wheth" our aClion i. caused by our will_indelermini,m doeo
no, deny thi!; bu,. ralher, ",hether our will is cau'l3.11y detennined
or not. If the mentioned a..empt i. not merely a denial of freedom
of will, but i. 10 reprcsen, a oolotion of the problem ",hile m.in.
taining ,he .uppooi'ion tha, re'pon.ibili'y .. posoible only under
Ihe condi,ion of Irttdom of will. then we 're merely confronted
wi,h a ,hift of the problem. By presen'ing the problem in ,hi,
w'y, i, i. merely proved that. mmal.legal imputation i, I"""ible
and aclually occu" though tho will i, causally determined.
The 'upposition tha< man h a f,.., will (thal i,. a c>usany not
del.nnined will). j, n..,e.... '.,.----.o it i, re<fu.mly argned-IO ex
plain ",hy only men, not ,hingo, animal and n.tural events are
m.de morally.legally '<,po",ihle; why imputadon tak", place only
wilh ' ..peet 10 m.o. However, imputation tak.. place on]l' ",i,h
lAW "'''0 SClI!.NCf;
r.spec' '0 man btcau<c and insobe .. mornJ and I'gal ord,.. com
mand only human behavior; and 'hey do 10 bc<:au.. it i, ..,umed
w..t ,h, idea 01 theie nor"" create acts of will only in man_am
'bat, in turn, cause 'he comm.nded heh..ior. The .xplana'ion,
tb...dor., i' not tb. Irttdom 01 will, but, lu lb. contrary. 'he
cauw determin.bili'y of the human will.
Another argument in favoe of the dogma of ,he fr..dom uf will
i' lbe reference '0 'he fact ,bat mooom l"ll"l on:!..... exempt cortain
cases from r.sporujbili,y (and ,hat mean., Irom imputation). bo-
cau.., i' 10 said, in th... ca<C$ it cannot he ...umed 'hat a free act
01 will takes place, Thu., children and ,he men",lly ill ar<: nOl.
hold respomibl. fo.. their conduct and its efftcts, and even m.n-
tally ..n. adul" if they are placed under "irrosi"ible compul_
si.on." Th. explanation for ,he fin, twO c:t<CS ii lh. a..umption
thaI children and the men'ally ill (bee.u," 01 the condilion of
,h.ir con.ciou",...) cannot, or nol .ufficiently, he ..u",d, by ,h,
id.. of I'gal nonns, 10 beh.,'e in conformity wi'h 'h"," nom,,;
olher motives are u.ually mong.. ,h.n ,h... ide'" .specially .inco
,h... indi,idu.l. do no' "'m know of legal nom". For mentally
sane adults, bow"''', i' may be a..umcd lhat u,u.lll' 'he idea uf
legal normS and of ,hvil co"..qu."ces of lhei,. violation is
"rong.. mOlive 'ban 'he mOlive, lhal lead to an illegal brh"'ior.
To br 'Ur<:, lh... loner motives may also br strong.. in an adul,
and a menl.lly "ne individual, bu' lhi. would be 'he excep,ion.
Mooem legal orde.. pre,upp"'" an av....ge human bring and an
average .., of eXlomal circum".ncci und" which peopl. act
cau..Uy determined. If I""h a human bring under .uch circum
.tances exhibits a conduct lI,., the legal ord.. prohibits, 'hen
thil hum.n bring i. ""pon,ible lor hi' conduct and its effects
according to ,hilleg:ol on:! If h., causally d...rm;ned by ciecum
ltances olher 'han tho.. p upposed by 'he legal order. exhibits.
conduct prohibiled by the leg.l oroer, 'hen he ilsaid to 1<1 under
irresi"ible compulsion. Actually man alway, ac,. under i"esi,,;ble
compul.ion, beau.. his ac'ions .ee a l w a ~ . cau<ally determined;
and ca.u..lity, by ill "ery natme, i' irrcsiSlibl. compulo;"", Tho'
which i. called "irre,i"ible compulsion" in legal terminology
.ctually i' only a Ip<cial ca." of irresistible cornpubion_namely
th" lor "'hieh th. l.gal oeMr doe' nOl .. ipula" r<:'p"",ihilitl',
'\'hen impUt>liou t>kcs place, itt..i"ibl. compulsion iIw.y>
...nL But imputation don not take place in .very ca... of
irresi"ibl. c<>mpul.ion.
Finally mu" memion th. view that d.ttrminilnl and moral-
ltgal re.pomibility can con.ider! In be comp:uibl. only by re.
f=ing In th. fact that OUr knowllge 01 the cau..l d.t.rmination
of homan behavior i< ittad"'l.uot<'-that w. do nOt know, or not
know oufficiently, th. cau.... that detenoine human behavior. 1
we folly lnew ... cau.es w. would not be in a position In hold a
penon respunoible for hi. behavior and their con...quen"",; th....
fore 'he "To undent,md ev.rything m.an. to forgive
everything."' To undemand bdL1vior 01 human being
m..n" In know its cao....; In him meanO: to renounce '"
hold him reopun.ible for hi. behavior, to renoun"" to blame or
puniili him, to renounce to link hi. behavior witb a ..nction-that
i., to renoonce imputation. Uut in many ca.<eo in which the cao...
01 hi. behavior are known and hen"" hi. behavior it ond<....
lOOd, imputation i. nO< renounced, the behavior i. not forgiven.
Th. pro"crb re.1S on the error that causality excludes imput3,ion.
Itlollowo that it it not fTCcdom, i.e_, nond<termination of will.
but its "cry oppooite, camal determinability of will. that mak..
imputation !"""ihle. One don nOt impute a ..n<tion to an indio
vidual" behavior l>c<:ausc he i< h-ee, hut the individual i. f..e be
cousc one imputed a ..nction '0 hi' behavior. Imput3tioll and
f..Iom (in thi...n) ... iodeed e...ntially linked. But thi>
f..Iom cannot exclud. cou..lity, and don in f""t not exclude it.
If the a""lion that man a. a moral or legal f"""Onality i. Itee. i.
to have any meaning. then thi< moral or Itgal freedom mwt be
compatible with the cou..1determination of hi. behaviOT. Man i.
Ire. inonfar and becau.. rewaro. penance, or puniohro.m are im-
puted a. con.equence to a cOTtain human behO"ior; not becau..
thi. conduct i. cau..lly indetcrmined, but altbough it i. causally
d.t<:rmined, nay, berdu... it i. ca.....lIy determined. M.n i. Ire<: be
cau.. hi' behavior in end point of imputation. And thi> be-
havior CMt be an end point of imputation ",'en if it i. cau...lly
detennined. There/ore ,h...",ality of the natural order and
f,,Iom under a moral and order.re not incompatible with
each other; ev.n .. the natural orocr and the ltgal.moral ord.n
arc nOt contradi"'ory-and cannot I>t cootradictory, I>tcausc the
one i. an order of something that iJ and Qth.,... of
"
ocmethins tho. _, 10 k I_patibili" as OllIlK<\umce of
lopeal con,r.>d.iction (:lit nJMonly betweman UIft1ioa ,h>._...
th.i:Ilr u aft<! an UIttlion mat i. iI IIor," brlW'ftn an .-n.ion !hat
-.mtt.h.... -eM 10 be mel an a"",,"ion tho. it .. ..,., 10 k;
bu .- bt...... an ....uon thallltlllXl.hi"ll if md that it 00111
"'" to k.
%4' FACTS ()mg. THA:< ........ BE..........
As Coo<n...,- OF Soa.u. Nouu
The principle of impuu'Oon,;n it> Ofigin.1 munins. <onntoe.. 1"'0
:rocu of hum:rn be......j"': .he behavior of one individual wi,h ,h
of 01'10<1\." .uch as the mQral law which connKII TOwa,d with
mtti. or ,he rule of bw (0 1';011 ,6) which <01'11'11> puni.h.
ment with crime; or it , ..nncel. the behavior of.n individual wilh
another behavior of the lame individual, such as the rule of. rei;.
gio," OTdcr whkh conncclJ pen.nce with .in. In all ,11_ c.ots the
human bel..;>'ior pracriMd by. nann i. by &l>OI.h.,
human bd>avior; condition and """""'lut:nCc arc acu of human
bellavior. Bu. the nonns of order r>r<:d not only ran \.0
h.......n bdY."..".......h..,. Clln IIJo ,da .., o<hn bcu. As we II>en-
.iono:d in ... dilr....... connection, a...,.", -y forbid. lUin be-
huior tIuI '-a <>"rUin cflla CMJ<:h as mmdtt). and IM)nQ "..,
C"m..v1 ... cnuin bd>arior <ha. is no< only oondi,ion\ by "'"
bd>avioo- do anotbtt in<!i>id...l, 00. abo by othtt bert. weh ... tbe
_I """" ollori.. yw. neighbor. if ..""bod, "",lI"i,. lO"
oo.ogh. to deli...,. him fl'Olll "is ..Ilerin(; or dw: Iq;:ol norm: if
oomriIody is a publ;" <bnll" beaux lie is mmtlllly m, be: "",,,,....
be fon:ibly iDl<'med. The imputllUon ...hich tllko platt on the
ilui. ol.he principle ol reo,iil"."", (and ..-hieh 'cpTn<n1l mor;r]
and legal relJ'O"'ibili.y) i. only a oper:iol, albei. the mOM impoT
.ant. of imp..",.ion in .he wider ....... (n.mely. me link
between a human behtor with the """di.ion under whic:h tI,l.
beh..I", i. commonded by. norm). All ,et,lbu.ion I. imputJtlon.
but no11 imp",..ion Ie"ib,,,io,,. lk.id.... it i o be "o.ed .h..
norm. m.y refer '0 indi.id".l ...i,hout .efeITing 10 thei, beh..iQT
;u for eumple in .he co.., of li.bili,y f<>T .he delict of oomeone .Ioe
.nd. in .he cue of I11<i"" liabili.y.
II in It.. "".emenlut "Jlder <:eTUin Indi.ion Uftain bu
"",n ough. D' tab plan. tht wndi.iono do noo. or '-
..........'" a lou,,"''' bcIu..ior; and il (U"Mr. in this
ax wo .he con"",';'" bnw"", tht coadi.ioni"l be. and tht
condi.ioDed. h"....n is dai:gnaoN as lhnI
thi. _Ott"" iI.-d in a wid... wnw .han tbt .......1 _. roo- tht
CIllIUIe'lunKt is .... only Unpu.td '" a human (00-. "'....,
.he IUUaI .......inol<lgr: .he CO>:Ut'qunll<e is no< oaly impnoN '" a
penon). lo". '" f.aeu 00- "",emal c1rctllDllaIlUS. Bu. i. it alwa,. h,,
man beh>.,ior <hat i. impnttd.
"5. CATI'.coouCilL N.......
App..enlly >OI1Ie JOcial nornu lItimand a certain behavior un-
conditionolly-under all drc"m... nce.........nd in 'h" I<1I1e "" Clle-
gorical non",. in oont...<1ininction to hypothetical "orm. The..,
are certain nOn'" commanding elUin omi<sion (rdnin",.nt)
u.h a" Thou .hal. not kill. not Ileal, not lie. 1 ,he", norm. l>Ctll
ally did tl>e character of n..rgorical norm.. i. would not be
pooaibl. to 'nter"",. nor.... ti.ely .he lOrial tion. cr.ated by
RICh norms, in a 1U.....cnt that coanCCU 0 .lm>ttlll Q condi.
tion and comcq_; .hen.he principle of imputa.i"" ......Id not
be appliaohlc. But nen nonm pr""";bing rd:r.oinmmt cannot he
atepic:al. A politi ac.;"". obYioud,. Clnnot he pr.......ibld un--
conditioo:t.all" hecaux an loCIion is only unda- ecruin
condi,iom.. But nen rd:r.oinn>ct. cannot he uncondi.........lIy pre.
ICribed; otho<-nrioc the could he untoadil.io..aUy
obc)'ftI or ..ioUt..d, Rcfnin t.... is potoilole onl, under ,,",
toin condit....... A man canllOO till. JotnI, Ii. under all circu_
....nt... hut onl, undtT ruin condi,ioa-..nd tfocrdoo-. he can
td"rain from tilling. ..cali,.. or Il'i"ll: only undtt <hac conditi""..
Th. condit;"". under ..hith .-.froining from a renain action ..
I'rucribed, i. the totality of all circum.......,.,. under whidl ""h
action u """,hIe. Ileoides. in an cmpirin.lrocicty no pr.,.;ripti"".
(and ,hi. inc1udQ pT<'CTiption. for reln'nm."') arc ptlfliblc .ha.
<10 not pennit 01 cxception. Evcn Inch fundamental prohibition.
a. not.o k'lI. nO( to take lOmeonc .1.. pTopeny witho"t hi, pc.-_
I1,is5ion. nO( to li. are valid only with certain relerVati""", Pmi
leg:t1 orden al...." mull "'pulat. the condition, u"CI.r ",hkh
it i. not prohibited '" kill. to tate property. or to lie. Thi.. tlIO.
uw AND
'"'
demon.,TO'" ,h.. all gene",l norm. 01 an empirical """ial oro....
(including geneTal norm. of ref",inment) can p",,,,ribe a certain
beha"ior only und.... certain condi,ion., Therefore "'el)' geneTOlI
nonn euabli.h.. a relalionship belween two ..to of lac", which
may be described in the $Utom<oI: Undn- certain condi,io", ,r
,ain consequence< ought to take pl.ce. Thi, i" .. wa. shown, ,he
formub,ion of ,he prin";ple of intputadon, a, di"ingui.hed from
the prin";ple 01 Clusali,y, Only individu.l norm. [.ltn be c,uogori.
cal in ,he .en.. ,hat thO)' command, .uthorize, or p"'itivel}' permit
a ceTtain behavior of a certain individual wilhom condition; for
example, "'hen a CouTl th" a certain organ h.. to direct a
certain civil in,o a 'r,ain propeny; or that a certain
organ h.. '0 imprison a CCTtain criminal for a certain ,ime. How
e,'er, "'en indi"idual norm, may be hn"}lhetical, th., i". ,hey may
prescribe. certain heh.vior of certain individual only condi
tionally: for exantple, wh<o ,he judge orde" ";vil execution illto
the properly of the taroy debtor only under the condi,ion ,ha, Ih.
debtor d""" no, pay the owing amount within a certain tim.; or
"'hen ,he judge orden the carrying out of ,he puni.hm<ot 01. eer,
tain indi,'idual under ,h. condi,ion ,ha, .he indi,idu.l comtni".
puni.hable del ic, wi,hin a"" ,ime.
6, Tit., 01' OUGlf"
LAw AS IDEOLOGY
Th. I""'ibili,y 01 nonn..i,.. ",i.nee of law (of a ",ienee 01 law
,ha' describe. the law .. a .y:"em of nOTlm) i. """.,ime. qu...
tioned by ad...ncing ,hrgument ,hat ,he concep' of ,h. "ough,"
("'h,,,e expr"';on the nonm i.) in",l".. or meTely id.ological
fallacy. From thi, i, i. concluded ,hat a normative ",i.nee of law
(a ",ience of I.w directed at the cognition of nomts) ",mnot exiu
-tbat ",ience 01 low i'l""'ible only a. legal 5OCiology. Legal ooci.
ology hct' nOt to ""lid norm. but to othec lac" a. cau",.
and Sociology .., foc wba, couses induce
a legi>1ator to i..u. the'" .nd not otloer norm, and "'hat .ffeclS leg.
i,la,ive a<U ha'.., Legal oociology i"'.<tig.... in who< way eco-
nomic facts oc religious idea, influence the activiti.. of leg;'la.
ton .nd judge<, and which are ,he motiv.. ,bat ca"", men to con
form or nOl conlorm with ,h. leg.l order, Therrfore, no, law itself
'"'
UW AND SCIENCE
i! the obi'"'" of c<JgI1ition for leg>.l .odolog)', but certain parallel
phenomena in n.tuTe. Lik""'i>c a phl'.iologi". who im."ig;a'..
chemical or phy,leol pro<...... which condition or accompany ett.
lain r""ling<. d"". nOl gTa'P th..., fe.lings ,hem..lv.. which, in
fac. cannot I>< chnnicalJy or phy,leaHy gra.pM. l>ecau.. ther aTe
psychological phenomena. The Pure Theory of Law. as 'pific
ociene. of la..., j, .li''''''M towan! ,he legal nom", it i. nOl dirttt<d
tOWarn fac..; it i. not .lITre!M 'oward 'he ""IS of will whose mean.
jog Ihe legal nOrm, are, but '<>word ,he legal norm. a, lhe m"",,
log> of act< of will. And 'he Pure Theory is concernM with facto
only 110 faT" they .re determined by leg:t1 nmm. which ar. the
meanings of act. of will; and th= "".nings and 'heir mutual re-
lations arC 'he .ubj"", of ,he Pure Thfflry of Law.
If the con""p' of the "ought" i. rejected as ",,,..I,,,,. 'hen the
law-<:Teating acu can mrToly l>< perceived a, the mean, of Ininging
about a crT,.in l><havior 01 men.o whom th"", ac" .re
as cau... of certain effeelS. One l><H...ts, thrn, '0 he able
to undrnland lhe ltgal order merely as lhe ugul.rily of a cen.in
course of bum.n l><havior. One pUTpo..ly ignores lhe normative
meaning of the law-croaling .clS l><Helling that the meaning 01 an
"oughl" differen' from one of "i," cannol l>< ""umed. In 'hat
ca... howe"cr, .he meaning of an ac.l in which the leg,1 auth<>Tity
comm,nd., a"'horilts, OT I""'i,i"ely permits can scientiEcally be
descTibed only .. an auempt'o in lOrn cenain idea. whose
mOlivating power .a"",. them '0 l><have in a ccrtain way. The
nOnn tha. one "ought" not to ..e.1 or thaI. thief "ough'" '0 l><
punished is reduced to lhe ,ta"rnrnt that "'me individuals seek
10 induce othe... nM to "eal or.o puni.h the thief; .nd th.. lOrn
usually from stcaling. and ,h., a lhief i' punished if, a, an
exception. 'hefl is commiued, The law-in it, relation betwern
law-cT""ing and law-ol><ying men_i' viewed a, an enterpri..
COOlp3rable '0, "'y. that of a hunter wlto places a hail to catch
game. The comp3rison i' apt no, only heca.u.. in both proc.....
the f"". of mOlivation i' ....... ,ial; it is apl also becau.., in 'he view
of I.w here char.oeteriud, a deception lak.. place in lhe p......nta.
lion (by the legislator or by 'he ."'rnce of Jaw) of 'he l.w as a
norm. From this viewpoint "norms" do no, "exist" and lhe Slale-
menl ,h" thi, or lit .. "ought" 10 l>< h.s no meaning. no. even"
"
.....w IKU>OQ 'o!
>pi6c pooiti, lcpl -'''J. dill"<UDt f..... a "'onl _ins.
t'fOID. this point. _Iy natun.l, .,.....11' tc<tncr;Ud,
C'YUltl aod <he legal xu lDnt'IJ in thrir anuali". b,.. nee thrir
$pi6c a>eani"J. a", tUm intuoomidcr.uion. Thi. opoci6c mtaD
inc. <he Mough..R" .:, )Idi,.tu tIx Krio!ogical
lID iokological fallacy aod tw DO pIaet' in. lICimti6c ok.
ocripci<llt of <be bw.
Suc.b b1lacy indd ill ",antt il <he IqaJ """gluM is
'0 comt.i"'1e an .... But OM annol .palt of an ideo-
iogical fall""" " "oul",R in <he law-dnttibing of taw
m....i' has meaning ofl 'p'6c lunolional connKlion. It has
1>'1 .....wn abo w, ouch a iptti6c funct'onal connoclion.
dllr.",nt from a au",1 con"..,.ion, ,. 'he imputation. Th. cau",l
connoc"on which lopl socioiogy describe>, conti". (Jr i' ."i'li at
all) I:>o,w..n cottain economic or political laCll Ind 'he ilw
cr.a,ing "CII on the OU' hand Ind I:>o'w..n th.", ac" Ind ,h.
human I:>ohovior 'ho' the, i"'.nd to bring lbout on 'he ...h.... I"
'he la"n cue. the au",i eonnK'ion ""i... only il'hl< I:>ohavior i.
actually moti""'td by men', id....bou, the i"..",ion of ,h. Ia....
noting actS, motiva'ion which by no ......... is .i....l.. the cue
bea"'" obedience co ,Ite law i. &e<j.....tly awed by other mo-
'iva. .U. hown.... I ..... oth... fxu an connecltd by Icpl
i",pu",<ion: not the !.aw<reUiDl!; act with <he lawoObcr'ns be-
harior. bu' <he bet determined by <he lrg:ol ordn. a condition
with the mnscq....... determiD<'ril by thilt ordn. Imputation. lib
CI li..,. is a priJociple of onler in h"""''' thinlt'''J..nd thnd"'"
j "'lICIt or jWl ... liltle an illusioa or itIcoIosr as a .....1i..,.
....hidt-touoc H,,_'.or Kant'. wonlo--isonlya thinltinrhabitor
Cllego<J of thinking.
Thai the IUbjKti"" ",ng oflaw<ttating acto i. In """"'I"
annot be ....iowIy d ittl if th..., acts "'" lootrd upon aa:otding:
to their """''ling as IfIl....ntlt. a. 'mpentiv..... Quntion:lble i.
only wh.th... ,hi. can be litO in'erpreted as ,h.ir ohjective m""n
ing: wheth.r 'he "ough'" mlY I>t: upon as In oltj..,.iv.ly
,..lid norm that impooet oblig'lion. and oonr.... righu upon indi-
vidual . qu... iott i' in wh.. way law.."e..ing acli diffe. from
och... command.. for """mpl. from th. oomlYtlnd of a high,,.y.
Wd.1'I'- j t
'Of ....W AND tcID"CIt
man. In oht P"'rudi"ll i'l'&"I oht condi,ion was shown under which
thit diJrerenlialioa is poooible: .he condition iI: P"'at>ppo6ilioa of
bui< '-<D.
If all "1Gnin&: is denial. to the IXWm (loolcd upon ... objoc-
!ivdy ,.uid) wllict> ..,....;.u.ct the JI!NOIon DIlled
-if aU _inKis dcD.iod to Uw: it .......1<1 be
Is 10 SlIy: uthio is IcpUy permi..cd" lhat is f...-biddm'; be-
Ioonp 10 me, tha, to "X is wtillod and Y;, obIiplcd. The
lhoutandt of ..",,'0> in ..hid< the law is e<proeacd daily would
be ......1..... In cor" 10 thi., the bet is und""iable II",. l'\'ny-
body undo:ntuJd, ,cadily Iltal ;1 i. one .hing 10 "'y' "if it legally
obliptod "> poy $',000 to B:' and quite anoth ' "There i. a c....-
...In chana:: ""', if .dll pay $,,000 W n.n Ev ybody ur>d.nund.
th31 i, it one thing 10 Ny' "11,l/. bcltavior it a d.licI acrordi"ll' to
Ihe law .nd ought 10 be puni,hcd according to the law"; and 'I"ite
a dill.....n. thing W "'y: "He who Ita. done Ihi. will probably be
p"nithcd," The imlIl.1nem meanings of Ihe aeu direcled by Ihe
leaitlator to the la..... ppl'ing orpn, by thit organ-in Ih. judie"'l
dioion or the .dmini.,.:nh... acr-w the ."bj<'<t, by ,he ... hjcc'_
in the legal <nnsac.ion-oo the other ...bje<:t is not comprehended
in the .....em""l.bout. probable conIX of f..,ure btlta.ior. Stoch
MaLcn>al1 is iHucd from a point of ,'iCY thaI uansn<lo the law,
I. don no< .""wtt ,he tpifically Iepl quation of whal ""lb. 10
happen lICItCIf'ding 10 the law, btU lhe mca-Iqal q......iort of ..'hat
attu.JJ11 happcnt and what probably will happen. Tbc Icpl IU<C-
tnmlS W, oac ough. '" behave in a oenain ""'1 Dlltnoc bt K-
dlOnd 10 ....tcmoeIIlS a...... prncn..... future f:ocu. the
former do not refCO' 10 Aocb baa, not l'\ 10 oht bet that anain
,ndhiduala wi"" ,ha...... otis''' 00 btba in a ttJUin ....1. Tbc
legal judgments refCO' 10 .he specific mcanin& which ,he Fael or
""'" an act or will hat; the "ough.," the nontl, it P"'cciscly thi,
meaning lbal it dift....nl from thit acl of will, Only if
il "nd<'ntOOd:u a corunll 10 tl>c reality of {acts-tbu ii, iF ideol-
ogy i. und....to<><J ...,'erylhing that i, nol can..lly d.l....minNi
rcality or a dClCripl;otl ,,' ,hi. reality_th.n law llorm
(Ihat i', ...h. 'me.ning of Ihese Kit, dilf.re1U {rom til. <;J.uoany
det.m,ined acto) ;. .n ideolngy, And then the ",bj1 of the sci
enee or law that dcsCTiha onl, the no,m, and nor ,h. xU in their
ClItUllly dnerm,nNi conn,ion with other bc........."nd dcocrioo
..,
'hem in rules of law that do not....."" am,,! conn""';",,, Jih Ill<
l.w. of n a ' u r ~ . but linh of imputJo,ion_i. an i<lwlogy. Then the
PUT< Throry of Law ha3 "P",,,,d .he way to lha' ,-jewpoint {TOm
which the law may be undentood a. an "ideology" in thi. 'p<ci6c
"'me:_. a sy.tem of ronnea;OTl! different from 'hat of nam,.".
The p""'ibi1i.y and n=",ily of ,uch a diocipline dirted to-
ward the law as .. nonna,i," meaning i. proved by the (act that the
>e;enee oE law h.. been in exi'lence lor millennia--.. ",iena: whith,
a. dogmatic juri.prude""e, oeTVes Ihe intelleaual nttili of Ih<e
who d""l wjth the law. TheIe i. no rc>son '0 lu.'. (hel. emirely
logi,;""". need. u"satisfied and to gin up such a science of I>w.
To replace this seiena by l ~ a l oociology is imJ'O"iblc, beo:au.. the
lauer U COllC,ruM with an emiroly different problem. A> long a. a
religion exiOl>, 'here mwt be a dogmatic theology that Cannot be
roplaced by religiolU poy<hology Of religiom >o<iolog,'; in pte-
doely the ""me manner the.. will be a nonnati"e 'dmee of law a.
long lhere j. a law. The nnk of thi> Ieienee in the 10lal 'f.lem
of ,heleienee. i' a subordinate qu.. tion, Whal i. important i. nOt:
to give up thi' Ieien<;e of law 'ogether with the ca..goti .. 01 lhe
"oughl"' or lhe norm; bnl: 10 confine this Ieienee of law 10 i" mb
ject and to darify critically ii' melh<xl,.
If we do no' under1tand by "ideology" everylhing lhal i. not
nuunl reality or ito dellCl"iplion. but nonobjective p''''''''la,ion of
the .ubj"'t influenced by 'Ubjeclive "alue judgmenll ""d glorifJ'.
ing or dnfiguring the .ubject of cognition; ""d if we d.,ignate as
"reality" nol only the IUtural realily a' the oubject of natural ""i
.nc., but every .ubject of cognition indnding the ,ubi"" of the
""ience of law, n.mely J'O'itive bw, .. legal reality; lhen a presen
ta,ion of l'O'itive law mml keep iuelf free from ideology (in 'he
ICCOnd meaning of the word). If po<iti'" law i' looked upon ..
normati," order in relalion '0 'he rea lily of aCinal happening"
which, according 10 'he claim of poIitive law ought 10 oonform to
il (ahhough, actually. it doe> nol alway> confotTO to il) then pool.
'iv. law may be clIancterilrd a. "ideology" (in the fim meaning
of 'he word). If poIi'ive law i' looked upon in ill relalion to a
"higher" order, which claim. to be lhe "'ideal law," 'he "righ'"
law, and demand' thal lhe J'O'itive bw ought '0 be in conformity
with 'hi. order-for example, in rela'ion 10 nalUnllaw or to lOme
type of other ju"ice-then the J'O'itive law {trn.t iI, the law
.'"
LAw ""0 IIC'ENCZ
created by human .., ,he nlid law, the law that i. by and large
applied and obeyed) a' the "real" law; and ,he" a
theory of JXlOi,ive law which .. the lattor with mlural law or
any other type 01 justice in oro.. to ju.tify DC di"'lualify the [><'\li.
t;,. law mwl I>< ... "idrological" (in the >.oM meaning
of ,h.. worn). In ,hi, ",n,. the Pure Theory has an outopoken anti
ideological u.ndellcy. The Pmc Theory thi, tendency by
presenting pool,;,". law ,.., {tom any admix'u with any "ideal"
or "right" law. The Pu,e Theory d..i,es to pr...nt ,he law a. it i
no' a. it ought to be; it seekslo Imow Ihe ,..,.1 and posoible. not ,he
"ideal:' ,he "tight" law. 1n ,hi, """c, the Puro Theory is a radical
realistic 'h.."y of law, th.t i., a theory of legal po,idvi,m. The
Pure Theory ,du",. <0 evaluate ,he po;<i,i,-. law. A ,cionee, 'he
Pu,", Thwry rega,d< ;,,,,If ,.. oblig:".d to do no m"'e to
gnup the essence of pooith'e by.n an.lysl. 01 ito "ruc.urc,
10 undcnt,"d it. Splfic.olly, the PUT< Th=y tef"... to seTVe any
poli.ical In"",... by supplying them with "ideology" by which
the e,,;,,'ng social order is ju.tifi<'d. or dl"lualifi.d. In thi. w.y the
Pure Theory prevent.> Ih.., in the name of the science: of low, a
hightt value i, to po.ltlve low tkon it actually I."", by
iMntifying it with an ideal law; 01 by denying po>ltl""
value. and ,h"" any ""Iidi,y, by claiming th" It contradict.> an id..1
law. Th...by lb. Pu.. Theory plac.. itoelf In oha........ cont"", '"
juri'prudence which, consciou,ly or unconsciou.ly,
sometimes mOle, oometim.. 1..., h"".n eba"",ter in
the ..,.ond of the "Old. Preci",ly this ami.ideologiC2J.!
,endency ,how' tba' tit. Pur. Th.ory of Law i." true science of
low, For ""enee a, cogniti<>n hu the imm.nent tendency of
ing ilS ,ubject. Ideology. however. v.il, re.1 Ity dthtt by glorifying
it with the intont to con..rvc and to defend. It 01' by mi.rcpr..."t.
ing it with the intent to .ttaCk. to d..troy, and '" rcplace it by 'n
other. Such ideology I. roo'.d in Wi,hing, not in Knowing; it
.prill!!" from =tain imer.." or. more correctly. from in"'re'"
other tbau the Intereot in truth_which, oE course, i. not inlendtd
'0 say any,hing .bout the ,.Iu. or dignity of thoo< o,her inte.......
Th. authority that cre.'" the low .nd which therefore te>
pr"""," it may ne>t an ideology-free cognitiOrt of 11lI
product; likewi... ,he Eore.. ,h.t try '0 de"tCIJ' the ox"ting e>ron-
"
lAW AND SClVlC&
""
and wish tD replace it by .unth"", thnught tn be better, may unt
have much me 1<>1" .uch a cognitinn 01 ,he law. A tTue ",ience nr
law, however, doe< not care aoom the nne or the oth...., To be
such a _denee 01 law is 'he aim 01 the Pme Throry or Law.
IV
THE STATIC ASPECT OF LAW
S<mc/i"n, 0/ National and Inur....lional LAw
I
f the law i.<coneeived a. a<""rei,'corn"" ,hat is, .. an order 'tip-
"Ialing coercive act< :u sanction., .hen the Iaw.<J...,ribing rule of
law appca.. as the ".'.ment tba, under cottain condition.. deter_
mined by the togal oroer, a cerlain coercive act, likowi", dO'
temlined by tba, order, ought to boo performed. "Coercive acts"
oro act> executed even again.t the will of tI,. a/:ltd individual
and, in <:a'" of ' ..;....0<., by the of p1,)";cal force. From ,h.
prrcMing page. it follow. that tWO kind> of eo<rrivc ae" mn", ""
diOlingui,hed,
rim, coerci,'c aclS rna, arc .. ncliono-th<ry are as ,cae.
';QIU against an ac.ion or relrainment dotermined by the legal
onl... ,uch .. imp.;",,,m.n! lor ,hel" and, second, <""'dve "Ct.
that do ,,,,, h.,,, ,hi. ehOT""', ""eh as ,he lorttd imanment 01
individual. amiete<! with an muess constituting a public or
individual. considered dangerous of their rac<:, political
vi.,.,s, Ol" religiou. convietiom; and fOTCible de"TUClion or depri.
va,ion of prof"'Ity in the public int"""st. In the lall<T the
conditioru of the coercive ace include no action or rofrainrnrnt of a
definitr individual dot..-mine<! hy the legal or<:kr.
"Sanctions" in the .pedfic..,.... of the word appear_within na.
tional legal orden-in two dilf..-em form" ... punishment< (in 'he
narrower .. of the wotd) and '" civil executions. Both type>
consist in the fordble innktion of 'n evil or. exp,ased negatively,
in ,he forcible depriv..ion of a ""I"e; in 01 copi'al punish.
ment the taking away of an individual', lik in 01 corpora!
punishment. as cmtom.ry in earliec tim... blinding. amputation
'0'
no. STAno:: .uncT Of' ...... 'og
ol. pan of body; in""",, of imprioanmm. dq>ri.....ion 01
libnty; in GISt 01 a the !ali.. away of _ ... np<cially
<fly. n.., dq>riv:o.lion of .;ghlS ""n .bo be Mipul:o..... as a
puniJhmem, 'uch:tO I.... 01 In office or 01 polilical right!.
Ci.il u'CUlion tOO i' .he infliction 01 an evil. I. is di.
tingullhcd from punishment in thai civil execution;" carri'" <lUI
in order 10, as i. uW.lly IIi<\, "righting a "rong." Tile .,all""
rigb.iD,g of a WTOIII con..... in the endillJl of .he MI'" of :lBal ... w
... 0""'" by "'" unbwful btba.ior and in bringins abou. a MI'"
01 albin tha. confomn wi<h "'" bw. Thi< ...", of:o.lbin may be
the .. _ "" tIM: OM ..... <boold ha"" hem broup. about by a bw,
lui behavior of .he <klinqu... " b". if i. is iatl"*,ble to bring
abou. "'ch a .... of .lbin, another one an function "" a ,ubOli.
IUle, F,lt:o.rnplcs for lormer case arc: A bib,O f"lfill h;" dUly to
to 11 3J1 ob)"1 in A', poISCSS;On, .he .."ction of ,ivil exec,,
lion con,i". in .he forcible .. kinglway 01 .he object rom A and
r<:nderirtg i. to Bi or: A fails to 011 h;" duty ollppcaring bel",""
the COlOr< IS a "-i,,,",,; the Yn<tion oorui<u ill forcibly A
before the court, which means ..... A wm be del" i.ft! 01. h.iI lne-
doat too this purpose.. ...... CUlIlple for the bu.. 01. the
..-.tioned """""' A bils 10 llU'a hit obligation 01 raodcrinsll:an
obju nOl in A'I or to pttfono <ClUi" work lor JJ.
n.., IIncliQn 01 ci..il ....ecution <onsi... in lorcibly toling .....y
Ironl A I piece ol ill Vllue '0 .he objecl or
work that A owe,.o B, and in to 11 proceed. from altC
tionln8 off that of p<0perl y. 1 the unlawful beha.ior eonm..
in au,i"l damage 10 individual (I' in <he 6rs. a"" I..,
eumple). then the sanction 01 the execution aIRIi... in npairing
the illcplly caused dlImage- In .... t CHC, t.hcrc is a omaln similar
ity bel....... the lUte and the civil .,.eattion. BOIh arc cnfo<.......nl
produreo di.-eacd agains< I"opt.t,. Thq- diller!rum...ch 0Ihe<
I" lha" in asc of.he fine. which ......11.,. hal the chane 01 a
pecun"'TJ penalty. th;. roes inlo a public f,,"", wh in
01 a (ivil ulltion i. il ginn to illegally dlffil8""
indi.idual in order to r'p"ir the rna"rill or motal damage. In
.hilc..e a definite purl""" detrm'linrd by .he lcpl order i. mani
rCl'. which i. no< Jo in case of 'he puni"'mcnt. It ;1 hlrdl.,. ""","ible
to define the (:(lI\pt 01 :lIXlJ<ding to its purpok. be-
<:auS( purpme 01 the punilhmcn. is _ no< dirtly-
''0
""t! lTaTlC .uncT OP lAw
n"wn. from the 01 the IcpI onItt. That !.hio purpooe
carui... in prnmting (by dttt'lTina) the commilhon 0' _I";""
ol an aeti<m iI an inteTpretalion whidt iJ abo in caoe 01.
aimiDall<pl ordft-. at>bliduaea.... no< lNciousIy ck-
In'1I:Iinrd by the ick:a of pm'WtiorI. but simply by the of
I'ftributiorl.: tD mal;"'.., il with eYil Capiw puniohmen. :llIId
i",prioarImcnl rnnain laDle whnher lhq wilh
dlt ""..-pow: of. p<e>mtion or wilhout iL
In this rupo:t it nO mcntW dilt:ermce bonwfa! punioh-
mtn. and ci,il """""tiorl.. b:a_ the felt u an nil by !he
dectftl individu.ll, ""'7 a prn'en,i,..,..Rect '00.10 thai in ohio
ax'M compmsa'ory and pr........ lll.;vC dftt.. may boe combined.
80th kin<h of s.>n<:tiom-punllhment and civil el<eocullon4.0vc to
he ordered by the judie;,,1 or adm'n;,...,''''' authorities In I pr<><:<:.
durc itt up for ,hi, pu..-pow:. Thero/on: it i. ntcnsllry '" din;n.
guilh judici,l puni,hm,,,.. In be or<krttl by criminal con,... and
admini"n..i,c punt"'m.nl'o be ordcffii by admini&lrativc author.
i.i... judi<oia! civil ",,u,lon 10 be <>Jd<nd by &til COUrU and civil
aro;u<ioru to be by adminiotrativc .uthori'lel. II OJ .100
to ,he act by which the sanction ol'kc 1"'1"
i>hmctlt or civil aocu,ion is om""'" from lbc act bJ whkh Ihe
llOI'M ...,.,led bJ Ibis 1Itt. is appliod--<he punishm.... t or civil
lCtecootion is anied ouL The butt act is ...waJl pnfonned bJ ""
atilhorifJ.
"The santtiooo of gmnal b .... ttpriIlIh I.ftd waT (as
bItt). ate nrithcT de''''''' ,.. ptInisluDm. nor as
eucuti"". but 1beJ ....... <p<..n fon:ibl< <kpri.....ion of ...Itlts
or. in oIhtt won:b, " viol.tioniptlbled bJ lbc 1<pI ord<T. of
oobenri>e "",,led in'<TeIU of .,... ....'" bJ anocheT. If it i.
uouml ,h'lt ..,ording 10 f'O'i.ive inlemationall.w one: IU'" rnaJ
IUOT' to repri..... or.o ..... apiltlt anoIhtt rtli'" anlJ IF the bu<'T
Tef""", .0 rep;lir.1>< ilIepllJ Cluvd domagt'; and Ihat Ihn<: (Ott.
d"e """ (repri"". and WIf) maJ be ,.,,,,,,,,utl only for .he pur""""
of obuining reparation; then a '<'TtOin .imilarity til,
",neti"", of gellmol intern.,ionallaw ."d civil exT,,"ion may be
acknowllged. It i .. however. di,put,d wllClher "pri",lnd wlr
.....y be interpttll:ll "'nellan. of inl.......tionall.w.nd whnh<'T.
th<'Ttfote. inlemation.ol law may be regarol Ii leg.l orlkT."
dl ....
."
.) Tiu lk/ia {I,u IV....." is NOI .. h,
C",""UW.. 01 llu Uw
to tht I""'"i"i dty.;.... tht Ktion .. rdnin......n
o:>mti.,tint u.. mndition of th", (Oncivt xc onkrrd br lIlc kpl
0Id0r "po...nll 1M dellc' (......Uy called wrong"), and the
CXIftci.... XI icpo_nu ..... A.ot1...... An .:tion or rdn.inmml
Ulllma the 01 ddict only if the lqal ord<1" "",k.. i.
tht (()Ilditi"" 01. concivc 8<1 ... oanction. A :IoU as-
JIUIlfd tho chanr..,.,. of ...netion only if the leg-III ..d ""',.. it
the corucquenc. 01.. dclinit. action or rerrairllll..... AI "'....i""ed
before, coercive acu IlipuJated by the lcg:al oroo OJ the corn,,-
qUell'" of other facu, or. nO( "oanc,ions" in the .pecific weaning
of ,h" word; and ,h. condhionlng foctS--<incc 'he)' arc
d.elerminM actions or rdninmc"ts of CeTuin individual......-do not
hI'. ,he chane..... 01 dclit...
Thord...., a <kiini,. ",,;on oriCfn.inmenl is
j .. assumQ--<Ol'lIltrd with. cotn:ivc xl bcauoc this
action or refn.inmm. is. <kli/:l, bu, definile :action or f.-...in
mnn is. tidier. bec2_ II is mnlK'Clrd with. conci.... Xl. !hal is,
with. 1UICtion .. itt conlItquellCe. No intmanml quality. no rda-
lloa loa mcta-Jqpl .....u.....I .. di"';"" norm is lIM: moon lor qual ..
1Jirta; ,..prifioc hllllWl bd..rior 10 lit ttg3rded as driict; but o<>ly
and adusi..,ly tbt: toet WI tbt: poolti..., Icgal ardor hM aodr thil
bdta>ior tbt: c:onditioa ol a o::omi..., an-d a ana;on.
The doctrine prn'O-,lina; in rnditiocW jutiJpnlocknu Wt a
mor.oJ nluc ekmmt is immanm. in the <lOOlapu of delict and
idno .h..>. a delic. nnoarily mWl man oorneth'''Il
ionmonl and Wt punish""",. "'uK naoarily -.etbi"ll
di.r.onor..ble--i. untmable, if fOt no OIhcr fe1.tOtl than bcu.... uI.
ttee nlati..., e""neter of the f<'Sflt'..., ....Iue Judgmmts. It
may well that the beltaviOt which, .wnding to a poo.;ti..., logal
ofder, i. ttee condition of a ..uction i. con,idercd imnto..1by Cef_
tain groupo, but mOTaI by other groupo, FOf example, a m.n who
kill, hi, '""ult....,u. wife or her lov", i. a rnmirtll according to moil
pooi,ive lcg:al onie.... but hi, action nuy by no m.an. be di..PI''''''cd
by all, and may eYen be "1'I'ro...d by many ill the exm:ioc of hi. not'
ural righ'lOddcnd hi< honor, The duel. puni.....ble under tile law,
...
io f'O:I"l"daI .,min a entai.........um of oociny by no IJlCIU ' ... monl
but. to the WDtnl)', a monl obIiption, and the jail pro-
_cdas tbe CIllWt<jllmCe, it IlIJO.
far as the civil <!diet. and iu ............ ace"......) an: aJQ-
cemed, cnditiorW ju.iipnadm<e don DO< alUmJlC 10 "wI>-
llOin the doctrine of the ......,tiaI lII<ln1 qualilicotioo of tbe drli<L
From tbe point of win< of a l.beory 01 J"D"itin ta.... lMn' is DO bet
wi by iudI_tho. ;., ..p"IlCli 01 a corIK<lUftlUaipullll.d by u...
Itgal onL:r--is a dditt. Tbne att DO mat. ;,. "', bu. ""If ....s..
poI!ibito. Thit it only the COfUC<[ucntt or the principlc.lemnll,
RO:JgD.iud in criminal low' "ull..", cri.en ""e lege, nul,. P'"'
,inc lege; Illd !hi> prillCiplc which is valid JlOl only lor criminal
law, not only lor criminal bu. for all d<lieu. not only for punl"'
ulcI1l hut for all sanctionl, i. me.dy a consequence ollopl poailiv.
illn. The "cry same bet may Ix ddie. according l<> une legal
order ,hi, o,der aluch... sanclion '" it, bu' not kCOrd.
ing '0 "noth... tho. j>Tovid.. for no .""h conseque"c. 11 il
cvilkm .Jut the legal onl<r nuk.. a <n...i" hum<>n bc:h.>vior the
condition of '''0<;''0<1, bca.... 1M l<pl au.hori,y TtgartU .hi. lx
haviorashannful woocitlJ,1Kna undninblc. But from .ht point
of an 3l1all.... of tht UnlD>Jlerll meaning of 1M kpl ord....
<h;, is for the coocq>I 01 tht delict. II 3
anaUl. twh>.rioo- has btm the condi.ion of a WKlion. <he :ac.
lion is 10 be rcgudcd ... dclin. n"ftl by "- juriM ...no .....y no! reo
prd il .. del.rimcntll a' .U and pcrl>ar- n..... u.nul. .nd ..ioce
''tnlI. -n... dislinnion bct"'toen 3 bel Ih,,, i dclin boa...., it i.
punishable acmrdinS 00 poo.itivt Low and 3 f:act <h,,, is punishable
bft::o, ..... i. is,. by its.-cry IWUU. 3 dcIioct-lhis dillinClioa is baoed
011 3 D3'u.-aI-tow dow1ne. h pr....ppoo<s w. tht cIIa_l" 01 de_
lioc.. tht neoga""e ,."luc. is immanenl in ur.... in bao and l'O"ul.o,..
preo<ription of punisIJ",,,", by pooiti,.., Low. When ,II" nural.law
doorin" of valu'" being imman"n, in ",ality i. rejlm hen the
dillineri"" ct>lIaJ'OC$<
Such word, .. illtgality: l""aking'" or ,iol ..ing' tht I.w,
"xprt.. th" thought of a nogation of the law; they gi"e the id"" nf
Klmtthing that i. on"ide the law .nd dirttttd "-g,inlt il. th"'''en-
ing. inle1TUpting. or "ven aboli.hing <he exi.t..,ct of law, Tni.
1<lt3 i. mioleading; it i. elUot<! by doe f:act that the rtla,ionship tw
t,"""n a norm tbal prC3lCTibcs a anain bch>.viot and an .'....1
n<E STATtC ASPECT 0 .. LAW
'"
bdlavior which is the contnry of the prncribed one are inter_
preted .. logiul contradiction. But a logical contndiction can
exiOi only between t"O ,tat<me"10 of which one say. ,Ita, a i. and
,he Other that a i. m>t. Both ,"temen" canno, be true. Bet"een
the norm-<lescribing .talement that a lIlan ought to beltave in a
certain "'ay .nd the 113tem""t tha, he ac!Ually doe> not SO behave.
no logical conu"diction exis... Both .,atements r.an "and !ide by
.ide, both can be 'rue", the same ,ime. The exi"""ce or validity
of a nonn commanding a <'<'rlain behavior i. nol "brohn" by the
opP",ite behaviOT_in 'he way lhat a ch.;n migh' be broken th.t
le"en a man. The chain of law le"en even tbe man who "breakJ"
the law; the nOnn i. not ",-iolated:' as a human being can be vi.,.
laled (lha, mean" injured in hi.> ""i"e,,<,<,) by an ""foreement "'.
tion direcrrd against him. If a notmotive order command. a cer-
tain behavior m....ly by attaching 3 ..nction to iu oppo>ile. 'heo
the e""nti.l lac,. are e"hau"ively described by a conditional
"alnn""t that ..yo; "JI a cerrain behaviot i. present. lhen a cer
tain sanction ought to be ex""utrd:' In this 'ta'emenl. the delict
appeana. 3 condi,ion. oot a' a negation 01 the law; and ,hi. show.
that the delict i> not a fact ...nding oUIOide, much 1... in oppo>i.
lion '0, the law. but a fac, in.ide Ihehw and determinrd by it_it
shOW1 that the law, ,""cording to iu nature. relen .pecifically to
thi. fact. Like everything ebe. SO the delict (in German: Unre<hI,
literally "\lnlaw:' liL: "u""ction") C3Jt legally be nndentoo</
only a. law. 11 we 'peak of "unlawful" behaviot. we mean by thi.
the behavior that i. the condition lor a c""rch'e act as ...",:tion; if
we .peak of "lawful" behavior. we m.an the opposite, a behavior
by which the coercive act i. avoidrd.
The Pure Theoryof Law. by reinterpreting the delict_which in
the naive, prescientifi
c
thinking is COll<O",vrd of a. a negation of the
Jaw, a, "un_law'_. a condition determined by the law, fulfill.
a .imilar function a. the<>I"l'O' toward ,he prohlem of theodicy. the
prohlem of evil in the world creatrd by .n-good .nd all_powerful
God. Since C\'ery,hing .hM exl.,. mm' k concei,-ed a' willrd by
God. the q"e..ion ar'"'' How Gin evil be conceivrd ~ . wille<:1 by
the good God? The an.....r gi,..n by a comi"ent monoth.."ic th".
ology i. ,hat rvu mn" be interpreted a. a condition nee....,..,. for
the realization of the good. The a.\:!umption 'hat ....iI i. not the
wMk of God. but directe<:1 aga'n" God. the "'ork of ,he devil. is
".
-. ((lmpo.<ibte with !he ouch an
_ption ......w Impl, ....., -.cepe 01 an iUlti.cocL
$ina tJ:>o. ddic< is '""" ,he GOlly e-dioion 10 wlUdl tanttioa is
auaehal ointt 1MCGDdi......'''1 faa as _ .sbaI1 -rbe ......
J-UI 01 many parts, indudinJ buD.D. bdlarioo- rna. anDOl bot
deinl'd as delia (1Udl as. for CAmpl lhc xl aeati"l;
lhc cn-rnoJ IloOnJl .hidllktnmin.. <he delia; and !he judicial an
dcccnnining ..., ailtmce ofl alnCrft<' oidia). u... quesc;';'" ario<s
how <he beha,ior .0 "" dc&ned as delia io 10 be di.inguilhed
from othn- kluvior ,h:I. octun all" pan 01 the condition,,,, facia.
OIinarily. tI>t dcliet is lhc bo:havior 01 \he individual "PUnt
whom ,he .-,."j"" >Ct. funaioning" ..net;on, i. directed. Haw
ever. ,bi> delinition of ddict applin only if the ..nct;OO
agaiml Ih. delinquent_ d",. iI, lh. individual who. by hi> "'.
ha.;or, hal <ommiuod th. deHct. Thi, i. the cue-diJcusstd later
--ol li.bili" for ooe', own behavior. But th...nction nd no,
.l.....rs bt dirocted _galnn ,h. delinquent, or not only .pin.. him
alon. hut may abo be dirOOCled "PiM' an<>thtr individual or .....
ttaI o<hrn. Th" is tht of !;,bitity for JO<IICOIK tloc', bchaYior.
In tho. c:ue the lqal order muse <lcttmlint the .tlatio;Nuhip be-
tWftll the deHnqumt and lhe liable for the delict 01
the ftwmn. The losal onkr ""'y "",t.c liable the fatba". the
opouoc. or othn mnnben 01 the ......-n- or wi<lct- family oIdle
dclinqucnL If we dcoiputc. for pta.."..... oIliDguistic limplilia-
uon. at all thooc indmdu.als who _ in a lcpUy dem
miMd ...bticrl. to the delinqOCll' (mcmben 01 <he lamily. c1....
lU'e). Ihco delict may be dcfiMd .. the bd>arior oIlhat individ-
ual topimt .......... or apinS! ...""'" TCIativca, <he .nc:tion is di
rect"" .. a comcquroc.-.
08. !.zc;AL O"''''AT1ON (Ourv')
ANn Ltu,LfTY
d) Legal Obl'gdti,," and Sltn",all
The bchvioc command"" by ...,d.1 order i. th.t which an indio
Y;du.1 i. oblig'''..J '0 .dop" All indiyidu.l ha. the obligation (0.
duty) '0 bcha,'e in a em.in way. il Ihi. bch.w;or i. eomm.oo..J
by the 00<;"'] oroer. To Ay ". bchu;ot i. coml1llln<kd is oynony
mow wi.h laying '.n lndiYid.... 1hu <he obllgaoion 10 behaY\' in.
....A1lC OF lAW
'"
certain way." Since the legal ord.... i. a social order, the behavior
which an individual i> obligattd to adopt i> a behavior whi<:h, di
roct.ly or indirectly, h to take place toward another individual. 1
the law i. conceivtd a c""rd"e order, then a behnior can be
looktd upon ... oblcCti"ely legally comm.ndtd (and therdoTC ...
the content 01 a legal obligalion) only jJ ... legal norm attaeheto
coc",h'e act ... a ..nClion to the opposjte behavior. To be true,
legal nOrm and legal obligation arc usually diflerentiated, and it i.
said that. logal norm "ipu;"t... legal obligation. But the legal
obligation to behave in a certain way and the legal norm that p""
ocri"'" thi> behavior a.. not tWO different bCII; the legal oblip.
ti"" i> Ihi. legal norm. The Ol<IlOmem; "An individu,l i> legally
obligated to beh,ve in a cenain way" io identical with Ihe ltat..
mene: "A legal nann comm'llld. a certain beh,vior of an individ
u,I.' And a legal order command. a c...tain behavior by attaching
a Janction to the oPf'O"ite behavior.
The legal obliption, like the legal nann which il idcntie>l witb
it, hao a general or an individual character. The legal norm whi<:h
commandl compen..ti"" for damage, "ipulat.. (or, more cor
rectly: u) a general legal obliption, The judicial decision-,h.. iI,
the individual legal nann_which ptCocribc< in a COllete.. co", that
an individu...l A h.. to compensate an individual B with a .um of
money for a damage which II had caultd B-thil judidal decilion
"ipulat'" (or, more corrt1y: i,) the individual legal obliga'ion
of A; whereby it i. merely .tattd, however, th., ,he rendering of a
.um of monry by II to B i. the conlOn! of an individual legal
norm. U",ally, a legal obligation i. men,iontd only in ....., of an
individual legal norm, and .iftC<' traditional Iheory conoider. only
gcncrallegal norml and ignores the exillcnce 01 individual nor<m,
Ihe identity of legal nonn and legal obligation i. ov...looktd, and
the lcgaJ obligation i. rcgardtd .. an objec, of legal cognition
dille..n' from the legal norm albeit ",mehow connected with the
latt....
The attempt to tharnct.rize the legal obligation in thit way
lead. into error, It leads. for example, to ,he ...umption that the
lcgal obligation il an impul" immanent in man; that it;' the urge
to behave in a way th.t he f..I.... commandtd: that it i. the obli-
g>tion (or binding; from U/:""", to bind) c<>uotd by an innate,
""'und, or divine norm whose obsen.mce i. '"leCurcd"
,,'
THE STATIC ASPEC't 0.- l-Aw
through the legal order by .tipul>ting a ",nc,ion. However, a legal
obligation i. nothing dot but the po;<jtive legal norm which com-
mando the behavior of an individual by attaching a .. nc';on to the
oppooite btho,tor. And ,he indi,-idual i. legally obJig:ued Ie> adopt
,he commanded o.havior."cn if ,he ide. of thi. legal OOTII' d"".
no' create any impuJ... toward ,h. commanded behaVior. cvell if
he h.. 00 ide. of ,he obligating legal norm at all. a. long as \he
po;s.itivelegal principle prevaib that ignorance or the law i. nu
oxcn...
Theby ,h. concept of 1<g>J obligation i. determined, It i, fun
damem.ally connected wi,h ,h" <If the ,lane';"n. Legally obligated
is the individual who, by his beb.,-;or, i1 able 10 tommit the delict
and th.,..,by bring about the ..ne,ion_the potential delinquent;
o:r the individual who by ,h. oppo"te behavior;' able to avoid the
",netion. In ,h. fi... we 'peak of violation olan in
the >eWnd case of lulfillmon, of an obligalion. Th. indi,idnal
whn lulfill. lh. obligation lmpo>O<! on him by a legal norm, obey.
,h. nonn; th. individual whn, 'n co", of a viola,ion .x""nt.. th
....ne'ion "ipuiatO<! by th. legal norm, applies the nonn. Both lh.
of ,h. legal nnrm and the applying of it repr m a be-
ha,ior in conformity with ,h. norm. If hy ..elfec'h,.n 01 a legal
ordor w. undor"and the Iact that indi,iduai, behave according '0
Ihi, order, then the effecti,'.n... manil.,... it>ell (oJ in the actnal
obeying of lh. legal norm. (tha, i" in the lulfillmenl nf th. leg.l
obligalions ..ipulatO<! hy the norm.) and (b) in the application 01
the norm' (,hal i., in the ex""ution of lh. sanction, >tipulalO<! by
th.m).
Normally, ,he conteTIt 01 a legal obliga,ion i. the behavior of
only on. individual; hnt il can aiso be th. beha,'io, 01 'wo or
more. Thi, i, th. if an obligation may be fulfillO<! by on. 0'
th. other indi,idual, and ilth. obligation i, "iola,O<! if it i. ful
filled by neither; or if the obliga,ion can only be lulfilled by th.
<oopeTIllion 01 an, and i. ,ioJated j[ lhi. cooperation doe, nOt take
place.
T,adi,ional theory .mploys, bcoid. ,h. concept 01 legal obliga'
tion, also ,he Coocep' of a ".ubject" ot "holder" 01 the obligation
in ,h. >;1m. way a. it empIO}... beside the conc.p' 01 .ubjec,i,'.
righI, the concep' of 0 .ubjec' or holder oIlhe righl. Both are in
dudO<! in the concept 01 0 penon having rights and obliga,ion.
'W! ,oq '[UOW llUO ld""llOO lOu
f! Clmp" '0) "uO)lcll!lqo" '"'1' " Uq U'A'
o '1,n. JO '1'1' P!OA. 0.1. ,wn 011UO..... '! '0 _I'.
"oo!,cll![qo jO'OW puo uOllcll![qo \l!&>[ JO P!UllOO" '"'II 011 '11U1
'00'"'1 ,,!mdo 'Ao'1 1.w 1) '0'1 ....p.zo ["-'OW
o 1'1 uo!'ollnqo 'W... ''1''U>lum "! '"
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l"-'oW ou '"'I puo J'pro [l!&>[ 0 01 l!'AI,np", ""J>.! un!,
,oll!lqo Il!&>[ 0 JO ld"uo.> ''1.1. 'op 0' "ISon lOll'" op 01 ,,[1l00"1
''''"''0 '1'1'[_" '''pro lUOW ",!.".]PJ 'J '"'1'" op 01
l'Illno uow '"'1' fiolO1n., ''1' Plno." 'l'1dOllOllqd [...OW
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pu. 'IU'J'lI!P lUq '''!'''' 10U.,.,P IlH"'OW ''"[01<1"
'jSD!<. '.'1' :>-1,'" '! JI 'uo'U. '" "'O!AqO ",o!,oll
'!I'l0 :>IO[OIIq. '"'II JO oo\,.S
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puv loj"l (q
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')'1 '0 !""P!A!PlJ] "'I' lIDlo.ll. P"'''''!P 1I0!U,,",
'! """01<00'. so ''1'!'I'" 01 "0]l!PU'" ''1'" "'"'I'" I"n
'P!A!P") ''I' 'I [&1 " )0 ",[qnt ''1.1. "['l!S1IWP" "DOP
,oll![qo JO ,[qo'.. JO ,dOJDO' "jl 'I '141 U! 1100 'UO!'
'oll!jqo !dOl ''fl )0 '''",uo.> ''1' """!""0' 1")"'''''' ''1'
ql!." ""':IIUo:> 'Iq"-'''''''''I "1"1'1'" 0JO lU'W'P [ouou,.]
''1' '[IlO_["OP).uPU! U" )0 D'",'" 11uo Inq 'DOp"ll'lqo
loll,[ 'ql 10 """J ''I' llU!q!I:>O:>P D'qM OJ. ,." mo'l'"
q,,'" ll. Ir 'lon, ,r Irllp!.'IP"1 '4' '0" 'I 'I 'n"''''!'1 UlOlI "'''''':!lIP
uop.llnq" 'Ploq _0 '"'I 0'1'" lp()'p'UJOII'ou '! 1"0
_P!A)P") '!'1' 'Oil ''1' JO J>fIl04 .10 ''''('Ins '41
'! oq." 'DOprll![qo ''I' JO m>luo.> "'[1 ",m]l'uo;> '''!AO'pq
""''I'" ''1' '! " ".1"0 Ioll:>[ ''1' ,('1
,..
"'.., .L::d$"V C>UVU
n'
THE STATIC ..... OF ....w
pose obligatiom, and that the .pecific function of Lb. law_in con
uadistinction <0 morals-i. '0 confer rights. But a. ooon .. it ;<'C-
ogni>.cd ,hat the obligation to beh.<'. in " certain way means
merely that this behavior i, commaodtd by a nOTm, and that th.
legal order-like ."cry nonnative ordrr--<ommalld. a certain
boman behavior, then "'0 impose an obligation" mo" be ".
ganl<d as an """mi.] funcl;on of the law and mu" even 1><
""knowledged .. the primary function, .. will be .hown in the
an.oly$i. of ,he function of "conferring" right," that follow. 1><low.
Stnc.. Donm nOl only comm.nd or prohibit. but may also a,,_
lborioe behavior, it may not be .uperfluou. to point out that, il an
individual is authorized to beh.,". in a ecruin way, he 'hereby
uN<! not nrcessarily 1>< "blige<! to thi, beh.,-;ot. Since "to au-
thoTioe" mean., in ,hecont""t of a legal QTd<r, '0 confer 'he power
'0 law. only action. not the refraining from a<;'ion.
C2II be the of an autho.iza<ion; a command. Ott the other
hand. can rcl.... both to action and reh.inmenL Therclore OIle
may be Icg:oJly obligated '0 do something: or to rof"'in from doing
but one can !>c: oulho";xed only to do some,hing. How_
evet. one may be obligatw to make usc of one'l authoriza
,ion; an ac'ion to which an ittdividU<l1 i. au,horized by tho legal
order may. at Lhe .. me time, be e<>mmandw. tltat i" it may be
made the e<>n'"'" of hil obligariolL The judge is authorizw-tha'
i,. the legal order "'" coufetrw upon him, and upon him only, the
authority_to in,pose puni.hment under cenain e<>nditiono. He
may. but ueed not, be obligatw to impos<: this puuishment: and
he i. legally obligated to do ro, if hi. not doing ro i. placw uoder
..nction by the legal OTrIer. ume i. true, if a certain behavior
i. positively permiuw (by a norm that make. an exception '0 a
gen.......1prohibition). The Icg:oJ order may, bu' need no'. ",pulate
an obi igation to make us<: of this ""rmi..i,m,
In this e<>nnec'ion i. might be permitted to repeat: if the rule of
law i. formulated in the .sentence that under certain condition. a
coercive act "ought" to be performed, the wOTd "ought"
docs not "'y whether 'he performing of the cocrc,,'e ac' i. the e<>n'
tent of a legal obligation, a po.itive permi..ion, OT an authoriza
tion; all thr<e ca.... ate covered by it. Jl the l'>vrd "ough," ii
'0 d...ignat. the meaning of aUthrce ca..... 'ha' ii: if the ..u!enee
"somebody ought to behave in a certain way" only mean. that this
'"
behavior i, "'puluM in a norm, ,he 'tal""'ent .hot oom.,.
body i. legally obligattd (h... a legal dUly) to behve in a CeTtain
way. ,."ren '0 a behavior "'hkh it the opposite of 'he b<h.vior ,hat
i. the condition of a )<'rd,-. act .. " ",nel;on. And ,hore i. a legal
obllg>.tion to cxoc"" ,hi. act if the noneJlocn,;on i. ,he condition
of anod,.. eMrei"" act a. a ""oe1ion; <>the....,.. the ex"",ut..ion of
,h.. eot'ei,-. act .. only aUlhOT,>ed or positively pennitted. Legal
oblig..iotl i. nOlo or no, immedia'ely. ,he behavior th", ought to
be." Only ,he eoere;'-. 0<1, functioning as a ...""don. ought \0 be.
If we ..y: "He who i. 1"",lIy obligaud .0 " cclt'lln behavior,
'ought' to bdUlvt in ,hi, way aocording '0 the law," we only"'"
pr'" ,he ide. 'Ml a <<>erei,-. act;u" sanaion ought.o be ""'cuted
if he d,," no, behave in thi, way.
0) Liability
The concep' of legal ""'pon,ibili,y. or liability. i. c..enti.Hy con-
nected, but not idmtkal lI'ith, the concep' of leg.l oblig.,ion, An
i, legally obligated to beh.,'e in a certain way, if bi,
opposite bella-'ior i, made the condition of. eo,,,,,i"e act. But thi,
e""",i,'. act need not be dirted again the obligated
_the "delinquent"_bu' m.y be directed againot .nother indio
vidual related to ,he former in way determined by the leg.l
order, The individual .gainst whom the lanction i.direct! i. laid
to be "li.ble" or leg.lly ' ..po",ible for ,he delict. 1n .h. former
ea", he i. H.ble for hi, own delict_in which caoe the obliga,ed .nd
the liable individual are iden,ical: ,he p"trntial delinquent i,
liable, In ,he ICCOnd cue an individual i, li.ble for a delict com,
mitted by """eone eloe-the obligated .nd the liable individual
are not identical. An individual i, obligated to a lawful behavior,
and he i. liable for an unl.wful behavior, The obligat! individ
ual C.n bring about or avoid ,he ..netion by hi, beh.vior, The
indivIdual. how",'CT, who i. only liable for nonfulfillment of .n
other indIvidual'. obligation (that i.. for 'he delic, commiued by
oome!>ody .1",) can neither bring aoout nor .void the .. ne,ion by
hi, own behavior, Tbi. i. obviom in C'" 01 crimin.l li.bili,y for
"""eone el",'. delict, that i" whm the sanction ha, the char.>cter of
a puni,hmmr, Bur it also .pplie, ro civil liability for the delict 01
MC}, p,
,
SrAnc ASPI'.Cr OF lAW
somtone elst, when the !anction ha. the charact.. of a civil ""ecu
lion. A i. ohliagatm to ..nd"," t,OOO to B, if the l<:gal ord"," "ipu_
lat.. that a civil "",cution;' to bl: directetl into the prop<:tty of A
or C in the event that A d"",, not ..nd.. the t,OOO to B. C cannot
bring abou. the sanction by hi, bl:havior. bl:<:au.., the condition of
the ..nction i. the bl:ha"ior of A, not that of C. Nor om C a"oid
the _ction by hi, bl:havior, if he i. only liable for A', ci"il delict.
Thi. would bl: the Gt' if the l<:gal ord" ",,,e to stipulate that the
!anction i, to take place against C if A foilo to .. nder t,OOO to B,
""en if C rend<:" t,ooo to B; th;' mean" if the legal order docs not
accept the fulfillment <:>f N. obligati<:>n by C a' ,ubstitu,.. Not
only may C be liable if A doe. not fulfill hi. duty to rendor t,ooo
to B, hut h, trL1y also bl: obliga,.d to rendet t,ooo to B, if A docs
not fulfill his duty. This will occur if the legal order ,tipulates (a,
it u,ually d"".) that civil ",,ution i. to be directed into C, prop-
erty, if eithe,- A oc C fail. to render ',<)00 to B. In this cast, C-u
the subject of ,he obligation It. render ',000 to B_is able to hring
ahout or to a,..,id the sanction by hi, behavior, In C1>C of Hahility
for the nonfulfIllment of a legal duty con>ti'uted by civil eXecu-
tion into a property. tWO """ibilitie. must bl: distingui,hm: (a)
that the prope.,.,y into whid> the civil execution has.o he dirw:J
is the propcny of .he individual agail", whom the coercive ac, i.
dirccttd; and (b) that the l'rop<:rty i, .hal of someone else over
which this individual ible to di.po>e. In the former case the in
dividual i, liable witb hi, pnlOfl and hi, proper'Y: in ,he latter
c:ue t,,o individuah ha"e to be con,ideretllor liability_the one
who has the authority to di.pooc over the prop<:rty, and the other
who is the .ubject of the right> which constitute the prop<:rt). One
i,liable with hi, person, the other with hi, prop<:"y.
In the cast of liability for somtone eJ..,, delict, the behavior
,ha, i. the condition for the sanction is not a behavinr nf the indio
vidnal agai"'t whom ,he sanction is dirrettd. but the bl:havior of
another individnaL The individual who i, liable for someone
eh..'. delict is no, the 'ubjre, of a det"mintd by ,he
legal order 3! the condition for a !anction; he i. only ,he objre, of
a behavior dete,mintd by the legal order., the ronsequence of a
delle!, namely the of the coercl"e action of the sanCtion. In
thi, re.pect a certain similarity exi... hetween this stt of lac" .nd
that which i, 1""""'" if the legal order stipulates the earlier.
STATIC ASPl:Ct OF lAW
" ,
men,ioned coeTch.., acU which do not have the eha",eter of .. ne
tiono: In these tOO, ,he individual agairu, wllom the coo",ive
act is dimoted is nol the .objec, of a I:Jehavior delerrnined by lhe
legal order as the condilion for the coercive ac'; bu' only the
object of a I:Jehavior deurminrd by the legal order consequence.
namely ,he object 01 the coercive acto dimolrd against thi, individ.
ual. The difference i, th>! in ca... 01 liability lor lIOmeone e1....
delict, the condilinn. of ,he coercive act include a rtain beh.vior
of acertain individual. where.. in ,he cale of roercive acts Lhat do
nOt have the chaneLo' of sanetio'''. ,he condition, do not include
.uch hehavior.
d} It,dividual o"d Colleaive Liability
The differeno<: between oblig-ation (duty) and liability eap""'"
il$elf lingui.<i<;aJly too. One i, obligated ,mesel/ to behave in a cer
tain way; one Olnnat be obligated that ",mWlle el .. beh.ves in a
""rtain way, But one can be liable noC only for one', own be
havior. hut aho lor the behavior of lO1lleone el ... Liahility for a
delict committrd hy $Omeone e1.. conlt..'e a preventi"e effec' only
if a relationship ex;'.. be'ween the tWo that .1I0w. the a""umption
that ,he obligated individual (the potential delinquent) regard.
,he execution of the ..netion .. an evil even if directrd against a"
olher indi,idu.l. Fo, example, if the "'ne,ion i. direclrd against a
member 01 ,he family, da". or nation, ,hal i., against the member
01 a group wht>SC members more 0' Ie.. identify the"'lelv", with
each the obUg.ted and ,he lial>le individual belo"g '0 lhe
""ne collec,ive group, Such a relation i. u.ually ptnupposed whe"
the legal order stipulate> liability for Someone else', delict. In ,hi
..n... liability fOT a delict committed by another may be charac-
terized a' collective liability. But one om '''<riet ,he concept of
coll..,i"e li.hility '0 caSCI in ,,'hich ,he ...netion i. no, directrd
against a ,ingle indioidnal, bu' ogains' rnany or an member> of a
gronp, to which 'he delioque", belong,,, for e""mple in Co" of
blood re"enge, which rnay be e"ecuted og.i"".n members of the
murderer', family; or in the ca.. 01 the $anc,ion. of international
law (repris:tls o"d war), which ore dir..,ed again.. ,he member>
of a "ate wh_ m-gan hal committed. violation of inUrn.lional
law.
".
'tHJ: srAnc 0' ......w
CoIIe<tive Ii.hili'y is a d".rac<o,i"i" <:1omrn' of primitive legal
orde,.. and il closely connected with primitive man', collectivistic
lhink..ing and fnling. of ,h. lad:; of a .uffici.ntly mOllg
<'gO Imciouon... the prim;'i'". man iden'ifits him...lf SO mlUh
with the member. of hi' group 'ha' he i"",'PH'ts any .igni/i.o.nt
drtd of a group member as a drtd of "'he gronp"_. som..hing
'ha' "we" have done; and he th....fo..., claim. the reward for lh.
group in lhe same manner .. he aa:ep" ,h. puniIDment of 'he
wbole group. But individualliabilily provail. if <he sanction i. di
'rettd <'Xcluoj'-ely agaimt lhe delinquent--the ooe who by hi.
behavior huwmmiUed the deliCi.
OJ Liability B=d Oil Faull and Absolul< Lwbilily
It is <wIllmary to distinguir.b liability baoed 00 .tull and absolute
li.>bility. Where the legal order mak.. an o<,ion or rdrainment by
which an undai,.,.ble "vom i. canoed or not (.g., death
of a man) condition lor a "mction, it i' poWble to diltingui'h
the case in which wa> or lo,..,....,n by
the individual whose khavior i, being and the,""" in
which the ev.nt happ<n<d withom hil in'''''tion or lor..ight, "'ac
cidentally" .. w. u,ually say. The fint case i' liability based on
rault, 'he "'cond i. abaolu", liability. II the ..itable ..,,<'Itt i'
in"'ndod, it i. f'O"'ibJe '0 di"ingui,h wh.,her the intention of tbe
porp<ttaterr "a. ,ubjtively "maliciouo_that i', whether the
","ent w:u calt.lCd or not prevented with in,.ntion to do ha,m:
or, '0 the contrnry, with the intcmion 01 doing good, ferr example.
il a doctor cau..,. the dea'h of an incurably 'ick patient in o,der 'n
hi' 'nffering. "'Faull" i' a .pecific clem<'Itt 01 'he delict:
it corni'l' in a cc"ain """iti ... relation"'ip ktwttn the psychic
behavior of the ddinqurnt and the ""ent b,ough, about or no,
pr""ented by hi. """'riot khavior_it con,;,ts in hil in,.ntion or
1000coight. But we 'p<ak of alolu", liability if nO 'uch ,dation.hip
""i".. il the event i, neith.... lerr...<'It nor intended.
Liability based on fault n'nally include> tho ca.., of ao-called
negligence. Negligencc i. pt...",t when the bringing abont or
nonptevention of an event that i. und..irable from the vi.wpoin,
01 legal order i. lo,bidden. although the ""ent Wa' "eith....
fo'cseen nor in,"oded by 'he individual. but could nonnally have
YHI: ....A11<: .... OF U.w
u,
been (o","'en ."d could not ha'-e been brought about or could be
p"'vemed_ This mean', that the l.-gal order command< to f""es
enta;n und..irahle events which, as the tesult 01 a certaiu b..
havior CUt be 10"'....', and demands that .w;b a"
event is not brought about or i. pre,-ented. Negligence con,im in
the omi"ion o( a foresight comnlanded by the legal order. Negli.
gence i, not_lih lotesight or intention-a positive rel.,ion be-
Iween the mind of the delinquent and the undesirable event
brought about or not p,..,vented by hi, actual behavior. Negli_
gen.. consi'ts in the lack of thi, kind of ,..,lation. In thi, ..n..
negligence i, a deliCt 01 omi"ion lor whkh the legal order otipu
lates aboolute Hahility.
1) Tho Obligoljon 01 Ropa"I;on
Y,,,,!"ently the l.-gal obligation of an individual to repait
material or mornl damage <;;lu!ed by him Ot ",meone ebe ha' been
imerp,e<ed as a ",netion, and thete/ore this obligation h.. al",
been designaled a, "liability."' Such a com'ruction, howeve" eou_
fweo the corn:ep'" of obligation. ",nctiOll. and liability. A ",nctiou
pet" .. is not an obligation-it can but neM not be 'tipulated a'
.uch_but it i. a cne",i,.. act whkh a notm attaches 10 a certain
behaviOl, wh""" opposite is the<efo," legally commanded, lhat i,.
lhe content of a legal obligation. This can abo be exp,es.!ed by "'y-
ing: the ",nction i, the coerci'e act that (on,titut.. the legal obli
gation. Liability is no obligation ,ithet, a. has been mentioned.
but the <elation betwn an individual against whom a coerci,'e
act i, direc,ed and the delia committed by him or JOmeone el ...
Obliga,ion 01 an individual is: to omil the behavior whieh consti-
'ut.. the delict. The legal O1'det may oblige indi,-iduab nO)( to in_
Aie, damage OIl others, without "ipulaling an obligadon to tepair
the unlawfully couse<! damage. An obliga,ion to make reparation
e"i", only, if not only the C3m;ng of damage, but al><:> the no",e
pandoll o( the unlawfully caused damage ",,", made ,he colldilion
of a ",n<lion. The fact that the legal order e..abli,h.. an obligation
to make Tepara,ion i. COIT,,<:t1y described ill ,he rul. of law: "If an
individual causes dam.ge '0 anothe< and d=nol repair it, ,hen.
<oen:ive act ought '0 be di,ec,ed against the property of an indio
vidu.l': ,hat iI, all individual ought to be forcibly deprived of
".
TKI sTATIC ASrUT o:r ....W
poope"" and Ibis ought 10 1)0: I'tI>Iinftl. <0 the i!ldivid....J
u rtpa.uioo for u.., g.Wftl dam>g<". It 1nS -.,.ionf<! ,h.......
mdi.-id.w muId tM, oblipd no< to anothn', wilhou. hriJII
oblip:l1O repair 1M mopll, (:luoM dam2ge. TIlit -w. be the
QW If tIx indiTid",,1 could no< ",uid !he p ..... ion by -.Lins
reparation lor Ihe an indj,'id...l .
aoIOl'dia>g ... paUli.., Law, avoid Uw IaOCtioo> by .....ling repon.......
for the TIl,. mu.... the iDdi,..d....1 iI no< only ohIipted
lO ,..mun (rom cou,;nl '0 another but. if he CIIus.d
da....ge'. he i, abo oblipted 10 DUke p"n.tivn. sanction of
civil tWO obligatio"s: The obligation not '0
call.. (.hit i. the ",.. in oblip.ion) and to make rrpan-
,ion for the da"l>.g<' mesally cauO! (thi, is wbs,itmc obHp-
tiw, which tak.. ,be pi"". of lh. viol.ted m.in obliption). The
obligation <0 m.ke r.pUlliion for ,h. dam.ge il DOl a unction,
but a ...!>Miml. oblig>lion. The ..nclion of ciyil uution ,ok..
pia ,..h." ,hi. oblip.ion i. not (..Hilled. If ,he .. ncl;on of
civil "":I"ion is di'tete<! Imo ,he proper'l" of ,he inodi-id...1 who
hu c:ou>ed da....g<' by hil ""flay;"" but n.. ..... madepara.ion,
Ihm i. liable fa.- his own <klirt ,hat mnsisu in not ""'ling
for the daln:lgo: oused by his nUl for this
edict anothtt individual on be 100; this is 'M 0" if ....
""",,lion of ....ccution II .0 ... dirtn1 into the proptT'y 01
a-"tt individual ..11m Ihe 6nt doq DO( fl,]lill his duty 10
...aU rq>U3tiort. n.. oocond individual is liabk only if be (2I1lMK
avoid Ihe Annion by h'.....1f maung "'P",.",ioa lor .IM: dantOg<'
ouotd by fi", indh-idual. A<a>nting '" posit;'.., 1.1... ""","tT.
1M: usuilly on an>i<lthe Anoion by doing 00. Fa.- be nonrully ..
not only for .-rr.,.. ion 01 <!.Imago: "",uw:d by ind'-
pr'.....nly oblip bu, is .r", IIttOtId.rily oblip'cd 10
repan,ion ror by .he fi", ii,,,,, laUtT has
not so. Only as oubj1 of ,hi, oblig:u'on. not ... objt of
Ii.bil"y. <:an be a"";d anc'ion by hi, ""horior. nu' then ,.
Oot only 101" iI1tgal nom.v.ra.ion by ,ht: fim 'nd, .. 'du.l,
but .1", r01" the ,i"I"'on 01 h'. own oblig..ion 01 rep".,"ion.
N.i,h.r thi hi> oblip,ion '0 m.h '.p"r.J..ion for ,h. d.m.ge.
no. hi. li.hility lor ,he fulfillm.n. of ,hi. du,y. i anc,ion. Th.
Anction Ottuf1 only if .. ,h. fif1' nor >t:COOd
.... k.. rq>antion for damagt'.
Til" STAT'C ....PI<Cf OF Lo.w
'"
g) CoUu/ive Liobilily Al Ab,aihle Lu.bility
II ,h. san.tion u nol direcl<d again" ,h. delinqu.n' bu'_as in
ooll"",i," liabilily_gain" ,,'o,her individual, ,hen ,he lilbili,y i,
alolu'. FQT n<> inner ,onntt,ion ""isu betw.... <h. liable indio
vidual and ,h. untk.iuble even, brough, .bou' or Mt pro,.ut.d
hy lb. illegal beha"ior of '01"..,n. else. Th. Iiabl. subjtt' mn"
have nei,her foreseen nor in,.nd.d ,h. ",'en'. But i, is possible
that ,h. legal order "ipul.,.. liabili,y lor d.lict commi,ted by
""m..,nlse only if Ih. delic, waS culpably oommilled by Ih. de
linquent. In thi, case the liabilily ha' ,he ,haracl.r of li.bili,y
bas! on fault with ret""" 1<> <h. d.linquent, and of ab""lute lil
bili,y wi,h ..."pttl to the objttl of li.bilily.
"9' u.w L'< .. SUBJ"GTl\'E
RICHT AND AUTIIQltJ....nu'"'
0) Right olld Obligolioll
It i, IIOual to oppose 10 the concept "obligalion" the conc'"P'
"righl," and '" cod. priority of rnnk '0 ,h. lauer, Wilhin lh.
,pher. of law"... ,,,,,ak of "right and dUly:' and not 01 "duty and
right," a, wilhin ,h. 'phere of moral" where greater lIT... i, l.id
on dUly; and wpeak of a righl as somlhing differ.nt hom law.
But ,h. right i, law_l.w in a ,nbj""tive ..me of the word io COn
,radi.uinclion to "law" in an objli"...nse, Ih.1 iI,' legal order or
'yslem of nornu, In destrihing ,h. law, ,he righl i."" much in th.
foreground Ibal the obligalion almo>l disappcan; ill Gennan and
French legall.nguage, ,he ",m. word, namely and droi', U
used to d..ign.te "right" a. "..ell as "law," as " ,ystem of nann'
forming a legal ord.r. H.nc., in order 10 di"ingni.h righ, and
l.w, i, is no<:....ry '0 ,,,,,ak in German of ",bjdrives Recht and
obidtive. Recht ubjli"e law and objecth" law) or of Rechr
im lubjek/iven Sinne Recht im objektiven Sinne (low in a
",bj'i,.., ..nse and I.w ,n an objti". sense); and in French of
droil ... bju/if and droit obj_Cli/.
To und.ntand ,he essence of the German term , ..bjeklive.
Recht i, dilli<:uh l>ecause"" many differe", soU of fa, ... are cover!
by this lerm. To one sel of fae" ref." ,h. , ..temmt ,h., an indi
u,
nm sr"TlC ....PECT OF LAW
has d<>-y. Nothing marc may b< m<:an, by thi' lhan the negaL;ve fac'
that the individual is no. f,.,.bidden (he j" in thi. sc"se,
nogativcly to act OT rdrain from acting: in ,hi. way_
th.t h. i. lree to OT to "lnin I,om a certain action. Bu.
the ...."'m.nt may mean .110 that a "",tain indi.idu.l i. legally
obligaled-<>r, in<ked. dul all individuah au IrgaUy oblig'ucd-to
beha"e in a rtain way toward anoth individual (that i., tow.r<havior, that is, it may be"
specific a<;.ion or refrainment. The ac.iun con,i", in tendering a
performance by ,he obligated individual toward .noth.... individ.
uaI. The perfOllllance may comist in tnn.fening a certain thing
(in German, s..chleistung) or in r.ndoring a S<'rYice (Dien:srleis-
lung). The refrainment which i. the obliga,ion of an individual
vi""vi. anothor individual may either be the ,efraining from a
certain a(.ion (for example, killing ano,he' individual); ot the
,draining from p'e'.'enting or impairing the beha"ior of another
individual (.,.petially p'e"eOl;ng or impairing ano'her individual
in hi. behavior toward a cc''''in tbing). In 'he laller cast we .peak
of tol=oting the behavior- of one individual by another, and we
jUXlapoiC the obligation to perform (ui'tung,pflichl) to the 01>-
lig.tion '0 ,olera,e SC>TTtething (Dulduog'Pflicht).
Th. ohlig"e<\ behavior- of one individual toward anotber corr.,.
'ponds wi'h a certain behavior of 'he other individual. The latter
may demand the behavior of the forn,er. In tbe cate of an oblip.
tion to petlonn SC>TTtething. the other individual may =ei"e the
thing Ot tendered oervice. In the case of an obliption
to toler..e lOttle'hing, the behavior that corre.pond. to the obli.
gated behaviut comi... in the beh.vior to be tolerated; in tbe c_
of toler.uing a certain behavior in relation to a certain thing: in
the use of the thing; if it i, food. in conmrning it; !inolly even in
d",troying it.
The behavior of one individual th" corr",pond, to tbe ob-
ligated behavior of the other i' ",ually d",ignated a, the coment of
a "righ("'_<.. the object of a "claim" that corr"'ponds to the
obligation. The behavior of tbe one individual that corrnpon<b to
the obliga'ed bebavior of the other particularly the claiming of
THE ...ATIC A'FECI" 0" ....w
",
.he oblig..ed behavior. i. d..igno.ed .. ex'rd,ing a right. How-
ev", in elSe of on obligaLion to r.frain from .n ocLion. ,uch .. LO
refrain from murd.... or burglary. on. does not u'u.lly .peok of ...
righl or claim "nOlto be murder.d" or "nOl '0 be burglari>ed," In
cue of an oblig..ion 10 tol..... 1<: ""m.thing, th. behavior of the on.
cor"'.ponding to the obligation of lhe other ipok.n of "en
joyment" (German: Cm ) of the right. Particululy .... 'peak of
e"joym... ' of a right ....h we d<31 wi,h ,he ,<.tC. comummation,
or even da'mnion of a ,hing.... hich anolh" individual i. obli.
ga'ed '0 '01..... 1<:.
Thi. "righ'" or "claim" of an individual. howev..... io m".ly the
obligation of ,h. o,h... individu.1 or individuals. Jf the right or
d.im of.n individual io .pokCTI of a' if i, w'" different from the
obligation of ,he other, ,he imp'...ion of 'wo l.gaJlj relevant facto
i......,ed where oniy one io preoent. The fact in qucs,ion io ex_
haustively de><:ribed .. ,he legal ohligation of One illdiyidual '0
behay. in c.rtain w.y toward ano,her. Tha' an individual i.
ohligated '0 b.have in a cortain way mean, that in ca", of lh. op-
posi'e beh....ior a ...nction ought to uk. place; hi.obliga,ion i, ,he
norm ,ha, command.thi. behavior, hy .uaching a ..nction '0 the
oppooil<: behavior. If .n individual i, obliga,ed to nd... a per.
formanco '0 ano,her, ,hen the petformancc to be reeeh'ed by the
o,her con,d,utco the con,ent of the obliga,ion; one can render
untO another only that which the oth.... acccpto. And Han individ
u.l i. obliga'ed ,ow.rd anoth.r to toleral<: c......in beh.yior of
the o,hcr. th.n the ,olerance of thi. behavior i. th. conten, of ,h.
obliga,ion. Thi. me.no: the behavior corrcoponding to ,he obli-
gated l>ehvior, of the individual toward whom the obligation
.xi.... i. cod.t....mined in the !>ehayior that conotitutcs the <:onl<:nt
of ,he ohliga,ion. If One d..ignatcs a. "righ," 'be rclotion"'ip of
one individual tow.rd whom .no,her individu.l i. obligated '0'
c.....in behavior, th.n ,hi. right i. m....ly a rcflCC1ion of ,hi. obli
gation.
It io '0 be not.d th.t th. "suhject" in this ",I..ion.hip i, only
the oblig;ated individual_the one who an viol.1<: or fulfill the
obliga,ion by hi. beh.vior; th. "entitl.d" individual_the one to-
word wbom the behavior i, to toke plaee-----i, only the objr" of the
behavior whkh, becowe corr"'ponding to the ohligo'ed behavior.
i. cod.l...mined by Ih. lau.... Th. concept of. right which i. only
..,
TH& ,rAnc .....u:r or UlW
'be rcfttion 01 a I"PI obliptioo_d.c concq>< of" ",ofla. rigllt"
- ....y facilitate, '" an ,iliary I:OI1pl. daaiption 01
l<:pI .u,....<i<>n; but from point of vi oi a oc:Vn.ifif;:all, 1'""
cit( doraiption of l.he kpllit.....ion. it is pc:rlI.-... llIi. iI 1Ori-
Om. from lbr bet w. one Goa ..... in aU <:aJCS of a kpl oblip.
lioa.........,:a *rdIa. rip.H If ,be oblipud beh>rior of.be one
indiridWlI doco _ rdn 10" opi6aUy d"';pml. other indirid
..aI (lhal it. if it doct not ha,'c 10 Illlc pbce wilh rapoct 10 a opt-
cilicllJy dnnmined indi.'iduoJ) but refen OlIly '0 ohc lopl
co",""u,,',y as 1UC1I. 'Mn_hho,,&h one of a
"rigl.. of ,he communi.y" (q>t<:i.>lIy 01. the .....'e) 10 the ..yior
of .he obliptod individual, Iud> he oblip.ion '0 do ,nm....,.
iCrvice--onc is $l,i,fi<'d in OIlier "" to ...."111. a l.gal obHg::llioo
..',thou< a ""rr"'ponding rcA., righ.: for .xample in cu.. of 'he
legal norm. that pr<>eri"" .. certain human behavia. to"'ud "'u".
a"im.lo, pl'Ill" or inanimate objttlS by poin of puni$l,mcn,. Ir i.
!o.hldd"" '" kill cer\;lin anim"l, a' cena;" ,i""" (or ...).
'0 pi<:k ecruin flo"' ..... '0 cu, e.......n 'TC'CS, OT '0 dmroy rUin
hiJlorical mooumC1l'" TI""", all' obliga.iono whio:h--indi_lIr_
(>li" ,owan! the legal (OtIl",uni'r in tMw objects. Bu.
110 .dIn: rigbto ne -.mcd on the pa" of 1M animal.. plan ....
monumntu. Tho: tha. the protected :animals, plan and
inanimate objoocu a.., not ...bjto of the rdIn riKhto lxaux
ob;.aa a.., ..... ..Mil ..... (Onttt.. rOT Mpnoon.R as.., .han
_. means legal Stlbjon: and il the ... of a rdlc:l< right .. the
indim....1 'oward ..hom the bebnior of aD obIipttd indiridual
Iuoa to lake platt. ohm ani.....l. ftC. lOWanI. ......... men an obi;.
p.ed in a anain ......,. ne indeed ... of a righ, to thi. be-
ha"lor in the..".., 1C1l.., in ..hich the cn-ditor it.M subjon of the
righ' tha' con.i... in 'M oblip'ion of 1M aut ., hat b<-at
uid. il a man is obli!!,,'e<! '0 behave in a <>erlain """y to '" an.
OOM< m.n. only ,he lormer. not ,he !au.,.- i. a .....bj ""mely
,"" .ubjec' of a" oblig;uioo. Si""" .he rriI"" tigh' il id.".,tiol with
'he obli!!,,'ion. 'he individual to...ard ...hom the obligation ,xi...
,ann", be t"Prdro as a "lubjK'." beeau"" he i. not ,he .ubjcc' of
,hiJ obliga'ion. The individual toward "'hom 'he ohlig:u<:d be
havior has to lat. place. il only 'h' object of .he behavior. i" 'he
same way a. the a"imal toward which the individual i. obliga'od
'0 behave in a entain way. Abo un'enable is the argumC1lt ,hat
Tnt ..,.ATJC ..",aT OF UW
n,
animals cannOt "m.le. claim" ,ha, would corre<pond to the obli
g"ion. For it i. no,e...nti.lfor the exi".nee of a r.fl.x righ, that
the obligated behavior i. being daimed. Th. fact that. d.im i.
not being m.de or e.nnOt be made for ",me r.aJOn doc. not
ch.nge tbe legal .itu.tion.
Ad.im to be mad. in a legaf relennt .et exist. only if the nOn
fulfillm.nt of tb. obligation con be ...."ed in I....."it. Then.
ho...ev.r, a .ito.tion prenil....bicb i. ""tirely diffne", from a
me", ",flex right; it "'ill be disrus..d l.ter. A reflex ,ight, 3t any
r3t., cannOt exi.. whbom the corresponding legal obligation.
Only if .n indi,-idual i. feg.lIy oblig.ted to beh.,. in a certain
way toward anothn, ha, the othn one. ",ight"' to thi> behavior.
fn<l..,<I, the ..flex tight of the one conoj"" ",l.ly in the obligation
of tlte oth...
The t...dition.1 view that the right and the obfigatlon ar. two
dilfe-r""t obj..:.. of legal cognition, that. in fact, the form.. h...
priority in ..I.tlon to the latter, i. prob.bll' rooted in ,h. naturaf
law doctrine. Thi. doc'rin....um.. the exi".nce of natural riglots.
inborn in m.n. that ar. valid befo,e any posit;"e legal order i
....Ioli.hed. Among ,h..., nam...l rights. the right of individu.l
proper'y play'. m.jor role. The function of a positive legal ord.r
(i.e., of the st.te). "'hich tetminate. the , .... of natur., ill-
a""ording '0 ,hi. doc,rine----to gu.rantee the natunl righ.. by stip-
ulating cor""ponding obligation. This view ha. influ.nced the
TCpresentative. of ,he School olHistorical Juri.prudence. "'ho in-
augunned the leg.l positivi.", of the nineteenth century and
doci.i,-dy in/lueneed the concept of. gen....l theory of law. Thus,
..yo: "Historically. subjeive rights existed long before
a ..I1",on",iou. n.,ion.lleg.1 Ornet (. " ..ej had de,'doped. They
were hosed on the penonality of the indi,-idu.l an<l in tbe recogni
tion which they "-ere able to ochieve and to enforce for the per>on
and his property. Only by abUTaction waS the concept of a legal
ordrr gr-adu.lJy d.rived from ,he exi<ting .ubjocti.e rights. The
view, th'TOfore, ,bat .ubjcai.e rights arc ",erely derived from an
objec'i>'e law is unhistorical .nd etroneoo.. "" If ,h. a..umption
of the ."i"ence of n",ural right< i. rejected, and if .ubjective
rightS are r.cognized only wh.n e".bli,1Ied bl' positive legal
""",i<h .,,,,.. ,;" R"''''.,. R." (<tn p ..ul,....hI<. ....
Part t p. "5.
'SO TH& &ToOne OOSPI!CT ".. ......
ordcT. Ihm i. '--'eo ....idtol that a oubjective righ. (u a rdlc:
tiJIU) praupposa a corTapondi... lcpl obIip;ioo-<ba. Indftd.
i. is chit obligatioa.
110) lu.I 004 ud lUi ;.
1AfIun>caI by 11,_ jurUptudmce we Il$IlalIJ diloti.....i"- lx-
I_a Tighl 10 a lhiDI (ju.l ed. feR) and a ri&bl apinK a I'""'"
(ju.l ill ptnoIIaJII). Thq dittinctiorl q mWodi.... beaute cYnJ
righ. to a UoLDg .. aloo a righl apin.. a 1'"""'. If ;" onkr '0 moin
uin Ih.. distinc.ion s.cllenr111 and P.....,IID1reelll).
the former q ddin'" .. me righ. Q/. an individual 10 dil!",* OV" a
ceruin ming, one overloob tm. ,hi. tight t:Ofl.i", in the
oblig>tion of other individu.l. 10 '01.... '. 'hox dilpooi'iolU,
10 'hat ,h. righl to ,hing il .110 righg.inn lletlOll. I< i.
,h. rela'io" lx,.....,,, Individu.l. which i. of primary imporunce,
.nd mi. rel..ion i. impli.d In Ih. righ, to. mingo 10 ia corutitUled
by 'he ohlig"ion Q/. ",h... indi.idu.all to <ol....,. ,h. diopooi'ion
ov a (eruin ming by. definite individual. Tbe tdation to the
thins .. of -.-J.ry imptlftana. beawe i. m..nly..TVQ toclarify
m. dclinl.ion of the fi.... tN,ion.
The .ypial rigtn to a ming (or tn! riglll). which is "'" '-is
for the diy'tK1ion. q """ J"'OPOf'y righe. Traditionalll:i<:aa of law
clcfi.na il .. lhe ad....... doomi........ Q/. a penoa ...... a thiDg and
I......by distinpioba th" rich! m.o the ri&b' '" daim ...tUdo. ..
""" basis only of peuoa.al kp1 ..,la.ion.. TIW dittinnion. on im
porw:1I for civilla.... '- an ouupok... chuxtn.
Si1lCO .... law u a IOciaI onto.- rqu1a..,. .... beba"ior of indiri<!-
uall in meir dirul or iDdirl "'latiODI to ooMr- inoli,id...l....
ptopet Iy. too. can lqally con.l.. only;" a cnuin reIa.ion lxt....,..
..... indl,idual and 0I.her individual .. Thi. relation i., me oblip.
'ion Q/. th.... oth.... individ"all ..... tl> di....rb .be fin' one in hil
difpooition over a ..,uin ,hing. Wlul il dClCriMd al .he uclwi...,
'dominion" of an individual ov.r. thing ilthe legally fli!",la'ed
(Xd... ion of all ",hm from .h. dilposi,ion 0.... 'hi, thing. Th.
dominion of m. on.. i. m..",ly ,h. r.Au of 'he """I ion of
m. oth.... Til<: dominion i, a ",Iation bet........ m.... oth nd
,h. OM. in th. Ulual tenltinolorr' a ",I.,ion bo.wcen pnsoru.; and
-a. h 0Dd..1.
.,.
only oe<:ond.1rily a relation .0 hing. namely a ,..,latio<> of ,h.
otlle.. to the ,hing. by which ,hcir lation '0 the one (the "own-
or") is "lahti,hed. Nevertl,.I .... th. ,,,,di';on.l definition of
pTOptrty a. "xclu.ive dominion 01 a (><',...", over a thing i. main
,.IDrd and 'h" legally .....mial rel.'ioll i' ignOTed. Th. re""'" fot
,hi. is, apparently. 'ha' the definition of property a. a Telation 1><.
,ween an individual and a thing veil, <he :onomicl.lly dtd,;ve
{unc,i"" of this ",I.,;on_ function which (if it ref.n to owner
.hip of the me"", 0/ ptoduetion}-i. rightly or wrongly. 1.l><lod all
"nploita'ion" by """aliot ,heo'1'; which function cCTuinly i.
pr=m in the ,..,Iation of the owner toward all other ."bjects who
uc excluded from 'he di'poo;,;on of the thing .nd are obligated
by ,h. law '0 r"'lpe<:' ,h. own...-', ."e1mi,. power of di,poo'.ion.
Traditional sciene" of law itubbornly oppooed to acknowledg<'
the right of rn" one ,""",Iy .. a re!lex of the obliga'ion of 'he
omor, bau.. troditional "ien,e 01 law btHev.. that it ought to
,,""... if only for idoological r""",n., the primary ChanCleT of the
right.
It i. p",f"",ble, bau"" devoid of any idrological tcndrncy, '0
'p<"ak of ",la.i"e and absolute ""flex rights. when de"ribing the
two sets of fa,ts characterized by tradilional scient:<: of law a. jUJ in
"""ooam and i'" ad rem. To behav" in a cOTtain way toward.n
individual may be the obligation of an individu.l; this i. so, fOt"
exampI", in the TOlation 01 d e ~ t O t " to creditor, for here on\y the
debtor i' obligated to r"nder perform.nt:<: to the creditor and
therdore only th" creditor has a ,ell"" right 10 'he pe,formance,
The obligation of the debtor and 'he ,,,II,,,, righ' of tbe credi'or
""ist only in TOl.,ion to" specific individual .nd iherefore only
TOI.,i,", If, howev",. tbe behavior refe,.. to a .pecific thing. then it
may be 'he obligation of all otheT individual. to behav" in a CeT'
'ain way ,oward a .pecilic ind"idu.L Thi. i. the ca.. of the Tight
of proper'y: for here, all o'h.... ,re obligated not to pteven. a defi
ni'e individual from, or di"urb him in, hi. di.position OVeT a
tbing. The "'""" Tight that con.i... in the obligation of the..
othe,.. i' directed again>! all thO$< oth"" and i in thi' ",n5O, an
absolute right. Terminologically the distinction betw....., r"l.tive
.nd absoJu,,, ",H"" rights i. no' a very lelidtou. one, because 110-
called ",bsolute" rights are also only relative; they consi.. only in
the relation 01 the m.ny to the one. The reHex right of uwn"nhip
'3' nAnc MJ'1'.C]" 01' lAW
xlIaally is.- an at.>I ..'t rWlI; il is lh<: refIo; 0( a m..toi.tWk of
obl.......... ol an inddtml'''''lt n..mboerof ....1s tow;ud.....,
....th rapcct to ...., th,.. ,n allI.Ddistinau. to a
cb.im., which .. the rdla of only ...... oblipl..... of a spiic iDdi_
ridwol taII3nl. a_ha- 'f't'CH;c tndiridWll.
II<ICIllO>tiarJ .-ria.tiort to a thing. """""".... is not lim,led to
ala of the M>Q/ltd iIU M ,not bu. auy also "" proml in .IKcue
of claim> or i";" pmo....... rOO" elWl>p1e. if a dcbcof it oblipled
to rmdtt a thing.o tht crtditor. let w ...y. if _body is
obligated by a con'ne 0( ...It to Inns(... lht _"t>ttSh'p of a ope.
d6c pie of mM... blt OO".tal =ate ". In
thi. alit .igh, of tht crtditor is dirra<'lluat\ fTom i.... o.d
in thol his right correspond. m... to, ,he oblip'ion of a
IptCiflc individual.
In lhi. an,lysi. only ..flu Tight i. con.id....td. It play, a dt
,i,i"e role in tndiuonal although thi, "right" of the
one is nothing hut oblig,,,ion of anolh.... or of all 10 lJc..
....."" in a "a",in way loword ,Itt fiTlL If, how."". 'ht .igh. of
J>fOP"rlY i, ddinM '" thot ltpl POW" 0( """'.. 10 ud....u all
otMn from lht dispooilion (tVC'T a thiog. then Wt art no longC'T
dtaling with a mC'Tt ,diD righ,_ An iDdividwol ...... tltis Itpl
powa only if lh<: bw a..lhoriJ>es Iti", to......n in ODtlrl lltal thc at>-
lip...... not'o him ........ his disposition of a aTtain thing
had brm. r;ola,td.
c) Tu A P>oI.t.led r"lC'TUt
TIlt' ddinitiort 0( lbc law in a ath;..ru"" ....- "" a pro-
tltd int......... rnq....ul, prnnlltd by tnditionol Kim oflaw,
rtf.... to thot rip. as 1M .tft... of a legal obliption. This defini.
lion dtatly di>piays 'ht dualism .hal'3Citri"ic for lndi.i"""l
Kitnu of law; I"" rigttl. ,h is, lhe law in a .ubj<irt ........ is
Jux,apoocd "'ilh 'he law in .n objecti,,, "'1>"'. TIlil du.li,rn con
.ain. an <omrodi,,;on. If tht la.. in .11 ObJocl.ve stnlt
i nonn or sy>l"'" 01 norm, (s nOTmat'v. oroC'T); .nd if ,h.
righl a, ,h. I.... in a subjliv...n.. i1 something dilft.-
ent. Ilamtly imtresl. lhen law in an objecti...., ..mt ."d righl a.
la.. in a .ubjecli..., ,."Ie cannot hot suboumtd undt1' rom""",
THE STATIC .... tAW
."
concept. Thi. contndiction cann", be avoided by admitting. rc
I.ti"" between l.w in.o objective sen.. and right., l.w in a sub
jecti"e sen... n.melj th.t the JaUCT I, an inter... protected by the
fotmer. If the law i. conceived a., norm. the Jaw...-e>en in a ".ub
jective ..n..----<:annot be law.protected imerest, but only the
prote.tion of this is. the law in an objective sen...
The protection con.im in the legal orocr att",hing a "'netioo to the
violation 01 th;" mCOln., in "ipolating a legal obli
gation not to violate the internt; 'uch os. lor example. the legal
obligation of the debtor to pay bo.ck to the creditor the loan te
i."Cd. According to the intetcStthcoTj', the right of the creditor i.
his intetest. protected by the leg.l obligation of the debtor. in the
tepayment 01 the loan. But bi. right.' a reflex right i' oothiog but
thi. 1<'l)31 obligation of the debtor.
from the point of view 01 the inte....t theory. the ..."mption 01
reftex right doc> not seem to be possible if the act to which one i.
ohligated toward the oth.... romists in inRlcting an evil on him,
Thio io the Ca" if the act h.. the character 01 a ",ncti,m prescribed
by ,he legal order, and if the commanding and executing of the
"'nction in concrete .imation. hal bee" made the Content of the
offici.1 obligation of the la"applying org.n. Norm.lly, nobody i,
imeteSted in the 'ulfeting of an evil. If.n interest i' protected by
the obligation in question. it c.nnot be.n iot......t of the individ-
ual againot whom the ..nction i. dil<'Cted; in the mentioned exam_
ple it c.nnot be the int....". and therefore not the right. of the
debtor who doc> not lu1611 hi' obHg31ion; the int....', and thete
100e the tight. of the creditor i. protected by ,h. 1<'l)31 obligation of
the deb'or to tepay the loan. In the ca.. of a criminal sa"ct;on i'
cannot be the imereot, and th...-c/OI. not the right. of the wrong
doer, tho' ;, protected hy the obligation of the law<lpplying o..,.,n
to punish the wrongdoer, If ncveflhel ... one ."umes ,ueh a right
-as i' "'metimes done-if (Kle "'Y' 'h" the wrongdoer h.. a right
to be puni,hed. hal d.iro to ,h. legally "lpula'ed puni,hmen'
(that i. to the fulfillment of the obligation to puoi'h h;ro). ,h.n
,hi, view ......" on interpreting the community', int....' 01 reacting
against a delict by a ..ne,ion, .. the imerest (the "welfund...-_
"ood" int.rest) of the delinquent. nut usually the int....t of the
community. or. more correctly, ,h. protecTion of thi. inter..' hy
1J4 nc Alt'U'f or ......
the oIlicial dUly 01 'M 1a pp1ying organs. iJ ..... desipalfd as
...l>j.i,c rdln righ.; in <:oam>on languav one d<><s ..... In all
aOetI of a 1"",1 oblip!ion 'I"'ok of a CL>lT<1pOI1ding rdIt:l< righL
d) The AI
III .ndi'''''''l jurilprudenee. tbc: int.".ot theory iJ opp<Kd by ,he
will-pow... ''-''1'. xcordl"!J 10 wbich tbc: '''right.'' U .
tbc: la... in a ID>OII'. iI a will JIO"'<'T wnl..--:! by tbc Iq:al
order. Tbneby. howeY........ objt iI ddined <hal iI dilrrm.
from tbc: one Ul ...hidl the in.".nt lheorr Trlm, rwndr an au
lhoriza.ion. a I"PI pow..- mnl....-cd upon .he indivUlual by the
1"1"1 ord.".. A Hrigh." in <hi> _Ie iJ if the condiliolll 01
,h. ""nc.i"" ... cO'l$,itut.. a legal oblig,,,i,,,, includes a mo.ion.
normally of th. individual in r.IOllon '0 whom ,he oblig,uion ex-
i"'; ,he moll"" i. aimed a. the nu,1on of Ih...netion on<! ha,
the f<mn ofala....uit brough. bd"on: the low...pplying oog:on. Then
thiJ Otpn ....y apply the ttt'"""1 _ (tho. iJ. enaco the individ
ual norm """ a..aches a coocrne anaioo. to a a>nrn:te delia
atablioMd by the orptt) if .... autboriled individual--lhc plainlift"
_mal:a ouch motion which SIaN the ptoeedUK of the low
applying oo-pnpecilially the judicia.! In thil """" ,he
law. tho< i.. ,he legal not'lt'. 10 he applied by the 1"P1
orpn. i,", ,h. di'poIOl of. 'f>"'Cific individual; and in ,his KIt ....
the low i, ind.t<! "hi," law. which mcan" hi, righ" If in pr...nl.
ing ,hi, ,i,,,otlon w. moke " .. 01 the auxiliary coru::epc of "refl.,.
right," then we OlIn lay th:.t tbc: righ.-the lo:flcx 01 the legal
obliga.;o.-i, ,",!uipped with the 1","1 pow..- of the entitled intli.
rid....110 bring 01>0". by ala i. the aKu.;on 01 a oon<:tioot as a
metion apiruI tbc: ful&1I 01 the obIiption ...'-e rd5cx
.. hil righl: ... il iI 1.,.. bu, not quil. oD.'ftedy. fonnulalt<!:
10 bring: about. by a la ui., the enl_1ollh. fulfillmenl 01
.hi. obllg:otion.
TIlii."o,lon ;, no< ..",,",,"iv.ly d""";bed by ,h.
obliptlon of on. individual to behove in a c.".ta In way 'oward on
",h... individual. For ,h .-n,ial .Inn.... i, .he Itgal power be-
......cd upon the latter by the 1","1 order '0 bringlboul. by a law
",i...he n<culion 01 a lannion as a metion apinJt tht _luI.
na .sTATtC AS1'1<CT OF uw
fiJimem of tbe obliga,ion. ,hi. legal power i. something
from lhe logal obligalion against who", nonfulfillment
the former io exercioed; only in lhe exercise of ,hi. legal power i.
the individual the "mbject" of a right different from a mere
of lhe legal obligation. Only if lhe logal order confon mch a logal
power we faced by a "right" in a .pecific, l"Chni<;aJ seme of ,he
"'"Old, which i. lhe logal power conferred for the purpo'" of bring'
ing aboUl by a law .ui, the execution of a sanction a. a reaClion
against the nonfulfiJlme", of an obligalion. To "",ke u'" oE this
legal power i. "e""",i.. 01 righ..' in the .peci.6c ..nse of the word.
Thi. exerei.. i. not codelermined by lhe behavior that coftl.timt..
the contont of the oblilption .gainst whose nonfulfillment the ex
ercise of the leg.l powor i. direcled. In lradition.l linguiotic nsage,
10 be ,,"other behayior of the individual in relalion to whom
the obHg,nion exi... is de.ignaled .. exerd.. of righu," namdy
,be behavior tha, correspond> to <lu: obliga,ed behavior and i.
cod..ermined by it. It i. tbe exerria<: of ,he teAex righl.
Acwrding to lraditional lheory. each right of an individual con
tain. a "daim" to the beh..ior of anotheT individuat-namdy 'Q
that behayior to wbich the "'<ond individu.l i. obliga,ed towatd
the fint: the behavi", tha, constitut.. the COntent Qf the legal
obligation ideotical with the reAex right. Rut a "claim" in a
Iqf<tlly tel..'a", oen.. is aaser,ed only in exerd.ing the legal power
with which. reHex right mwt be equipped 10 be oa<alJed law
in tlt< .ubjec,ive ..,nse of the word. IIa" individnaJ. tOward which
anOlher individnal is obligated to a certain behaviot, does nOl
hO"e lhe legal power to bring about by a law suit the execution oE
a sanet;On a. a reaclion .g.inst lhe nonfulfillment of the obliga.
tion, Ihen lhe a<:t by whieb he demand> fulfillment of the obli.
gation haa no .pecific leg.l effect; the aCt is logally irrelevant,
except for not being logally prohibited. Therolore, "claim" as
logally elfeclive acl exi... only when a oo-called law In a ,objeclive
oen" exi,", ....hich me"", thot an individual ho. lhe just chancLer
ized legal power.
Neither this so-called law ill a 'ubjective ..noe not the legal
obligation i. from. and independent 01. ,he I..... in an
objecliye "'"... The fonn.,., like lhe leg.l obligalion, i leg.1
norm: the logal norm which conEen a .pedfic leg.l power upon a
"
."
Tl<I: ' ....ne .uncT 01' lAW
cnuin iDdi."iduaJ. Tha. this indiiduaJ "hM" " ri&ht. i...... a"fW'
cil>o:: I'PI p""""". ontly meBIO ,hi Jeg:ol nOfm lou made ... cu
tain IICt of <hi. ....J the wndirion for cC'nain mscqu"ntft.
If traditional .hooty dtarac..'i..... ,he right as .. Ira..l powe, con
ferred by tbe l<gal ord... ,h.." ,II" theory h... in mind the 1011"1
power uC',ci><:d In ,h.. law $,,1. Ilut not only ,hi, ltgal
alone il undentood by right (i..... doe law in ..... bjoc.il'<' omx).
but this p"".... in UMln=ion with rd\o::r; ,i&"., ...... is, 1M
oblipciorl againw. ..boor DODf"J&lImm acn:ioe of the ltpl
pot<cr" direeu.:l; in o<b<-r wordo: .. rish' wi,h ,hia
l<pl poo<n. TM _phHis i,on .... rdks. ti:gtlL AI. hal bttD
demon\u:lItcd "1>0>',,, howr\..".. the of ,ig'n ,lut is more
then a me,"" rdlu of a ltgal obligation ron"; in ,he fact tha, a
leg:ol no,," oonf..n "1'0" an indi,i,J..al the leg;ol power to bring
about hy. 1.w luit ,I, ""u,ion of ...nc,i"n at .. , ...ction .gai""
\l", """1"16111",,,,, of 'he oblip.'''''' We "",an ,IIi, 1"1\"1 norm
conlcrrinll"" ltgal po....... upon all individUllI. WMn in the 1011_
ing ...., OfIC"k 01 .. tiah, in Ibn;CIII o=oe.
no. cou.bli.r. l of JUdI ";&bu, unliu nu.bli<hmm. of
!<:pI ob!lp'i<lns. iJ .., fUD<tioa of law. To cou.bl ....
sudo rilhcs Oftly a pouibk...... a DCS$l'T ".""ion of
law-.l lptCiallcpl lCChniq"". Ie is ohc lptCilio:: of tIl(
api<alifl, Icpl insofar ill ,hi. order g"onnl"'" ;nllitu
IIOB of pri"ote property ond con.ide... (lpi.lIj irnl',i(\.
oIl inter..",. Thi. lechnique dot. 1101 prevail in all 1""'" 01 the
copi",li<t legol order, ond oppea... fully developtd only in lhe
,nlm of IO<aiIM I'd,,,,,,, 10"" ond in aome 1""" 01 admioiit"ui'"t
law. Mcdtrn crimi...1 law does noc..... onl, nult
..... of th.. lCChniq"". In tb<: aM! of murdn ..........slaughccr. lhe
.inst whom ohc prohibiud hal <aktn pba,
has ceawrllO and <hc<d....e CIIn".,. bri"ll an ....:tioo> .i.... obe
murdeTeT or nunolloyer. bu, altO in ocher caso of crimi...l be"",'
iD'l" th( individual ",'100 il ,he victim of ,he cri",e i. rtplar.nl by an
0'll"n of lhe '''''e who... pl'OOtCulor tJ< officio 11Im the f"">C<du...,
thl' lead. to the eXl'Cu,ion of the ..net ion. Hence the CiSCoe< of
righ, for p,ivote law comi... in th;" the 1"Il01
order confen Ipi/;c Icpl POW'" upon an individual (OOl an
dlbe communit,. but an individual .ndi,ionaUy delig.
....l<:d II ''priYll'" penon" and ld....ll, upon tb<: indi,-idual
STATIC ASPcr OF UW
'"
loward whom indi-'idual is obliga",d to in a ar-
l.3in w.y_namely the P""'or to "art procedure
to a court d""i,ion in which a concrote ""nelion ia OTderro as
roction again" violalion of obligation.
Like .ubj""t of an obUgalion, .ubjre. of. right abo may
be not only individual. but ,wo or individual>. Subjret
of a righ, ,wo or individuals if the obligation (iden'ical
witll reae" righ,) constitut", beh.oior tow.rd twO or mOTe
indi,-U1uab; and if I'llal powCT '" bring about by a law sui.
e"""u,iou of a ",nuiou as a Teactio
n
agailUt nonfuillillmem of
obligation may be e".",i\Cd by on. individu.l or oth.....
alt<rnativdyor in join' cooperation of aU of
Thi. legal power conf.rred upon an indi"U1ual regularly in
dud.,. authorization to appeal again" all unfamrahl. COurt
judgment (in a "'..... lIed appeal pTocudings) On ground<! ,hat
judgm"" is not in conformity with law; by thi.> act a pro-
is .tarted tha' may set aside the at"",ked and re-
place it by another. Such l.gal poWCT is no, only grant.d 10 the
indioidual iu rda,ion to whom the obligation bur al", to
s"bj"", of the alleged legal oblig.tion. According to
procedural law, not only plain,ill but al", def.ndant may
appeal again" a judgmcot unfa'oubl. to him. Th. legal power of
the is to oppo" the ""tion of the plaintiff, to
pr...cot the .nforc.m.." of an obligation Which, in the view of the
dolend."" docs not exist. In ,hi. ca.., w. do not characterize the
legal power of the defendant a' a '"right" in the 'p<'Cific technical
..
AO:OTding to modern administrative law, an analogouo power i,
(onlrrred upon the individu.1 towarel. whom an .dmini."","'e
order i, directed, which, in hi. opinion, h", nO legal ba"s-that i.,
toward whom an indivUluaI norm i, dirted hy the admini",at""
authority certain behavior of thi. individuaL The
affreted individu.l i. authorized to appeal 'Vimt the ael.mini"ra_
ool .... and tlt.....Ly to .l.3rt procedun'; tbat mal" k.d to th.
en.,ment of another individual norm by which ,he fonorr i.
r"",inded or modified. In thi, ca.., too, w. do not uoual1y >peal of
"right" in the ,rehnica] "ole of the word,
"s
Tiu ,il. !'wi/iN Perwl .......
By the >U1ftnm. that an indiridual Ius the right 10 btha"" in a
anuin , ('f ific:olly; to C3lTJ .... a <nuin .....y be
mant. u "" ib;l, lhal fUd> :octirity is lq:olly ..... pn>hibited
10 this iDdividuaJ Of WI Olhcn are obliplal not to prcvml thio
an;'",.,. or tha. u.. <:IIutlfd individual Ius a lqal power 10 >l2rt
pr<l<eodingo in cue 01. vioWion of the <lI>n"Opondi,,& obIi-
",lion. The may .'-0 <>:lIUUt in <hal an Ktivit,. for in
lUna the of bwineM, in order 10 be 1...r"l, is DXIdi-
lion'" by a pcnni..ion colle'd giv"" by
an "Tn of ,he commun;,y, :I. g<Jvc,.."m..., l authority, eim...-
within i" fr"" diJcrclion or only if some ..m.nu >r< ful-
filled. To arry on the 'Ctivity without 'hi> "ll"Ie;.] permi"'on is
prohibi'td, ,h., is, .ubjt 10 ...."C.lon. This p".mission doe> no(
coruin in the mere ''''galive ,,,' of no< being prohibittd, but in
the pooi,;"" "'" of a commllni!y org:on. I< plaJ'l an imJlOlUnt role
in modern a<!m;"isua,i"" law. Thil right, booed 011 In oIlicPl pn'
miooion. i. noc a rdIn right: it is nOl the function of a coripOD<l
ins obJig:>tion. It involves a IqpJ pawn to the .,.",n. that it (IXI
it an aulhorization 10 pcrlorm anain lqal
weh <he ... of liqllOr or of cnu.in drugs, dq>mdmt .... Ii
CftlII: orcooc ion from tlM:autharitid.
1) TN PoIilic.J llitAU
The soalkd "polilial reprncnl a spttW (:11"10'1. n...y
.. u....UJ ... the POW'" 10 inftuence the forma.ion of <he
"'ill of mo. ...."'; '0 panici!",'" dirutJJ or indir,IJ in
fomuolion of Itpl ordo:r in which of the 1U,.e"'
u.,......... In how<"Yer', one corllidm
only 'M gon...... 1nom" of ,hi. order: mUllet. P,nidp."ion in
,h it, the of the g.n......ll"l!"l norm. 1ry Ih....
to In. no,m. i. u mi,l el.m.nl of ,h. democratic
lonn 01 go'emm""t. in eon,.... to autO<n.lic governm.nt in
which ..,lojtJ are excluded fro<n tharing in .he lomu'ion of
will of and 'herefore have no poIitiall righlt. Dnn...
aa'io; teg;.b<i.oo may be diuctlJ by "the thaI iI"
TH", IT"TIC AlPUT OF UlW
."
Ihooo= IUbjcclCd 10 the D<II'1nO. In thit cue we .pcot of a dir1
cknIocnq in whidllhc indi..idual has <he rigbllO ute put in th.c
lqilJ.auvc popular uocmbly. join in the dixusoioo. and in _ing.
Or, th.c people participate in lc&'oblion only indirccdy, whid>
IDftDI WI th.U NlH't;"" i. cun:iood by a parliament ckcood by
the people. In this cue Ihc of me IDnn:aIion oflhc will of
Ihc SUll.C-the <mUon of pcrallcg:U ,woll1lCt.: clcc
,... of parliament and lepilotioo:> by memben of parlPmcnl.
Tbcrcfvoe in Ihit ""'" , .... riah.. CIlin of me individUlllJ forminc
II.., COfllllIUCIlC}': Ihc .igb' 10 Ole and tbc righ' of .... eloe'od 10
be ..,emben of parliament and to join in the dllCWlion &rid ded
sloru the.e. Thcoc at. the political tigb....
II the rucncc of th... tigh.. CON;'" in grDlting individual, ,h.
capacity of participating in ,h. fonnation of the will of the Ita,.
(in ,h. creation oll.-gal nonn.), the.. the righ" cot.l>li.hed I>y pri-
Vat. law, the private right" tOO, ue political righ": for ,hey 100
.1I0w the entidod individu.l lO ..to pan in the rorma'ion or the
will of th.....te.
The la,,<"< i. eap'CI4Cd in the individual norm of a court dec..
>ion .... 101 than in Ihc general norm ol the lI1tule.
Then arc Olhcr political righu !><side. me right to Ole r.... and
in parliamcnl. Not only lqisluivc but alJo pttnnlftltal, admin.
innuvc, and judicial orpm ....y-acamling to a dcmocnlioc
tomIitutioD--bc called to their by eltioo. IlUOfar _ the
f"lH'tions of thcx orpna it .... <mtion of law. Ihc rcspcai>'e
rigbu 10 Ole "'''bUlt. lil. Ihc parliau>mw-y ript 10 Ole, me
lcpl powcT to participate (indirccdy) in the erntioa of thooc
IcpI norm> wbidt me "'P1lJ arc auu-ucd to ernie.
To IUbsnn:Ie the pri""l. right (that it, the legal power to bring:
about by a bw lUit the C<OCUlion of a SlDCIioII 11 a lIpinOl
the nonfullillmmt of an obliption) and the polilical riCh'
(which, too. is a legal po"cr) und.... one and the ...rne concq>t,
namely. the right as the law in a ,,,bjeni... sen". i' """iht. only
in"'far as both ClIp..... the ","'e lcg:ol h1IlC,ion: p.rticipation of
,hose .ubjected to 'he law in th. eTellion of the I.w. In doing 10
one mull k..,p in nlind that the pri... te righ, difl"en from the
poli.ical right al'" inlOr.... 'he fun<lion of the legal powe. i'
diller...t in tWO Cloct. The credi'or i. authotirc<l by the lopl
otdcr to panicipa.e. by brillginl a law lUit bef."... the coon. in the
,,0
creo.ic>n of the iDdivid.,al noon of tho: judi<:w dision.. in order
10 bring abou._ it iI .......wI, 10000ubted---dw: f<I'lfo,ce_o. 01
tho: ful.6lJmrn. of tho: obIig..... of hi< <k:btor. ....bj<. of ,he
political right, ouch:u tIw YOUf. Iw Ibo kgal p>Wtt '"
in the an...... 01 kpI DOnDS; bu. tho: puTJ>OOI' of ,hit io
not flJlUU>m' oI'M f.. oJ. another indi.id....r. <>b-
lip -ani the ,....... The atclllioo> of t.h.is lrpl POW'" _,.
bu. n<'td D<It bot, pannU! by lqal obligation impooed upoll
anothn- individ....l. j ..... as tho: cxcn:ilCof an ... 'horiutioa .... ' M.
bu. nom{ not be. the coou:m of obligation of tho: ... lhoriud
indi,iduaJ. The judgt ...., be oblig:...d '0 aacpt .be oedil....',
law .u;t: and It<: i.lopLJy oblig.lIcd '0 do '" if hi. ,.d.... l i ubj'
'0' dil<il'linal')' p'milhmeu. Of """i"" apin:n iol..oo of hi.
o/lici.11 duty. Bu. ,he l<'gal pow(r ,onftrrcd upon .he creditor,
wbkb i. hi. right, doc. not "'IVe the enforcement 01 the f"Ifill
..,ent of .hit oIflCial dUly but the ."fore.mem of Ihcl,,16lhnCIl' of
,h. deb,or', obliga.iOl1. I\. polling dork an be oblipttd to ,<,.iv.
and coont the VOl... of ..... _en; and he it 10 obligatcd if.M """-
pafonnan<e of ,hit lullC."" Iw ..ne."" a> CODK<lun>. But
tbe legalpm<'" implied ,n lboe political ri&,,11O <lie doa not oem
.oenforu the fuHiUmftlt 01. tilis oI!i<:W dUly_ It> purpow-in COD
tDd....inc.ia:l1O the kpI JIO""ItT constituting the I"'i....te ,;pI-is
not 10 rQClagaimt the _fuUillment 01. an indiYiduallq:>1 obIi-
pt"". but-inditectly-to participate in the ltT""t"" 01.
.--b) ...hich Iepl obIip'>o.u eoubIiJbed.
TM political rip.. include tht= iI>Gl1l<d fur>chroenul rights"..
libertiet ltipulat<d by moot -.derlI constitutions. They pantttft
equality bc{ore tbe law. frffdono (i.e. in>iolability) 01. property.
of , .... penon. 01. opcuIt (opecio.lIy of <he prest). 01. conocience
(espeo::ia1ly 01. religion). 01. uoen,bly. and othen. All these _ilu_
tional guaramen do not in tbenueh... cool.... righ,........,..,ither
mere rdlex right> nor private rigbt> In tbe ,echnical len.."
They an: prohibition. InlOlar a. tbey forbid the ,iolalion by
.tatut... o"'tutory orden of the guar.ttttecd rights. th.. is, to
limi, or reICind tJ,em; but th..., "prohibition," do not in ,he ma'n
(on,I" in imposing the Tcpl obHgation upon the legi,latlY. organ
'0 refrain from en.(ting .uch ,,"utts, they <on,i,t in the poISi-
bil'ty that such sta'Utts or "atutory orden. if enx,M. may be re
pe.1M as un<""..i,uoional" in a.perial pro<Mun: .....blis/ltd f<ll"
.,.ll-" STATIC ASPECT UP LAW
.,.
this purpo"'." The constitutional gua",n'ee. of fundamental
rights ar. provi,iom of th. con11i'u'ion bj' which th" coment of
"a,ut., .nmed by the l'Si.1alor alld .latutory orders i..ued by ad
mini"",ti,'e organs i. d.'.rmined nega'i'ely. and a pro<edure ...
labli.hed by which sta'U<'" and i ..'utory orden not conforming
with the.. provi.ion. may"'" r.pealed. Fundamental right. and
libertie, m.y be ,'iolated not only by lIatu'.. or .tatutory ord....
hu' al.., by .><ccoti,'e orde.....dmini"Tative acts, oc judkial deci_
.iun" 'ha' is, norm. which are no' enacted in the lorm 01 ,,",U"'.
or 'tatutory orden may have an unconstitutional con,en' and may
be allllulled for ,hi. rea"'lI. Evell if 1I0t enacted on the ba.i. 01 all
unconsti,utional ,tatute bu' having nO ""ote at all a. their ba<i.,
they may be annulled for thi.lormal ""''''II .Ione and not only in
co" their content is in conflict with a mate,ial "prohibi,ion" 01
,he constitution.
The COnstillltionally gu.nn,ced equ.lity o( the individual. $Ub.
jcct '0 the 1'S.1 oroer doe< no, mean tha, ,h... ought to be treated
equally in ,he nOrmS e.pecially in 'he ,tatute, i..ued on the ba.i.
o( ,h. constitution_ Such equ.li,y i. not intended 1>ec..... it "'ould
be ab,urd indiocriminately to impooe 'he same obligations and the
"me righ" upon all and aduh. the ..ne and
the in""ne. men and WOmen. AJ! for equali'y in 'he ""'U''', the
con<titution can guarantee it only by presc,ibing th>! ltain
differenc.., .uch "' diffeTens 01 ''''e, religion, ""to" 0' property
must no' be made in ,he 'tatutes-tb", ..atut.. whkl, do m.ke
onch difference' may be annulled as uncons'itu,ionaL If 'he con
stituti"" doc; no, determine specific difference, that must not be
made in ,he statut.. and if the consti'ution comains a formula
proclaiming ,he eqnal ity 01 .n indi,'idual., then this constitution-
ally gua",n,,,,,d equality can hardly m..n anylhing el .. bu' c<]ual.
i,y the "at",... so-<alled "equal JUStice under ,he law:'
The goa",n'''' of ,hi. c<]u.lity me'n' that the la"'-applying
organ. arc p"'miued to conoider only tho.. difference. "'hkh lhe
st",ute. to be applied hy 'hem expre..ly tttOglI"-"_ Thereby no,b
ing eJ.. i, "ipubted but the ge"eral principle of ,he lawful"ess of
'he application of the law, immane", in .llla",; and lhe prin<iple
of 'he legality of the applico,ion of ,,",utes, immanent in all
,ta1ule" more generally fonnulate<l, the tau,ological principle
cf. h"j, ",<-<0;'" ''TI>< '"""""'''u,ton.t' ""'u1<."
"
...
.,."... nAne A,nCT OF ....W
that norm ought to be applied in confOTmi,y with thi> """m,
principle which expre,,,,. only 'he meaning immAllrnt in uch
nOml. A judicial deci.ion which does no, InRie. upon an individ
n.l pun;,hmcnt provided for in the "otul. to be applied only
bccalUe ,h. delinquent i, a white. nOi a N<gTo, a Chti"ian, no, a
Jew, although ,he ,UUUle in determining 'he delict not con
'ida ,h. "",. or the religion of the dclinquent----luch a judicial de-
cuion i' megal and .ubjte. to appeal for the ...me TO""''' al a
judicial di.ion inflicting a punl,hm.m upon an individual who
h no< oommitted "delict in .b'/....clo In the .taWte
and """,,",.ined in concu/o by ,h. court.: or as a judicial dcd,ion
inflicting upon an individual who IUJJ committed .nch a delict.
puni'hment nOi provided for in the .tatute to I>< appli<d. TI,e un
constitutIonality of the dodsion in this C3.., doos not ..prntn,
ground, for .ppoal or annulment dU!"e..nt lrom th"'" 01 i'" me-
gality.
A comtitutional stipula'ing 01 ptopony
may meroly mean th...Wut.. a",horizing 'he gm'emment to de-
an of his property against bis wHi WIthout com-
poOla,ion (except in ca.. of of p1"openy a. x ..nc'ion)
may be annull<d .. 'uncorutitution.1." Such a con.. itutional pro.
vi.ion i. not actually a prohibition of Uptopriation. It r<"fen only
to uncompensated upropriation and doe. not stipulate. legal
obligation of the legi.lator to refrain from onacting .uch ... tllle.
The "unconstitution.I" stature i.....Iid law until it i' indi'idu
ally or generally annull<d. h i' not .'oid. but voidable," The
.ituation is analog<JUS when the con"itu,ion guarante." freedom of
religion. Such a guaTOnleo mean, thal a Italute prohibiting the u
erei.. of a cercain r<ligion m.y k annulled as uncon"i'u,iona1.
An effective guarantee of th... IO-Call<d fundamen..1rights aud
likrti.. exi", only if the gu.tanteeing consti'ution rn:oy not k
chang<d b}' ordinary legislation bu' only by a .pecial pT<><:edu,e.
which differs from 'he ordinary by requiring .pedal condition.
te",lering 'he enactment of a "atllle more d'llkuh.uch a. a qu.I .
fi<d majority 01 the memk.. of the legislative body or more ,h",
a 'ingle reoolut'on." For if the constitution may be ch.ng<d by
ordinary "at",... then no "atute. and hence no judicial deci.ion
Cl. pp, '7'.'
-Cf. PI' ... I.
..,
and DO au on a ....,..te. Qln be lnllunf:d, ..
N b.au..... the coruti,ution io ... iUoidc by "'.
$llltu", for iUlpbnc of nlidi.y. 'Tlw:fdon: thn." tIO
1ft fCO" fnrvbJJM"T>W ripu and libn.iQ ""<:II. if Ibo coruti.utioa.,
ODly IUloCkr ......., dificul< <XlOditiocu,. puvllftI u..
libmf" merdr to u.. Clum'Wt it is DOt lilnil.<d by.
in othn" WI:lrdJ, u.. CIlIII*li.'"'ioa au"-..... to otipub.IC, in lfIoo .....,.
01: ordwry JePLalion. urocompcnoo.rd upropria,i(ln. 1.0 1<11-
DUe pro/libiud by the consti'.. li..... in n .....,.
ta'ulCS iwfUU>g obJiptiOllJ &ad conferrillg rishu and 10 limi, in
IlICh lla'"'''' certain liberti.... Such a " p.csmt
if. I<>r example. 'he conttitutioo "Y': '"Th. invioLabili.y of J>TOP"
crty i. Il""",ntced, Uncompen"",ed npTOpr;'uion in .he public
imeren il pennittrd only if .u<horized by. lU,u,e"; Or: "Eve.,.
body lou ,hight, wi.hin ,h. limita,ion> ."ahti,toed by .Ulule
f,ul1 to ""pr.... hi. opinion."; or: "All dt;zen, hove ,he right to
.....mbl. IDd to form alolOciadOfll. The nBC.... of ,hi. rillh' is rq.
..llle<! by OUtu,,,-"
AI long os W COIIJl;'u,ioml guannt of .It( fullo(b",cnul
righll"'" li.......icI IMam noching than <he fact """. <he .....,-
IlIOl'J rauiaion of these r;ghlund liber.i.. is tkrc.'ti more dil&-
cult. no righ.. n" prtI(fl.; noo: tdIu: rigb boa..... "'" "pro-
of ..-...rirtia>( lq:iolation prnt>t>tonad by "'" co<Uli...
.ioort, dots .... CUlloli.tllO: I<:pl obligation; and tbtrdort no rizh..
i.D u.. 't'Chnio.llctlluitlt.. if by....ch righ.. is wodt:noood tho: kpl
power of bringing about by b. aui.. u.. cnforomlcnl of "'" ful.
fill......1 of obI.tiobo.. A ftlncbmmtal rigltl (or liberly) "'pr<'-
....... ript in the IftIIOe of lcpl PO"" if tho: onkr cool.,..
tlJl'OD the indiYitl.... alfmcd by ;an tlDCOItSl;t.. lionltl ........" tho:
1"1"1 po.tt 10 initl:u".he procaItI." tlu. the .nntll ......1
of the w><omtittiliONI ""'ule, Sinu "'" mnning of lhe act by
whkh a nornt i, rq>alcd il. norm iUO'lf, we an ..y: Ihe oo<al1c.'ti
luntbmcnl11 righl OT libcrty il the legal PO"''''''' 10 pllr.kipo'e in
,hc creion of Ihil norm, ThUl, lor ",",-mple, ,he e<>nllilulional1y
g..aron'ud righ' 01 rdigioullihcr.y il a right in ,h" lpecific lech.
ni<:ll Jen.., if ,h" proudur" for Ihe l"Cp""l of. Ita,.. ,. 11<.11 r"",icu
...ligio... fr/:edom m.y be initiale<! bl' any individual affcc.e<! by il
through a lind of ..."io pop..14ru. But ,hi, righI, II I politicol
nghl. a, thc poIi,;""l right 10 \'OtC, i. di"inguithe<l lrom Ih" JOb-
I""P)."PO! ''1' In'''lU SOllq 0' :la,"od I"s,( ''1' '4'j!
'100 '<Woo IEll'1I! "" J" ''1' 01 AIOO Inq 'lnl""
1"""!'nl!"OO'''O "" jO IU>"'S '0 ,," 01 fn'Il
10" POI' lU;><\d. ill 10!"ldw", ''11 '('I p'""!'!U!
.c"d '4.1. -1"s,II' ii"!",, 'OJ "O!,!"p I"!,!pn(".o,," ','!'U"!"!,"p.
U" '41 ,noq. S"l'q 0' .,,,,od 1"s,1 '4' "! S"!"!IUOO
''Ill!, .I". OIo'J 'UM OO,,! '! lU.I<lU I"np!,,!p,,! ''II JOI":Ki,.
""''''-I_ SO!'>'1 ,,, (.,,,,od Id'i 'I'!) '4110 ''IS!. '4' 0''1'
,.!""qlcll'l .I,," ln0'l".1t [l:>Eu> '! ,oq """,,, lo"o!,nl!"uro"n ".
0" J'>''''lIOU '! 'p.>'.10!,' '! "O!lIl'!l'''O' ''1' .1'1 pa>l""--'u"," .1U>q!1
.I<l "Ill!. !"'''''''"punj ''1' 'P14'" Aq uo"':>;>p I""!p"( ID
"1U'OIp" ''I' JO OIIDU ''11 JI ''''''"If '"'I' JOI0>d:l. 1=
.,,>1l" 'I'!'" p.>",>ooo, ""'4""'" '! ID '",., ",.,"", '"4' .I<lJ ",,,.,,,
l,uO!lnl!""O""" ''1' JO I";>J ''1' "'ldUl! uuoo I""p!,,!p"! '4'
JO Irn", "1' .. 'pnm,",,! 1""p!A!p"! >tl' JO ,.pi!." '! ''IS], (",u,m
'''Pu''J POll"'""" ''1' 0''1' :ill.O" I""p],,!p"! "1' JO 1";>d>J ''1' '" S,,!
-1'"'1 >J"po,,,,d" >lU!'!"! 0' ",""" 1"lJ>1 ''1' '"'I ""0" 1""p'A'p"!
'!'1' .1'1 p.>1"1I" 'l(l A1UO Jl PO" :,"',,'" (""o!''''!''''o,
"n U" JO '!''''l "\l UO p.>w>J, '! "uoo 1""p!A!pU! "u J! "pro,.. :C'11O
"1-"0!'!"1' 1"!'!I'''!" -'" "0 ",!"c,,'1"!Wp. 0" Aq J'>'"IO!A,! mnp
-;>;>') JO .'!I"nb, I'""1"""'''S .11I0001101[1'UOO ''1' JI ""O!""'" ='ll
)0 "o,,""'"x' "11 01 'P"'I ''''I' :unp.>;><d "." 0, .,,,,,,,, ]olJ>l
''1' '"'lOll," ,"',." I""O!""!""OO"" ,," Aq p.>'''1I"
"1' 'ou '! '! '1m '. ,nu 1.""p01'''''O;>'''' JO ,s""od
>tl' "! ii,,!,od!,,!uod illO.q "! '"'I' 'I,m Suruuop>d 0I0'J p.>l!
.q!'101d .11I"lJ>1 :>.to ,u-.&.o ='11 u''1.1. '''4ii!] I",,!l!!od JO 10 '''9]0
10 ""I '" 'pn, tl",m'l,!"nd 'UI""" ill''1' uodn "!11"! AO'" U"O'
1"1""" " 'I"U01111'I""lY.>Un '! 'IO'''l' '41 "''''' u, 'lu4' '!'1L
'p.>ullllJ,mnoo 10 'p.>I"jj[nillD.ld 'l"'AOJddu 'A",! .1''1' ""n,o" ''11
I" 'l1IUUO!,nl!''''O' ''1' 'OJ 'lq!",OO= 'pOW >I. (,,... ''I' JO l""''1
''1' JO tl,.. ''1' "S)':Cluno, 01 ','"'1 0'1"') U!'1':> )0 lJ><jill'W
1'''0 "'I p""od "10"'" "Elltnwmd -'" , ..",dd. 01 "
I! """l"') "",, ''(1)01'.''1 ''1' ''''II ,.":odd,,,! PUO "1'1
""00 '! " ,og ."\O,,.! '''OJ "! "141 I""O!lUlll'
uooun SUI""U' UlO.J m.'J'] 0' AJ'O'l ','!'OI'1&>! 0 ",Ell'I'!O 01 '1'1
'1<><1 'lp"'"4'! 1! 'UOl" "'DoU", 1"'!"'1'" '0.f '4SI-'- ''I' JO ",f'l'"
''II PI","OI UO!,.lI!!'!o "0 JO m>tulI!llnJ ''1' jO m,m>.:>.l0J'" ''1'
'In. "'"I ,''I "'0'1" Sul'q 0' '" ",\1;>0 10u.>OJ> .,"'10J ''1'
,uq, '" '14S!' "",,!,d 0 '! '1']'1'" '>i">i ("'IU'[:I''ll "1 1l(l!!. 'Al'''!
"'.., AO ""'-dSV 'lLV...,
H,
gena:oI rq>nl of a ,hat yiolata <.1M: oonotl....ioNll'
guuut....... "'I.u:tl.i<r or onl, ""'" is <.1M: l(><:J.\le:l f..nda
.........1rip, a rigb. (in <.1M: "J'f'ci6c lttitniallnLW) of the indi\'id-
"".
Su.mmariring """ IlIUJ ay: 'Tbt: rigb. of:w. Iodly;,haal is titbrt a
nttn I"dIn rigbo-"t rdIa of a kpI obI,*"Uon ltltiIting_rd
.his indiyidu;tl; 0'1" a pri"'te rip. in <.1M: tedtniol ....._ht kpI
pawn .. pon an indiyidullO bring about by la_i, <.1M:
mfon:ftnml of <.1M: f"lfillmml of an obI'*"tioo nioting _rd
him (i.e., <.IM:.I p""'"ft'.o p""icipo.e in tilt anlion of the indi-
vid",,1 norm b, which thl: anelion is onI...od th:a, II a'ta<:htd ".
,he nonful/illmmt of the obligation); or a poIilkol righ.-the
legol po..'n an individ'L.I (.j lu porticipo\e di.e,:\l,. as a
member 01 ,he Itgi,la,i,.. popular a..emhly in ,h. crea,ion of g.n.
enl logal no"m known .. Italut or (2) a, ,ubj ..t of a porl;.-
men...,y or adminlSln,i,e voting righ, to participat. ;ndi ....tly in
,ht ""a,ion of legal norml for wltme e""..ion ,he eleeled organ il
authorized. or (J) '0 particip.o'. in the o,..,a,ion 01 the norm by
which the validi,y 01 an uncon..itutional ""U'e th:at viola,,,, the
"'I.nalit, or freedom i, repaled g<:n"",lIy (i.e., for all
ptNOibie cues) or indi.id",,"y (i.e., only for a roncrfte cue).
fin.1l1r, a pool'i... penrlislim Rlvm by gov.....menul authuri.,
may alao oon<U'ute. right in ttdtniall<:Dlt of the .nm.
so. Cu'..aTY T'O AcT; Orpan."a;
..... CootaP1" .. MQua.....
aj Ca".m, 10 Ad (Ha1ldl"",>tiJIi,leil)
The lopl power, dis<u..ed in .he pro:ediug POI" a. (.hat
i<, ... private or poli.kol rishl). i. onl, a spttial c:aoe of tha, I ......
tion of.he legal ordn dacribed her.... Mautboriza.ion,' f.om ,he
poinl of vi.... of a lepl teience ,ha' d.-:ribe> ,he legal oro... by
.ul.. of law. 'he function of ,he legal order <ottJi,,, in connee,ing
e....t.in condition.. determined by Ihe legal order. will. a coercive
a".1", determined hy ,h. leg.1 {>,d...., ., a conlCq.. Thi.
eoerdve X't " Ihe cono.eque".. P'" ."ceIltnrt. To be ."'. among
.1.00( condition, .Tt 10m hich in tum 3re by lac..
do-tenninM by the legal orcI Ind ...hid!. in '-"i, ......... In relative
,.,
THE ITAT1C .uPKT or LAW
conooqu"""""'" For elt>nlpl... jf thr l<pl ordcT praerioo a .......
ough. (0 bt punisMd if approprU:I a found objea aQd <loa
not repon to lh.. polic<: , .... "'" hal found i., thm lhe fan of 'M
.WOP' Lui"ll 01 the found obj<a is l.he condi...... for the faa cl
DODrtponinr;---;a fan ","'do in iudf, with iu condilioa.. i.
dw: conditi"", for a o::oercl-e la- TIw: coaci.-e aa aloM i, C>:lI>JC-
'I"""" ..ithou. iUl<1f beil'lll condi,ioa; i. is the last
the l<pl """"'lurntt; and if .he act is .....nc.ion., thm
lh.. Itpl comooquencc is ,h.. oonorqu",""" or.n iIIcpl act. In ..ip-
ub,;,,&: <Jut !.be act_which iun aet of hulJWl behavioo"-
ought to be perfonncd. the \;ow Ita> the of a nonn.:oti""
ordn regulating human behavior.
The function of the l<pl order dMC1"ikd as ."thori....'ion re-
lot'" only to h..man """av;or. Only human bthavior II oul!>ori,a1
by ,he legal omer. In Ihe brood... "''''', a (ertain I><",vior by a
cntain individual i. "'Ulhorixcd" by the legal order nol only if.
1'1"1 pow"" is upon him (,ha, is, the a.pod'y of ....ing
lqo.l nonns). bu. 0100 gmnally. II the individual', """ior i.
made th.. direct or indircce condi,ion of t"" CO<'fciv.. ocl as lhe Je.-
pI ... or if ,his bchovior i. in .IX acl.
OWl" faclldnnmmed by 'IX lqal O<dn .. mndi,>oru a"= n(II '0
berqardtd ill Haulboriri.H Wbm tbt ItpI ord<T .i",,1.>(('I: Hlf a
IIWI i, ....lning from 01\ inltiom IX ougllt 10 be conlinod
'0 a hoopital
H
thm tM lqal (IIfd.., aul!>olilft "" individoal 10
u... act of in",",,,,",'; but it don n(II aulhoou.e "",body
'0 ret lid. 10 litis wnw...., bu....." &tn
mintd by u.. otckr .. a cood:ilion or """"ftl_ItUl,'" re-
pr<kd u bring by 1M1"8"1 anln. "TbtltUln who CUI
nhibi, socIt a l>c/Qvior i, mabkd by lhc Iqrol ordn to belut"" in
lhio .....,. hu a cal*'it, confetTed up'" him by anln.
II ,hi, capaci', is dcsign.. al ......,..".iDtion.
R
!his wd does l\OI
imply apptm\l1. t:""" "paciry of commi"ing delicl i, a
capaci,y conferred by lopl ordn only ..""", eemio
lndivid".h '0 commi, delklS hy 'b.ir behavior. whkh '"
a condi'ion of toerd,.;oct th" functions's a ""nction
--cl the act whkh is dire<;'W ap;n" th..." (or ..lvn) .. a
u""e<l"enee oltltei. behavior. Only tbe individuals qu.li6ed by
the lopl ord... e>n KIImit they are enabled by .IX
1q>1 ordn '0 do to. flu, 'helxbll"ior ..... con.i,u'", delia b
na "'FAne .uPCr <>I' lAW
14i
prolIibiled by <he lop! order iIIwt tbo: beh>.vior ...... <:(lD-
dition of a sanctiort--and, being prohibited. i, is not appr...td.
Hawna-, >he word iI aloo u>cd in a narrower
......, wbell it doQ i",p1y in <hio _ - .....
dor:o DOt include the opacity of OIICIUIliuing I ddia; in >h.. .....,
tndititlall oheo<y spc:W of opaci'y to act (U....I"""/..i,u")
in amondistinctioo. to to COIJUai. a (DcliAJo-
filti,hil), ddinin( tl>e Iom>tt ,.. lhe Dp:aci<y of I man to bo-io&
a....... lepl dfecu by his beblvior. Sin<e thtoe "dlfCtI" are "'"
dl"fCtI in the ouoal sense. OpKily to act comiJu ill a.....,.
opaci,y conferrtd by >he legal order to bring about legal conse-
quences by his heba"ior, thaI is, consequences .,hicl< legal
ord.... attacl>n ".>h,. behavior. Til_legal consequmen how
eYt!', no, >he lIJ1C,iom which CO/'''''Iuencc of beMv;or arc
dircacd aa:oin" the individu.1 ""h..ing in thi, w.y (Le., 'gain"
the delinquent or hi. ,cl.,ivet). The capacity 10 bring lbou
$OInt:tion by one', ""haYior capacity to commi, I delict and II
diainguilbed from the capacity to .ct. The legal '0
which lhe corta']>t capKi,y to act ufen are, a.ccordi"l to
,radi.ioaallcience 011.0.., esKnti..llly obligatiooJ .nd rightl o ....ted
by 1"&,,,1 opKi.y to act II pri ....rily the cap.city
to oondualepl .... nRO'ioN (CacM/Uliltiieil); bu, capaci'y to
a<I aloo mana tbo: capacily to inllumce judicial procedure by a
Law ..l, or an appeal (l'rtnaJ/ilti,Acit)..
This boI..,..,.,riDncd ClpKIIJ ill JIO"'"" conf,...,.ed by tIoe 1ep1
order '0 puti<:ipL1te in tIw: oelltion of an (nd,ri<!uallepl nonn"...
...blishcd bya judici..ll deciloion. It is, tbm,' lqpl powft"nd ......
ferring >his paw.... IIle>tU in the IUrTOW..... _
Ipir.c."""", of >he won!.
But abo >he lcgal capacity 10 conduo<:' legal .nnucliont, ,hot i,
IOAY. "'" cap"dly of <:!'tOting obliga'ioni aDd righ,.. " ouch lcgal
pow. For legal obIip'ionJ and rightl are .....bl;wft! by lqpl
norm" and ouch nonu, .re anted by legal , .. ngetion. An
'llIly.u of the Icgall"mo<:tion, ,he COlltract. <lcmonlt"..",
lh;. The conlract Itipul.t.. th., contncting ""fliet ough'
to bl:havc in mum.l rel.,io,," ;n c..... in w.y; ,he C"n-
tr.o<1 of tale. lor example. Ilipul.tel ,bat the !CUer ough, 10 rendcr
an ob}c<:IIO the buj and ,he hoI}'.... a ",m of money 10 ,he sell ....
i1oecon'nocl , .,hOl< IUb;c.:,ivc IIl.....ing .. on The
",
lopl orda, in <l.uUoorWnI individual, by am<nl .-.... to aNI-
clude COG<nas, eJn;,us the ",bjti,.., me:on.ng ol: the lnNllCtioa
10 an objective one. "11M: confTXt etta...,. abliptionl 01. thc toII._
trlICt.inB pania. beau.. thc Jepl orne.- _;on. 10 a be
havioo- COIltnry to the tnms of d.. 00IIU'Xt. I .. ohis _ the
Il<lna auted by Ibo uanaacUon is a d<prndm. I\OI"Ill, n.. con
tnlCl "utel righ.. of oM mn1rxlin& pannos. ba_ 1M ltpl
onkT....-by aulharizj"l <he to rnadudc o;o.mxlS--
a)Ofen upon the alIrltnlC"n, particJ the lcpl powe>" to king
about by a Jaw ...i. the ...rorttlll'l'n. oJ. <he f..lliUm"", ol.1>e obl'-
pt,oa etta""'- by me conu"OCt...'hie" lb<2nS: to bring about by a
Jaw lUit the """"",ion 01 .."e,;oo ;u a u>oction again.. the ,"iola-
don oft"c obligation create<.! by the and ,il ... to partici-
pate in the U"tation of ti,e individual nOml 01 the judici.l
decision. The capacity 10 Induct legal ,ran>a"i.,,,, jJ ,he ca
padty. confcrr"", "pOll individuals bj' til< order, to croale,
on the bali, of gen......l Itg.1 norm., J<gal norms of a lower level
and '" participate in the en'''""" of individual nOm" '0 be 0<'-
alocl by me bwcour... Thlsc>paci., iu. true lopl pown.
1 "'.' is underwood '" m....D the OIpaci.y of bringing
about lcpl eoDKqumcn bronc'. and if ODe rcprdo as a
corucqucncc 01 a Icpl ,nruxtion lhc lcpl obIip.icn-and that
""""'" an iDdj,iduall>(lt1l>--<'rcatnl by this Xl. lhcn lbc opoO'J
01 fuUilli"ll' Icpl oblipliont" ,lou ... lbc 01 avoidi"( """
oanu..... by aM" awn bduorior, mar aloo he UDdcntood ...
i'f 10 act. ThnriD. lin tJ>e--.-ptin---lcpl alWC'lUCDCC 01 fulfill
laCIl' 01 an obllptioaL
b) Co..pelmu
I, ia .tM1ily to be otero w. u,., """'rei$<! 01 thia lcpl POW'" has
nJtI1tially wnc du.t'Kttt ... the runction 01 a lcsi.lalivc organ,
a,,,horir.c<! by <he lcpl ordcr, to create gen.nllcg.l norm.; an<1 ..
,he fU,,<,ioru of the judicial and admini""uive organ., .,,<hori.ed
by ,h. 1<'g.1 order, '0 individual Ic!>"1 nonn. by applying
dlO$C gcn=1 on, In .11 lhese just as in thc ca.IC of th. ro-
.alltd ..padty to arl, all I"thori",.ion is present to or to
participatc in thc .reation of. lcpl nonno-in all 'Moe thc
Icpl order conf.... a Icpl powC't upon c...... in indi..idualL Bu, not
I"'S0 ..udlo" JO llb,uo,
'01 "'1""'P "'l,.nrn U011JUn, '4' JO ''''m'''' wOJJ lU'.I.:IJ!!P'1
'041 u'41 'AI!UnWUU" {d,! 'II' 10 mdlo IOU
UO!lJunJ "II ']""Pl"PU! ''II """" ='11 U! '",U!S ,:"U',
.:><IWOJ,. '0 ..uop"'l"l,n(., P'II"'" W''11 uoon p".u:>Juo, .I.:IMOO ,do]
'1 IDU :A,!UnUlUJ<Y.> !oli,[ JO ..su1!&1o" P"II"" "'_ 'UO,,""'U"-'1
]d.>( "npuoo 01 MOl {"tuopOU .\<j P>l!104'O! ,[O"P!AlpU, lOU
'UOl}JunJ '14' U! '"m. '41 .I.:Itp!'U"A puV 'A'lunWllJOO
]OUO!,...1.I>1'" U!'111M 'IOJ lUE'uoowl tI" Ao(d 'MO( \"""!'OU'"
U! ,{q pa!lOtp"o "10" Aq p>popuro Aq 'w'ou ["-,,,u,ll JO
u0]10"" ''I' '"'II puo :"PlO [olio[,tp Aq P"'lID4,no ..mOl
.,:><1 Aq p""npuoo 'UO!"""O'I ,"3o[ Aq P"''''''' "'l AO'"
'<mou 1"",,,,ll OlIO Inq 10np!Alpu! A\UO lOu '"'I' "",ou :>q 0'" "
puy ,UllOU (do( jO 00,,0= ''II :0"''' ''I' '! lU"<ro, '4.L
.uO]"onJ '4' JO ul OJu,J.:IJl!P o:>q lO"u"", '!'I1jO UOI
0"" ,:",u'I:odmo,.. JO "OOl'''ll''!ln(" to p"loull,,,p ,ou '! ""''11
uodn p>J"llIOJ J.:I..oo ,<301''1' 'U"'O'J '!tpl0J 'J1 puo 'Al1unmlUOJ
"II JO "ru1!&1o" lOU puO ..'UOSl:><l 'Ilti!ro" "'l 01 P"""Pl'uoo
"'0 (,,,,"]dmoJ 0 O'IM ID 'Io:>ddo 10 "'lIOU 'Al11 "'lM 10) AI""l
.:>woo ,.",olio 1m' MO( 0 lluuq 'mp>1[l.ld "lIU"lU!wpo ID ("P!P
.n! 0 u, 04.... t:>IUro ''11 Jl W ',UOII"",,,,', ["S>[ ,m", "opuo, 0'1'"
']"OplA1PU! "1' II J.:IMOO [o'il>[ ruo!l'unJ ''''1' H- U""'I
''''l A'!-'"11wP ]"11"""" '4' "olq [!uollrP"-'.L ''''1''0
""." 01 ID "uo"l"P IE!J1Pn[ '1"'" 0' '''lOm'I'''u,
Ol,("npJA'PU! "1m'", JO All,,",,'" """, "ll uJ "JJllOI:>d
woo., '10 'lonpl'lP"! "" JO (tlqJl!. 1""'11100 .0 UU'I
''II JO JS"" ]""!"'P" "p U! ",{.Il!, PU! ',UOp""'U.'1 ]d.>( "np
'''OJ 01 A"JEd., ''I.L '.1.:11"0 loll,[ ''I' Aq P>ll'IuOO ""'00 10&>[
JO "'p.,x:. til II,,,UO' 'I"'IM p:m.lJJuoJ '1 UOIPunJ ''I' 50 '"J
to P>U'lOO! 10" '1 JO ld"uro ''11 JO uOllm,m,] '!'I.L
.. .. ID "UO!'''!p'!,n(" P'll"" lOu
llUJI JO "'''''' [""UtpOl ''11 U! 'l'IlI!, 'I'! 10 1411!J
10 ",,,.,x:. '" 'jo:>dd. "!U' .,,"[ .\<j 'UllO" ldo] JO ''I' '"
'l\:dl"!l..d 01 Jo 00!'''''''',,",1 10So[ 0 Aq <OUoU 101lo! >1u'n 0' .."'"
.,:><1 "o.,!,d" 0 uoon P>H'I"OJ ,>MOO [olio, 'q.L .. Jo
..uO!lJlp'lmr.. 10 flu:><l .lroJ'I1 1""01'11"'" '''!'!-I04Io0
'p-. '0 'uno' ."0] '" q,n. A'lum"mn" JO ruo.ll.1o JO .tl0llJunj ''1'
01 lJ:><I", '1'1" ',,,,,,, 'woo U] .. '1'" 01 All""""".. JO
"'o>q, louo)l'pu, "'op "MOO l',llJl 0 llu!'''lllO' JO ."., [[0 III
;"
......., J.:>:IdSV "uns XlU
.,.
TIt!: ....TIC ....PI:CT OP "'W
c) The Concept oj "OT8"4n"
"Organ" of a community i. an individual who ""donn. a function
Lbat can Il<" attributed" 10 the community; it is a function which.
thado<e, ia said '0 be exercised by the community <thoUghl of a.
a penon) through the individual that (unctiom a. lh. oommu
n"f.organ. Thi, is. fiction, because i, i, nol ,he community, but
a buman b<ing ,hI.< neTci... the function. The "community" i,
nothing bulthc normative order regula,ing the !>thovio. of. mul
titude of individual.. True, it is usually oaid that the ortkr wn<ti.
, u t ~ the rommunity, but order and community at. no' .wo
dilIerent ,hingl. A wmmuni,y of individuab. that is: thai which
thooc individual< have in common, con,i,a exrul,ively in ,he
OTdtr which gulate. their mutual ""'havior. The IlI"havim of an
individual can be attributed 10 the community (,nd ,hi. mnJU_
.xpreased without using a fi<:rion--<an be ,..,f.rred to the DOTma
,ive oro..-) only if ,hi, behavio, i, stipula,ed as a conditiOD DC COD_
'equence in a norm of ,he ordec that-u it i, Ulual to "'y-
consti,u,.. ,he community. Rj' aUTibutiDg ,h. behavior of an
individual to the communi,y. by im.rpr.ting it a, an act of the
community. the community i, p,..,.emed .. an acting .ubject. OS a
pe,.."". Tbi. meano: the aaTibu,ion of a function detennined by a
normative ord... and no:ndeml by an individual to ,h. community
constituted by thi. ord.... impli.. tbe personification of that com-
munity: nothing .1", i. expreased by thi. perlOnilying anribu_
tion" than that the behavior an,ibuted to the communi,y i.
d.t.TtOined in ,b. order that con,titut.. the community and i.
th...f ~ authorized by it. To attribute an <K' of human behavior
'0 the community mly mn, to ""fOT ,hi> <K' '0 the onl ... that
constitute, th. community_to undentand it .. an act authoTiud
by the noTtOative ord... The..fo,... ""''1' behavior of an individ_
ual. determined by the uonna,i.'. or<kl" and thu. authorized (in
_'. ""ler ...b'....tlono' ",111 Ib< """"oJ op<I'_;. qu,"""" "j,....."",,,,"
<,oucho"ll, aut ~ _ ,hlo _ 1",..,0, __n.. ncno";" ron_It""
_. ''''' !><t', ,. '''''''''' ,. th, ",.."I _'500, I w.. """'" to d; .
anti... I>d...... "'" (,..p.,";"" 01 """"on I.....,"o.lty .. '"=,.., ; .
...",k>n" '''''" ,I>< nonoo.otl '" two fa<to .. "p!phmt "'p.,,<Ion."
Tb;, ,..",;"01"11'" 00< "..,. ,,';o/a"'"'l' l<ado ,. ,"",,_odjop- I _
oow 'b, ....-d -lmp""t.\oo" 0> th, "" ....- I>d...... , r " , , ~
-cr ,..
,.
Till< STATIC ASPEC'< OF lAW
.,.
the brood." sen...) by iI, can be allribUlrd 10 lhe communi,y con
"i,u,rd by lhe norma.ive OTder, can be inlCTpre'rd a' function of
.h. community; and .v..y individual wltmc behavior U d.ler-
mined in nonnal;". orocr-.\nd thi. mea", ev.ry m.mber 01
the community-ean be TI,ga.rd.d a. an OIgan of lhe community.
An individual i. an organ 01 ,h. communi,y, if and '0 .h,,"'n'
thai, h. f.nd... a ,ha, can be a'tribu'ed '0 the Cornmu
nity; and a bellavior can be .ttributed '0 .b. community if i, i.
dctenninrd a condi,ion or C<lJU]u.nc. in the norma.ive
ordCT tb.t con"ituteo the community. i. ,be primary, the
bo.... concep' 01 ,be function of an organ-il i, "o.-gan function"
iu the b.ood.., <Cn". And i, i he con""pl 01 "organ func/;on,"
not of lh. "o.-gan,' which refe.. 10 the .""miol f..ts. especi.lly in
lhe r..lm 01 legal ""i"""". The concepl 01 organ ."pr...,. lb. idea
of ubjcc/ or 'hold.." (G.nnan: Tragu) of the funclion; i..
tb. pcnonal eleme", of behavior repr=nts the funclion;
this funclion. Iik. any hum.n behavior, co",i"," 01 a penon.l
and a malCT;'1 dement. The eoncep' of lhe org.n a. ,hubjcet or
hold., of. function diff.rent from lhi. i. a concept of ,ub
.lanee and .. ,nch 10 be ",ed Wilh the aw.ren... th.l. f.om .he
point 0/ ,i.w of scienlific cognition. on!lance io be rrducrd to
funclion, In the concep! of lh.organ a. the holder 01 the funetion.
the personal clement i. detacbed f,om lhe mal....i.l clement.1
.hough the tWo ar<: in..parably connected Only with thi. r...",'.
lion can lhe concepl 01 lhe organ be used as .n .u"il iary concept
wbicb ladJit>.tes lh. pre..nlation of the !aet. to which the concept
01 "organ" refen.
The concept of "organ fun"ion" whid! appca.. in tradi.ional
legal ..nninology {.nd which is not onilonn in its u..ge) i. nar
rowe., howev.., than that JlTC1Cnle<l h..... as prim.ry or b.... con
cepl. Sioce the la.ter rel.les to every behvior d.t.rmined by lh.
nonn..i,. OroCT-<O far a. it i, a bch.1viOT dct..minrd by ,he legal
<ml.... and thCTefor fun(tion of th.legaJ community_it includes
abo lh. beh.vior which,,, a condi.ion for a ..nell"", i.e.. a. a de.
Iiet. i. legally prohibiled. Usually, I>owev..... on. d.... no, .uribu
a delic, .0 legal communi,y. The view acc<mling 10 ..'hich the
prohibiled beh.vior i. illegal (unlawful; in German: U",ccht-.\
lin<! 01 negalion of the l.w) i. r.pugnant to the .iew lh.t the
!'P. ' ..... "H
"
communily commits an il1"83.1 act. i, a ..nd.nCj' <0 at
!Tibut. tn tbe oommunity only a human behavior which i, de..r
mined ill the nonnati,'e but i, not de,erminro a. a delict,
thot i', prohibit.d," l th. ",'oro "authorizing" i. tt$<:d in the
broader >tn'" that indudes also the capacity "to older, to pen"it
positi"ely;' then one am ...y that a tendency exi", to attribute to
a 1"83.1 community only lhat behavior of an individual <0 which
he i. "authorized" by the legal order-that i., a behavior by which
legal norm> are crrated or applied, an oldered Ochavior, not a
prohibited behavior, and a positively permitted behavior; so that
an individual i. co",iderffi to be the organ ot a legal community
only insolar a. he manifests a behavior "authorized" in thi, StllSC,
Howe,'cr, a. we shall sec, linguistic u'"ge is not co",i...m in ,hi.
'''pee'' Occa.ionally a delict i. attributed to the legal community,
e.pccially when the community i. regarded a. the .ubject of obli
R"tio"', because the capacity to assume obi igation. pr..upp""" the
capacity to commit a deUct" But the th.,i, that the legal com-
munity ca""or commit a delict, Le" cannot Ocbave il.legally, im
pH.. th" the a"ribtttion to a legal community i, limited to
human behavior "authori'ed" in the just deocribcd se",,; it
impH.. that the delict, although detcnnintt! by the legal order, i.
not attributed to the community, l>e-causc not "authorized" in the
narrower StllSC. If the attribution to the legal community;' thus
limited, then the individual committi"g a doHct is not intCTpreted
to be a community organ, and hi, behavioT not a, the function of
an organ (an "organ function"). To the 1"83.1 community, then,
only thaI behavior i. attributtt! which refen to tbe concept of
"capacity to ac,"-which doe> not indude the capacity to commit a
delict,"
If we thu. eJtClude the committing of a del;'t from tbe organ
functions attributable to a 1"83.1 community, then any beh"'i,,r
d.tcnnined by .he 1"83.1 order constituting the legal commuuity
may he regarded .. a function 01 the community if it dOC' no< con
.i" in committing a delict: Thi, behavior may comi" not onl}' in
cation and application of legal nonn., including the partid,
.... _ t. diKl.",t'" ' ... >ndi_ 01 "'" '"""""" qU>llfted., "<1<1""" "-
ott><-< W1d"'om .. lh< ..nctlan. "'" p, ".'
.... f.. ,b< aoP"'i'r 01 , torpOI'Ot...... , ,. """"" ....
"'" ,."""'... "Obhpll"", of 'b, ja,;"l< ....-."
Cf. pp. ,.. t
'"
pa,i"" in the creation and applica<i"" 01 legal norm, by I.w ,oit,
appeal. compl.i,,! and ,h"ecutio" of eOttr;... ac,_]] ,bi, i. ,he
Ja"'-<:tt.ting .nd Iaw""pplying function; but it may abo con,i" in
th< lulfilllllCllt of kgal oblig,"imu, in 'he ."erci.. of ,ell"x righ..,
and in the .""rei", of those right> tbat co",i" in po<iti,'c
permission_Enncti"", ,ha, may l.>e deaignatcd .. law.()bscrving
func,i"". E,-cry jodi,-idual, therdore, who perform. a legal lune-
,ion in the narrower or broader ..n",. j. a legal organ. Thererore
,he individual who exerci"'... legal power by bringing .. I."...ui,
against ",mebody or by conducting a legal ,=,10" may I><:
designated .. "Irgal organ" and ,h, legal power I><.to"..ed upon
him a. hi. "oompctena"_in lh. $arne ..n.. in which the legis-
lator, j u d ~ . or admini.trau>'c lunctionary .,." deai&',a,I as "<:>r'
gan.;' and the legal power bestowed upon them, .. ,heir "compe-
ten",," (or "juri"";aion"). Even 'he individual who lulfill. hi.
legal obligation, or exercises a ""nex righI, or make. usc of a p<>'i.
tive p<nniMion, may be 'ega'ded legal organ. Thi1 concept of
"organ IUl><tion' exp""sses only the relalioruhip of the func,ion to
the normative oroer determining the function.
However. in legal terminology ,he COll<:ep< 01 organ is used in a
still narrower "'n", than here deocribed. Not every behavior de,er_
mined by the legal order, and not being qualified .. drlkt, i, in-
terpr<<ffi;u a function of the l<gal community; no' every individ
ual who perform' ouch a funelion i. de,ignated .. an "organ" in
rhi. narrower st"st. Hi, behavior i, attributed 10 the legal commu
niry .. its function only (and the indi,-idual i. de.ignoted .. an
"organ" only), if ,hi, individual is qualified in a certain way.
Jf a function determined by a normative order i, to be p<r.
formed not by aoy individual .ubjaot to thi. ottler but only by a
qualified one. ,hen a functional di.i,ion 01 labor i. e'tablished_
Only functions exerdsed by individuals quaUr,ed in a ""ruin way
are attribu<ffi u> ,he 1'"831 community; only ,he.. indi.iduals are
deo.ign.ted a' "0'lr""'" in ,hi, narruwer stn",. Communid.. which
have "org:uu" are d..ignated a, "organi>ed" communi,i... Bu'
every cOmmunily must have o.gam-....,"en Ihough not ,he kind
,ha, [unction. according to 'he principle of di,-i,ion of laOOr_
becau"" a community an only function ,hrough organ>. that ,.
,hrough individual. determined by ,he nor""'tive order. If "
normative oroer determln.. ,ha' (,",,,,in funetio,," under <enain
,,.
11<:[ ....ATIC A$PI!Cr OF ....W
condition. """y be performed by e..."ry individual .ubject '0 the
order, then every individual in the ex.rei.. of this function may
be a ..n organ. ,he function may be attributed 10 tbe
community. although nO division of labor i .,.'abli,h.d. Dut ac-
cording 10 pr",,,i1ing terminology individual. who do not fune
,ion by division of labor all: not "",)Jed "organ.," their functions
are not .."rib",,,,, to the community.
The qu.olifu;.o.tion. of the individual> wh<>-a<XOrding to actual
legal ,erminology----are d..ign....d as "organs of ,he community,"
all: of "ari"", kind. They ate determined by nnure. if the legal
order preocribes that cena;" function. IDU" be only by
a man or woman or only by an individual of a <eTtain age, of
pIIl"'kal or mental ht3.1th, or by an individual of u .....in drscenl
(if Ih. position or organ is inhorited). But ,he lcgal order can abo
make certain moral qualifications or 'pecific skilll of an individual
the condition of conferring the function upon him. Of particular
impoTtance ilthe qualification which i. constituted hy the ptovi.
lion ,hat the individnal to bf, de.ignated as "organ" i. to be called
to the function in a definite way detennined by the legal order.
The calling of ,he individual to the function may have a dirrct Or
an indirect character. I, ha, a direct chancter if ,he constitution, a
.tam.., or a norm of ru"omary law rer.... to an individually de-
termined man and ,tipulates tha, a certain function ought to be
only hy this man_for example, il,he historically first
constitution prcocribes: "A shall be the head of .tate: or: "The
Constituent National AMembly .han be ,he a...mbly of people
who a<:m.lIy com'euM at a certain day at a certain place and
actually adopted a definite con"i,ution," The calling of an indio
vidual '0 a certain function hal an indirect chaneter if the
cotutitution, a ltalUte. or a norm of <;U1tomary law rrquir.. a cer-
tain act (e.g,. nomina,ion, elu,ion. drawing loti) by which an in
dividu.l i. coiled to the function and thu. made.n organ of the
leg<ll community. In thi. wayan organ i, crted. But even in the
ea.. of dire<;t calling we .re d..ling with the creation of an organ.
A, hytakingo"or the office of the head of 'tate, e,tablish.. ltim..lf.
Kcording to the con"im,;on. a, the organ provided for by the
constitution. The ....mbly referred to in ,he historically 6rst con
otitution. by adopting this con"itution establi,hes iuelf_CCOTd
ing to thi. coTUtitution-u the Con"it"ent National Assembly
THE STATIC ASPECT OF UW
'"
provided lor by 'he constitution. Di'"", calling of an individual
(or of individuals) 10 a funclion implie. "'If-crca'ion ol 'he organ
concerned.
A minimum of division of labot- i. p.....m If 'he lepl
onlor-".g., a primi'i'.., legal onicr-$tipula'" ,hat cer... in lunc
tion., ouch a' 'he a""..... inmen' of the exi"ence of a d.lict in a
concre,c CaS' and 'he Clt""u,ion ol 'he sanction provided for in ,h.
law, ough, .0 be performed nor by each 01 the individuals .ubjec.
'0 the order. bm only by men of. ccr..in age; 01 if, according '0
existing l.w, a lawcatingcu,tom sh.n be cs'ahlished no' hy the
beh.viot of all individual' subj""t to the o,d... hm by the major-
i,y of 'h"'" who have the lepl ,,"pacity '0 .ct; Of, .g.ln. if accord
Ing to existing bwonly individu.ls who have reached. ce,tain .ge
and are mentally Klund .re c.pable to regula,e thei, mutual
""""omic ,elationships by lepl tnmsactintu, Bo, 'hi' minimum of
labor division which not even 'he mOlt ptimiti"e Irg.1 order can
forrg<>, i. no, '''fficien', a<rrding '0 lepl unninology. to desig.
nate a, "organ'" 'he individu.l' authori,od to perform 'he fone_
tion; nor '0 amibuu their functions '0 'he community. According
'0 'hi> terminology a func'ion i' autihuted '0 a community only
(the individual is an "'organ" only), if the individual i. called-
direcdy or indirectly-'o ti,e lunction,
If the general norm' of a primi'i.... lepl order arc not created
hya lrgi.b'i\"e organ hut hy Costom, and are applied nor by l.w
courU ho' 'he individua4 'hem"'lv.. "'h"", rights had been in
fringed. 'hen .he individuals who colt$\i,uu by 'heir b<haviot' the
law-crcating custom and 'he individual' who apply the Cu.tom
created norm. are not reprded .. "'organ.:' .nd 'heir functions
are no, auribmed to the lepl community. In ,hi, ca;c it i. ",ual
to say 'hal the law is created and applied by ,he individual. them
..I,.. who are .ubjcc'ed '0 legal mrler. One .peak. of "orga","'
creating gcnerall.gal nor"" ."d ol "organs"' applying ,he law only
if all individual or an ....mbly of individual. ha< heen called to
'he function of leg;"a"on and if cenain individoals ha.... been
called '0 the lunction of applying the law as judge>. The lnnctions
ol law crea,ion and law applica,ion arc the same in bo'h in.tance.
Bul only in 'he second ca", arc the individuals petfonning the
lunCtions called '0 'hei' lunetioll. by 'pecial acts.
The legal torminology i. particularly apparen' if technically
Tlt" STATIC AJl'KT OJ' lAW
biply dc.-tlopal Iq;ol ordtt i..... i'u'a a democn,ially
porHammt .... bead of 1UU.. rnmt.i.u,""" ....y Kipubu. that
mmUolly ""'Jld ci.irt;n of a ttnain. anc! f'"'"iot'sly
""'" Iw tbt "". to _e. 1M of I porliamornt
.... a praidmt, .....bliobinc I laW'O'e&tiog orzan, is att tMtttial
pan of tbt protl/dure, and ;. tbnd....e I paru>tl'&,..
kpl fu.not: ...... in the ....now" _01 the """""- DOt
lhe ....",. but the parliamm. or p<aidm. is dncribnl u orpo 01
'he Ra.e; not ,he lunction 01 ,he "Otcr, but .he lunction 01 the
parlw""", or prelidcn. i, deto:ribnl u function 01 the tl'. True.
it i...id .11>, ,he sta'e {.hrough parliamen.} makef II IJld thaI
'he .. (,hrough the pmiden.) i....a dccrea; bUI ooe doeo not
tay lh.. decu ,he parliamenl. although. coolide.ing 'he
contelll of 'he "'>te,', func'ion (as Ilipuilled in the legal order).
he could ,elP.ded as .n organ of the ,tote nO lUI ,b.,n the
I"'rliament or pr..ident by him. although vot..
I"netio" ;u ",..,11 ... funCtio" of or p-r..iden, could
he attributed to ,h.. JUotl'. Th.. diffneoce Ix'wttn th.. fun(lion of
,h.. \'(II"" w, of the elted .....n iJ ,h;': lhe mcmbrt of par.
liamen. or the p-resitknt doa not rn=ly have to IMCt anain
na,u",1 condi,ions (00:, ........tal hohb), but Iw to be called
to bi< functKla by a opecial KC.
This, evidently... abo the ",-by (.) tloe legal tmt-uoru
n:ecutcd by the iDdirid....1I au"-im:l by the legal order (,ha. is,
.he indiyidual Ift'<'T'Il lq.11 .......... a-eatcd by 1epl ,,,,nsac
......) arc not II bans by .he 1"1"1 .........uaity.
bur ar.. """rded ;OS bei", crea,ed by Hprin.u. .. al'bougIo
there iJ a 'endency 10 all bow (cuept in........rional1aw) as
....,.. law and althou&b th....... 1hoo1d. o::tJme<iuendy. alto be a tend
enq to rrgartI. ... stare <>rpm an indiyid....lo ",-1>0 lepl
.",n_.ion" why (I) wh..n lhe 1"1"1 p-roculu", h... '0 be ini.iatM
by a opeci6c act din:.;,ed ,,,,,,.nt i ...... speak in one <::aM: of a
plain,iff. in .ooth.... cu. 01 p"blic (Ihe OCt 01 an
organ of 'he .......).Ithough 'he function. of bo'h a1"C ....nti.lly
'he why (3) inttm.tdon.l bw cr.a,M by c"stOm (C'tl.b-
lilhM by aeu of ....,.) and by '.tI,i... (condudtd by ,\I"') iJ no,
d"",ribed .. I.w by 'he i"'.rna,ion.:o] community bu' hy
the wbjft;.. ol the in.ernational onI",.. n.m.ly 'he indi"id".1
..,.,..; .nd why these individual stat...r. not I"CI"rtIed as organs
'>1
at 1M iJItem"ion1 a>IIUDuni'y in 1M;" lIw-acau"l and law-
appI,in&f"na;"'..
Ilaide tho ooacept 01 ",'!10K criterioa-iJI addition ..,
cnu.ia a>c>d.i JUodl ... IU, nc..-is <ht bel. that <he iDdj.
\idlUl ucd is (dirul./y or iDdirocdy) caUed to f"nctioo
dcwrmiDcd in oM ltpl order, uaditioGal len"in.... alto .......
plop a coocqx of orpn w""",, ailel"lon. in addition 10 U><X
'l.woIifiea........ is" lop(CilK pa-w ........ of t.he individiW who
ancilcs the [UDC'ionJ COII'Do<d. The 00 'l"",li&cd is
called 'aD official"; I,,'.... we will in....ip'c this opec;". 'l....lifi<;a.
<iOIl of "" official." We thtrdou d;"ingui.lJl OfF'" of ,I>< ....'"
who h...." and thOfC "'1\0 have not ,he .....tUS of oI!">r;ial The
"Ioc'ed mcwlxu of a body an organ. 01 the t. but
not .... t. oI&i"1I. Not only Jfgallu,,<.iom in 'h, narrowa "Ill" of
[''''<foaling and [.....-applying [unnions, bu' aha Jaw.oblO""ing
f"n<t;OllJ arc ,,""billed '0 .be .I.:lle and daign.tcd as .., ...... func.
tlon.." if they are ro:nderl by an indi,'idlUl quali6cd .. IUl. offi
cial. FUD<tiom of very dilfc.,m 'l'pet constitute ,h. con...." of the
offici>.I dutia fur which the.e individuals arc ,apo,uibl. TIIq
play an impon..... mle within Ihc ....'" (uDCtion ailed 'lIdmuu...
U1l1;0IL"' ..
So (u :II divUion of lIllor """,no tho.t lunctions CULDOt
,uod...:d I.,. jUOl: aaybody-not by irodividual oubj\Cd 10
Ibe 1IOmIo:lti"" onIrr---Ou. only by 'luali6cd in a
nnair> way bylbe order, and that !uD<tioIt un<kr u..... dr-
CUIDSQQCa;, ,epnkd at rebti""l,. ttIllnlilcd. 10 far. llom.
IiOG 0( labor aad ,diti.e n.nJiutioa coincjcf(." In C>WDRKCl
parbnc:e onI,. ,e\a.;,-dycm'....JW:d funniow are a"ribu,ed CO
COlDIJluniry; only ,cl..i""ly rclllnJized o<K"-'" are daign:ued as
c.ommun;.,. o.pns, and only ,.bti""l,. rcmnlid comm",,,;,i,,, as
"orpniLCd a>m"' .....itia.
I, i. "codf"'110 'cCmptw(u .ll.a....ith rc:spca co.he: problem 0(
cornm",,,i,y 0'K"'" in gt:t'Ie....l. a..d 01 ....tc Ofll"'" in """ic"'la'....c
larg.ly hove '0 dc.l with the co",mon u.. 01 languagc-and 'ha'
'hil u..ge i. no' .I....yl Thi. is on bee.u.. ,he Itltibu_
tion 01 a legally de'cnnincd func,ion '0 .hc legally
community i. only a "",,(ble. 1'01 n<a:s<a.y. me",.l ope....tion.
'Cl PI'- "'I.
.,....
of _nlla,lool ..... -.......... _1,0<1.
'! ',PH'" JOJ 'J! .oJ Apoq
Au. 'OU 'm .0" 'PIl4' ".IOjA"4X1 "''''
JO """""'XI,, 1l,,!X1 'I I""P!A!PU' "''110 A"0"
)0 u'4' ']""P!'lpUI U. JO 4"'P ''1' .""., II! All"'
" .10 PI''1'" JO .IO!A"4X1 ''11 JI "UO!uuO<. JOJ UOI'lpUOJ J'I' 'ou
'I 'O!A"4X1 'PIl.L '<IO!,.ll!lqo u. llU1Ul""'")0 .lqOOOl,OU
P'" lJIPP ll"!ll!tDUlOJ )0 lOU ,." 111 AIl"l"'W ''I' P'"
U>JPI!'1' lng '"opoll!I'l0 uo ,wn"," 0, A'IJoo" ''1' '.'"'1 0' "'1"0
ul UIPP ",!W""'" OJ .l1!J1!dOJ 'A"" "nw'4 pUt ',:re OJ A'I",dOJ
''I' 'A"4 "nw '4 UJ'I'-JJ"'''bx"oo loll'l "<0 "op'"" " .IO!A"'!
'''1 '!4 Aq 1110'1" llu!'q 0, " ''I J' ,"""01 4'14'" '('<10""1"
'!4 .0) 01'" "u!oll, P:>;I'IP "O!lJu.. " JO UOP!PUOO '4' '! .0!A"4Jq
'14 .." "1'''=" "I 'A"'1Jq 0' p.ll!lqo Andol 'I
-!PU! U, Jl "'!"'l""" I""'!.I:> ""pun dn pu"" 'O<lU,," A='1' '!'lL
"]""1''''PI
,oU A"Jod., 1&] P"" "'" 0' A,!:>o<l., '41 AJ0>4' jO"O!'lPU,
''1' 01 llu!p.loJJV '("o"",u,,",,d>J lim",,,,, 1"'11""""') '''''!'''"'U''''
]dJl Aq 01'4' .oJ ..pnp pUt "411!. p"o '''P''P 1I!!I"l "'ljll!,
"I"'x, JI"'IJq '1''1' U! 0'1'" ...d,, 'Ao4 ""w'l"nplA!pu!
=q' """I ll.l'pow 0' llUIPJ= 'II! An',"'Ul pu.
""Pl'4' ',(d""u ,po 0, A,pl!d1tJ
0' P!""'I 1""PlA!PU' A"'A' ,OU mg """I u"'pow "pun "I'"
0' 0".....,'.1' ....ptlS-A'IJod., loBo] 't"'1 "'l'" 'I'"
'PlAIP"1 :"lmp P"o "'Ill!, JO ,,,[qn,,'11 "I """ (""P!'IP"! "om,,'1
A""",, 'A=ql "'.. ''''"I """pow "p"n ""!'''P P"" "'Ill]>
jO ':I'q". '4' "I 01 .10 """P Idol puo "411,. 0' 1""PlAlpul
u. JO A,!Jod., '41 A,podoJ ]oBoI .. ""."ll!"p .uo,'1'
"O,......
.ur.lVdv:J "tvo:., ",'
,:uclllo" JO ,,uJUOJ ''11 JO JJ"","", "1' JO lluIPUO"
-"P"" "" Aq,,], P"" 'A'I""wmoo 108>] 0' "o,,'u"J 0 S"I
""'Illll" "I "'"1"'0' 4"1'1'" '1'1' JO 'J""",,, '4' JO SUIPUO"
'''pu" UO AIUO " "'01 JO lI{J!>1tUloo 0 JOJ
-uo11...><Io 1","'1ll '!4' JO P!" ,no'l1!'" PJqUJO:Ip "I uOJ "OIl
om!, ]1!lb1 "A'!<I"WUlOO ]&] 0\ p>1"q[Jl1" XI 'lOu P'J"
''''1 ,,(ow "o"Jun] "! :All"nwwoo ''I' JO u,ll.lO "" .. PJlOU
.ll]..p "I 'lou 111'1 'Aow ]"UP!'lpUI llU!UllOJlJd-lKI!l:>U"J
1I\Y1 .L:>:l4SV OU.V,U
."
'"
punisMd, tbm lhe punislulblc <!diet is Do< oM killin, of 1M indio
ridual. but the viob'ior\ 01. oM fattw:r. duty to suptni the child
and 10 PfC"'"'" Ui an,itocial beha'ior of oM dUld. 1M of
the child Of mmt1l1y ill, wbkh. il uhibiud by indirid",,1
apobk of aaiJ>K. CIDlUti,uta l.bo 01_ of murder IIIUrdn.
1Mchild and thr mIlaU, ill do .... ho.", thc du.ieJ oonsti.
lUted by puni,'.., laftCliono !>a1Ut <!Iti. bthayior is no< thc <'Ondi-
.ion of. punl,;..., ..nc'ion-b<a..... u...,. CUlnot bmavc in a ""y
w. can brin!: abou punitive ..netion; .hq MC .... ClIp;lblc of
OOfDrai,.ing iklia (a,.. no< for tOn). and in thi.
""''''''p''blc of .,ing.
Thi.. howeve<, d_ niX Kf1l> '0 apply to dclicll whic;h a,.., Coo
lIi,u'cd by. finc or dvil execution. For these ..netion. COfl"" in a
dcprivat;on of Ul<:U, p&nicularly of proper,y; and. llCcord
ing to .he n.di,ion,' 'heory. an individual incap"blc of acting ,till
an have prop"", righ... He /Ill' no acting capacity, bu' he II....
legal as-;ity. H...,., . child or in.." .. individual i...id to be the
OWMl" of hou>e .nd ill f"rni"'ing>; if 1M pr<Iptny ..." not
paid. civil """"""ion may bt di.t:CIed into tht propt", 0( the
individual. From th" one might dcduu that the indiri,h..l in
capable of:oning. il he an be the oubjcc< or pn>pmy rights, an
aloo be the ... bjcc< of .... obIiption to poy the ",open, tn. By
.... I&m<' n2SOIllinl an indhridual incapoble or aain&o could. il he
"rqankd:u the ... b;.. of P""Pfttr lights a' all. alto be reprded
.. the oub;.a 01 all obl.ip.,;.- ooost.it"ud br ciril ouno
,m
if only dtaI individual ;" to be the oub;"
01 a obliga.ion w..... br his own beha";"...." 1"lfill or <rio/;l'e
<he obligatioll_nd il the oblip.ion un only be or rio-
laud br the ..ti.--hm the IlIbje<' at the obIiption u
,he tep'"..."...ive. not the individual in",poble of acting. From
,he lac. tha. the l.t,er individual can be the ...bjt of prop-
er" tights could only be deduced that he i' liable for the vlob'ion
of fin.>nci.:tl obligation. and 'hal he con be li>.ble-int<lfar :u hi.
rep.eltlll.tive i' a"thori,<>nly with
hi' property. not with hil perlOn. If we ...."mc 'hat an incop-
able individual cannOt be 'he rubjee. of legal oblig:nion, and
tha' an individual ;. the wbj. of. filW>Cial oblip'ion onlr if he
has to fulfill the obligation from hil own propm.r (il ..e. there
,ro
T...I: ITATlC ....1'Y.Cr OF U ..
must to ngard rn( nprCM'.......in u the ...bjm cl
obliption). ibm ... 3K conltorutd ..it.b :on obligation "'lbout a
wbjta. lor _boot nonlulfillmm. ,1M: Icpl up, .........,;.... is liable
only with hi> pcra>n. not .'lh his property. Tradi.ioII&l tbearT
m .... 10 repro lhor rqorarnuti,... at <be oubjca of the <>blip......
wt>;dt he hao ... fulfin from <bc p<Up<f1J 01 the indiridoul ,,-hom
hoe .... aDd which he an "io!au by """'luILllln...... On lbe
other hand. u.. thtor'j' .Umlptt to .-oid ,he ..... "''''Ion 01 :on
obIiplion w,thou.....bjca.OT"Jl>e theory rqards ,he
'''''''pable <Jl arti"ll ao .he lubjf:a of <be oblill"Uon. which mnnl
, ... , the obligation i"rit.>uled '" .hill iDdividuJJ. The obligation
wl10lc co",.." u ,I>< bth,,'ior 01 ,he "'l'rnrnta'i .... i u.ibmed 10
,b. r.p,.....,m... llldhidu.I, beau,," i, is '0 be lulfillO<l from the
properly which. acrordinll' '0 ,rodilion,l,hcol)" i, the property of
,h. Individual oml not of d,. rcpr...ntativc; and beGa".. ,h.....e_
lion. in case 01 nonfullllhncnt, i, directed into ,bi. 1'f<>pr'Y' Tha,
i. '0 .. y: Th. rcptorn,o.;v_..umi"8 tl.., ,b. p'op<r., con-
ccTned it in'<'rptc,td ... bl.lollging.o .he individu.>l_h:u '0 ful61l
.he obliga.ion f.... the ,ndividual, ilia. i.. in hii inll"Q<: for the
by fulfilling obIiga.ion, awi'" tile {orr,hl"
depri''3Uon of prop<'f1y COIUiIkr<d to Ix:long to tile individual.
pr-ibilit, of rqarding lho: obligation as being tile oblilPu-
01 tile indiridual ii boo<d. therda<e, on tho: of ropnling
tha. individual as the ...bject of ri3h....
If by ... ullOkn<ood 1Mkpll""""'" tha. it. tile Dlp_d.,..
l<Ikn<d upon an individual by .he lopl order to -.... by an
acl..... tho: fulli.llDKn' of a lepI oblip'..... thaI anoth.". individual
has toWard him, then the individual incapable of Kling callnoc
h,,,.., a righ.. roo- he ...... IlOl ha"" Ihis <ap>ti,y. Only hif WlIU""1
rcpreomlati.., h:u <hi. capaci.y. Upon tho: la,,.,,., not upon 'he
d\ild <w the in.."" .......he lopl ordeT confer .hi, legal po"......
8m he is obligat<d '0 O'er, ,hi, l'O"'er ill 'he ,mere" of tt", r"p-
reteIl,ed individual. In .he case of ptoperty righ....he oblilP'ion.
wh_ violl,ion can Ix: .''''Tled in COut, by ,he 'la."wry "p""
",n'.'h", are obliga'io". ,owlrd the "pr""'''la,i"e who i, cn,itl.d
'0 di,l""" of ,he proper.y. All o,hen." oblilJ:ated '0 'olerlle thi,
diopooition, .ha..... IlOl W prc'o'ent or otM,.,.'i", 10 in'pair i.. But
,he rtp''''''''to.in i. oblilPt<d '0 dilJ'O'" or the pros>erty only in
-a. pp. ,1.1
T1U< .....ne ....u:T OP lAW
,',
""" ""tt<:>< of tht .epr-.lW individ....l. eopccUlly '0 yield the
1IX CIt C1llWUmpOoa 01 tht P'opn-'y to the individu.>1
to obt: ""."'" 01 """ la,,,,,,', abili,y, III <2M: 01 a claim .. the TdIa
01 .... oI>Iiptioa to p<1'fCltlll IOII>cthiJ>&. the Iw to be
Tmdn<d to <he .optnt'nu.ivt. bu' be is oblip",d 10 Ji'l' tho up-
raeatctl iodiridual tho beodi. of tho pnfonIlan,l' is boollX 01.
theM: limiutioos, impolCl1 "pon ..... n'pnsctlu'ivt...... """ uadi-
........1 theory don ..... ' .......i1c him .. "'" wbjea of .be righu
Q)O<nncd, bu, a",ibu.to them to tho individ....l. If. hown. the
concqx of is ..... as lop! pow. In" .. a lcplly
pro',..lod in"",no, 'hm it i. indNd poooible to regard 'ho individ
....1. in ...hooc in"'ra< .he reprcocnutive cxcrcUn ,Iw: lcpl POW"
,onloncd. upon him... ,he ...bj,.., "I tho righ,....i,loou, any fu;.i.
,iou. a"ribu,i"n .nd the,dore OJ having 1"&,,1 Cl?"",y. liow..-.
the d.finition "I ".ight" II' leg.lly p,,,toctcd. imerto' i. no, ,"c
pubic. [or ,he rca,,'". h...e " ..cd..
If an. h<>lda '" tltc vic... ,hat only 'hit individual i.legally "bli.
""od to behave in a =uin way wlw> by huown "llpoti.. be,,"vior
can viola", th<: obliga'ion and by hia ""-0 conlo.-ming behavior-
CIlI fulfill ,be obliga,ion and th...-.fOtt m.... ,,",.., ,he capacily to
a.et; UKi thal, funhn. a ,,,hl, as a opecific lcpl pow",. can be con-
renod oaly upon an iodividual who Iw the capaci.y to aa..'1om
the obIipt...... :r.ad rip.. ClTl be in<nptet<d_ithout
6c.itiotK .. as obIiptiow and risflu of obt: Icpl
r-epraenutivc. who. bow....... m.... "&Ifill CIt cxntio< them only in
tlw iOlo:nsl 01. the r<pram,od individual. or the _.ype an' tho:
obIig:o.iono and riJ;huCr<alod by Iqpl <nm;onion.. which tlw T"P"
l'Uft<u,i'-e p<1'fonru on ...... If of. the r-epr.,...,ted individual. U
,he obIiplio... and ri;hu. boollX of 'he li...i...i.... impolCl1
upon the rOpTCS<nuliv... ue noI in,...prncd as his obIipuons
and ,,,bu. ,bm lhey can only be regarded as obIip.iono aDd
,ighu wi.h"", a .ub).... P,tc;"ly in Older .0 a.oid thi. con...
qu.nce doa .heory allribu.. 'hem '0 ehe rcp.....med
individuaL Thi. attribu,ion "'p.cocn.. a mon,.1 OI"'T1lion an.l,..
go". '0 .hat wi,h whkh a funclion determined by 'he legal order
performed by an indi .. idual i. attributed ,,, ,he legal con,munity.
The dilf......cc be,"'.... Ihem i, that the I'''.r function i. at-
,eibuted '0 a (''''''eby p<TIOTIillod) communi'Y. the formtr 10 an
individ....l. Sta'utory repr<ttn",'ion aDdOTg"D funaion u. rcl.,od
".
TIll: STATIC ASPECT OF <.Aw
COIleep". An individual i. S,"do<! a. organ of ,h. community be-
<.aW<: the .itua,ion i. prcsentN llJ ;/ the c<>mmunity would pe...
form ,h. function which ""ually i, perlormtd by ,h. individual;
and an individual i. regardod as a "1""'11I.,,,1'"0 of ,he individual
inoop;lble of acting, ,h.. ,;'notion i, pre",n,ed .... il ,hi.
individual, while not by bim""lf. but through the Icprwmtati".
could fulfill obligation. and "",.rd.., rights: AS if he. while nut per-
5OIla1ly. but through hi. statutory rep,..,ota,;.,., could conduCt I.,.
gal 'mn;actioru creating obligation. and rights which arc hiJ
obligation. and righU. The attribution of the funion of ,h.
OTgan to the wmmonity, ju.t as the attribution of the function of
'he rep",...,u,;ve to the rep"''''n'oo individu.l incapable 01
acting. is a lie,ion. for ju"," it i, no' ,he community, but the in.
dividual designated a. organ, "" it i, no< the individual. but hi,
representative, who displaY' the legally rele.. beh"ior. Only
with the aid of this fiction can the community be regarded ., an
acting: penon, .nd can the individual inc3p>ble 01 acting be te
garded a, haYing the capacity to act and thereby., haYing legal
capaci'y.
In addition to ,talUtory repr<:$<nuuion 01 the indiyidu.ls incapa.
ble of acting, a r<:presem3tion of indiyidu.b capable of acting ex.
iou, <:>tabl ished by legal tnn:<a<:tion (contr.ctual represent3lion),
It i, dilfe...,nt from the former in that, in 3 concre'e ca,e, i' i. no'
mandatory. d.,.. no< tllke place directly by law (a. the 'tll'utory
representlltion in which the child', father or a gu",di.n per.
form. func,ion. d<:>ignatrd "representation" for the individ-
ual) bu' it is optional, created by a legal .ransaction. By thi. tran..
..tion an individual C3p3ble of acting .utllOri,.. another indiyid-
ual to fulfill certain obligotions, to exei", certain rights,
cre.te obligation. and rights by certain legal
transactions for the former, With ""'pect to legal transaction.,
direct and indirect "'p",,,,ntation a" som<tim<:s distinguished.
Representation i. cbameteri,ed a. indirect when the oblig3lion.
and rights created by the legal transaction of the repf'<'SCntllth'e at
Ii,.,t become hi. obligotions and rights and are ,hen, by a further
legal transaction, tra",rened by him to the authoriling individual.
Howeyer, ,hi. i. no< representation in the ,pecific sense, beatuIC
there i. not attribution_neither of the act of leg.1 '",nsaction nor
of the obligation, and rights eated by the a.. to the 'Ulhorizing
"".!:tIro f! 1! lJ r_ll>l :>III "",n'!II<IOO ....!'.p' _'! 11
UI 'J.:>IlIO p...<Wl U!<lJ:D '" '! ....
U! 'I."P!A,P"! U"",'I':>q Iltlu _ '<II' 'IIO!I
,.Sll'10 .'Il"'. '! ''1SI' '<Ill I",.", ''IS!, puo "Ol,d!l'!o
JO ,,ll"IPu<>d,,.uO''U ,(.." .. j."o!'!po.L' "1 POO''''P''''
"l'lS!,,, pu, ..uopeill'1O" 'PiON. ''I' ..) 1'18"
-J03. puc lKI!ldll'!O ". ""'''1><1 1IO!'OI" >ou I! "!'1'
P"-JO I'IS!, 8ulpuod= JO P"" ""!lei!!'I" U.
JO ",,",MPq "! 1'"'11 IdbJ 1IM1>!'d!lqo JO nduo:n 0' ""!'
f! ..UO!l<PJ .d>(., JO >d.uo:l OJ !u!p.oo:uv
"OU..-n'l! "lY:lTl 'I'lL '.$
"lJII" OJ
-U, "'I ,,!dAp td>[ la,..cq R .udd. "'!'l: "1.... Ol.up.JO
"! 'qIll OJ ""!1....,.". '11O!'!l"'J :aQljA
IID!ln...-.-b. Wln'nI 1" """" :>Ill OJ ""!1"U!lf!puIl1W "! 'uo!'
-nIl!-'-". JOI lIOIUl OU "'! >.I:>Il.1. -n",,", puc "",!,<i!lqo
"""'fI JO 01 XI 01 "'p><> O! PO 01
'Acq ltnID .""PJA'P"! "'l/lo "!'" :UO!I:>a"...., :>Ill
o>,nn oq", 0"'11 1:>1110 JO "",E>J:>". "q!!-'-
puc IUO!ldn'i0 II"!"" 1'1 .110 '! "''1'0''0 '0 SO!ld!!'!o
U0fI"'CI"UI loll>j V 'lu-..:l "''110'''' S"tlY'U>q '0 ll",,<i!lqo ,>U,
.""" .'0 1I"I""!"-..:I 'l1O!l""'''UI ,oll>l 0 lO Inq ..UO,'OlIl..,m,,,
JO 1I0xll IOU PI""'" ""'1' 'InO!,!"Y I. " "O!I"'1!"
'10 '1'I'll 'p;IJ!''''l"I"' ''1' 118no.t'l' p;lI'. >;I,!JO"'''. :>IlIl! I'< 1,...
II"" O! p>q!;l)UP ".1l""J :>Ill}! 'ljUO ,u;llJJd I! PJOM JO-
,g!dl Ul ""!1n""""u1'l1 '(lodp"IJd J<[I) JJZ!JIMl1n. :>Ill
1'1 p;If!:;IQJQ XI 'A!lnll:>l>JCbJ'<[1 JO OOlI,,",UUl 1d>1'<[1 !q
p;I'<>J:l tlljl!" :>Ill p". p;lI.....!A 10 p;lUYlnJ XI """ JA!I...UJDJd"
><r' JO UO!''ftoUl [<ll>] :>Ill J.q p;l1<>J:l'I>O!Id!lqo :>Ill I"", 01'1""
""P!'"!J'lIl l"ll!JlMlln.:>Ill JOI I>OP 14>11J!P 'M<] :>Ill OJ !u!p.>O)
..". ""l 'UO!l"'!-'O"Pn. "" II' IJft'I ap 110 PJ'lIUOp>d '''''!P'''IlUl
rd>1 ap """.. 1UJD.>d f! UO!l..........xb.o l>OJ!U ""'!'l: 01 po.u;>JI'ftD
I.... 1""P!A!PO! :>Ill 01 ""''''lUI'. tit""!'
"'!""J lOll .... UO!uam.q "'II plOlOJ> tlqB!l ptII JlIO!ld!rqo
:>Ill ptII '1""!'fA!P"! .Iq _ "P""<!.IOl{ln. :>Ill !q
p;IUUOp>d I'< f! ",,!1:>nU<.n (llll>l "'U. I"'P!"P'"
$!l' ......... .13lt... :>Uv.u :nu
'..
TtlI' ITATIC ASrttT OF LAW
a ..,1lI,;"" bnWtt:ll ind"id....r., lhnIl.he traditional ddinitioa is
_ ....IT_....... tho: lopl ordtt aablish<:o DOl ""I, rda'iono bt-
kpIwbjcca (in tIK I""'-',ional......., of ,lie wonI). w, ...
he<>eho.rioo"" oblip1Olr1. bu.. 3100
he<WftIl .,.,., indirid....l who is authoriltd 10 "' t a nom> and
.notbn indi"iduaJ who i. au,'-ized to apply lbis : and aloo
bn...,""" one iDdi"idual who is au,horillrd to emile or apply a
nom> and an individual who ,. obIip\.ed or by ,hi, """,,.
Such legal ttLa,1on' oilo<, For example. t...wttn .he Indi"iduah
luthoriRd to aa,e norm, and ,he indi.idual. luthofilCd
'0 apply .hem as b,,,ween I..'.!olive <>t'g'ln, and judAa or admin-
i"n,;ve o<gam; but 1110 bttween .he judges and ""mini'trolliv",
organo on the on. hand, and th. ,ubj"",. obligoted and .",ill"" by
,he norm' "",ated by 'he 1'1"1",,,,, orgam; and allO !>t,,,,,,"" 'he
individHI' authori.cd 10 cauu the <orrei," acto ."d ti,e indio
vidual' against whom Ihe condre a<l> OTt directed.
Tnd'.'""al ju,i,pnJ<lcncc diKinguiJII.. p'i....t. and
po.blio: lopl ttlations and >en 'he dif(ettllCe in tha' 'he one "a
.ellliort betweoen eq""b and che otltn a relallon between a IUpeT_
lor and an inferior (between m ... and .uhje<l). Tradilional t""'"r
e-ridencly hu <he dilferen irt mind that in one UK !he .([:lIion
u .... bnWttR <he ...bjen 01: art obligation and <he ....bjen of a
corraponding 'ish.. and in tM oIiteT cue bnWftft an individual
rocreate ... apply a lepl norm and an indiyidual obli-
pled ... entitled by 'his norm. If dot indiriduals authorized ,..
nQ"'''' apply kpl normn: Ieplly obIipled CO <:lleIriM: tbti..
function and thu. lie allO lepl subje<:u (in <he tr.o<li'innal
........)-which. howev<:r rteN nOC be che UK and ftC'W io ,Ilt caoe
for legillalOn------lhen, ,Ilt rela,iQn.s betw",," lhese indiyiduals and
'he individual. oblipcM ... en'itlttf by the norm created .".
applied by 'he former, ICe indeed al'" ",la,lon' bet......" legallUb-
jecu; however, 'hese relatlonl lie, p.im...ily, rel.,io,," between "'i>-
jecu 01: oblig."io,,_be,,"....n, th.. is, .ubjecu of 'he ..i"" tn
",ea'e or apply legal norml and .ubjecu of 'he obligalion, enab.
Iilhed by ,h..., norm.; and. second..iIY"re ,hey rel.clOnl between
'he .ubj"'.. of 'he obligation '0 a ....... or apply log.! normnd
'he IUbjec.. of .he tigh.. eo,ablillled by chDe nornu; and 'hese
ngh.. are oot rellex.. of lbox obligation. (t""l II, ,I.. <>hi,.
THE STATtC ASP"""" OF L\W
'"
ga,ion, of the OTga", In erealO or apply 'he legal norn,,), but
reftexe> of the obligations e"ablished by ,he'" nonn,. Besjd...
in thi, case we cannot ,peale. of a relation between ,uperion
and inferiol"$, bec.""" the norm<reating or applying individ.
u.ls (as subjecu of the obliV"ion to create or apply legal nonm)
are on the same let'e! as the mbject> of the obligations or righ",
e..ablir.hed by these norm. This i. panicularly true for relation.
in to th. 'radition.1 formulation_.he "ate ..
thubject 01 a l<'g.l traJt.la<:tion. for ex.mple a, buyer or ..,11...., i.
confronted by private individual_if the oct 01 one 01 the Iwo
panner, iJ .mibnted to the sw. as a "juristic penon:' Oniy in
the ex.rei", of a legal pow.r. tha' is, in ,be creation or application
01 norm. could indi,idu.h be colUidered a.< .uperior to tho.. wbo
are obligated or en,itled by the nOmJ' croated or .pplied by the
othen. However, "superior"'o .ho", obligated onti.led by the
nOtm. aro m.rely th. obligation'e>tabli,hing and rightestablish.
ing norm" not the norm-c",ating or -applying individual" becau",
the", ,hem..,lve. aro .ubject to the 1eg:>1 order, namely to du'
norm. authori,ing their funCtion.. It i, to be noted th.. by pre.
",ming individuals '" "inferior" to the norm. of the legal order,
and .h. norms", "superior" to the individuah. we employ a figure
of speech which m.rely .xpr...... ,h.. the norms of th. legal order
comnullld, au,horiZ<. or JX>Silh'ely permit the behovior of indio
vidu.h_that ,he norm. of the l.gal order h,,'e the beh.>vior of
individual. '" ,hei. conlOnt>. If the figure 01 .pch is taken liter
ally. a relation bet"'een th. l<'gal order and individnal """'" '0
exist. who.. behavior is de'ermined by ,h. nOnn' of ,he legal
ord.r. However, no ",lation can .xist between a nonn and the
httman behavior ,hat i. i" content, breau", lh. norm and itt con
tents lorm an indiviSible unit.
From the point 01 view of cognition directed to,"".rd the law_
that is, towaro legal norms--reb,;orts betw'en individual ...e not
at i"ue, but only r.btion. betwe"" legal norm. (cr.ated or ap-
plied by Individual.) or be'we"" facts determined by the legal
norm" among which buman behavior repr"""" only one .pecial
ca.., albei. a very important on. For th, COnten' of legal nonn. i.
not individnal., btlt th.ir behavior; il i. not human beingo, but a
cenain httman behavior and no, only this behavior but al", other
I""" in connection with human behavior. Th;, i, recognized in
U"M'",! uOI,ol>J ''1' .0 ""u"" 'w.. "1' U! UO!,ol>J I"s,r jH'Ind.. 0
'I P""'!P'! ""!"'O ''I' W0'l'" lonp!A!pu! p;>,cll!rqo ''1' puo
,n. 0' .,."lOd I"s,( ''1' 'I'P" P'l<>AU! tOnp!A'PU! ''I' UO"
01>1 ''1' "''1'0 ''1' "" PA>l 'w.. ''1' " uOII,ulp.lOOJ pu. PU"'l'lIO
'q' uo UOI'O")p.1OqUS P"O tlO""U!P-IOJ>d,,. o=.\t'>II >J""'ll!P ''1'
"0 "". '''01'"1''"' 1"s,1 ,,",,!,d puo "lNnd """""'1 >J"'''ll!P ''1'
, ...J '" ,nil ..uo,q, rOUOl"plU,,(q "" ....,d.. '0 p>,.uS!t>p ""P"I"
1"8>1 I"J)d'(, ''II '! II 'uO[",u" ''II ,oJ '''O!I'PUO' "p.oo IVbI
'II' ill P>,"uJl!"P ''''"j 0"" """"""1 "01'01'" ''l' '! '!'1l.. (U!I'P
,ql) p>1J!p 'J """'u,, 'Il' 1I"11'" .IO)A"4><1 ''1' puo
(un)"" '41) ""MOd IVb] '"4' JO "P"x, '4' tI! "'!<Un:> '"'l'
JOfAOq><l ''II U"""><l trol'.r"''l' lnq '''.'''"''04 'UO,,"1
.;u '!l(J.. 'IOnp!A!pU! p>,cll! Iqo ''1' PU" J,.\too l"s,r ''1' '1'f'" p>'<>A
UI ,"np'A[p"! '4' """><J "lx,,""P ""f'"I"-' ,,,s,1 """" '"'1' UJ
uo!lcllHqo "'I p.[OIA '"4 0'1." l"np!AlpU! "1' ,,"!cll" P;>>:>"!P >:>"" ''1' lIl1!
"pID [[Uou r"lIp!A!PlI! uo unOJ 0 "q lIu!n,,! 01 'JOp>xud
o 'UO!''''' r"8>r" "'I 0' ""'00 r"s,1 ''1' .,UllOlll U!'"
-=" u, 'A"4><1 0, p:llcll![II0 '! r"npf'!pu! ""II"'U" m04'" p.l""''''
I""P"'PU! U" '" "'AUOJ "1"0 {8i>r''l' >s"" U) ',u""w '!'l' :1"0'"
'II' JO ""u"" 1""!U4"'" "!I'''''''' ''fl UI l'lll!' " JO """" "1' "! "!X'
s>op-sl"lIPIA!PlI! 0"" JO JO!"oq><l P>U!UJJ"'p-,,,or ''fl u""><1
'''Il:lio, >JOW 'JO--1I"np!"!p"! 0"" ""\1><1 uo,,"!""' lol!>( V
..,"x' 'IIl1!, ""IF" lIl1!puod""oJ ''I' pu-. ,(Inp 1"s,1 " u"""
uOP'p' ou ''''J'''IIl.. 'P"1I91nJ "'l "''''I mo'l'"
rHO",,,, l"np!"!plI! ''1' JO 'lI!od""I' ''1' UIO.lj uo 'no!,cliH'IO
rcli'r ''1' 'IUO '! ''I1I1' ''Il.. ..nonlJ.l>dn, "'moo:>q '411"
JO ,dOluo, ''1'-'"1''' ''1' 10 uopollHqo '41 'I'!'" 1""!"IOP!
'! 'uO ''1' 10 11111!J ""U', '11' "1"0'" J>'I1O UJ '-"'U""W lI!mJ>J
ul 10'9 ''1' pJ"."OI ',''''l><l 01 p"ollnqo " ,"np["tp,,) "'1'0 'J'I'
'''1' lUll xp lI"!'I'OU .1.. '''UU"UJ p>lcll!lqo '4' u, w''I 1""."",
'''"4''''1 Pluoll' ""P ApO<PlllOl '"'I' "'I ,(PO'PWOil
'ql "U"">q JO '" ID!"Oq>q P"1cl![lqo 'Il' lIl1!]""
A'l P>"I.!-OI">P "llU'PIlJUi ,," "'0' 1U.l!>t "1' "noJ
.", Oil '! .u.mou'4d IU"""I""' ,(1108>1 'IU>J'JI!P 0.", 11>'''''>q
IIOP"I" ... '11'!X' ''''!llJP' \08>, Ou ,.., '!II' U! 'rx!",d 'J,.,
.>l0H x.u" "! pur uo".lI!lqo 11>,"',
-""I 110""1" .....u,,!'"p] rcll>1., jO UO,,!U9'1' '41 U! ,,,8>p 'woo
....Y> '-0 .endS>' 'u.n, a,,-'-
",'
na .UTI<: .....u:T OJ' LAW '67
"""n funcliOlline U ill> orpn 0( the stne aod the obIip<ed
individual Foo- u.. lopl pow 0( the indiridual eD'itlfd lO brine
an action.:opinst indi,-idual <..... jot. 0( his capaci,y lO par-
licipone in the era....... 0( the individual ......... which orden a
-u- "I"insl: oblipcloa-violating individual. II ,he fUDC-
tioa of the 0>Un is auribu,fd lO ....'" aod [f, thedo<e. the
$i,....tioa is inte<poeted u tdatioa bnwem oM .... in iu capacity
u lopl authority and the ddendan....b;.am lO this authority.
wbich IJICUIJ U a rda""" of "'per. and ...bordi...""". 'htn-u
pointedou._the flitloCtioro of tht plainLiI c.JD be in the
ame .....y. Aluibu,ion of the legal fuoctton lO ,h. lopl commu
ni" oll,rely exprnses ,he Wt this uDetion is de'ermined by
the lepl order. The of .uperordinati"" and .ubordi...-
t;on 'ha'. according 10 tnditional theory. exist. hcrc bttween the
.... ,. (reprCTItcd hy tht Iun) and the ddend.Jlt, .110 exists
between the plaintiff .nd 'ht deendonr. Thi. reladon o super.
nd .ubomi"'''ion is mer.ly ,lit ....per.nd subordination ex;"ing
beI....n the legal ord.r .nd th. individual, w"- bcha.ior it
l"t'gUlateo-b.ncc nothina; b,n a ligun'i"" nprcalon for tht bet
Utal the behavior of the individuau fonns the tonten' of the legal
ItOnDJ. The authority in this figure of is the
nborilyof ,he IepJ <>rdft" which, crn<ed and applial XDllI11ing
to ito "'"' prtapU by ocrtllill individ...l.. obIip1et and enti'les
othet iDdi..idua1s. If the 10'" is prnm<ed '"' ...perordinatcd 10 the
individual. this -.tly .....nt WI iadiridualo '" c.pns of the
... create 2nd apply __wMch the bdtarior of othet
indirid.,'" IIwI whid!. *J>OCikally. obIig:... Olbtt" indi..idualo 10
behav. in. cctQin ....y. If aprascd without the U$t of lhc spatial
fiaure of speech: this 1Mt.ly menu tho, "'.lopl Iltdtr OOmnina
be" by which lopl .-nu are crn<ed tho.' connta a ettUin
human b<ohavioo: OJ condilion ...ith CttUin conei... lICU al conse-
quenc.
A Itpl rclati"" of a *J>OCial kind exi... whcr. ,h. obligation of
on. individual towa<d anothtr il conne<;tm. hy the l.w, ..-;th the
oblig.tion "f I.u.... toward the ormCT. Thi' i' 10, for .....
in a contr'Ct of laic the obliga,ion t<> deliver certain goods
\a 'ied to th. obligalion '0 p.o.y th. purch.. pric. Thcn a legol
:lation ""iota belw..n the norm th., obligat.. Ih. bu,..,. and the
nonn Utat obligat'" ... or, corr..,tly. bt,,,-ecn the la...
d.t.m,ined heha"iar of lh. On' and lh. law-d.,.rmined boha,'ior
01 lhe olh..,..
Paran.ling lh. tI,co'l' that lhe right is a legally pTOtoc'cd inler_
e". i. the tllCO'l' that lhe legal "Iatinn i. an actual relalionship of
a sexual. oconomi<:, Of political nalUre, exilling independenlly of
the legal ottl..,. in "",ial te.nty, and meuly regulated but not
constimwl by the legal order. Howe.'er. ju '" the ",hjeetive
right is not .n inler"" prolected by leg.1 no,,",. but lhe prutec_
,ion tha, consi", in ,he.. legal nom", in the ",me way i. lhe legal
.el.tion not an aetual relalion existing in "",ial reality, only re&ll'
lated by legal non"" but a relation primarily co""hutw hy legal
nonn._ The Ieg"dl rel ..ion of matrimony. for eumple. i. nOt a
cr.>mpl"" of sexual and onomic relation, between tWO individual.
of different""" me,ely .h.ped into a .pec.ific form by bw. Wilhout
law the", ,imply i. no .uch lhing as "m.trimony." Mdtrimouj'" a
legal ,elation i. a legal inllilntion, ,hal is to say, a compln of legal
obligation. and right.> in Ih
e
'pc<:ific.ally lhnical ",,",e thi.
mc:uu, a complex of legal nonn. Th. relalion, lh., CO"""," '"
here .te rel.tio", bo'ween legal norm. or reladom hetween ac"
determined by legal norm>. For a c"Snilion ditceted 'oword lawaI
a system of norml, no other legal relalionl exiM. But aho fTOm ,h.
poin, of ,-iew of a cognition dirted toward actual teality it mtUt
he admitted that by bw_and this me:uu by the idea that men have
of a legal order p...... ppo:!ed to be valid-actn.1 r.lation, botween
individuah o<n be crealed, which. without .uch an idea a' a mo-
ti"e of behavior, did not .nd could no, exi .. ,
33, TirE LEGAL SUBJECT; TItE p D . $ O . ~
,,) The Legol Subied
Accotding to traditional theory legal ",bj= Uhe who i, the ,,,b
joel of a legal ohligation or of righl. If by "right" (RerecM;_
gung) i, Unde"'oOO not the mere reOn rigbt. bnt lhe legal power
to ...-er' (hj' laking. legal aclion) the fulfillment of a leg.1 obli.
gation. lbat i. ,he legal power to p;U(icipate in lhe cte.tion of a
judicial decision w",tituting an individual norm by which ,he
nution of a "oclion a' It'action 'gain" the nonfulfillmenl of
an obligation i. ordered: and if one ",hI into con.id""ation th.,
,he ."hjcc' of a legal power torre.te Ot apply legal norm, i, by nO
STATIC ASPECT OF LAW
'"
mean. always designaled as a .ubjea, lhen it i. <;<Invenient to
coniine concept 01 "legal .ubjen" to the .ubj..:t of a legal obli
gation and to diffeTentia" !>ttwun concept of "mbj":l of a
legal obligation" fr<:>m th.t of ".ubj..:t of a legal power." To the
extent that in traditional legal Ihe fun<.tion of <Te.ting
and applying legal nonn. i. attributed to legal community,
concept ".ubjecl of legal powcr" and 'he concept "legal organ"
It i. to be noted th>! bj' ,tatenlCnt th.t "an indio
vidual i' subject 01 a legal obligOlion or h a leg.l obligation"
i. only meanl that a beh.vior of thi, indi"idual i, 'he cou
tent of a ohligation .nd th.t hy 'he
that "an individual i. mbj""t of a or "an individ
ual hoa a legal pow"'," i' onlj' meant lhat. to Ihe
order, leg.1 norm' ore created or applied by certain act; of this in
dividual, or that 'cl' 01 thi' individual participa'e in the
<re.tion or application of norllt. As before, a
cognition dirtttffi toward legal ltonos is concerned not with
individuals 1'''' se, bot with legally action. which
lorm the 01 thel.g.l norms, When we say: "An individ
u:>J,.s a legal organ, e",a'" or la,,", an individual. as l<'gal
,ubj""', oheys or law;' 'hen this language
merely expr...... the function.l difference between the two diff.r
ent of legally human beba>'ior. The
<;<Incept> of "Ieg.l .ubjec" .nd "legal org.n" H nol ....,y
concept> for the dco<rip'ion of a legal order. They are m=ly aux-
iliary concept> lh. concept 01 r.lfex right-facilitate ,h.
dcocription. use i. permi..ible only if one iwarc of thi.
lh.ir nature. To aw.k.n thi. aw.rene" i. 'he task. of 'he Pu,e
Theory of Law. IIlh. Pure Theory .mploY;! ,h.,., il ;"
done only in the SCn", here dcocribcd.
Ju"," tr.dition.l ,heory "'ight" ahead 01 "obligation:'
so i' regards the leg.l ,ubj""l primarily .. a .ubjea 01 righ" and
only ",conduily., a ",bj""t of legal ohliga,ion. In German legal
lheory, which distingui,h.. !>ttween law and right .. belw",n
ohj""tiv. law and subjen;>'e law. the con""pl of "legal ,ubj""t"-
in Germ.n Rcchl.."lJjekt (literally: ,ubjec' 01 Law}-is eJosdy
.... _. "''' "PI f<naI=l"!<J''' oot "",ohknc p,,'kul..ly thaI
tho Vlolotift who <X<rt '"" kpl ".,..... .. "'" ",,111 """Po."
-C!. pp. '.\0'"
".
",nn""IM with the <OTI<O<'p' of ,ub;/;vc, (.ubjective law).
The concept 01 Ruhwubiekl ." the or 'holder"
(nilgu) of ,ubjekt;v.., Recht (.ubject;,-. law, i.e>, a right) i.
only anoUler veninn of ,h. con""p' of ...ubjecti'... I>w which is
O'IemioJly formed with t<g'ud to 'h" concept 01 property right.
Just a. in the concept of .uf>julill<!J Ruht 50 in 'he concep' of
Ruht>i"bidl the ide. prtdominato, of an entity dilkrent from.
and indcp"ndent of, the posith'. legal order_the idu of ,h. exil,
ence of a IrgaJ .ubjt which i. to be found. 50 10 .pcak, in the
individual and in <OTufo corpor.t. bodie' whom lhe positive I.w
must rognjzt aubjte.. of ctttain Tigh.. in order 1o pr...rve it'
ch.r.u;ter a, true law. This view impli.. 311 antagoni'm bctween
,h. I>w "" an nbjecti'"eJy valid urn..... a 'j"tem of binding norm,
(the law) and 'he .ubjective law (tbe right) '"
by a .ubjttt, and thintagonism implies a logical collt",dlctlon.
Thi. oolltradiction manif",u it.clf rmm dearly when the e...,nee
of being a legol ,ubject i' eonside"d to be freedom, whCTe.. the
e_nee of the objecti"e law i' co"'idcred to be I.. binding Inl'<e.
"'en ito c<>eTci"e cbaracter, which i. evidemJy the 0ppo;!itc "f frC<':.
d"m, Thus. e,g. G. r. PUdll' ""YO' "The basic <or",ept of I,ll' J,
r"edom.... The abman roncept 01 freedom u: """,ibility of
..,lI.determinatinn. Man I, >ubjttt of law [Rechl""bidt,
leg.l .ubject] becau", he h'" tha' p""'ibili,y of 'dl-detennination,
'ha' me,n, 'hat he h'" a [free) will" (CUTru. tkT I",/it"/;",,,o, 1o,h
ed., ,813, I, 4. 5, 6).
The fietitiou.n... of rhi.definition 01 the c""ecpt 01 the lubject
of law i' apparent. Becau.. if one can talk at all about ..U
determln"lon "f the individual in his cap,,,,;ty a legal subject,
namely in lhe realm of oo-callcd priyatc law (with Tespee' 10 'he
lawcre"ing function of a legal contract), then legal .lelf-deteTmi.
n..ion. th.. i. autonomy. i' pre",nt only in a very limited ..n...
FOT nobody can create righu ror him",II, beeau.. the right of the
"ne presuppooes the obliga,ion of 'he other, and .uch legal Tela
tion can only be eOlabH,bed in 'he field of pri"ate law,
according 10 the legal order by an agreemem of tWO individual.,
And even then only if 'he legal order oonfelTed upon 'he agre..
ment a law'creating lunnion. Therefore tbe legal dClCTmin"ion
ultimately originates in the objective law and not in 'he legal .ub-
,
TI,E STATIC Al;PECT OF LJIW
'7 '
j.. sul>ordl"",ed to it. Con<tquendy there i. no full ""jf.
de'amination .ven in private law.
Th. Idoological funeli"" of thi. ""If<ontradietory eone"l"ion of
the logal !Ubjeel "" ,he hold", of righ.. is ...ily ",en: Th. function
i. '0 m.intllin the idra ,hat the ."i"ene<: of the Irg:i1lubjcet .. the
holder of a right--4Jld ,hi. mram holder of a property right_i.
In a category thot tr:llUC<:IId. th. objn:tivr law, namely ,hr po.i.i".
law mad. by man attd hence changeable by man: in ",hrr wonb.
to maintllin the id.. th.t property i. an im,i'u,i"" protceted by.
barrirr irnurmountllble by the I.gal order. The concept of. legal
.ubjcet who, .. the hold.. of a oubjceliv. right, i. ind.pend.nt of
,h. posith.law, bet:om.. aU the more important if ,he legal ord...
lha, guannteeoth. irn,itution of private property i...cognized a.
changeabl. and for""... changing, created by human wHl and not
by thc .....""1 will of God or by 'L"ure---e<ped.lly wh.n the cr..
tlon of the log.l ord.. is acrompluhed by a democratic procedure.
The id.. of a legallubj<'Ct independelll of th. I.w, ,hal i. ,he k1..
of a hold... of a "",bjce';"e" law which i. not I...., perhaps "".n
more, "law" ,h.n ,he "ohjre';".," that i., the poai,i"" law. is
deaigned to pro,,,,,, ,he im,ilUtion of private property from being
reocinded by the legal oro",. I. i. ,,"sy to und...und why the
ideology of legal subj.... ivity ..,.,h to .....bliah a link wi,h the
ethical "due of individu.l f,<'Cdom and of an aUlonomou. pet-
"",allty. if property i. alway. included in thil freedom. An ord",
tha, rdu,.. to recogni.. man as a free peraonali" in thll ""'''''.
that iI, an otder that dtl<'l not gnann"''' th. lubseetiv. right of
property. i. rrj<'C,ed by ,hi. idwlogy as not being a legal otd.. a,
."
b) Th. Ph.,.,iC41 PtNOn
Traditional th.ory i, identifying ,h. conp' of "l"gal ,ubjce,"
with that of "I""oon.' Th" dtfini,ion of "person:' according to
traditional ,heory, i" th" hum.n being as a ,ubject of righu.nd
oblig:"ionl. Sinc", how"""r. not only a human being but abo
oth...n,i,i"" .uch a, corporation" municipaliti....nd IIat.... ar"
p,esented as penon., a penon i, defined .. th" hold.. of righ..
and obliga'ionl, whr,..,by" a holder not only a human being can
'71 TIl. srATIC OF lAW
funcUoa. bu, abo U- o<hn' ...U,W:::s. ",""",pl 01 a
0( 'ishu and obIipriono plays a da:ioi.'e role in the uadition.al
.n.o.r duli"ll with 1M crlaUpl 0( -I"PI penon." If doe hoIckr 0(
rithtl and obIi1pliom ill a human being. tndiliarD.I lNor}'..,..w
0( a if i. is OIW' of thr orho:r entirioes ir..,..w of
a -juriotic penoo:L" '\'bndlr 1M ph)"JiocaI penon is j"':Lap<*d II a
"na,u... penon '0 !he juristic II In pu.. I penon
..... "real" bur only o:onr.Il'\IoCIed by juru.pnodenc.e. EffOfU
hem made, ro be SUTe. 10 Jlro''e tho. CIeTT jurisric penom are
"K'II," Bu. these effutu are (".ile benwe analp" show. ,ha, 'i'''''
the oo-called p/l}'Sia.I p"nor> is 10 ani6c..1 co.uuuo;.ion 0( jutU-
ptudence-rlu.. even lbe <:ailed ph)..ic:ol penon i..... ually only a
"jurUli<:"
If iu the ca>e o[ tbe juri5Lie p"non righ" Ind ubligllio", con be
"held" by oumething 'hit il "0' I human be(ng, Ilo.n also (n th.
ea.. o[ 'be oo-caJled pll)'Sieal p".son tha, which holdl the r(ghl'
and obliption, (and which ,he jud"ic penon mull hue 'n com-
mon wilh ,h. physical p"'I(Nl, .inc. bolh ate "pen<>IU" a. "hoId-
righ.. and obliga.io"l) "'nnOl: be the human bei"i- who it.
the in qucsUon. bu. IIOOOtthing ..hid> ,he human being
and <Ioe "j"ri.. have in o;ommoo.
I. if; said. too. thor .toe human being lou """",,",,Ii.y:' that the
lqal onkr in...,... TJWI with no< _il,. all
lI><!l. S1a"a ate T>Ol they have .... lqaI
Traditional tbrory <loa ..... daly that and ....uman
:ott t...... dil'"""", CllDpU. thou'" i, uorns lha. ouoniinl
to IllOdoem Ia.., II dil.<in&uiihed roaDCim. 1ttw. all mm an: penons
or ha"" legal p",lOllaIi,,.. What, now, does the Rtl.nDm. of tndi-
,ional theory n .hat the lepl ordrr in'''''', ,toe h"man being.
or a JPUUP of hu n beingo. ..'it!t the qualit,. of lqpl penorIoIli.,
_wi,h the qualit,. 01' beine a "pe"",,"? It meant thai the lepl
orrler impoot:l obligationl upon, or rightS to. buT1llO
heinlJl' that i., that .he lepl order .....ka human behavior .becon
.m. of oblig:ttion. and righll. "To be I perron" or ".0 b.... a leg.l
perron.lity" i. idemical w(tb h.ving legal obligalions .nd ."bje<:
.ive righ,., The perron a holder of obligatio... and righu i, not
IOlne.hing .h., is dill'".n. from Lb. oblig:t.ion, .nd righu, ...
whooe holder ,he penon i, pr....n'M_j ...' II a tre.: ...hich 4",id to
ha,'. I .runk. bt-ancbeI, lUId bl.--... i. DOl a .ubltance dileren.
{rom twnk, and blOlaOm., but merely 'he totality of
,h"", element!. The ph)"i",,1 or juri.. ic per..,n who "ha'" oh1lga-
tioM 31Id righ a' th.ir hold.,.. is th... ohHgatiOTl' and righlS----1l
of leg.l obligations and rights wbooe totality i> ""pr"""d
figumti,'.ly in the concrpt of "person," "P.,...,n" i> merdy tb.
penonification of this totality.
If e.pecially the fac" Ole an.lyzed which are p,....,ted in tradi-
tion.1 theory a' "rightnd obligatio,," of. juristic penon." .nd if
the word "right" i. used in i" .pecific, 'echnk.l ..me <:>I the word
(m....ning a legal p,,,..'e. or competence to be exercised by bring.
ing .n action .gaiost ",mebody), then we find that the.. righ"
.nd obligation. like th"", 01 a phy.ical per",n. ha"e
hum.n behavior., ,heir conten'. and are in thi> ..",e-,,,,d only
in thi...n..-righ" and ohligations of hum.n beings. Only by
human heh.vior Can' right be exercised or an obligation he ful
filled or "iol.ted, Thrrrlore i, cannot be the relation '0 a human
heing which i! the element ,hat diff....ntiate. the physic.1 or
n.tural penon (TOm the or .ni!ici.l pOT"'''. Therefore.
too, ,he ....called ph)"ical per"'n annot_in contradistinuion to
th. juri!tic penon_be defined a. """ething a qualified
hum.n being. qualified. that i. by holding rights .nd obligation.
Such a delinition i. to be rejected jUst .. the definitiotl of the con
c.p' of rIgh,., "a leg.lly protec,ed im.....'." Ju" a. ,he righ' i.
not a (Iegall)' prot<'eted) in..rest but the legal protection of.n in
tere". 10 i, the phy.ical person not ,he human being who has
right< and obligatio",. but a ,ot.lity of rights and obligation.
which h.ve th. bch"'ior of. hum.n being its content and thu.
fonn unity. Thi. unity i! .100 exprcSKd in the concept of the
lcgal lubject ,,'hieh tradition.l theory identifies with ,hat of ,he
juri,,;. penon. That th. human being i, leg>l .ubject (.ubteet
of right.< and obligation.) mn. nothing el... a' ha' bttn emph.
ized. but th., human beh."ior i. th. cont.nt of legal oblig.,i"",
and lcgal righu-no,hing .1.. ,han ,ha, a human being i penon
Or hM J"""'On.lity. Wh.. we have in both ...._in that of the
phy.ical and in tha' of the juristic perKln-i,lcgal obliga,io,," aod
lcgal rIghu that h."e human behavior a, their content and con,t;
tute. unity. A legal petson i, the uni,y of a complex ollcgal obU
gation. .nd leg.l rights. Since ,h... obliga,ion, .nd righto are
stituted hy legal norm. (more correctly: at< these lcgal nonns).
.,.
IITATIC ASPU"r .....W
'he PToblcm of "I"'non" i. ill the lau anal)"';. 'he problem of 'he
unity of a complex of nonm. The qu"'ion II: what <XIJUtitut..
thi. unity in 'he One co", and in the other?
The unity of obligalion> and rigb" (that is, the unity 01 'be
nom.. thor coneen> u. here) which. i. p,..,,,,mM., ... plll'sic.]
<omi." in the rac, ,hat it i' the behavior of one ond th.
",me human being "'hich the comem of 'hese oblig;>'
tion. and righ.-that it i. the behavior of the same human being
which i, determined by these legal norms. The oo-<allcd phpi<al
penon. then, is not a human being, but the persl>nifitd unity of
the legal norm. lhal obligate or authorize one and the same
human king. It i. no< a natural reali,y but. Icgal construction.
erralM by tbe 'den"" ollaw-an auxiliary =pt in 'he pro",,,!.>-
tion of log.dly 'denn' !.oct. In <hil ..,,'" a phy'icai I""son i
juti.tic
c) The Juri,l;c Pe"on (Corporation)
The <Melle<: of the so-called juri.!lic pUkill, jm'...J'O'cd hy tndi_
'ional jutuprud<nce to the physical penon, i. lIU'" deady illu.>-
trated by an analJ''tow. righ" lIoe to be regarded'" the obligation. alld rights of
,he individual> who form the corporation ... its member>. Prcei>ely
Lceau", thtot ()bligations and right> concern ill Klme way the in_
teres" 01 the individualo who form the corp"""ti()n, and >tin are
not...-a. traditional theory a"umeo-their obligation. and rights.
are thtot iutupreted ... obligatiOn> and right> of the corporation.
and hence the lauer i. concei"ed a<. penon.
The Jegal relatiom of a juristic peroon ate dacribed a, 10110"-"
It i' said, for example, thaI a corporation rentS" home or buy> a
piece 01 land. The right to usc 'he hou.. (i,e., to exclude non_
memben of the curpot3tion from ito use). 'he ownenhip of the
land (i.... 'he right to diopooe about it and to exclude lIonmem_
be'" from di.po:sing abou' it). i. a right of the eotporation, not of
its members. If thi, right i. violated, th<'ll i' i. the corpora,ion, no'
the individual member, wbich has to <'IltU an action for trial; the
compensation for 'be damage cauoed by the violation of law_,he
T>U' ST..TIC ""neT 00- lAW 175
.... 0( IDCIDt'J coI1eaa1 lhroug:b ciyil o<1KUtion---aows inlO
..... 0( corpora,...... .- inlO IIloot 0( iDdi'id....1 moubn'J.
Tbr obliptioo 10 pay _m0( """ 10 dot -.-.er of
boux. dot pu<eIw.iDs price 10 dot odIeJ of dot pica of \and, arc
dot obliplioDs of dot_....."'Uco, DOt IIloot of bn's; for if
tbt obliptioo is DOl fulfilled, th:a. io, if lbt corpono commill a
del.,!. bw ...it of dot ""'- owner or !be odl .. is _ dO-
r"".... apinM: dot -:mOm, b... ap..... dot corponUon; and lbe
ciril u"",..ioo is dirWd no< it"o dot J'IOP"ny of <he meuobm,
blllo( lhe COI'J'O"'tion. ",=ar" aan in which. if I"" UOCU of lh"
corp<>nlion do nOi civil """""tion may alto be direclcd
in.o IIw: propeTty of mCll'bcra. ,hat is, aan in which th" li.bil
ily lor th" ""Iiet" nor. limilf/d.o 11w::we1l of Ihe Gorpo....'ion, bllt
in whiGh Ih" ... tOO are for the ddiGt wl,h thcir own
asse". Uo.... i, il pre<:iJely call: of Ihe Ilmi,ed.liabili" of
corpora,ion ....hiGh secn" Il' reromm"nd conc"ption of 1
1'1"11""""'"li'y of corporation.
In 'M description of ,he 1<'1"1 rebtOom of a Gorpo..,,,ion as "
jurisoic 1""""', ,wo dilf(1'ft\' 'ypn of ....,"ion. a,.., made: 1M .....,...
ion th:a, the corpora.ion. as an Xling p"nOIt. pcrformt TtIin
XII, c:spe.:iUly kpl xu: tlDl <he COlpoeni"" pttfoomt II lcpl
rnnoxtion, IUC.h II -..:1....... of a -.tnet" WI it tIIin" an
_ion:opinst body. Wt i. fullilli a 1cp1 obliptiOll, 01 thai i.
by ill bcba. viobta a lrpl obliption, i.e.. -=>ill a delict.
AM. ooowndly. 1M-......... th:a, 1M ''''1''00;<1''''' is the Illbjra of
lrp1 obIipu.:- arld 1"1"1 rip... bKawe the lcpl on:Ift imP'*"
obIipcions arld baIoorI "Illl on i .. Thr &no ............ dncribo
al..,.,.. dot bcba.,ior of a indi'lidu..al throup whom 1M
lqa.l penon ""II.
It ...be xtion 01 ,..,I",inmml &om _ion by lin indi..id",,1
th:a, .. in'..."..".... II ""tion 01 rricoinm<'rl' of 00Tp0I'
alion_"auribu'cd" to.M corponti"". ",,, buman ""ing thlouKh
whorn ,h.. '''>rp''''''ion :act. a. a juris.ic ptnon. ond w1K>oc "".
havior i, attribu,ed to Ih" colpor;l'ion. i, caIlrd th.. "organ" 0(
corpo""ion. Th" problem of corporation 11 an acting pt1".
ton i, di"ulSe<l) of th" rommuni,y "'Pn; it
il probl= of attributing '0 th" communi,y the funaion p"'"
fo,.,ucd by an individual. Appli<:d to th" juri.. ic p"'-' of cor
ptn"ll'ion. tlw: probl.... i, ,hil: Undn ..hiclt condi,ion, ca.n
,,.
THE STATIC AIJ'EC]" OF U ..
01. a h"..,..,. bri,. be 'nlnp,...... "" the bthlo...... of ...
_ponotion--oJ:l jtlM: "'UriboJ,N to tbewopontion} Which are
tbe corditions UJ>dor wbid> :0 human bring pertonao ... refr.tino
from perlonaing a cnuin actioa u. his cat-i", :00 an COP" of the
Ooody toIl.rItCd with this probl_ it tbe probI....
of the CCHpun..... :00 tbe ""bjt 01. obliptioDs and richu. Sina
obliptions and ri&hu can 0111, ....e hWDan bdla,.... at tlKir CU>-
lm" 1MItpi order QJl impolC obliptions and conln riJblS only
ufIO" human beiDp. "T'hio IULemtIIl LIr.>. a ...... pooation 'I tbe lOb-
jea: of obliptioru and ri&hu. <klaiba the obIip.,,,,,. and tigh..
of eldini ., human bcillJl, which. how........ au in""P"fl<d .. obli-
ga.Ooou and r,ghlJ of the junKie f""'IO"_ttrib",<d.o ,he juristic
penon. ,h., Ulunlplion of traditional theo" ,luI ,h.
oblip,ions and rights or ,h. juri.uk pn1OT1 ar., not (or n(lt at \h.,
POle 'ime) the oblis:",,,,,. and righu of huma" J>.eingt-<l "pltY'i.
(al in Ih. '<rmi"alogy of traditional ,h."ry_i, uIll"nA
ble.
d) The }IIMi., P...on A' ... Adi", Subj1
If lWO or mo.-e iodi.id.wl wish to pursue joinlly KiC2l., onomi<,
poli,ial, rdigioul, hum;miwi1n, ... Olhtt Purpooel within 11K
sphercofnlidi'Tof ... IP,iooIaIlepl order, thty r......... rommuoi<y
by tulxn.iQq thrir coop<nu.-e bdJa..-ior, .....will( 10 the lopl
or'Ckr. 10. lpCCial ordtt ilia. npb.... this behI\ior and
11l... -..b1ioha tboo .....,muni'y. not <oop...arion of <he lndlrid...
aU of tboo CDmmuo;ty directed tow;ord IN mtli........ of the coon-
mun;'y PUrp<R an be orpniud acnmiiog to 1M princip\o, of
of !abo<. In Ibis e>'en, <he community is a cuopoution.
ror, a CO'l"dtion it defined as .... "orguJilCd" community. ,h>t i..
a rommunity consti,ul<'d by " nnnna,i"" oro..... " ...... ,..",'. pre-
....ibing ,hi, e",...in functionl a'e 10 be ",,=i-..l by individual.
called in a way d.. ennined by 'he "a'.. 'e for ,hi. pUrp<JOe--in
oth... word., a nonnative Ol"der in,,;tuting 0'1!"nl who work ac
cording to the principle of divi.ion of labor." The "a'ute con"i.
tuting the <OTporat;On il by" legal t",n",clion det...mine<!
by ,he na,ional legal ord.... Leaving ",ide imernational law. the
THe IT..,,,, ASPccr OF ....w
."
......" .." of" wrpontiollfcpl'eoenlS" P""ialltgal 10 be dis.
,iDpbbtd &om lhc ....,iona! order, ...h.i<.h .io " IOUI
""".
"1M ....UI." <qUia,.. lhc bdYv;"" of indiri,hlSls who an lhc
to tl>t <.otpooa'.
1M<.ot'ponlioo.. "Thaot arc .....u of spctdl -in( merely that"
ccnai.. bcfto;ri".- "'- thew iI by a I"'"iallcpl
order..... hu -.. aid. thac individual, do not bd""ll to the
corpontion with the IOUl,ty "'- their ""istcnt:", but o.dy with the
""t'onund omissions oocrmincd by the ........". Only an "",ion or
a ."lraining dctcnnincd by 'h" JUtUt" can be a'tributed to lhc
corpora'ion. For the attribu,ion of an act DI: h...... n behavior to
llIe COTpor.uion merely upressco ,h" rela,ion of Ihil act '0 ,he
nonnlli..., order tha' ,h" cummuuity-,he omer which
i, personified by ,hi, a'lribulion. Therefor< any behavior dete,
",int<! by a nonnllive order "'ay be atlr,bUlrd to .he communi,y
...... hlisht<! by ,hI! omer: any normal,ve omtr rqul>,ing tile bt-
havior of " number DI: ind,viduall (including one ,h", does not
establish orpm funaioning according to !be principle of divliion
of labot) ""'y bc pcnonificd. dncribcd all an ac:ting pn1OII: and
,htrcforc a"y ''usembn'" of ...m a communi" ...., be looted
upon .... its -orpn.- But oinu in tommO<I tuaF of b"I""F ...1,
.tw. fuDCtiono arc aurlbu.cd .0 !be mmmunirr which arc ptr-
formed ID !be p<inclpk of diriDon ttl bbor by lhc an
thoriud individual.. and ...1, thoee iDdioiduals who pcTfonD
<hac functions are U 0IpJ>S. It.Cldon: ..... can distil>-
KUish between !be and Ihc ttl" co,pooa.ion.
"is ID be "",cd that the ""P'" cl a <.otpooation. acoonlinz to !be
.....n,,,. ""'r perform noI ty functiom web as changing the
sta,u'e. bringing an ani loo:tg;ng an appeal. conduo;,ing legal
''''lUOOion., bu, alto ... h", funetiuIU dependinll on the purpose DI:
the 'o<pma,ion. If th..., funaions are a"r,bllted '0 ,he corpora-
,ion, if Ihecorporat'on li dncrlbcd a.an .ctin/( 1""'""",, if it i.aid
,h.. ,h. corporalion ......... although only a human being d....,,
mined by .he "a... te perform, In 3Ct detennincd hy ,he .......e.
,hen one u..,. ,n thi. anthropomorphic me"'phoc a fiction of the
ume "" that in ,he Illribu,jon olleg:ol "15 of a ..... ,,,tory rep-
reoen",tivc 10 ,he reprelC1\,ed it>clividual who l""h ,he capacity to
ace. The misinterpreta,ion of Ihe anthropontorpltic """"phil<

THE STATIC A$PCT OF LAW
"jur;";ic peroou" a. a real emily, a. a lind of ,upennan or organ.
i.ml, i. the unpermi.<oiblc hypo'Ill';",,;on of a thinking aid or
auxiliary wncop' con"ruclM by jUTi,prudence mc.dy for the
purp<<: of simplifying ""d illustrating: the de""ip,;on of a rom.
plex legal .i,o.tlnn. S""h hj]",.... 'i...,ion not m....dy reouh. in ob-
seuring: .he f""ts that are 10 tJ<, described, hut also in the croat ion of
aham pmblem. whose 5Olution juri.prudenc. vainly attemp".
Such .ham problem. playa p"Tticularly fateful role when it i, the
...,. that ;. hypo;totiU:d as a juri.tic p<non, and when, lhen. the
qurs,ion i, nise<! of the ,."I.,ium.hip of ,hi, .""lily 10 the law, as to
"its" Jaw. Thi, will b<' dilCu""<Ilator."
e) The ]uriJlic Pam" AJ a Subject 0/
Obligoljons and Right.
Thi. metaphOT i. used nol only to docribe the corporation as an
.({iug penon. but also a. a .ubi"'" of obligatio,," and righu; by
"righ,," traditional theory not only m""n' right> in the thnical
",n", of the word, ,ha' i., legal power, but also po<iti'e penni..ion.
These ohligatio", and right> of the corpornti"" are partly thO'e "',
tabli,hed by ,he national legal order, partly thost e'tabli,hed on
the ha,i, of an authorilation (by 'he national legal ordor) by ,he
"a,ute of the corporation, TI,e former are extornal, the latter in
rnol "bliga,ion, and righ" of the c"rporation, The ... tu,e, how-
ever, can also "ipulate obliga'ion, and right> ,,' the memhen
which are not intorpreted .. ,hooe of tho corpora,ion, not a"
tributed '0 the c"rporation, A corpora,i"n', obligation '" p"y
taxes or a corporation', right to conduct legal tran03Ctio", or the
right to a",," by an .clion the of an obligation toward
the corporation or a corporation', right to participate in a political
election or a corporation" righ' to ""erei,e a certain trade----<lH
these are external obligation, and righ... A corporation', obliga_
,ion to diot,ihute among it> members or a corporation',
righ, to collect membenhip fe<o--these are internal obligations
and right.. The corre!ponding righ" tu recei>'e a ili.", of the
profit> and the curre,ponding obligation to pay a membership Ire,
howe,..,., are described .. rights and obligation, of the members,
not of the corporation. For the quo"ion of ,he nature uI the cor-
','L
"
."
ponotioa .. a jurUlic ....IJ tboK obI'p,i",,* and rigbto ue
rdro"". which arc inlCl"prnm 10 lit Iboot of <be <OIP<UUon.
We ......, oaid lha.. all obHp.ioas and ri&hll have 1M bcharior 01
hu_ being>,.. theU .....tmL If lbe natiooallcpl ordct ;"'1"*'"
ob/ip'Qn or bcolows .ipqlh.a,,...., 10 be of <be
COipaalion; and it _ opcU ollbe obligations and lithll of the
Wipooation ,""" Q.n ... Ir be obIiptionJ thai PC fulfilled, and
..hIS that are uoorciJcd. by .... bdl.a.vior 01 human brin&s w....
Ions 10 !.he corpo"lI;on. And it thnc: obIip....... and rip" an:
lltributed '0 the WipiAiUion. Ibm lMse ind;Vi<!lW', in th<ir tole
as 0fjpIU of the <.oq>Or.Itioo. mull. fullill (or viobtc) .1Ie oblqp
.ion> or .......dse <he right$. Thnd",-c the n:l.ion.:llleg:al OTOO. in
obligation. or bntowinll Tigb.. upon a corponl;on, de-
te11IIin... only the mater;.] clemen. of the behior 1M' consti
lU'''' the ."men' of the obllg.lion or right. and I...e/. .he d.'...
mina.ion of the p<Toonal "Iemen., th.. iI, of the indi.'id,..l who is
to lulfill .he obliption or .....m:ise ,h. right, to the lIU'n'.; 10
,,,,,,........, the Ri"ionahip bt,.....,,, the ......tional ltVl ord.... and
the obligated or juri...ic 1""""'" is the relationship '*
IWttfl .w<> ltgal onIcn, I.(JtlII and parti.oI one. T'htnby me
III&lU>n in ..bicb tM natlon.l 1lW'1 ont..-_ opnk in .1mnI 01
rndi,ionaI ,..-minolofn'--obliga... or .u</><Jl"ius a """"".ioo as
juriRic pn1O<>. dilrtn ITom tM m>nt"Ott in ..hich <he .....iomJ
kpl ord... obIip.'..... authoriles a human brint: IS , phroiea!
pntOD. III <he bit.. ClIlC 'M na'iorLal lqpl order k<.mDi.... eli-
rtlr _ only tfxo .....lCrilIl. b.1l .bo 1M ptnao:t.>I 01 <he
bdYrio.- <ha. OlIrtKi,u,n <he o;oa<m. 01 u.. obliga,ion or npL
In ClIlC 01 in......l obliga'>ons ..... rigblS of ,he WOponlion,!he
....'U'f dfI_iIIn bodI,hf rna.frial md J>f""D>1 flmlmu oIlhf
bdYYior thai COWIilUtn <he CClttmt ol ,he obIiK;otion lit" npL In-
wrnal obIip'>ons'''' ...Mn ,hf ItllnUf rr-ribn .....
.....vior '0 ..h""" <>pp<>li'f ,hf na,ional ont.. I ...d,n, An<
.ion. Internal rights llipul.lIl"" ...h.n 'he '1.1IUlf nl.:lbli""..
obligalion. of lhe membel'l ",h""" lulfillment an be asserted,
Icccmling to thf na,ionlllepi ord.., by an aelion fn,.red by an
individual. determined by ,h. IUlUl., in hi. Clll"'clty ao ot'lI"" 0/
'h. oorponlion.
,.,
TilE STATIC MI'=r "FlAW
Of the iuriJlic pe"on
III the pr=d.ing di",u..iOll it ha. been ....umM that the legal
DId....tabHoh.. an obligatiall to kha,'c in a ""rtain way iI it
male. the oppooh. behavior. a. ,h. heMvinc of a bUllla" l>eing,
,he e<>ndition of a "'n<;';o". The bella"ior which i. the cOIldhioD
of lhe ...nction i. delic" ,h. oaru;tion i& the Ct>Il.Iequcncc of the de.
liel. Subj"", of an "bligation, therefore, i. ti,. individual who, by
hi> own behavior. can bring about or: 'oid the ...uct..ion-can wm.
rnit the delict or rdrain from CQrruni"ing it; the potential delin-
quent. H lhi> =p' of legal ohlig..;on is aettptcd, then an indio
vidual may be .. <apable 01 l>eing obligato<! (vn-pf/;ch.
/lIng'fiihig) only il be i. ",pable of committing. ddi<;, (d<likl.
Jfail,S)'"
The situation with which we atc confront! wben ,h. legal
order oOl..,hli,II an obligation inlerprctnl '0 be an obligation
of a corpontion a. a jUTUti<; penon is ,hi>: <Ire l.g",u order
determines bellavior and a'taChes ..nclion '0 its op!",,"i,e, but
leaves tbe de"rmin..i"" of the indi.idual through whose bella,"
inr the "fiCtion i. brought abou, or avoided to the ,ta'ute of a cor-
poration; and prescribe> the ..nction in .uch a way tha, it un be
interpreted a. being direcred not againll tbis individual, but
again" the corporation, which mea,," that ,he liability for the non-
fulfillment at Ihe obligatinn (tbe .uffering of ,he evil ,h.t the ",ne-
tion represent.) i. to the corpora,ion. We will dilCws
lat.". the basis of ,hi. a'tribution; for the moment we may merely
"ate that the obligation_without ,he of the fiction of attrihu_
tion_i. the obligation of the individual who, by hi> behavior,
<:an fulfill or viol ..e the obligation, hut that for the nonfulfillment
of the obligation an other indi.idual or indi.idual. are Hable .dth
their penon or property. The ,tatute, in determining the individ_
ual whose behavior <;an fulfill or violate the obligation (by en_
abling. which in the broader sense means authorizing. ,hi. individ-
ual.:md only thi, one. 10 beha'-e in thi. way). abo determines, in_
directly, hi> behavior. Therefore the behavior by ""bieb the individ-
ual fulfill. or violate, the oblij}ttion, :md <I,ere/ore the fulfilled
or violated obligation. can be merred to the 'latute, tllat i. the
nonnative partial order constituting ,he corporation.
-dis"
"
" ,
TIW i. 'he .i,ua,ion when ,h. obligation is .",ihuIM to 'he
corpo....'ion .... juristic pen.,n (is im...-pr..<d to he 'he .ubject of
the obligati<"') and the individual who actually fulfill. or violal<"
the obligation i. considered 10 be an organ of <he CO.po....tiOll.
With the aid of this fie,;,iou. attribution 'he juri"ic penon i. rep-
, ...ntod as having- ,h. capacity of being obligated and of commit.
ting a delict.
The problem of the corporation', capa':;;,} of being obligated
and ,he much di.l<uMCd ""d closely linkrd problem 01 it> poeity
of committing a ddi" are ptobl<ms 01 .milm'ion; and attribu.
tion i. a mem,l o!",ntion which may. but need not he, ptt.
form<d; fOf the fac.. um be ue'CTi!>ed without ,he aid of <hi< "'ttl
la1 operation, which in any co'" inyol,,," a fiction, particularly
when a delict is allributed to a COTp011ltiOll. A delie! i. an a<:t oI
human behavior and thereiOTe can only he commiLted by a de6_
nite human being. In fuet, as Jingui...ic u..ge .how:<, the attrihu_
tion of a hUlIl3.n behavior, determined by the ltgal order, to a
community com,itoted by thi' ....m. order. i. not carried out with
con,i"ency because it i' nut alwaj" carried out a<;co,ding to the
"'''''' (,iINion. The attribOlion of human behaviot can be Ear-
,caching 01 .emkted. If only a ,puifirally functioning individual
i>-rtgarded a, an "org.n" of the community;" if it i' ."'med. IUT_
ther, that hi> beh.viot i' not att,ibulab!e to the (Ulnmunitj' whett
the beh.viot i. not autho.ilCd by the normative ot<:Ie'; and if,
finally, it i. as",mcd that the st"U'e 01 corporation authotiu:s its
org',"' only to fulfill, not to "iolate the oblig>tion' "Labli,hed by
the national legal order_nd, =o,ding to the national legal
ot<:Ier, only ....n .uthome the fulfillment, not the violation, of
obligation>-then the co'pontion i. nOt capable 01 committing a
delict. But oin(e nothing ...nds in the way of attributing to the
corporation the fulfillment of the obligation which the organ i,
authoti,cd by the ""tOle to fulfill, the corporation may be re
g",ded a. the SUbject of an obligation which it can fulfill but nO!
viOI",e; in thi' limited sen,e, then, can tbe corporation be de
scribed a. having the capacity of being ohlig:"ed without having
the capacity of committing a delkt. It may be objc<:tcd th., thi, i'
incompatible with the concept o{ legal obligation as rtevo1opcd in
these page', ""co,ding to which only he i' capable 01 being obli_
---"-crp:p:-", L
"
,s.
gated who i. ""pable oi oommiuing a delict; but <his objec,ion i.
irtcle.an, btt>u,," ac'ually (without the fic'itiou. attribmion) no,
,he cor?",..;"", but only IMl individuol i. logally obligated and
GilpabJe 01 b<:ing oblig<lltd, ",II"", !>th....iot <..tn fulli.ll or violale
th" obligation. t"rom tbe fact lhal in Ihe lonne, ...'" 1h. individ
ual is regard..! .. an organ of ,be e<r<J'Oution (i.e., that hi> l><--
havi
n
i. attributed to ,he corpora,ion) d"". n,,' follow
to regard him ,hul in ,h. buu Such amibm;on i. al""y.
only pouiblc, Dcvcr o....ry. In fae'. hOl."cver, lb" corporation i,
rogarded .. <apo.blc of wmmitting a deli<:!; in common usage of
language we amibut. to the corpora,ion the nonr"Hillmen! 01
cor... in oblig>o,iom stipnl"t"" by ,he naLion.llegal ord.... It j. &aid,
for .""mple, the corporation ... a juri,'ic peTion failed '0 pay' tax
and thereby committed a puni>habl. or ,bat corpon-
tion lail<d to I"'y rent for a rent<d hotUC or the purchase price for
a bough, picee of land thus commitring delict. All ,hi.
mean. that th= delic" ."ributed to the corporation: the cor-
poration i> regard<d .. the delinquent and may tbtrdore .t.o be
regarded .. the .ubject of the obligation< Bnt if not only
,be ful6Jlme", of an oblig.,ion. but at.o iu i. a"ribut!
to a corporati"", then one b" to recognize... an organ of the COT'
pora';on, individual authorized by the .ta'ute to fulfill tbose
oblig.tion., even if he .Cts outside this authorization in tbe nor
rower ..mt-if he does no' fulfill ,be obligation imposed upon the
corporation. but it by bi. bebavior. Tbi. i. entirely lea.i-
ble if one Tc<;ogni.... ,hat the attribution of buman to a
corporation merely expr..... th., this i. somebow deltr-
mined in 1101"te constituting the corporatinn; if one r""'K'
ni.... th., "to ""ribute behavinr of. certain individual to the
corporation" only me"'" "rerring thi, to the " .. A.
has beett ,ho."" in pree<ding cxplmation the behavior by which
an obligatinn 01 the cO<pOr.ttion i, violat<d, and which. according
to ,he n.tionallegol order. i, the condition of. ",netion. i., indi
ttetly. detcnnin<d by ,ulUte 01 the torpor..ion in50far as the
individual r. determin<d by the "'lUlte who by bi. beb3\'ior can
fulftH or violate the obligation. If, for example, the ,"'tute J>Te
",ribe, that corporation', ",xe' ougbt to be paid by <;enain
organ rrom tbe corporation" t"amry, then thi, organ .Inne can
viobte the corporation'. obligation to ""y tax..; and thus, thi,
.nne ....ncr OF LAW
'"
!>thavior that ,'iolated the obligation 01 the <orpor>!;on dir<:<:tly
determined by tbe national legal mder, i. also dClC'mlined. indio
reedy. by tM .tatUte.
J!. delict i. not attributed to a corporation, this ;. SO becau..
the "atute ...hieh authmi... the !>thavior (like a contraCt which
obligates 0 party to a legally prohibited !>thavior) i. void or
voidable a=rding to the national legal order. But this nud not
necessarily be .... It i. l'O"'ible tltat. according to a n>!ionol legal
order, a .tatUte i. "alid although it authori,.. an organ <0 a be
h.vim prohihited by the nation.llegal order. J( the organ i. au
thmi<ed or e,'Cn obligated the ".tllte to a !>thavior prohihited
the na.ional legal order. then ...'C arc confronted with the 01
ready discuMCd uiuation" that a cortain !>th.vior and ,,150 i15
oppo:!itc arc made the condition lor .... the
behavim by ...hieh the orpn fulfill. the obligation imposed upon
him by the '''lUte a, the condition of a sanction dir<:<:,ed .gain"
the corporation, and the behavior which the organ violat.. the
obligation impu>cd upon him by the 'tatute a' " condition of a
sanction dir<:<:ted again" the organ." The .ituation may be de
scribed in two role, of law which do not logically rotltradlet each
other. But from the point of view of legal politics ouch a ,ituation
i, moot unde,irable. In order to .void it the nat'onal leg.l order
can uipulatc that d'e ...tUtory authorizatinn and, panicularly, the
.tatUtory obligation to a behavior contrary to the national legal
ot<kr, i. to be regarded a. invalid. that i5, void or voidable. Il the
legal order doc. not do thi" then the dellet cotnmitted by the
organ ill .greement with the ""tute can be attributed to the cor
pora,ion e"co if the attrihution i. limited to a behavior .uthori<ed
by the ".tUte. Actu.>lly norm. of the .tatute of. corporation are
nOt alwaY' to !>t regarded ... "oid or voidable if they authori..,
illegal behavior. For ex""'ple, the .hareholder, meeting of a ,toCk
could decide on the ba.i, of the opioi"" of iu legal ad
viser not to pay a certain tal< .lId to gi"e the organ of the corpor:a'
tion otde... H thereupon the tal< i, not paid, .nd if,
further, the fi....1 authmity In an admini"tati", tax procedure
directed again" tire decides th., nonpayment i, a delict
and, con""luemly, the company i, ordered to pay the tax ond
crl,;o.
s_ i"",,*' ttoo p"""" In t.,....._, ...., d. I<lb,
'"
ntt !lTATIC ""PECT OP UW
fin., if, fin.llly, cncution i, calTie<! directly into the I'ropttty
of ,h. company 1Iau", of lad of p.}ment, 'hen tho iBogal he-
h,,'ior of ,h. organ i mibuted to the corporation; and it i. not
assumed that the ill<gal behavior took place oulside of the .tatu
tory a"thOTization; it i, no' ...umed that .he individual who be-
haved in that way did no' 'let a. an organ of the corpm.tion, and il
i. not a"umed that the "."ute wbieh Iud authorized 'he J:><,havior
(especially the individual nom> which had au,hori..d or obligated
the OT!l"n to tefu,", payment), wa. innl;d.
1 Ill' attribution tn 'he community of. ddict committed by an
organ or ffiffll"" of 'he community is made dependent 00 'h, d.
lkt having "'en authorized by the n,mte constituting ,he <"rn'
munity, then ,be an.we. to the question whether auribution to
the community iJ possible d,,,,,nd. on the inlerprelat;on of the
.totu",. Thi, qu..tion nuy '"<>tne up in judging political aim..
commiued by memben or o<gan. of a political "'Pnization. Even
if the ,tatute of this organiZ3.tion a 'p""ifie daU.le that au
,hor;'.. the commitment of the crime to be judged, it still may be
"",,umed tltat the <;rime w.... committed in aceord.ltC<' Wilh the
,totu", if the OTgan or member of the organil3tion in committing
the crime acted according to th<'-while nOt 'p""ifically marked.
hut_tacitly understood aim! of the organiZ3.tion.
B..id.., the auribution to the corporation of SUtutorily 'u'
thori'ed illegal behavior COn .110 ,.ke phoe on the \>a.i. of an in
,.lid .t.tute. Since this optiOllal mental operation i, legally
belevan" even a .totute th.t i' illegal from the viewpoint of the
legal ordet may serve "'heme of inlerp'."tion. This i' the case
if crime. committed by OTgan. of membc... of political organiza.
tion' which arc active on the ba,i. of .sc<ret ...tute' .uthorizing
their "'PllO or memben to commit ,uch crime. ate atttibuted to
the.. organiZ3.tion. and if. conse<]ucmiy. the "'Poil3tioorc de
dared '0 he ,ubvcnive and "imin.!....
1 the ques,ion 01 who i. ,h. "",bj""" of an obligation tltat I,
de",rihed a, on obligation 01 the corporat'on I, to be .llOwered
"Th. " n.. 01 'b' tntnn"kInol Tn""..I... ,,' p"rt '" "" .. Uo< M.jot w" Crim' ',
01 "" A,;" "J" 1ft Artlcl< j' -A, ,I>< ,n.1 01 .nl ""mho'
.nl '" ",",n;",100 ,I>< T,'....n.' ""I do4>.. "",_I"" ..ith ,n,
.ct o! whiCh th< I.d''''''.'' ""I "",vict<d) tha' 'b< p-oup .. __,..<Jon of
"bl-
jccl 01. the obIipli...- we han dooc--the iDdi>idual who.
brhio bch.>vior.canul6.ll 00" ,iobte theobliption, ia other ..........
1M <ompnc::ut orpn of .... mo-pontiao.. If we considn that the
financial. obligations (whidt arc the ODCS usually C1tlOU,n"') att '"
be f"lfilled fror:q the propeny which is intcrptcd as that of the
COI'pOration. nol fror:q that of the lJlP". aod if_we .mil _ La
lCT-lhe prnpntyof the 03tpor.ation may be C"C'lidned at the col-
1li"C ptopeny of the members of the corporatioD. then the obi;'
...ion of lhe OXlfJ"'Ti'li"" ....y be coruldcn:d u belnl the >Ilulive
obl;"'tiOll 01 .... mcmbcnol. thuoq,or.nion. This mnru: The"'"
l;p'ion in q"eI,i"" GIl be a'tributed '0 the mcmbcn 01. the corpo-
ra,ion jun a. well ... '0 'he juri"ic pnsoo of the corporation. But
for ,ho d<s<rip'ion of the preKnt ... of fact.! ""i'hcr the one nor
the oil'" a..rih",ion i. ncedctl.
1u" as 'he ohlilati"" a"ribu'"" to 'he corpo....tion i. not to 1>c:
fulGUctI from tnc: proper'Y of 'he wrporatioo organ, but Ir"'" tho
proper'y interpre'ed as the P'''l''''"ty 01 the corporali"", to in case
of nOlllulfilimem of u.. obI ....ioa the ..".:tiono prcocribcd by the
national legal Older, ,nc: civil cucution. is 1>01 di.ected in,o the:
propo:ny of thoc "'PI> bu' into the p.-opnLy auribu,'" to the CUI
pantioD. A<x:oniinlto this auribution we may opca): 01. a .."",ion
directed .i.... the Uhpooa,ion aod tbndoo-e 01 a liability 0( the
C1ClI poo,...... lor tbc _I"lfillmn" 01 the oblip."" which an io
diridual daip'''' by ,be IUlI,te OUKht to fulfill u. his (2pad'y ...
an "'l"" of the C1ClI "",ation.
Lidili" of I1u p.riJlk t--'
If tbc <"'PD"',iun'.....~ i l y to commit a delict is ..woo.... this
d_ n()IlDC'aIt 'he nclwion of the J>DNlbili'J of the corpor.alion.
liabiH,y: only the liabilit,. in this cur. is nol one lor the <01 pan-
tion', 0..0 delict. tha' is, for 0 del"" .."ibu,ed '0 'he corpontion,
bu, for IOOlco<>e elJC'. dollc', nomoly tha' committed by ,he indi
,Wual d..igna,cd by the ."'lUte to Fulfill the obliga,ion. Uable for
'he delict i' the individual agal"'l whom Ihe coercive let. condi.
tioned by the deliet. i. directctl. If the ..nction comiltl in 'he
coercive deprivation of property. Ihon the indi,idu.l who h.... 'he
right 10 di.pooc of the proporty.nd again" whom th coercive x.
i.ditt.... is liable with hii pe",,,,; and the illdividu.1 ".1>0 is 'he
,",
.ubjec, of ,igb.. ",hlch com,i,,,,. ,be propeny i, liable with
Lb. p<0pttty ime> which the uu,ioll i. to> be dire<ttd. In ca..- 01
a corpor."ion. an organ of ,he cOTpoution i. competent <0 dispose
of the property. If a civil execution into ,hi. prop<"y 'ak..
place .. a ..action to tbe nonfulfillment of an obligation
by the national l<gal ordor upon tbe corporation, ,he" ,be coer
cive act i. directtd again" ,he o'gan who. th.,..,fore. i. 1i,!>I. only
wilh hi. p<J'SQn for the nonfuUillmem <>f the obliga,ion: wh.,,-...,
if ,he corporation i. <<garded .. the .ubject of ,hi. P'0p"rty. one
can ..y thot it i. the corpo""i"" which i. liable wiLh ito propeTty.
Actually. it I. ,he torpoR,;"n which is .<gardtd as the subject of
,hi> p,opt"y. thaI is, in common language. thigh.. that conSli-
lute ,hi. p'<>p<ny arc attributed ", the <o,porn'ion. Howeve-r, at
"... ,II....igb.. un also be intcrprettd u joint or c"ll<'C-
tive rights of the cOTporation', member. tbat i., they (an be at
tributed to the m<'IIlIN:n .. collectiye rights. Thi...t any .....te. i
mOTe reali"ic i"'.'f'T....tion ,han on. which constructs a fictitious
person as the hold... of th"", righ.... It is, then, JX>5'ibl. to ..y tha,
'he members of ,h. corpontion .re luble with their collective
property fOT the nonfulfillment of.n obligation imposed upon the
corporation by the national legal OTder, Wh.n .....peal of the
corporation', liability for the llonfulfillment of its obligation con-
"ituted by civil executiOll, we mean by this the following .itu._
tion: an organ compete", to di.pose over the p,operty into which
the elyil ""ecutinn i. to k directed i. liable with hi. penon. and
the corporation or the membcts of the corporalion are li.ble wilh
the propert) which may IN: interpreted '0 IN: the propert)' of the
corporation OT the collecli"e propert)' of the corporation membero,
When "'e .peak of lhe liability of the corp0r3,jon, lhm ...e ...
ltibule 10 the corpor3lion the .uffeting of the evil lh'l comi", in
the forcible deprivation of f'Topctty imerpre,ed 10 be the f'Topetty
of the corporation or .he cOllccli"e f'Topetty of the memhero. If
,he fulfillment of the obligOlion ,tipolaled by the national legal
order hal heen made, hy ,he .tatute, the con'elll of lhe obligation
of a d.finile organ. lhen this individual liabilily of the organ i,
added 10 the liabil ily of the cOTporation,
If lhe corpol"31ion i. looked upon a, the SUbjecl of property
rights, then ,he concept of the co!"J'OT'l'ion'. liability f01' delicu
which are the condition for ci,;1 into the f'Tupcrty
p=ts no difficulti..., A difficulty arl"". howeyer. when ,he qu....
T"E rrATIC uucr OP LAW
,"
lion i, ",i..,.f a corporation can be liable fOT delic.. which
a" condition of other ..nctioJU, .uch as imprisonment or evrn
penalty, and if the delicti committed by indio
viduals who have bttn authorized by a public or oe<ret .tatute. To
impose imprioonment or the death penalty upon a corft'ltion
indeed ",enu an abouT<! notion. nUt ,hi. i. no longer paradoxical if
we con.id.... that it i, not ab.urd to ..y th.. a i, in!ficted upon
a corporation. whereby we oay nothing than that civil execu
tion;, dirttted inlo the eorporation. property. which. rc.lilti<;ally
interpreted. i. merely '"<Illtttive property of the memben.
Hen"" the expr""ion corporation is!>ting puni.hed for a de-
lict" merely that the mem!>t,.. a.. colltt.ively liable fOT the
A nationalleg.l order may dcvi ..e from the principle of in
di<'idu.lliability, a principle u.ually adherM to in criminal law. It
may stipulate: "If an individual in hi, capa<:ity a member or
organ of an organization commits a oime, then not only thi. indio
,idual hut all memben or particularly prominent organs of thb
organization ought to he puni"'M hy imprioonment or death:'
That means, the l<gal order may ..labH.h collective Iiabilit}". Then
it i. by no mean. ablUrd to regard thi. collective hability of
membe,.. '" a punWlmem to be executed agai"'t the organiza
tion, than to the civil execution dirttted into the prop-
erty of corpontion .. king dirttrcd again" the corporation. and
to oay, in C3'" of a fine. that the juri"ic penon h.. bttn puni,hed.
Hut. if a criminal .. to stipulate .uch colltt.ive liability a.
outlinM here. then the .ulfering of impri"",ment or death pen.
alty by lhe affected individu.l> would probably not be attributed
to organi,ation-Ianguagc would ref".. in thi< eaM: to give
exp"".ion to a mental opention of.ttribution."
Rights Of the ;uriJlic person
If a tigbt in technical ,en"" that i" a po",er. ittributed to
a <orpo,,"ion to ;uscn. by "king an .ction. the nonfulfillment of an
obligation. then thb PO"'''' is \0 be by an organ deoig-
""tM by the .tatute. The ,ubject of thi< right i. the orgall. To
""'"" I. ' ......" .....1 ",lotiono il ;. ..!d, .. , '""t!.. of 000.... 'h"
......... """'''''' , .." apt"" ,.h" "'''. "<hough n rom! ><to ..hido
"""'''u'' ,"um""",. coptu,......,., dl,t<d ,.11, ...t I<>dMdno"
............ of the "'''... ,h" the 1'" of ,_ ..'to I, ,"rihut<d lO the
........._ .. the iutllti< _ of ,"". a. 5.,b ,nd d.
-,t' "-,. ';;!I P HI ." "!
'.',.: "i:'E-" -H""l-l..
.. .. -.. -- . ,,2, 8. "lI"
'c..c;w ,.r;..!c .
1O ..... ... -
'I . I.
--.1, t' ... ' """-"I.
I
\"i 0',
"il'o; :':0.,-,
.. - I(;l 4i:! _
a: [&'6 if _'" ii - 10.;.. l"
H_l! . l{
te [l]-4joi -S"f;': i ='all 8-! f;-iii g
I
a
i e;" l [g ;:8 c,g "
E1"g 0] Il i,a.E.if '12 ; if-ii" ..
HHiglJ i
g;

.. _lii.:r - i.EIi - '"n .. if .... to.
l
,
.. 1 . 5
:!.;:g;] lE.i!' ig. '!: 9 6" iri.tti
, i:'"og.>!.-";! II''' i ;, ":,,.
_. :"'-'"'' :r _ .Ii
g,;1 -i'J r;; !t s lO gi.
......nc .....CT OF ...... ,1Ig
and righu a:>d thooe which. according to uadilion..l theory. :are
DOt a"ribu.... to .... COtPJIa.ion. n.r lalt unliu the former
..rt DOt colloct.in obIip'J,ow and ripu 01. """ben, bu, ..rt
i""Mdoaal obIiptioao aM rip... in <:orItDK to collecti.... ooc:t;
and the liabili" ft:w .... _f"llilllDC1lt of obliptiow ..t
tributed by tndi.;r..1 thoeoolto the ..... p<A to colltiw Iia
bility of the .......ben.. Thq ...... I..blt with ir coIltin prop.
It is pouiblt-bt.lt DOt muooary-that ly such .. rolltaive
liabili.y of .... """"ben rOO" the DOafullillmm. of the obliptiom
a"riOOtcd to <orpor.lIioo is aubli>hod. Ao has btffi ...cu
tiool<d, to this liability may added ,he individ,w
liability of "'l"n who i. oblipted by ..... lU'e '0 f"lfill
obliga.ion irnpoo<d upon corpo....tion by the n.."",.1 lopl
and liabilily of Lhe corporation need lIot I>c: limil'" to
the properly of Lhe If property of the cor-
ponLioll (the <oll,i,', property of i. nOt
'0 rtpair the damage cauted by ,he nonfulfillment of ,he obtiga.
tionl attribut'" ", the eorporation, individual li.bility of the
IIlcml>c:n (i... liability with their indi.;,J,w propmr) mllf I>c:
Ilipula.m. Tb........ dill"erm COiPJI ...iono willi li...
it... aM with unlimited liabili.,.
n.r ..",iOOtion. ", the ""' .......tion. of oblip'Oons to be fuI
fillftl by .... orpn or .he<..ponotioln and of rights", be uomtd by
.... 1ICtiart t>.kat bran '*1"" or ......... p<A.tiua, io or the AI.... type
....... at<n1>utioo to lIl. indiridllOlladirll "'pad.,. to .... or obli
ptlolu to be fulfilled by'M lU'U'OI"f rlT'p"c>cnlllin IIWI. or rip..
10 be.....ned by a<riott taken by .....IT'p"-......in. A dilcra:>ce
Qistl ,*,1, 00 br as ill .... ..".."..,. (2It' .... obIiptiom lIl.d tights
art Il1ribllted to .. mrporatioo. ((Jnttived of ..... juristic penon, in
,he lau... etSt It> a human bcinJ. Orgall or corponotion
"repr.-..." 1M juriJtic penon of w'"",.I.ion. If il i. r<:Wg-
IIIud Wt the obi igatior...nd f;ghto ill qw:uion can be amibuttd
to the mcmben a, collective obligation. and righ... th.en ,he OIgan
of 'he wrpor.uion can bI: looked upon ... the .. ..ntati.. of .he
co.pontion membl:... au,hori,ed by the "otute, The of
is togal ,,,,nlolcti,,n by which this rcb,ion,hip be-
tWttIl wrpor.ttc 0'1"" Ind the .. is el\3btilohed. The
mucf>.<liJCuum q..... ion althe betw...n being an 0'1""
and brill'" reprat'nlliti... i quation al aufib..ti,*,. Beina: rtp-
,go
nu: ITATIC .....1tCT ......
.-..... as wd.l .. beinlan 0Ip.n is the ,<SuI. of awibll'ioa;."
lDd.iyiduai is a rq>tnm i if l>io acu an: auributed to U>Olhcr
iadi.id.w. wd be ill aD if his acu are auribulCd 10 a .....
ponUga. <hot ... rdal.td to the Wl.i.,. at a .-mat.i., ordu. per-
_iHd by <his atnibutiool.
I) Tiu jUriJlK Pn>o...4> .... A""ilNryt Ctmu/H <>I
urJ sm.u
Aocord1ng 10 the prcadina anal'.... <he jllriAic penon. If, well ..
the I<>Ol!Icd pbyoicll penon. arc COWllUC'iotu of lopl Kiene...
ju."u.e penon ;. neither:o IOClaJ reality nor, 1I U lIOnlC.imn
UlUml'd, ... O<>.U... of the law. II it;" ...id thll, the legal
'lOWllegal porsonali., on a" ;ndi.idual" it m....ety m..na that 'he
legal order maul .b. ;ndi.idual'. behavior ,I>< comen< 0{ obliga-
liom and Legal ocimce ,hi. unity of oblip,ion.
Ind ria;h.. by the ,neeI" of "phy.ic.oJ puoon;' diffc,m. hom ,n.
concept of a human king. This conttpI of P"roi<:aJ ptnon .....y be
uloW" an aW<.i1iarr ampt in the dcsaiption of Law. IMlI ;, r>ccd
noc be be<::oux the li,ua,ion ernted by the legal onkr mar.lto be
lktcribul ..-ithou. thc aid of this "ODttplion. If it is aid that the
Iqal onkr br:slOWl jll....;,; ponooWi., upon a Wip(u,iorI. this
........ (I) that 1M lqal order lCipuI.lus oblipoions aIld ns''''
rrhic:b bo."" as lheir CIlIIIlml <be bellavW01 hllDW> beings who are
orp.no .,.. """"ben 01 ... coopon.Uoa .000000,"ted by Ka'UlC and
(Il that thisamplD,cd ... of facto ...., CUlVUlimu,., ilea..... rd-
ativd, &imply. be deoaibcd with aid of a pcnonific:alioo> 0(
OUlu", lha' CCIIlSlitu,.. Ulipmatioo- Rut this penoniJic:a-
'ioo> aDd iu rcsul" auxiliary mtlttP'" 0( juriKit ptnOD, a",
a prodUCI. 0( lcpl";,....,. dncrihinc Ibt law, not 01 law ilWlf. This
,e-jllt ,roe n= l"""gII nuy II.., '"is conctpr. as
any crealtd by ltpl We ....,... II",ady aid WI any
nonnative <mitt KgUla'ing be....vior of individual, On be per-
..",i6cd; any Ihus "'l"lllcd behlv;nr and oblig>,ionl 10 be
ful611ed by ,hil behavior Or righ" to be user,ed nllY be
to uni" of "'il ol-they may be attribu'ed '0 ,he thul <on
llru<,ed juris,i< penon. If we diningu;"h, u is oometim.. d""e,
betwn 1!SOC""io,,, "'at do Ind lhoot ,h.. do not have juri<tk
f><'TIOnali,y, ..e do 00 beau.., a narrower CUlCept of jurillic pIOI'l
" '
is uled, one in which we '1'..1: of a jur"tk m only II the levi
ord.... contain. provision" for in.tance, that the memb"n
are liable only (or primarily) with their coll"".iY' property. But
thi, naITQw..- <;onap' of juri"ic penon II aho a cOn!'fUction of
logal ;eiener. an auxiliary concept which may but ne..! not b.,
ustd in describing the law. The law cr.ate. obligatjOJU and cigh"
which have hum.n behavior II their conmlt-tbe law does nOi
cre". pcnon. Just a' fUr><,i"". of the I.w tIlllot not he .ttributed
to the science of law. function. of the seimce of I.w must not be
.ltributed '0 lhe law.
g) The Abolition of the D""lilm of RighI Ob/igalic"
According to traditional juri.pruden"" the legal .ubj<'Ct-the phys-
ic.tl or juri.tic p<nan_whh "hi," right.< and obligation. rd.... to
the law in iu ,ubjective It .hQuld he not"'" that the coneept
of "right," pre"'nt.d by trnditional (e<pecially German) juri.,
prudence, a. "Jaw in a .ubjoctiv. ",n",," i. only a .pecial ca", 01
this concept whieh compr.hend. also tho concept of "obligation,"
The 1.1w in thi! subjoctive ..n.. and the 1.1w in the obj..:tive .....'"
(i.e., the logal ord.r os a or oom,,). are di"ingui!h.d a,
two diff.r.." .ph.,-e. Th. Pu" Throty or uw eliminate. this
dualilm by dhsolving the conc.pt or "penon" a. th. per-.onifica.
tion or a compl"" of legal norm.. by reducing ohligation and .ul>.
jocti"e law (in th. tochnical sense) to tho legal norm which at
tach a sanction to a CtttAin wh.vior and mak", the ""ocution of
the sanction dependent on 'n action directed at thi. exocuti",,:
that m....n" by reducing ,he """.lIed law in the .ubjoctiv...nse.,.
the 1.1w in the objoctive sense. By doing so, tho Pu" Theory .limi-
nat", that .ubjoctivi"ic approacb to law iu whose ",!'Vice i, the
c.oncept or law in the .ubj..:tive ......--th. looking upon the law
only from the point or view of party inter..', that i. from the
point of view of what it m.an' to the individual. whother it ..-rv
hi. inter.." or ,h".,.n. him with an evil. Thi. i. tho .pecific.p-
proach of Roman juri.prudence which, ....,nd.lly the result or
practicing juti",. wa. taken over with tho recoption or
Rom.n uw. The approach of the Pure Theory, in coottaot. i. 01>.
joctivi"k .nd univenaJi"ic. fim. at tho totality of l.w in its
."
THE nATIC ASPECT OF lAW
obj.ive validity and ",.ks to """coh'. each individual phenome-
non in it' 'j,.tema,;" comCXI with all .,.h"..-,o conceive in each
pan of the I,ll' the function of lhe tOlall.w. In ,hi. >to", ,h. P"...,
Th"",y i truly mpoic Jeg;ol ,heoTy. But if the I'll,." Throry con
the law as an "organism," it d"... not mean by 'hi' IIOme
.upr ..,mp;r;cal emity (. conception behind which
mu.lly hide some f'O"tul.,,,,). but cxclmi"dy
thi" 'he law i< an order, and therefore all legal problem. rnD", be
set and 1I01ved a. o:m:Ier problem. In thi. way l<gal thtoTy be<om..
an exact "Tu<tura! of po:l;,i.'c law. FTce of all cthi<;al.
f'<'litiClil value judgment>.
v
THE DYNAMIC ASPECT OF LAW
Tm: FOIl. Till: VALIDlTY .,.
.. N.,.....T'y. 0Iwt:J.: THI BM'" Nouo.
d) The <>f tlte &aT<h lor Ih.
Re",on for Yalidity
I
f ,he as "- nonnath-e order i. con",,;vod as l 'j'ltcm of DOrms
.h.. r<gUt...". ,h. b<ha,'in. of men, 1M question .rilto: What
<:on>li,uteo the unity of. multitude of nomu--why does "- na;"
110m> belong 10 a ccruin ood"d And thil 'lueMion i. do.ely lied to
quat;on: Wby'" nom> valid. ,,ha. is the Tnten 01" ;11 valid

A norm nftninglO ,he bth.>riot of a lou " bftn...
mans that i. is bindins---tho. LII individual gtl< 10 behave in the
= dnnmined br l.Iw .......... " bas poin,ed oul in an
earlin..,..""'l thai the quetiool wby a if; nJid, why an indio
rid-w ouP' 10 """n', ill aoeouin -1. an.- b< lllUWttfd by
_ftUiniDg:l bet. that is, by a ,""t ... is; th.IlI
tbe tnoon for ,be validity 01. a nonD cannot be a Ext. FI'OIIl the
dfCtllllil<lDCC thal ....,C1hina: is Qnnat follow that oomethiDlf
....ght 10 br; and ,b... ougltt." bf" <:ann(X be .be ,noon
w. oomtthing OJ. for lhe nJidi,y of. norm un only
be 1M Iidity of anOlher nonn. A norm which reprntnll,hc rca-
son for the ",lid'" of anothu nonn i. .poktn of a. a
high.... norm in rd.,ion '0 a low.... nOrm. hI""", IU jf Ont could
gi.'t a. a ",aMn ror ,he ....Iidi'y or. noro, ,ht drcunlllanco ,hat it
was t.labli.htd by an au'hority. human or di,in.; for txamplt.
1M .1.I1tnltlll; Tht ",ason for Iht validi'y of ,ht Ton Command
mmlJ u ,hal God Jthovah ilWod ,htm m :'>Ioom Sin.i"; or;
"Mtn ought to 10"" thoir tIItmi.... '-"uot J...... Son of God,
."
,,.
i..uod thi, C<llllIlJand in hi. ScrolOll on the Mount." But in both
ca<c. the reuon for ,h. ,.lidily il not tha, God or hi> iOn issued a
certain llmm at a certai" ,iroe in a cer...in pi""" but 1M tacitly
pte>upJ'O'Cd norm that one ought to ol><y 'he wrumand. of God
<)r hi, $<m. To be <cue: 1" the syllogism whox major p,.mile i. the
oughl"tatement .......ling the validity o( ,h. higher norm: "O"e
ought to obey COO", commandl," and whose conclu1.ion is "'.
Iluglnnat.ment .....rting ,h. validi,)' of ,he lower no,m:
"On. ought I O O ~ God'. Ten Commandmeuts," ,h........'ion th.t
God had i..ued the Ten Commandment>, all '"i>-nat.ment," ... ,h.
minor pttmi.le. is an ....nti.llink. The Major premi.. and lh. mi-
nor prem;", are both condition> of ,he <ondU1.ion. BUl ollly the rna
jor premi..,. which Uan oughl-.ta,emem, is ,he <ondillo per qlUlm
in rela,ion to the conch..ion, which i, also an "ught-'Lucmo",; ,hot
i., tlle nonn wha<e validity i. atated in tlle rnoj<>r pr=i.It: i. the
reason for the validity of tlle norm whooe validity ia .tated in .he
condu.tion. lne ,,.tatement functioning OJ minor prem;", i. only
.he <o"d'-li" ,i"e q= no" in rela.ion to .he condu.ion; thi.
melUU: the fact whose exi,nce i. a...,ned in the minor premise i.
nm ,he rCaJOn for the validity of the norm wha<e validity i.
a....,.ted in ,he condu.ion.
The norm whooe validity itated in the ""'jor premise COne
ought to oLey God', ""mmands") i. included in the .upposition
that the nornu, whose reason for validity i. in question, origi"a,e
from an authority, thal is, /tom somebody c<>mpent to create
valid nom,,; this nonn bestowa upon ,he notm<ru,ing person.l.
ity the '"autllOOty"' to create nonn. The mere facl that somebody
commanda somethiog i. no reason to regard the command a. a
"valid"' nonn, a norm binding the individual a' whom it i. di
rected. Only a competent authority can create ,.lid nonn.; and
auch competcnce can only be ba.ed on a no,m that au,ho,i,es the
i.."ing of nonn. The authority authorized 10 i"ue notms is .ub.
jcet to ,hat norm in the .. me mannIT a. the individuala are ,ubject
10 the nOrm. i..ued by the authority.
The nonn which repre<ent> the reason for the validity of an
ocher norm i. called, a. we have said, the '"higher" norm. But the
search for ,he reason of a notm's validity cannot go on indefinitely
like tlle ",arch for the Cause 01 an elfect. It mlU' end with a norm
"'hieh, a. the lase and highest. i. pres"pposed. It must be pTe,up
T 1 l ~ DYN....IC .."'U"r OF UW
'"
poud, becau"" it Cannot be "posited," that i, to oay: created, by an
authority "'ho"" competence would hne to Teot on a "ill higher
uorm, Thi, fipal norm', validity cannot be derived from a higher
norm. tl.. TCo.IOn for its Yalidity cannot be que"ioned. Such a PTe-
.upposed h4\:h." norm i, rderred 10 in thi, book .. ba,ie noTIU."
All nOlTIl' whose validity can be tmeed back to on. and ,h. same
ba,ic POlTIl constitute. 'y"em of nonn., norm.ti.. order, Th.
ba,ie norm i, the Common source fot tbe ,...lidity 01 all norm. that
belong to the ..me or<ler-it i, their common re ."n of Y.lidi,y.
Th. foe' th.t a ceruin nmm belongs to. certAin mder i, baled on
the ein:;um'tancelhol its 10" r""",,, of validi,y i, ,he ha,ic norm of
thio order. It i, the bOlic nonn that com,hut.. the unity in the
multitude of norm, by rep=nting the TelUOP for the v.lidity of
ali pon", that belong to thi.or<ler.
b) The Stntie and the Dynamic PrincipIa
Aeoordiog to the nature of the TCo.IOn for the validity two type' of
norm 'y"em, may be di"ingui.hed: 0 .tatic and a d)'Jlamic tl'P'"
The oorm' of the or<ler of the fim type.", .,.lid on tbe ..rength
of their cnntent: btta",e their validity can be traced hack to a
norm under ,,'hose content the eont",t of the nOlTIl' io quc"ion
can be ,ub<umed a. the particular under the gen.raL Thus, for
ex.mpl., the v.lidity of the norm. "do not lie," "do no' gi.'e
fal.. t."imnny," "do fulfill a promi.lc:' can be dOTived from
norm th.t prrocribe, to be truthful. From the nonn to 10.. on.',
neighbor 00. can dOTi... ,he norm not to harm one', fellow man,
not 10 d.mage him physically or morally, to h.lp him in need,
and_particul.rly_not 10 kill him. Perhaps one might ,educe the
nonm of truthfuln... and 10". lor one'. fellow man In a "ill
higher norm, ,uch a, to be in hannony with ,he uni"",.,e. On this
nonn 0 whole moral order may be founded. Since oil norm. 01 an
or<ler of this type ar. alRody contained in the cont",t of the pre-
supposed norm, they can be deduced from it by w.y of a logical
ope"'tion, namely. conclusion from ,he gene",l 10 the partku!>r.
This nOTtn, pr..upposed as the ba.k porm, .uppli.. both the ,t>..
oon for ,be val idity and lhe <olllent of Ih. norm' doducod from i,
in a logicai operation. A .y'''cm of nonn', whme ....son for validity
-cr. p, So
"
,."
TIll: DYNAMIC ASPECT 0" UW
and con'en' II deduced from a norm p,..uppose<! a. a ba.ic nDTttl,
i. 3 JllUic norm JYJum. The principle 3CC<lrding to which ,h.
validity of the nonn. of ,hi)"'em i. foundod i. a ".tic principle.
However, the norm from whose coment other nornu an de'
duced in ,he dcscr,briI f,..hinD can M ""garded a. ba,ic norm only
if in content i, ...umet! to be dir<c,ly evident. In fact. the ..a",n
for 'he validity and the coment of norm. of a moral 'j"tem.f<' Ire-
qumtly traced back to a nOTm con.idend u, be dirtly A
norm i. "directly evident" meam ,hat it j. immanent in, or
eman,,'.,. from. ''''''''In, The con""p' of dirttlly evident norm
p","Upp""'" the concept of practical reason. ,hat io, " norm
ettating ,,,"'On; but ,hi, concept i, unten.ble, as will be ,hown,
bec3use the function of i. knowing and not willing.
where the croation of nornu i< an act of will. Therefore there
em be no .uch thing< a. nOTm, which are valid only in virtue 01
<heir dir:l1y evident COntent. If a nnrm pT<:,<:Tihing a definite hu
man beb.vior i.....,,<:<1 to b<: dir:tly evident. it i. done because it
i. believed th., it i. creat<:<l by the ",'ill of God OT another "'l'"hu
man .uthOTity or b=use it W31Cre.,<:lIppooed 1I0Tm which pre",ribe. that one
ough, to beha"e a<:<Ol"ding '0 the command, of the norm-<:r<:a,ing
.u,hmi'y OT a<:<ording to the nOTm, cTe"cd hy .mtom. Thi, nOTm
C'1I 'upply only ,he TO""'" for .lte validity, not tho content of ,he
norm, bo.sed on ft. These nOTm, constitute a dyn.mic of
nOTm.. The p.inciple a=ding '0 which tho ,.lidity 01 'he norm.
of this .}","'" i. founded, i, a dpumic principle.
The dynamic typc i. char.u:te.i.ed by thi!: tho pr..uppooed
ha<ic nOTm cont.ino no<hing bm ,he de'ermin.tion of a nOl"m-
cTOa,ing I.ct, ,he .uthorization 01 nOTm... ting au,hOTity or
(which amoun" '0 ,he ..me) a rule ,h....ipulate. how tho gen_
em] .nd individu.l norm. of the mder based on the haJic nonn
ough' to be <reat<:<l. FOl" example: A f.ther oroff< hi. child '0 go
to o<hoo1. The child .now.,.., Why? The Teply m.y he: Ika"..e
,he father '" oroercd .nd the child ought to obey ,h. father. If ,he
child continu.. '0 .,\;" Why ought 1'0 obey ,he father, tho an....e.
may be: Recall" God h comm.nd<d "Ohoy Your Paren"," .nd
one ollgh, to obey the comm.nd. of God. II the child now ..u
ntll OYl<ANIC u:r OJ' LAW '9'1
why .... ought to <>bey the coon nds Dl Cod, ilia, is, if W child
'l"ntionJ w Yalidi,y Dl this -..... Ibm doe .......n is lhI., this
'1u<st.i0ll C1IlOO< be aobd. <ha, the nonn c:annot be ql'Cltioned-
the rnJCIOI for w vafidily cI the nona Dl......... be ..,..."" the
nona has to be p o n u ~ ~ C1ltJ,""" cI "'" nona that KUttd
il-thc child ougho: '0 ao to ~ be dniYftl ffOlD the
basic oorm. FM "'" buic nonlI iI limited to a"o-izc _
CTQ,ing ."lhori'y, it i rule accordi"ll to which the IOtInIII Df this
system 0\Igt., to be cr..tfd. ~ nlidi..,. Dl 1M nonn .hat wmti.
,,,,ed lhe IUninll PO;nl Df ,he '1"ItSIi<ln" no< dniYftllrom ill con
..nt; i. eant>ot be deduced {fOIII thP ball< Donn by a ",ieal opmt-
tion. "h...o bc c..aled by an x, of the fa'h..., and it i, ...lid (if
we formula .. thi, w:ording to 'Tldi,ion) becaulP it w;lS '<l erl
"'; or, formula,<d more co"pc,ly: beeauw: a buic norm u pr..
IUPf'Cd '0 bc ... lid which .",hori",. ,hi, w.y of ac"ing non",.
A norm bclongs '0 an order foundPd OIl luch a N.ic: norm, bc
cauw: it wu crCllPd in a fuhion de,ermin<d by .he ba.k norm_
.nd nIX becaUile i. has. ruin con"nl. The ba.k nOfnl "'Wli",
only the rnJCIOI {or ,he ...1idi'y, bu, not ., ,he ..~ .ime the
con.n" 01 the norm. oonlli,u,inll the oyucm. The,r ollrnnn can
only be determined by ,he XII by which the .uo-i..,. .u,horized
by the buic nOI'D>. aod tbp thori.... in tum .... ,horilPd by tltis
."dtoo""y. <reate 1M politi ft(JI"lIlI 01 <his"1"CtIL AIlotha cum-
ple: In .1Ocia1 communi'y,. ,nbc. it iI " ...om"" ,lut. man who
manics'lIizi P"'" <main _nOto her fa<her M ..."de. If the
II'""""" lOb why lop ouch' to do thio. the .......... ii: bcc:a..... in this
coo:nm.........,. ouch. P"JIt"'D' 1Ia. always bttn made. d... is. bcouoe
lhen: iI. CDSlOIlI> 'o ....t. Ihi. p>rmmt and bcc:aUIP i. is ....mcd
10 be Idf-ni<!crtt ,hlt.he iDdividllll member of the nihe otlght to
bcNve ...n o<hc'r mnnboen CUl'ODtIrily do. This it lhe balic
"""" 01 the nonnative onkr tlut con"i,u'" the community. It
...ablith.. <;Ullom ... norm-cruti"l1 bel. The t_ex.mpla ill ......
,n.. ,he d)'namic: Iy!'" of a norm "1"-em.
The Itatic: and dynamic principIa may bc rombined in ,he Arne
'l"'em if ,he pr,,"uppoac<! b..ic norm. according '0 the dyll.,nic
principle. merely authori.a. normue..ing >uthorilynd if thil
a"thori" (or one >"tho,i.led b, it in tum) nIX only atlbH.ho
nOn'" by ,,'!tieh 0'""," ",,",,-<:tea.ti,,& authorities arr dPlepted. bu,
>100 n""",, in ,,-hi<;b t ~ ",bjPos >... commanded to """....'e. =.
'sS
nil'; OYNAmC .....PCT 0 .. LAw
,ain behavior and from which norm, Can bc deduced, ..
from ,he general to Ill' p"rtiCDlu. The Ten Commandment.> not
only .sunli,h p;o.'en" ., norm-<:t.,ing authorili .. hu' .1", .tipu-
late ge"eral nOnm from wh...., comen< special nonn. may be log;.
ally deducro without '"'Iuicing norm-n...ing .ct.uch as, fot
example, Thou ,hit not n,.k< unlo thee. any graven im.ge, cle. A
wealth 01 sped.l moral nor"" may logically he doduem from the
rouunand '0 1m'" on.."emy. In gh-ing 3 ,"'" fOT ,he val idlly of
the norm. deduced (fOm .ueh command. of God or Ch,;", ,h.
Slatic principle i. applied; in giving a '''''IOn for the validity of
Cod", command. through the ba,;c nonn: "One ought to obey
God'. command." and for the validity of Chri,t', command.
through ,h. basi<: norm: "One ought to ob<y Chri,,', corom.nds,"
the dynamic principle i, applied.
Th lor the Of 0 Legal
The norm .yotem that pre5Ct1,. it..,lf .. a legal order ha.
a dynamkcharact<:r. A legal norm i. no, valid because it h... a eer.
tain COlltont, that i., beeau", ito conten, i. logically deducihle from
pre.upposed h,,,ic n<>ITO, but because il i, created in a certain
way_uhima.. ly in a way d"'"Tluined by a p,"",upp"'cd b"ie
norm. For lhi, reason alone doe> lhe legal norm belong to lhe
legal order whose nom" are created according 10 lhi, !>ask norm,
Therefore any kind of conlont mighlbe law. Ther. i. no human
behavior which, OJ .uch, i, excluded fTOTn being the content of
leg.l norm. The validity of a legal norm may no' be d.nied for
being (in i" cont<:n'j in conftiet ""i'h that of mother norm "hich
dOC$ not belong to the leg.1 oro.r wh""" ho..ic norm i. the reason
for the validi,y of the norm in question, The ba.ic norm of a legal
ord... i. nO!. a material norm which, because i"coment i. regarded
as immediately self-evident, i. prcsuppoocd .. the high... norm
and from which norm. for hum.n behavior are deduced.
The norms of a legal order must be created by a specific proc....
They ore po1ited, th.. i., positiv., norm., .l.m.nts of a p"'ith'e
ord.... If by ,he constitution of a legal community i. undcntood
the n<>ITO or norm. lhal determine how (that is, by whot organ>
and by whal procedure-through legi.lation or c"stom) lhe gen.
e... 1norm, of lhe legal oroer that constitute the community are to
nu: nv....... oc ,",,0;1" OF lAW '9'9
atao.td. ohm the buic.-... is <hilt """" whidt it prcoupp<*d
wllm the """"- ohroup wb.idl the r;:oooti.Ut"'" 11M <:<>me into
or the (:OI>K.i'ut>on-ae:"iD& act tomdowty pertanned
by wu.in ItUllWl is objettively as a DOI1D-
aatia( fan; if. in the IaUtt alot. !he individual or the _bIy
of individ.w. wboo (1"Qled the comtiuuiot> on which the lqaI
order .ew. are looked upoa as nonn-<n:tting alltJ>or;.ia In. LIll
.......,. the bouie nonD dftenninn lbe basic faa 01 law an...... and
.....y in this ,npect delnilted as the wct>U.ution in a Iogial
ImK of lhe wo<d (wltidt will ""pl.oined I.......) in
don to tIw: wruti,uOoo in the maning of low. Tbc bouic:
norm is the prClupp<loled ...ar,ing !,<,int ol a procedure: the procc-
duro of potitiv( law crealion. I, i. i..elf nOC a nonn crealed by (u..
tom or by ,he act of a lepl orpn; il i, not a pooi,ive but a pre<u?"
pooed norm 00 for ... the COnllilUtion-cllabli.hing .uth.,,-ilY i.
looked uporl ... the highell .u'hori,y .nd can .herefo,e not be =
gorded .. authorized by ,he norm 01 a highe, authori'y,
If ,"" '1uCllion .. to the rca"'" for the ""lidity of a -rUin I"pi
norm i. ohm .he .."........ (an only """iot in .he reduction
'0 the baoic nonn of .hil legal om that is, in ,he aooenion tit...
the """" wa. crr...ed_in ,he Iur. i' 7-= rding to ,he bouic:
norm. in the following pllCi we wou.ld like to oonlidct only a
natioaallcgal om..... <hilt is, alcpl oroer in iq ""Ildi.,. to a
opcci6c 1pKC. the llt>Ulled ......itO<'y 01 the ....te. and which is tt-
pdtd U ..... tha, is, u DOt oubordina.ed to ""y h;per
lcpl onIer. We aIWl discwt the problem 01 l.hc Ylllidi,y cl l.hc
I>OmlI cl a ....tiona! lepl order. a' &,.. without coruidning "" in
,omutionallcg::rl ord.... lupcro<di....'ed to Or included in iL
The '1u,........ of ,he._ for l.hc v;r]idi'y of a legal nomI be-
longing .0 a lpcc:i6c n,lIional legal ord.... ","y arioc on the occaoion
of a (o....d'e ac'; for eumple. when one individ....l dq>rivn an
o,h... of hi, life by ""nginr, and now the '1un,ion i. a.ktd why
thi. aet i. Icgal. namely ,he execution of a puniuunenl. and not
murder. Thi...t can be imerp,..,'cd .. being legal only if it ......
p'cteribcd by an indi.idual legal norm, namely an ... ,hat
"ough,' '0 be performed. by norm that pru,nu i,,,,lf a judi.
ci.l Md.ion. Thi...i... 'he que"iono: Ond... wh., "",di.ionl ..
ouch an inlerpreta,ion p*ible. why il a judic:ial decision pre,,"'
in tlti. c;uc,. ,.-hy is lite individual norm ctnrtd ,he...by a legal
""'1II boelooging lO a valid 1fF'1 order aod thcftfon ....pI lO boo
applitd1 'l"bor .......-er it.: &ca.... <hit. individU31 DOmI wn
in applriat; a criminal law lhal coalliliu a gcnon.l DOnIIloCItOr'ding
W which (undtt coodilion/; pn>n>l in .,..., _.oed) <hot
cIetth penal.,. 0UJh. ID boo inllioftl. If _ ad for l.bc lUIOIl fo< the
nlidi.yof <hiocrimWal 1Iw........ Iht .....wer is: l.bccrimWal 11_ is
Qlid btta..... i... cralai by lhe lqisla,Utt. and 1M lqida,,,...,,
iii .urn, it. aulhoriud by 1M alIiOIi."tian lO .....mo1
noniIL If aok fuf the re...... of ""Udi,y of rbc co...,i,,,,ion,
"'''' is. lor the i"CDOn of the nJidily of rbc nortw rqulalina:
crca.ion of rbc general nomu. ... may. perhaps.. dilCO'W an older
collloli'UliOll; that meailllhe ''lliidity of lhe ai"ing OOIll.liluli"" u
ju>tified by Ih. Iacl lhal i, ..'a, crealed according 10 Ihe rules of an
tarli.. c"""itutiOll by way of a com,i'u,ional amendmenl. In ,!Ii,
way"" .vent....lly '" a hi>torkally lim "on"i,u,iol\ 'ha'
"""not hav" be.n <re.,e<! in "'i. "'ay and "'h""" ''lllidi,y. Ih...
fOf', ""llllot be tra<ed back to a pooiti,'e norm <reate<! by a 1cg>1
au'!>ori,y: ... imuad. a' a ",..ilm"'" that valid in
a revolu,ionary ....y. 'ha' is. dlhcr by biQCh of a former CONI;,u-
'ion or for a 'n-ritory ....., 10000CTly w... noe rbc spMK of nliclit,
of a consti,ulion aod of a IUtional lqal ortkr baoed on i,. II
CO",idC'T n>erd, Iht IUlional lqaI ordeT. not imemational 11_.
and if .. for l.bc moon of.he validi.,. of l.bc historieolly lim
consIl'u,ion, ....... l.bc CUI only boo (II w..............1Ik Cod
... ....,u..,j <Iw validit, of .h" consIiw.ion--<ho: asoumpcion
lhal il .. a bind... "'" m CII.... boo It"OMPfI'<>J" if .. w;r. te. in
'.-rpm (.) lhe aeu perfoom.ed xcordlng.o i rbc cr ion ...
applica.ion of nJid genoml \<pI 1lOI1iIS: d 1_) rbc acn ptt.
formed iii application of thfle Fef31 ilarms ... th.. cr.....ion or
application of valid individ....1 l.-gal norms. the rnoon lor
th.. ,'>lid;.,. of a norm can ""I, boo anothn- norm, th.. prefUppt>li.
'ion ....... b<o a norm: not pooiled (i.e.. created) by _ legal au
'hori'Y. bm a p....upp<:>$ed norm. that i. a nomt pr...nPf'O"'tl if
.he meaning of 'he conltitmion<rcadng f".,tl ond the
lubjtive m"aning of the llonn<reating fac.....,ablilhed accord.
ing to the con,,;.u';on are ;'lterp,..tet! .. Ih.ir objtiv. meaning,
Sin<e it il the !wi< nonn of a lfg"1 order (th.. i., all order pre-
Ktibins >etci..., xu). th...ri:or. 'hi! norm. nam..ly ba'k
norm of the legal order <oncernod. muK be formulated u follows:
nU' DYNUUC .urr.cr OF ....W
Com:i,-.. .....gh. <0 be perfonned under <he condi,ion. and in
tile mum<'T which tile h.iw:Jrical1y li... eoruti'U,...., and ,h.. norm.
em,td acmrdjng <0 it. prncribe.. (Ln lbon: One ought <0 behaft
U tlv axutituUoo preoa;ba.j 1M......... of a lopl cmkr, whole
com..... n:a><lD for 'hri, 'l'llidity is this buic uonn a... Me a com-
pitt of valid nonDIlW>tIin& eoordina,tdly oido: by oido:, btu form
a hift-ardoicaJ. SU1>Cl.u... 01 "'per. aod subordina'" ....,....... This
Itnocl.u... 01 the Iqpl onl.... will bediocussed IaleT.
I) TIr" &Ii" N"".. '" T'.l'I.lc""d""la/./"Ki",1 P'I!,uppo.it;"..
To undentand the na,u'e of the buic nonn il mUl< be up' in
mind thO! it ,den direc,ly to a .pi!ic ",m,i'D,ion, lIC,ually ella);>.
Ii.hed by Gu"om o' "attllOry creation, by ond large efff<:live, and
;ndlr=ly '0 the """",Ive o.de, o-co"d according to Ihi. Gon"itu-
lion Ind by and 1>,8" .ffe<:tive: ,h. b..ic norm th....by furni,h..
lhe re:uon for the validity of lhil Corntilution.nd of the coercive
t>r<IeT created in aoo>rdIn ... i,h il... The basic nann, t"","dore, is
not the product of frtt in....n'ion. I, i. DOt prnuppooed hi,nrily
;n me that tMre is a choice bet...een dilferenl buic oonn.
wben the meIIlio, of a conl<i.uUoo-crn,ing act and the
... onttd aa:on:Iin( '0 Illis COftl;(itutiun an in,erpt...td u thril
objeni"" IDnoin(. Onl, if this buic rtfomi.., '0 a 'f'ilic
oooutilUUoo. is preouppooed, thaI it, 1, if;, is po....ppooed that
00<' ouF>' '" bcha.... aooordi...- '" this sp<rik
then an the ...b;.nive -.0;113 of a alOlllilulion<rn,inc act aod
of tile ... <=I,ed ao:ording '" this conuiruUoo be intnpreotd II
their objeni..., -;n;. ,ha, is, II objuti""/y ."Iid lopl IIOnDI.
and tile rela,ioruJIipo nublishcd by thole norms I, reb.
tion..
In ptUuppotin, tho: bIoic norm rrlomi"ll <0 a .pedfie conllilD-
tion, the con''''''' ofllli. Conl<i'DI;on and of ,he nl,i.....l legal
order elu,ed arcordin, to it i. i"el.....nt_i' rna, be a ju,. 01" un
jUlt order: it mayor moy nOl goanot."" a rel.ti,-" condl,lon of
peace within th.. <:ammunity eslabli.hed by it, Th.. prelupposilion
01 .he ba'ic norm d""" nOl Ippro',e .ny valu. tnn...nding pooi.
ti,.., law.
.... op<OoI <U< 0( "'" 10 d_ t>...-: d, PI" ",I, I< 10 ...
.,.""-.
lmobr os only the p".....ppooilioa of the basic nonn maka it
J-lible .0 in<ttptn the oubjeuiw: -inz of ..... consU'lIlioa.
creatitlj;;.:oct (and of the .... cotablWKd xconIing 10 ..... _ ...i'll.
don) ... u..:;T -in&. Wt is,. "" object;w:l, nlid 1q:ol
""""" the basic DOf1D "" rrprnm<ed by tM of Law ...., be
cbancIerUcd "" 1M tnnoemdmtal-qical modilioa of .his iD....
pnt>....... if il is 10 we by analasr a <o"""PC of K:an,',
q>dumo!asr. Ran,ltI4 MH_ is i. """",,bk 10 in.erpIU wi<hou. a
mnaph)'Siat1 hypoth..... u.. facu pnnind by 011' KrUet, ;" the
1.1.." of .....lIre formub<ed by "".u",llCi<f>c.,r fn .he ume ...,.
ohe Th...., of I..a... MHow i. it to in",rpre<
without rt't;tJu..... 10 Jut!>o<i.;.., like God or M.ure, .he
.ubj.;ve meaning 01 ......ain be.. lI.I a ,)'ItC'Ul of objec.ively valid
Ieg:>J nOTm, in .ule. of b .../" The er>i .. an
........ of ,he Theory of Law it: "By pr.."pposlng ,he ba.ie
nOrm th. one ought .0 behave u the con...;tu,ion prQCtibcs, .Ita.
i., ougho in J=n1.na with ,ubjtlve mnning
of 'M comtitutior><t"elo.i"ll OIC. of will-iIICCOftling .0 procrip-
.iON of allthori,y ernning the """"i,uoion.M The f"nc'ion of
,hif blloic norm is 10 found <he nlidi,y of a pooili..., Iepl
order, WI is,. 10 imnpret the m""nias oflh.e 3(U of
human Mingo br which lhe ......... of an d(eai..., conei..., onIer
are ..",,<ed. :as thd. ob;tiw meaning. ..,..., round.a.ion of the
valid;.,. of a pooili"" _ W, is,. ....., """b1i.bed by :an KI of ...ill
and preocribing a cnuln belon;", is <b< .eoult of J 'l'Josistic
pm:..ta.... In this 1J1l.,pm. d.......;0. pumioe is ..... uomion
abou. J ...,...., "'Prded at nlid, """OIdi", 10 which
one ougb. 10 obey the commanda of a ccnain penon. that is, ....
ough' '0 bMan M'CO!ding '0 lbe ntbject.in meaning of ,f>eoe com
mand.; the minor premix;. .......ion of the fact , ....t .hi. ptT.
son h.urom......ndnI to be.....'e in a cenain ...,; and conclu.ion
is ,he a......i"" of the validi., of the norm: , ..... .....gh. 10 M-
have in ,hi. p,artkttla...." Thu. ,he norm whole validi.,. it S1a.ed
in the major pfCmi.., l"8itimi>.. the 'ubjeaive meaning 01 'he
command, who,", ""iOlence ls a..,ned in .he minor prrmi..,. as ,he
comm.nd', objcc.i.e meaning. For vu.mpl.: One ough. '0 obey
Cod', ."",m.nd.. God h.. commanded .0 obey .he eotnmand. of
,he p,arenlS. Hcnu, one OI'8h. to oher ohe command. ollhe p,ar
",IS. Tb". the Rlbjcc:.il'C meaning of the Jet by which J r..b....
r>t" DyN....'" .<SPEer OF ....W
..,
<;OIDIDands a C<TWo behavior of hi> ""n i. Icgitimi>ed as iu obj"".
,hoe meaning. tha, i.. as a binding norm.
The norm who>e v:o!idity i. in ,he major premi", i. a
basic nonn if ito obj...-t.ive v:o!idhy il nOi ques'ioned. It i. no' que>-
,iuned il it< validity <:aJlJlO' be based on a .yJlogi"u;
And i, canno' be "" baocd, it the .tate",e", of tlIe lac' ,h.. ,hi.
nonn w.. e'tabliolted by an individual'.:ret of will ;, no, J"O"'ible
as tlIe minor premil<: of a ,yllngi.m. Thi. il the <:3.. when the per.
Kill wb.. commands one ougb' to obey acwrding to ,be norm
now in que,,;oD. il regarded a, a bighes, authori'y. for .....mple.
God. Then ,he norm prescribing '0 obey the comman<h of thi,
per..,n ha. to be placed a, ,he 'op ot 'he .y1JogUm as i" major
premi", without i, being p<>Mible tha' the norm itself i, .ta,o<1 in
,he form of a condu.ion of a further l}lJogi.m. Thil means: 'he
nOTm i. p,esuppoUd a, a !>a.;., norm.
For ,hi. rea"",. 'he nonn: "One ough, ", obey ,he commands 01
God'" i. a b,,,ic nonn on which the validi,y of the norm: "One
ough' to ohey ,he command, of one', pa,en"';' i. boscd. A theolog-
ical ethic. ,ha' regard. God as the highnt nortn-creating au,hority
cannot .tate tha' ""mobody el.. ha. ordered '0 obey ,he comm""d.
of God-beea.... ,hi. would bove '0 I>c: an authori,y higher rhan
God. And if ,he norm: "One ought to ol>c:y the command. of
God" were preoumed '0 be posited by God, it could no, be ,he rca
oon for the validity of God-created norms, became i, would it",lf
he a God-created nonn. Not can ,heological ethics in i"elf create
.lI<:h a norm (that i., commond to obey the comm.nd. of God)
because a. cognition i, C2tlIlOt be a norm-cre>ting authority.
Theufou, ,h. notm: "One ought to obey the commanm of God;'
... the ba.i<; nonn. cannot be ,he subjecti'"e me.ning 01 an acl of
will; it can only be ,he meaning 01 an .ct of ,hinking. Th>t
means: Theological ethics can only ,tate: "The command 01 the
paren... ha. the cbaracter of an objectively binding nOrm if we pre-
.uppose in our ,hinting ,he norm: 'One ought to obey ,he com
mand. of God' (who ha, commanded to ohey ,be command. of ,he
paren");' n
Sin"" a posi,ivi,,;" ..irn"" 01 law regards ,he creator of 'he hi,
l'HI: OVN.... 'C ""PiCT OF lAW
<orically Iinl COlI!I.hu,ion .. ,he high.., legal authority and the,..
10'" GulIlot maintain LnaL the nonn to obey the command. of the
creator or Lhe constitu,ion iI Ihe .ubjective meaning or ,he ac, of
will 01 an high.. than the ,na'", of the con"ituUon_
ouch .. God', or nature'_ 'h"efore, the ",ie""" o/law cannot
base the "alidity or this norm on a .yllogiil;" pr<Xedure. A positiv.
ink ",ienee of lawcon only .tate ,ha, Lhil nonn iI p"'.uppooed a. a
ba.ic nonn in the loundation or the objeni"e validity or Lhe legal
norm., and therefore p"'.uppo<ed in Lhe interpretation 0/ an
elIec,ive coercive order .. a 'y"Cill of obje<,iveJy valid legal norm.,
Since thi> ba.ic norm cannot be Lhe meaning of an act 01 will; and
.ince Lhi. norm (raLher; the .taLemem aoou' i,) i. logically indiJ.
pcnsable for Lhe 10undaLion of the objective validity of positi ...
legal norm. it can be ,he mtaniug uf an acL of thinking:
Lhe ",ienee 01 law can .tate no more than: the ,ubjec'ive meaning
of Lhe acts by which legal nonn. ate created can be int"preu,d ..
their objce.i,'e meaning only il we pre.uppou: in our juristic
thinking .he norm: "One uugh' to obey the presciptiom of Lhe
hi>w.icaHy Ii .... con"iLution,"
The .cicnce ollawdoeo not prescribe tllat One ought to obey the
command. of ,he ctcatur of the constitution. The ",ienee of Jaw
r"",aim .. merely cognitive dicipline eV"" in it> epistemologicol
'Lltemen, ,hat the buic nonn is ,he condi,ion under which Lhe
.uhjective meanIng of the constitution<reating act, and the .ul>-
jcetive meaning of ,he "'ts performed In accord.nce wiLh the con
..itution. af< interpreted ...heir objecti"e me.ning, a, valid
non"" even if the meaning of .hese act> i, 50 interpreted hy the
legal ocience i\>eIL"
By offering thi, theory of the basic nonn, the Pure Theory uf
Law doeo not in.ugum" a new meLhod of legal cogni,ion, It
merell' makes conscion, whaL most legal scientim do. at ltast un
.Th< q_'.'" "Wbo p,,",up_ Ih< Iwl< .....r " .,....."" bl "'" P.I<
1'b<o>}' .. roIw.., 11>< bul< """" " p_w-<\ br ..h"",.. In<<rpm. "'"
..bjtlve ol the ""","o<lon..,oati"l "",'M ol 'be >eU .... too ,_.
I.. 'n ,be """"'o'io<>. .. tbe ""jt1.., .....1o( of ,.... "'I>, ,hot .. ""i"".-dy
n'id '"',__ ..,." '.Ia'f"'"'''''' 10, rom'''ve '"""'on, not, ru""..., '" 'be v1U.
SID ,be Kka of , ...1' , <on ooIr d_Ibc __ 'M "ot """,Ibc
'.1<b'ns, bon" ".not " .'" [ """......."y ..p"- ""ob' .p'."
tM , ..... "'" thc book ""'" ;, .1", p"",ppoood b, ,bc oci<n '" .... rw.. lol
,In "" 0'6"''''''''' R"M, Th<x
<Ioub" <Ii,.,....... bl 'be d'otln<' ...., p<n<nd ,. <b< Ia." be'-.-n """"OJ
mol f"<'o""""'" """",
e<mJciowIy. whnt thty tbr mcuioncd bctt nOC at
a .....lly det<Troincd, but imtcad illt...-ptff lheir oubjocth... man-
i,,;\1 objectively \'J.Iid nOt"lll6, dut is. at a .... ltpl ordooo".
without a-ing tM .."lidi,y of thi< onkr uport a
1>OI1Il. thu is. upon a nomt nuo<ted by .... authori,y oupt'rior '" thr
Iq:alluu-;ty; in otbtr......u. wlom lhq <XInSidcr u IIw ad...
si\ldy politi.... IIw. Tbt cbeory of tM b;u;c I>OI1Il is ",.nly tbr K-
... 1, of:llt analysis of tbt pnxodu.... wtLicb a pooitiYialc Kime. of
llw hat IhOlj"Slpplild.
) U,1!;<;8/ U"ily of I.<g8/ O,dn; Co""i,, &/ Ntn",.
Sin", tho ba;i<: norm i. th. t.:uon for the validity of all norm. \)<.
IMging '0 th. ",m. legol ord.r, tb. basic norm ron"ilU'" lh.
,,"ily of tbe muhiplicily 01 d, notm. Thi. unity i .,.pr....d
1110 by tho loct ,h., a ll'pl ord moy b< d"""ibed in rut.. of law
thll d
u
l>ut contndict each <>th T
u
be .ure, it i, uoo."il1>l. that
logol O<8"n. may ....at< conAiaing norms----thot 'hey per!<lm. actl
...tulIe ...bjectivc mcaning it an and which ""'y be in con-
ftiet with <2ch if ,heir ...bjcai.......... ning i, intcrp<c'td
"' ,hoit objeai., ni"'. Sucb I """lliet of nonn. i. pr if
one norm p!"<'ICribos a lenain b..h...ior. and IDOIhtr norm ......
cribos aI><lIhn bdsarior in<ompa'ibf. with tbr lira. F.... Cll:lItIlpl
if one """" p<atI"i.... Wt adol.....,. oughr III .... "".. ished, and
I<IOlI>n """" thl. i. ougb, not III b< ""nithcd; or il .... nonn
Jl""'Cfi.... W. Ihcf. OUJbt III .... puntshcd by dath, and IllOtb<r
by impr;""......<- II d<:_ratM
12flicr." is not a lagical oon,radiction in the ict ....... of tbr
wonl, ." though i. i. u'<>ally Slid thaI tho two nclml.
uodict" b ......... For logical principia, ..p<t:tally the principl.
of the <>lClwion 01 conlradktiono., u. appliable to asoen""" tluf
12n be tru. or fal..; if I logkIl conlradiction exi... bet........ two
I...nion. only ,h. on. or th. <>thn ....nion cOn !.Ie "".; if on.
i. tn,. th. OlhCT mUlt b< lois. Rut I nOrm i. neilh.. tru. nOf fll...
but .i,h", ."Iid or in..lid. Ho....vOT. lh.....nion d<'Cribing
normative OttlOT by Slying 'Mt I certain norm i. valid :according
10 thll ordC1" can be 'ru. or rll ..; and particulorly JO lhe rule ol
b ... dfiCribingl logol onl ... bYNJing tha" aaording to WI ord
... THE DYNAMIC ASPECT OF U.w
"""",ive 1<1 ought to or 'lUgh! no, l<I b< p",f",-mro under
cen";,, condition... ThtldoTc.logical principles in general. and th"
Principle of the Exc1u.ioll 01 Contradiction. in ponien]a" are
applicable to rule. of law de'CTihing legal norm.< and therdor. in
directly abo 10 [<gal nonn. Hence it;. by no mean. absurd to ....y
,h., ''''0 legal norm. "coo,.-.din" ..eh o,h",. And ,herelore only
one "I tb. tWO can be rq;arded .. objectively valid. To $.i.f ,ha, a
ought to be and at 'h" ...me time ought not '0 be i. jmt a. mean
ingl... as to say that a i1 and "th. "me 'ime 'hat it i. not. A con-
Ak' of norms i, JDOl as meaoing)... as" logical contradktion.
Ru, ,ince the cognition of law. liJ:. any cognition, 1,,10 I" un-
d.""md ito .ubject a. " meaningful whole and to d.-.:,ibe it in
nonc<>ll1t3dictory ....t<m""tlI. it ....rts from the ... ump'ion thaI
conflict. of nornu within the no'mative orde, which it 'he
of thi, cognition can and mn be ooh-ed by intetpretation. Since
the "TUctU"" of the legal order i. a hi=rehy of highet and lowet
nonm, whetehy rhe highet norm determines the cre.,ion of the
lowet one, 'he problem of norm conllie," within the ",me legal
ordet prelent< itself in two fonno, depending on whethet the <.on-
f1iet i. betw..n two norm. of the ..m. I.vel or b<otween a higher
and olowetnonn.
To begin with, we .hall <on,id" con/lic" b<otween nonn. of the
....m. I.vel. If ",. have a confliet b<otwe<:n g.n=l nonm, Cte3led by
the "me organ at different times, 'hen the volidity of the later
ltonll .upcncJe. the validity 01 the .arli.., contradictory, on. ac.
cording to the principle lex po.ur;or deroglll prjori. Since the
notm-c,.ating organ-the ling or thc p"li3.ment_i. normally au_
thmi'ed to rrreo<:rib<o changeable and therefore aboli'hable nm"",
the principle lex po.ter;or derogat priori may be rrresumed to be
jnduded in the authori,ation. Th. p'inciple aloo applies if the
conflicting nonm are rrr=ibM by two diffetent organ.; for "".
ample. if the comtitution authori'es the king and the porliament
(0 regulate the ;arne 'nhject hy genct:J.l norm., or if legi.laW" and
c"",om arc both Cltablithed .. I_w<'feating fae... How.ver, th.
conflicting nonn. may have been preocribed .imultaneou.ly, by
the ;arne act and by tbe ...me organ, '" th.t the mentioned rrrinci.
pIe i. nOt applicahle, for example if contradictory dan... are con
tained in the ;arne .tatute, .uch as: ""uhety U p"ni.hable and
adultery i' not puni.hable: or: .vetyhody who cornmiued <er-
''1 "! 1"'11 poll!nb,. puo ,.moo 'uo pouw'puoo
'1 uo...xI !'>'in,,,,, uo '0'1' ''1 It'", 'ow 1! "'., ul
'0'1 puo 'ou '! '! !Uq ',nb]u'l""' l-.b{ '10nbopou! 100W
o'! ']\j' "JI1' "'I ....'1'0 ''1' JO no)'!""P''I' 'I.It"'!x 01 "!lO'I'
-no ''I'lJllO' '110 ''I' JO no,,!,,"p ''1' SIlIA!S ln0'l11'" ,,"" 'Ill,," ''1'
'p"op 0' ".mo:> 0....' "!.l0'l,nOl'lS!1U "'01 V ,u.llJo 'ua....Jj!p ''1 PO'o
u''''I ""0'1 O\llJOU 0...., ''I' JI 'IHln,!,,"'" "uo"pap "no, 0"'1
,x '1,n, "lUJOU lonp!AlPU! 0"', """""'1 "lX' Oilo 'WI "!IIuo, V
'WJOu "!""'1 ''1' ''l po'!W!,!RaI
Jlupq JO '1'1""'.' '! JiU)u..w ,.,!,,,"[qn' _'I'" 'U>$:IJd n ", ou
:SU)u"w "'!,,,"[qo ,. pa,:ud....,"! "'l """ l"'ll lIu.;ud '! lIU!""w
'A)lJ>(qO. OU U''1' '(J''I'O 'I'" 'II!'" 'lq[lOOWOOU! ruo[ld!JJS:ud
.10 '\,,0'" l""l'u"'uOU 'U!""IO' "1"1"" XJ! '.[dwxn .lOJ) no" SU!
,uo'w OU JO ('II11"l" U! papunndoJd .uo.'I' 0JO aldnn,x, JOI 'nop
-u.>. uO JO S"!U..W''I' n 'I,n.) SUIUW 'U:U'JI!p. ''''I .," "'II
n 'asu,," 'A!'OWJOU '!'l' "! InJ2!u!u..w "'l "nlu,,' "0'" u!o,
.....,. U! 'A0'l"'l 0' "ISno 'I"np!A!p"! 'mjl ""!,,'[qn, ''I'
-lIu)u....'" 0 "'1"'1' ,;ro uo "ndn 'luO lnq '" .u",,,, nodn "'.IOu
PH'" 0 JO SU!"...,,,, ''1,J>[qo,'P "'o'''''! 10U.:IOp UUOU ,IO"'l ''lL
'WJOI1 ')''''l ''I' 01 lIul\,,"""O pa,!sod" uaaq '.'1 "0 :>11' 'ISn0'l'l.
'lu,.,Jd '! W.lOU Ixllal PH"" 'l"A!".[qO ou :lIU!uw 'A!,:>:>(qO fl!
,. p>1",d..t>11l1 ... un lI,,!u..w 'A!,:>:>!qn. """I'" UO '" ". ou "'01
""'1' put uopo"", W.IOlI 10 ",. ""llInm..", ".uq n.'1' .,... :""1
,SD!lItaw SU!'Il>llIOS "" " JOl.I,!RaI "'P u''1' '.]q]nod "! UO!''''
...,dJ>IU) JO\jlO ''1' JOU auO "'[' ....'I'!.u JI .....'I"!und "'l 0' lqSno
'U1Jn0J JO ,1I0 ''11 ....ol"'l .uouad JO DOl,d."". ''ll 'Ill'" '''11
"p " pall!"'WO' "'" 0'1'" 'poq'JOA:'I .. ".I.. 1] :.. pa'l'!und
"'l 0' 'OU l'1Sno u"noJ JO :>lit ''1' "'0[>'1 ,UQS..L;><f "uP pa'l'!
-und ... 0' lqSno ''''I'P U!",,,., X,,!mm<n 0'1'" 'poq.u'AII" :,""
'jlll SUI'I"""!>""'"! "'\' '>OJ' JON ,:pa'l"!und "'l 0, 'ou l'1Sno ''1
.10 paqnund ... 0' l\jSno m'ln!", ,,!WWO, 0Ij'" 'H.. :""It :..P"'1"
-nnd "'l 01 'OD ''1Sno puo ]1{S!und ... 01 .u",[npv.. :Ii.,
,ou .>op 'jnJ SUI'l)n.'p-.... '''''110 ''11 JO SUll!U]![
... 01 poolu>pUn "'l ux, nuou '110 ''1' D''1' '.uOl'!pt-I'U01 '[l'""
'[UO """ .w,ou 0"', ''ll "ldwox> "U'I;'" '']1 U) so 'JI ro :,Spn(
''I' 'S-. 'u.ll.to ''l'''1 "!0Ij' X011,,"[qn. "'l 0, POOl<
'J>jlUn "'l un norou 0"'1 ''I' ''''l1'3 :"1'" l:>JUno"lfl JO UO!,nl'"
''I' roJ "'!'II!'1!l'SOd Su,,,,01\oJ "'l' 'j'loq.!und 'OU 'R ,j.
10 .. Ul'1>OI '''''ll ""I JO ruouad I"'" 'j'loqOltmd 'I "!l'P mOl
,..
"'V'1 .0 .J;T.IJn' "'I<V","," :flU
,"
ought 10 be puni,hed acrotding to the one nDIm and no' punimed
ac<:ording to 'he other; or it may be ,h" 0'" COurt may find for
<he plaintiff claimed and another court may di,mi.. the ""ion,
whkh mean. that according ", the oue nonn civil ,,,,,<u,ion ought
to be directed imo the property of the defendant, but ""cording ,()
,he o,h... nOTm that civil ""ecmion ought not to be dirttted. The
conDie! i. who<'d by giving ,he exeauj,-c organ the choke between
the two dec;,iom. If civil encution i, carried out as p'eocribed by
,he one norm, then the other norm urnai". permanently ;"eff",,
ti,'. and thado'. lose> iu v.1idily: if ;. not <arrltd OOt,
it i. ,he other way around. Thi, inlerprelJtion ,. advancoNl acroro-
ing to ,he basic nonn. For ,h. buk norm pTeocribe" "Force ought
to be exerted under ,he conditiom .nd in ,h. manner pTOocribcd
by the by and large effective COn5tilUlion and by ,1" hj' and
elf.nive gen",al .nd .If<e'ive indh'idua\ norm, cre.,<d according
to tho constituti""." Ef[<eti,..n<$' i, "ipul.,<d a, condition for
tho nlidity by th. ba,ic norm. [f a conflict i, pr...", ""ithin ,h.
sam. COurt d.d,ion (for "".mple il tho judge i. in.."e). then the
act iimply meaning["" and therdor. no o!>j.ctively ".lid [<gal
norm .xi In this ""ay ,he ba,ic norm mak.. it pos.ib[. to in,er
pre' the rn ial .ubmitl<d to l<gal cogni,ion at a meaningful
""ho[e, ""hieh rn"" to d.",ribe it in [ogically noncontradictory
..1ll<t1e<$.
No conflie, i. possib[e be,,,,,n a high.. nonn and. [ow",
nonn, that i. I><tW<el1 on. "ann which detennin ,he cre.,ion of
ano,h... nonn and ,hi, other norm, b<Cau" the low norm ha,
,h. rea",n for ito ,.. fidi'y in tho higb.r norm, I a low.. norm i,
regard<d "al id. it mlllt be r<gard<d a. being "al id acroniing to "
high.r nonn. How this i. do"e will I>< dioculM<! in ,h. descrip,ion
of the hi<rarchy of ,h. l<'g.l ord",."
1) ugilimory and EBet:rivme..
The func,ion of ,h. ba,ic norm becom.. particularly .pparent if
,he com,itu,ion i. no, ch.ng<d by constitution,l mean' hut by
r""'olution; wh.n ,h. ""i".nce-,ha, i., ,he v.lidity-of the enlire
l<'g.l ord.. directly bated on tho COMdtution. i, in question.
It wa, laid earli... that. nann', .ph.... of validity, partkul.rly
1M'-
"
..,
iu .....ponl sphere of ....' be lim;""; tht .....nni.. and
end of iu .-a!idity mar be by IM.-m ludf or by a
nona ,,,,,,la.'inc u.. Cft:Ition of lhe low<:r ....... 1"bf """'"
01 a IcpI OIrlkr arc ....Iid ....,il ,bUr n1idity is atteI.
ins 10 1M ,...la of thi. kpl onkr. Br ill -.. crn.ion
and application, tht ltpI or*' oktnmincs 1M bqj".. inS Ind mel
of tht r.o.Iidity of tM I....' .....-mL Wrium consti,u,iom ......n,
con,.i" tpttial rula """""""" tht method b, .,hieh.hqr an be
,""nged. The prin<:iplt ,Ju". nonn of. ordn it "lid un,il
it. validit, is .rnninall'd in.""f de,nmincd by thi.legaJ 0Idrr or
rcpbco:d by ,he lidi" nann of lhi. ont.., is caUt<! ,h.
principle of legitimacy.
Thi. prinodplc i ppliable '0 ... n.'i.,....1 Itgal order with on.
Important limi ...,;"" only' Jl don not apply in c'..e of. rcvolu_
.ion. A rem!n,;"n in ,he broader ..,n", of the word (,h,' indud..
... coup i. evcry not l"8'ilimot. change of ,hi. cons,i,,,-
ion or iu rrplacement by an other cocu,itu,i"". }"t'1)nl ,h, poln, of
vicw of legal .oenc.. it I, irrcle....n' wh.-tMr ,hil change of the
lq:al """"ion "". bttn brought .bout by the applQtion of lora:
apin.. the kgi.inwHe I"'nnmen. or by the melDben of .lul p'
emmert. the""dva. ...heth.... by a mH& """'...." " of the populo..
,ion 01" by a Jma111JO"P of ind"'id..m. Dtrioin it only tha. the
...lid RIfIIl;tuUoa hat beat chan,pd 01" ...paced in a manne DOt
by me ......ci.u.ion ...Iid unt;1 then. Utually a """' ...
.... aboliohcs only the old consci.u';"'" and tttUin poIi'icoIly im-
pon<ul' "",tut<:S. A part of the Itll.utel <rGud under the old
cunu.u,;"'" !'<"IDai" ...tid the ...yinz goes; bu. mit OPJ'Ol'"
';001 does DOt lit. If tMw: ..a,u,es are to be regarded .. beit'll ""lid
und.... the DeW rnnoci.u'ion, then thit is mIT beooue.hey
Iuve beat ';olida..... ""pleMly OT taeiuy by ,he new con"itu,ion.
We are con[ron.od he.e root wi." a creation of new law bu. wit"
lhe: m:cption of nonn. of one legal ord.... by ."oth....; IHch :II Ihe
'e<ep,ion of the Roman Law by the Gennan Law. Out .uch'e<q>-
lion tOO i. law etCalion, becoouoe ,he diTC<:. 'UlOlt rOT .he ""tidi.y
0/ the leg.1 no.tIntahn OVer by .he n..........OhHlon .,. ntlbli.hed
COllJlitu,ion can only be the new COllltitut;on. The content of
th.,. norms ",maim unchangod, but the .nJOIl for their val idity,
In fac. me ..uon r.... Ihe Yllidity of the en,i", legal ord..... h..
bcm changed. N the new com.;'",;on becomes ...lId. 10 ';m..l
uncou>ly chaflget the buic nona, tho. is, the p'.... ppooi.u. 1oC-
cOldi"( to whidl ne inonpr(Vd .. nDnII-auLiIl( and ...""..
appl.,.u.g be" the be. and the fac" eoub-
IUhat aa;ordrng ... the c:onsti"......... Suppooe the old comti.utiorJ
bad the cbano;tn of an ablolu.e -..:hy and the ""' CD< <Ji a
parliammoary do""",IoC,. n.... .1>< balic ........ DO Iongn" .<'ado:
"C......,;,.., acts ""Sbl to 1>< arri<d .... t undtJ the <ORditiont and ;n
the mann<r .. do.ermin! lor the old. DO 1ong<r ""lid. ooruLi'u-
,iooo'o:. and h...u hy the and indimual.-.ns crn.od and
appli<d br Lbe ooruLi.u,iQn.ally 1Unclionins mon.atch Ind .he
"'1"nl del<g>'od br him; inlleod, 1M haole norm .odo: "Q:lerci""
.." oughl'" be CltTinI .... t under the condi.ionI and in the man-
nn" de'...... inod by ,k new conl,i,",ion,"' and hence by ,he gen.
.....1 and norm. cr'lt<d and appli-.l by ,he parlilm.n.
,'",cording'D th.. con""u';on and by the org.nl <klq:..-.l
in 'h.... nonnL Tho n.... bu;c nonn dO<'< no. m.li.e i, pc>!libJe-
lik. 'he old one-,o 'eg.rd a <....;n ....1 al ,h!.>sol",.
mo..arch. hut make> ;, poIIibl. '0 reg.ard a popularly oleet<d p"'li.o-
m"lIas a legal auU-i,y. Aordiug to the buic nonn ofa nl'ionaI
lopl onkr. Lb. gmttlllllen" which nt:>... gt'.......l Ind in-
.... 1 .......... bas"" on an <lICCl''''' COItlli'utiorJ is Lb. lqiti-
mo.'. pemmen' of tlte lUI
n... <bang< of the baP< nona lollows the chongt' of the fxu
tha.' are in,crprctcd as nca'ma: and apply'''( nlid kpIl1O<mL
Tile hat.io: IJ(InD refen 0011 to a <0ItJt.i......... which iI loClually
...h1ilohcd bt IqiIllLi"e loCI. or antom. and is deem A OD."ti-
IUliooo'o is ... if the nomoi created in lonnily ilb ilar.
lor and large applied and obcr<d. As th. old tomtilution
lofa its eftti and lbe ""' one bu beeo,,>( dl"mi"", the
XU thollppear itlt the ...bjli"" _ing01 crea.ing or appl\'
ing legal norml an' no longer br preouppooing .be old
ba$ic norm, bul by p..... ppooing the new 0.... The ,ta,u,a wued
und"" tlte old conlli,u'!on and not tall.= are no long.......
prd<d as ....Iid. Ind .he organ. luthoriltd br tit. old <on"it""""
no long<:r a. <ompeten'. If 'he revolu,;on i. no, "'.....f,,1 Ihore
would be no rea"m to replace 'he old norm by I new One,
Then, ,he would not be II procedure cre.,ing
new Law, bU'--aording to 'he old colllLi,Ulion and tbe criminal
tl .. baled on il and as ""lid_.......ld be ,nlerp'et<d ..
."
b.i&b tttUOOl. Tbt principle htre is Lbe principle of dEtc-
li.-mca. The principle ollqi.ill>XJ is limited by u.. principk of

t) V.Ji4i" a4I
This onnh tlw nnpba""'" conneaioD. (10
importatJ. lor a theory of pclIIi,i'-e .....) 1>0:....""" <he nlidi'7 aDd
tho! dQ:lin:nna 0( law. Tho: concct cktermi"",ioa of this rda
tiombip is one of 11K mOlt important and.u the ...me ,i_ mOlt
dilliclill problClDI of a pclIIitiviltic IqaI theo<y. I. is only prcial
cax of the rd:ujombip belwtfll,hc "ough." of the nonn and
the "i," of ' ..nl ..,.Ii,y. !leg,1lSt; thc act by which. pOIlitivc legal
norm i, cr ted. too, is an "il-fac," (German: SeillllQIUch) just
II ,hffcelh'en .... of ,he lerl nOrm, A po<i.ivi"k leg.1 ,11=, i.
beN by the ta&k 1<> find .he OOrrecl middle ,<wi 'wo u
which both are IInt.noble. The one <:Xlreme is the th..is
.ha. thtte is no colllleaion be,,,,een validily u """.thilll that
oughllO be and ell""",iv"'lN'" tomething that il; lha. 1M ... Iidi.y
of .he law i. en,'",l, independent of its dca;"....,.. Tbe 0tM
ntTft!>e is the thtsil that validi.,. aDd dfcctiftDal an: idC'D'ical.
An id<:aJ.isUc lheory oIb...mdo to l.hc fin. "",DUon of this pn:>t>.
Ie..... a rulistic th...., to l.hc: ICCO<Id. The 6nl is ..-rong lor i. is
undmi.b/.t !.hal a lq;al onkr in ill a ....in:ty. aDd an indi<ridual
kpl norm _ -U. _ thdr nljd.i.,. -.rbnl. m..., ca>l' to boo dlOC-
Ii.,,; and tlw a rdalion aha brcwua the ....Atof tbc kpl non:n
and the uof pllyUa1 ruli'J alJo inoofar aslhe pooiti", Ifpl_
to boo valid, muse booemuftl b1 an an which csiw in.boo nalilJof
boo;.... &be """"'" oolu,ioo u _g booa...., it is "juallJ un-
dfniable that thott all' manJ 0_ as has been Ibown 1>cftIIl' .._
in wh;m l<pl norms all' ,tg:trdrd as '';IUd although m..., all' not,
or not yet. declive. The oolution propo>rd by tbe PUTe Tt>cory of
Law i. thi" ]uot .. the nOrm (according to which lQrne,hing
ouhl '0 be) .. ,h, meaning of an act i, not identical with the ac,
(which actually uj, in the Ame way i, 'he validity of a 1'8"1 nOrm
not identical with ill efftcdv.ncu; the .ffec,i,,,,n... of a le8"1 order
al a whole and ,he .Il'tc';ven.... of a lingle legal nOrm all'_jun as
t'" l\OIl'Il<tudng act-th. condition lor the validi'y; cllcctivell<'ll
WQ. PI' ...... 1ft
1-- , g,.-., -!i "r' , "'" .,-j1''' - '.] 1i!' E" =
1. E"'! :t =g'!. 11 e I i r- a: ;; g !' =: 5: &: s. &. I i ..

""1-:.,3
1
,.-i"-'1 "'g' ,:
I
,-"!= "1" .',r.-.a "'1-' , ,
-3'M.Jt;'l l;Il," t.i l" _M ;;.... Ii ,.
0 __ , " , ,"'-1 ,<. ., p. ,
"f"," E' HHi ,
"M' - al'f- ., (J:, ,.. .j1:l lO'
... Hi ',f :lgfg;rI>il'-:s.!I glC
s:h ..'i ,
Mii "s" $l ... l';

'ill ,.i!';i::'<",.: 5
.. s !'
;",. :l;; a.. a.: f rl: S l".g. :<. n _ i ;- ii:lo a. 6' ; !f l;:
.. &i: L; 6' t 11
"'-'1. 1,,_ i'-'-'-,s,
-.:;o":ll '" -l!: '; _ , If "to -.,.:ll

J l

T"E "v""M,e ;.s"<.<;T O ~ LAW
u,
exceptionally no' elfe<.Tive in 'ingle case,. As meruiono:d in an
oth.. <:onn,ion, the possibility of an .ntagoni,m be'ween 'hat
which i' pro:s<ribed by a norm'" something that ought to be and
W., which aClually happens must exist; a nOTm, pteIC,ibing that
iOmething ouglll to n." which, .. one ~ n o w , n.,loreh.nd mW' hap-
J"'tl anpvay according '0 law of nature, i' me.ningl ...........uch
norm wonld not be reg.rded as valid. On the othee I...nd, norm
i' not regattled '" valid which i' never obeyed oe applied. In fact, a
legal norm may I".., it< validily by nev.. being .pplied or obeyed-
by ",""alled deJUellllk. Desuetudo may be described a. negative
C,,>lom, and i" ....mial function i' to abolish the validily of an
exi,'ing norm. 1 Cu'tom is a I'''''-creating I.ct at all, then e"en lhe
validity of ,,.tutory law can be aboli,hed 1>y customary law. If
elfe<liveneq in lhe developed ..n.. is We <:ondition fur We valid
ity no. only of .he legal order a. a whole bUI also of a single legal
norm, then the I.w-creatlng function of Cu>lom c.nnot be ex-
cluded hy ".,u'ory law, at Ie." not '" fae .. the negative function
of desueludo is conmed.
The <leICribed rel.,ion belween val idity and efftiv""..' refers
to general leg.l norm'. Bu. also individual legal norm' (judicial
<Ii.ion" .dminiltrative dreaj tha' proscribe an individual
coercive .ct lose their validity if the)' are permanently unexeculo:d
and therefo.e ineffeai"e, ,.. h.. n.,en .hown in dte discu"ion 01 a
wnllict n.,twun two legal deci'iom."
Effecti'.ne" i. a condi.ion for the validity-hut it i. not ,..lid
ity. Thi. mUst be Slreued beeau.., time and again 'he ellott h'"
been made to identify "alidity with effeeti,en...; and .uch identi
ficuion is tempting bee.u,", it Ittltli to simplify lhe .heoretical
.itu'lion. Still, the efforl i' doomed .0 failure, not only n.,cause
even a pardy inellecti"e legal otd.... or legal norm may n., ...gattled
a. v.lid.nd an absolulely effective norm which cannot be vi".
Ia'ed '" invalid hecau,", not being regarded a, a nOTm 01 all: but
pa..iculatly lor thi. rea."n' ][ 'he v,1idi,y, ,h.. I,. the 'pecifie
exi.lence of lhe law, i' collS,de,ed to be part of natural ....Iity. one
i. una hie to gr.up the 'pecific me.ning in which the law add......
i""lf to reality and ,he..hy juxu!","", itself to reality. which can
be in confOTmity or in conflict with the law only if re,lity i.
no. identical Wilh ,he validity of the law. Ju" a' il i. impos.ible in
-Cl. p. 001-
"
..,
TIlE DYNAAUC ASprer OF LAW
d.",rmininll validity to ;gn",.., i" ula.;"n to rnJity, iO it U lik...
wise impossible '" Kkntily ',didity and "3Iily. If we ""pla the
e<>n<cpt of realily (a. efloc.;vrnc.. of the legal ordet) by the .on
cept of power, ,hen tile problem of the relation between validity
and dftt,ivellc" of the legal order coin.id.. with the more
familiar prol>Jem of the rolatio",hip bet"'tnl law and power or
right and might. And th,,", the ""Iulion atumplcd be.. is merely
the .demi6cally exact formulation of the old truism th., righ'
cannot exist without might and yot is not idtn'ical ",'ith might.
Right (lhe Law), aewrding > Ihe theory he,.., developed, i. a n,..
tain order (or organization) 01 might.
h) The n..,;. Norm of Inle"'''lional lAw
We shall now abo t""'ider lhe imemaliorulilegal onle. in ",I.tion
10 na'ional ltgal ord.,,; and we ,hall ...um............ it i'
...umed_,h<l, inu:roadoml law i. valid fnr a .\ate only if iu
go,ernmont on tho b..i. of an eff<cd'e constitution hOI '<cog'
niztd intemationallaw; thon our awwer gi,en 10 fa. to 'ho quO$-
don OJ '0 why law i' valid, i. still the Jarue, <.be ..3.IOtt for <.be
validity of law i' a p.oouppooed balk norm referring to an eff<ctive
constitution. Fo' in thiJ=, intemat;onallaw i' only a part of the
nati""al legal order, ..gard.d a.llOvaoign-and tho ..a",n for ,h.
"alidityof the national l<gal ord<r i. the ba,;c norm ",forting to
the <!fecti"o m"itution. Tho ba'ic norm. as <.bo rea",,, for the
validity of <.b. constitution, is at ,h...m. time the reason for the
validity of intrrnationallaw, rowgnizod on tho basts of tho consti
tution.
Tho ,ituati"" i. ditforcnt. however. if intomational law is not
regarded "" p"rt of tho n.,ional legal ord.., but as a .(w<r.ign
l<gal o.der, supcrordinatod '0 all national l<gal orders. limiting
thorn in <.boir .ph..... of validity; if, in o<.ba word., ono docs not
assumo tho primacy of tho national l<gal orders, but 'ho primacy
of tho intomationallegal order." The latter docs. in fac,. contain
a norm ,h.t rcp""""'u the 'e>Jon for <.bo validity of the indi'idoal
nationallcgaJ orders. Therefore the rca"", for the validity of tho
individual national legal order an 1>0 found in positive intan.
'ionallaw. In that case, a positive notm is the rca""" for the valid
...._ of ,I>< "'..""',....., q.J onIc<,"
THr: DYNA."C O. uw
'"
i,yof thi< l.gal ord..., not 1 mor.ly pr..uppos.ed norm. Th. norm
of intornational law that ,..,pteson" this ,..,ason for ,h. validity
wually i. Ileocribod by th. "at.m.nt tbat, according to gon.ral in-
t.rnation.1 law, a gov.rnmtDt which, indep"ndent of o,h.r gov
...nmento. eX"''' elfec'iv. control ov... the population of a c"'lain
territory", i. 'he legitimate g<lvemment; and that the populotion
th.. !ive' und....uch a gov...nmem in ,hi. territory constitut., a
'""at."' in ,h. m.aning of int","atio"allaw. regardl ... of wh.thor
,hi. g<lvorllmem exer", thi' rffectiv. control on the ba'i' of a pre-
viou.ly rxiititlg com,itution or of one ..tabl;'lI.d by revolution.
Tratulaled into l.gal langu.ge: A nonn of general international
lawauthoriz.. an indi.idual or a group of indi.iduals, on the b",i.
of an .1f<'C,iv. con"itlllion, to cr and apply a. a legitimate gov
ernment a normative roe",;". ord That norm. thus. legitimi...
thi< coercive ord.r for th. territory" of it< actual .ffecti'-.n... a. a
valid legal o'd.... and 'he community constituted by thi' coercive
ord.r a, a ",tat.'" in the ..n.. 01 international law_nganll... 01
whether the gm...nm.tIl cam. to pow... in a '"legitimate" way (in
th.......se of the previous constitution) or by revolution, A<;cord.
ing to ;mcm"woal law, ,hi. pow... i' to be regatdcd as legar
pow.... Thi. means ,hat int.rnational low legi,imi,.. a oucc...ful
revolution a,. law-croating procedure. If a posi,ive norm of inter-
n..ioool law i' recogniled a, the ro.",n for ,h. v.lidity of ana_
,ionallogal ord... ,h. probl=> of the basic norm i' ,hilted. because
th. reason lor the v.lidity of ,h. nation.l legal ord...., then, i, no
longer 1 nonn only pr..upposcd in juristic 'hinling bot " p"'itive
OOfIIl of imern.tion.l I.w; .nd 'hen the qu."ion a,i"" a, to the
reason for ,h. validi,y 01 the intcm..ionallcgal ord.r to which 'he
norm belongs on which the validity 01 the individual natioo.l
legal ord.r i, founded_the norm in which thi,l.gal ordcr find. its
dir<'Ct, although not i" ul'ima'e, ..">on for the validity. Thi, r.a
son of ,'alidity. then, <;an only be ,h. ba'ic norm of int...n.,ional
l.w. Which. th..elore, i, the indirect ro.>on for th. v.lidity of ,h.
national legal ord.... As a gonuin. "",,ic norm, i' i. a pmupposed
_not a nonn. It repr...n" 'he pr..upposition under
which gen.ral ;ntema,ional law i' rogarded ., th. set of obj",,
tively v.lid nonn. that ,..,gul.", lhe mutual behaviot 01 "at..,
Th... nOfIIl' ate created by "mom. con,tiru,ed br actual be-
havior 01 the "stat..." that is, 01 th_ individual' who ae, a,
".
THE DYN"M'C "'frCT OF UW
gov<mmcnu .ording '0 nadonal legal otdtn. Th.... norm. are
inlorpre,e<! .,legal nCITm' binding lh" ,tat.., be<:au", a ba!ic nOrm
i, pT<'Uppo.w. whieh .".bl;ili.. custom .moog "ates a, a I.",.
creating act. Th" ba>k nOrm run< a. followo: "State>-th., is, ,he
RO"tlnm"nl' of lh" ot'll...-in ,h.ir mUlu.1 rda,ioru ough, to be-
b..,. in .uch a w.y"; or: "Coercion of .t"e agai"" .... t. ought to
be exercised undor <he <;oodirion. and in ,he manner, ,hat ron
form. with ,h. Custom constituted by ,h" aetual behavior of ,h"
"at:'" Thi. i. lh. "com,iIUlion" of intc"la,ional law in a
lTOo",ondental.logiul ",,,,e."
One of ,h" norm. of in'em.,ional law created by custom au
thoriz.. ,h" ,tat.. to regulate ,h.i, mutual ladom by IT'''Y. Th"
rea",n for tho validity of ,h. legal nom" of intanati<mal I.w cre"
attd by n'c.,y i. this cus'om<re.,ed norm, It is usually formula,.d
in the .ent""",,: [Hula Junl urvanda.
The prelluppole<l basic nann of intern.tional law, which ins,i.
lUlelI custOIll co"'titn..d by the 'lat", a, I."'-er.ating fact.x-
pr.""s a principle that is the basic p,,,,nppooition of.lI customary
I.",: the individual ough' to beh.ve in such. m"""er a. the others
u'ually beh"'e (believing that they ought to beh",'e that w.y).
applird to the mutual behavior of st..es, that is. ,he behavior of
the individuals quaHfird by ,he national legal ord.... '" govern
ment orga",,"
No .ffirmati"" 01 a ,'alue transcending positive law i, inherent
in the basic norm 01 internation.l law. no, .ven of ,he value 01
peace guar:IIl,d by the general intefllation.l!a", cr.ated by ,ns-
tom .nd ,he p.rticular intern.tion.1 law created by tr.aty. Inter
nation.lla'" and_if it> prima<y i. assumrd_the subordioated na
tional legal orden are no' volid "b.cau.... and "imobr as" they
reali,e the value ,h.. comisii in pea",,: lhO')' m3j' realize thi, value
il and so far", they 're v.lid; .nd they are valid if. basic nonn i,
pr..uppoocd thai irutitut.. ,n,tom among "at..... I."'-aea,ing
fac' regardl.... of ,be <.onten' of the nonn. ,hu. created. If ,he rea
son for the v3lidity of n3tiooallegal order. i. lound in a norm of
-C/A.1>-<l
~ C 1 ....do
~ The a-r, held by _.y ......."(.... "on< ,; "'" by ..p d ~ ,bot tho
........ fO'" , 0 o 10 <II< booio .. '''' ;0",' 10.. I. ", "" ni....
1>>_ It em "" in..'01 ",,'y with < .I<l <>l tile t!cti"" tho' ,t>< <not...
....b1iob<d by <II< rondDd ot _.... ;,.. toci' ",,,,,.
,
OY><.....IC .urECT Of' ...... 111
i"lttna,iona.llaw, lauer .. uD<kntood as a lepl onkr ....
perioo 10 l.bc former and Ibndo<r as tbt higbft< IOftfrian kpl
CO'tkt-. If l.bc .... if. tIK na'ioon\lopl ...or.-", ...
tbolal m",nd 10 as ..rip thrn <his M..,.,trrign,,... <an _Iy
_ tha' l.bc national IqpI O<dn> ;ur ....b<><dina<ed. o.d, 10 tbo
in<nmtiona.lloopl CO'tkt-
) TIw T.tory 01 I.t &Jic N_ ...., IU
r.eory 01 /10.,,,.&1. lJI,.
II ,he qu<Stion as 10 <Itt: '",100<I10< 'hr .-alid.i.y 01. potilive law, that
....hr ques.ion why lhr nor.... of an <l1",.i,'c <""",iYC onler ough'
.0 be appl ied and obcl'ed, ain" at an cthical-poli.ical ju.. il'tca.ioIl
of 'hi.> coc",;"c order. wbich ",can. at a finn "andard :teCurding '"
which a positi"c Irg:tl "rM. may be judged .. "j".....".1 .herdorc
a......Iid "u"jut".nd lherd"", invalid, then .hc balic noml
01. thc Purr Theory of Law doe. neither l'irld 'u<:h a ju..ification
nor JIICh t.>n<Iard. For potiti,c taw-a. poin.ed OU' "_i> jUtU
Gcd only by a """'" or norma'ive ordc-r with wlticlt posi.i"" I ..
a<:cIlI<ding to ill ron.fflto, mayor may not COlli"",,, Itct>tt be j ....
or unj..... The Iwi.: r>onn. potKmed by the: !'uK 1'hcory of La..
as l.bc COIII<I.itioot lor tbt objoecthc ...lidi.y of law. csublWlcs the
'-alidi,y 01 ery pooiti"" Ioopl Oftlcr. that io, 01 """1 cono:i...,
CO'tkt- <rca<ed. by:octo of Itu....... bciDp and by ..... Ia'l" dfcnin.
Aa;:unling to the Purc Tllcoey 01. La... as a IqpI tbc-
...,.. _ IqpI onkr <an be rcprdftl ,.. ..x lI'Olormiot&:
..ith iu basOc .........nd hence u not nlid. 'Jbto o;o.ll.... of a pooi-
.i.., lcpl ordct i> en,irely indcpn>tknl from i .. basOc.-on. For_
.hc point mu.. be IUCSM'd---only l.bc .-aIidi,y. DOt ,be con....t of.
levi tmlercan bedcri.-cd rom the baJic norm. EY"1 by and large
c,i"" <""",iYC order can be intnprcted .. an objc<".i""ly ...lid
norm..i,'c onler. The ...lidity of a poo.i'i,c lcpl order cannOf be
dcnied 1>au... of 'ltc ron..n, 01. III nOTIl... Thi. i. an .."",...1Tm 'hat ,h. Pur. Theory of Law ah"w, ;1..1 a' a pooi.;yij.
'ic Icgal.hcory. Th. Pur. Tll.OTy dClCTibro ,h. pooi\iv. l.w at.n
objec.iYcly ...lid norm. I;'" order and .tat.. th.. 'hi! ill'."'rc...
int, io .,.....1>1. only undcr the mn<!ili"" 'hal Iwic norm io pre-

... DNAM'C A.!IPKCT OP lAW
.upposed according to wh;"h the ,ubj,ive m ning of the law_
creating acts i. al", their obj,i,'" ",nnlog. The Pure Theory.
thereby characttti thi, interpretation a. pos.<ible, nO' n....'y,
and prne"t! the object;'" validity of positive Jaw only as
cOIlditional--namely conditiontd by 'be pTe.upposed ba.k nonn.
The lac. 'h'" tb. bwc norm of. positivcl<'g:ll ",de< may but need
nol be PrciUpJ'OSW mcam: ,he rcl.,'ant interhurn.n r.laliomhip:!
moy be, but n""d nO, be. imerp'"" ao "normative," thot is, a.
obligation.. authorization. ';gh....tc. com';tnte<! by ob}ectivcly
valid nOma l, means lurth....: th"')' can be ;""'preted without
.nch p,nupposi,ion (i.e., wilhom the haJlic norm) as p""..". ,d._
tions (i.e., ",l.,ion. betwn commanding and obeying or disobey.
ing human being.)-in oth"" wonl. they no be intcrproted
oociologically. no' juristically." ba'lc nOnn.... mown,"
a norm pl,,"upJ>O'<'d in the foundation of of po,ltlve
law, i.< only tunooendent;o]logical condition of thi'
lntetptotallon, it dotS not p<"rform an ethlcal'pol itical but only an
epiStemological fnnclion."
A con,isle,,' theory of natural law dHfers from a positivistic
theory of law in lhat the naturallaw IheoT)' "",1:.0 the re.son (0'
the validity o( I.w In a nat"rall.w, different from positive
law, and he""" in" ordtt with whiCh the law,
",cording 10 I" 01 lt13y n", conform, >0 that the
positive law. i( nol In conformily with natural law, mml I>e 1<"-
In nrlkr I"'blia.1ioou I -' .........p.. lor I... ""', tho I"""'Ppool"'"
'" .... boo!<.-.. I, bo' __,.,., An hl.. do<> mo.
th< bui< ....... y"", ""..pO< ....id_lnl' Tb< hi.. <motio<Wly ..jto ....
I,,, _ .. O<d<r. h< "'*'" to ,II< I.w; II< won... _ ..,oiiy htt '" >-
<K com..",;" ......"ud ..itl.uu""""';" ...!<T. A..t<II.... 10. poIl,"'"
"'i'oo.. I>..,d .... ",toin wiob. Tho In"",,,''';,,,,. do<> ...
_"PI""<' ,,",I, _m, ... ,-''''.1 ."i,,",,,. E'''''n ...."h;". II 1>< ..",
p''''..... '" "". oould d<o<rib< poolli.. "W ... 'l"'''" '" nil<! ....,..., w".om
N.iOI '0 'PI'tO" '" 'hi' ,,"w, ....y ..."".,., In ..hi<h ,.. "piw.... kpi Ok<
i. d<ocr;h<d ... opkm '" .."... """""""'I ....;p,...... u,.<>ri..,...... "'''''',
iu"""!dl_." wrl".. .,. l.,i'" who poIl'l<olly ..p...... '" 'hlo kpl onk.
-Th",_. 'ho -.no< '" .................. _. <10<, ..... 0' 'DI"lti......
I< _i.......-y .twl<_. A_I"C to iho dotlri.. of ""'Pi'"'"
"W I, ..ild _Iy If ;, .. "'''1'"'"'' .,. .... lndlYld",,1< 'ubi' to it, wht.;h
"""no; it , .... indi.I<I",,'....... 'N' """ 0'" to boh-.Ii.... ,,, .... """'"
'" ,,,, pooltt.. "w. Thl< ><>in"..... " ;, ..ld. """'''y to'" p"".nd " 'hI<
""',,,. bo p<oml, It i' ...un><d. fu:LI'ioulIy, ... ",,;, Tho ......,.,. '"
""'P;iioo. O>nOdoL>uy Of """""""""I,. p""'_ .... _, of indi.Jd..,libm,
....".<Io,..i"",-, 'ho<". ,,,, ..... th>.t 'he i",,;"".., ouShl '0 do only who<
... w..," to do. Thlo io botl< n<>nII 0< 'hl, tb<oty. 'n.. dill",... lntWttn i'
.nd ,he ''-1 of ,he ""'.. 01. pooltt.. i<H'l ...1<,." "ugh, by the Po"
Th<o<y '" Low, 10_..
THE DYNAMIC A'Pu:T OF LAW
".
gan!rd ... i,,'-alid. The<oIo,.." according 10 a 'rue 'htory <>f na,unl
law, nOt any by and large elftive c""",ive orde< may ~ inr
pret<d,.. obj,i.'ely valid normative orde<. The pcmibili,y of a
conllict ~ t w ~ n natural law and posi'ive law includ.. 'he f'O'Sibil.
ity of ""lfolroing .uch a """rei"e ord" .. invalid. Only 10 Ih. ex
'''''I that 'he conton' of pooiti.,. Jaw mayor may not conform with
natural law and may ther.for. nOC only ~ jolt but allO unjust and
,herel"... invalid--.-<>nly l<> that ",nt can natural law lfiVe ,..
ethical'p<>li'ical ."'ndard and therefore .. a pooIible ethical'p<>liti""l
j""i6"",ion of positi'" la"'. Thi. i' pred",ly th......nti.l fUnClion
of natural law. If a legal theory that presem. it",lf .. natural.law
doctrine formul.l.. Ih. norm or norm..h-e order which function
.. Ihe ,..,alOrt [or the validity of positive law in mch a way that a
conlliel between the """",lied natural law and positi.. law i. ex-
c1udrd (for .xampl. by '''e<ting that n"ure command. to obey
every positive legal oroer. regarole.. olth. kind of behavior thi.
ord.. demand.). th.n .uch a legal 'heory div.... i<>elf of in char
""te< a theory of natural law, 'ha' i. a Ihtory of imtie._ It
Ihereby aba.ndom the function.....mial to natural low. a' an
ethical-political "tlue '!andan! and thefefore .. a p<>..ible juoti.
li<:ation of posilive law.
According to a positivistic theory of law the validity of positive
law""'" on a ba..ic nonn. which i. not a posi'ive hu' pr",up-
poo<tI nonn, h.nce nOt a norm of the p<>'iti'" law wh"'e ,'alidity i.
founded on the b,...ie nonn, and according to ,h. o",urallaw doc-
trine, 'he validity of pooitive raw likewi.. ""I> on a nOrm thot 1>
not a nonn of positiv.!aw and [unclion.... value ".ndard of thi.
law. In Ihi. fact one might $e/: cerrain limi'ation imp<>scd up<>n
'he prindple of legal positivi.tm and one migh, de<cribe the differ
ence be'ween 0 posi,iv;"ic thtory of law and a thtory of natural
law a. relativ. rather than obooluto. But the diff..ence betwn
the lwo i. large enough to CllClud. the view (which ignor.. ,hi.
difference) that 'he "",it;v;"ic ,heory of a ba'ic nonn. a. ad
vancni by the Pu... Theory of Law. i Ihtory <>f n.tural bw.
/) The BlUic NOTfT. of Nalur.l Law
Since the Pure Thtory olLaw, "",itivi"ic legal Ihtory. by it<
doctrine of the ba..ic nonn of "",itiv. law d"" not provid. a
standard for ju"ice or inju<tice 01 positi... law and th."!o,, d"'"

TH DYNAMIC .un.cr or ......
DOt provide i.. ..micalpoli.icaI jus<i6c,,,ion, it '- fttqumoly bftn
cri,;"izod '"" unu.<ilbcty. Wh.>. ;. mud> oought is criterion by
which ....i.i'.., Law IWlJ boo judpd u j .... or unjuM-_ ol.n:
juslified as juK. TIle mlunlla... theoor an f"""i<k such cri-
terion ...Iy if the norms of the ",",ur:a! b.... poamtod br luI
Il<l<mO tho. <num bchovior I. jutt-ha...,
the .bool"", ,,",idi'Tlher daim 10 haft; !hi> mana: il they ""'.
c1uoU thc validi.y 01 nortnI which pr<:OCribt the <>ppOloi.c bt-h...ior
as j ...... He"'".';."., 11K hi.c",., of the un]\ theorl' ohowI tNl
,hi> i. not the <20<, "'toO<l ill 1M urn.to hcoor undm.akes to
(\(,..,.",in.. tbt CQII''''' of the nonm tlu in ",,,......
(may M d<'ducod from natu.e) i. """ Clught in the s/larpn' """.
11':"1'. The rq>rcscnt:lli ... of ,hu th....,. ha,'. not proclaimtd 0 ...
Damn! law but .ewT"l ""I'}' nalur.l law. conflicting Wilh
each o'h..... Thi, is p"rtkularly lTUe fOT thc f"ndamen,al quatiom
of proper'Y and fonn 01 government. Acton:ling to one "awn!-
la... ,hto,.,. only individual proptny. :te<<><diog '0 looth., only
coll",,'iv. pmp<Tly; ,,",,",ior 10 one only dcmOCTaCy, >Ot'tIing to
.r>oth.". ",,11 aulOC."nC"f a.e """uol: th>.l ;o. jwt.' Any p"'il;ye
law ,Iu, wilh the Ntunl bw of on<: Ih""'1' and lhefe.
judgnl cooBict with the ....uol low of the Oth....
heo<'y and d'dd.." .. io judp<l ....nj....: Na.unl.bw."-1 as i.
xtuall'y .... and I. annat he dtnl........ di ......I-,-..
br 'rum p>riding the m..moa *",p<'Uod cl it.
Simibrl1, the _",;on <Ju......unl-bw thftwy,...... an.1>-
oolu,e a........ '" the qUOllion .. '" the """"'" f.... lhe ....Iidity of
...., low. io ilD ilhu;on. Such a theory IftI the t'UlM1 for the
...Iidlty of low ;n the natu...' \.ow. lhal is, in an 0flIer
atabliol>ed br nature" authority ...ndillll: .he
hu....n legUb'",. In thil _ unl bw, 100. i. that
I.. po.ili.... b...-pmi,ed. however by a human bu. br. super
hu"'on ,,ill. T"",. n,"'ollaw lhffll"l' an astel1_l.hQUgh it
annot f"'O"e .. a !ac'-lh" nl'''''' command> ,Iu, men ough, '0
behove in , e......in ....1. RUl I;nce, fae' e.nn'" be .he for
'he .-.Hdhy of" norm. 50 'hereFore, logk.lly correct not",.,II.,,
lheory cannot d.... y 'hOI' pmlth. I.w. confomlinJl: wllh n.tu,.,!
law. c'n he imerpre,nI at nHd only if ,h. IlOml ;1 p.a"w-l
'hOI "1": One ough, '0 obey 'he command' of .uu"...: Thi, i
he "'"it norm of no,,,... 1 Tt>e na.unlbw ,heory. ' ..... nn
THE I>Y"AMIC ASPI:CT OF LAW
'"
give only a conditional an,wer to the q.....tion ao to ,be real()Jllor
the voJidi,y 01 pooiti.e law. II the na'urallaw lheory ....r"': "The
norm th.. one ought to obey the command. of n>lure i...ll
evident," the theory or.... Thi.> a",""ion i.> unull3ble. No< only in
general becau.e th",e can be no .df..,vident non", of human be
havior; but abo in particular, beeaule thi.> norm, much 1"" th.n
any other. can be said to be ..U..,vident. From the point of view of
science, n.tnre i. a '1",em of causally determined elemenu, Nature
h no ",ill .nd th",efore cannot en'ct nOrtll. Norm. can be
a.. umed .. intm.nem in n.tnte only if the will 01 God i....ume<!
to be manifested in natu,e. To "'y .hat God in nature ., a mani.
festation of hi, will comm.nd, men 10 beb"e in eer... in way, i. a
metaphy.ical as>ump,ion, which canno' be accepted by ..ience in
general and by legal ..ience in porticular, because .lCienti6c cogni.
,ion cannot have .. its objecl' fact which i. aosumed '0 e"i" be
yond all posoible
H'UUCHtCAI. $n.VCTUU OF
THE LECAL ORl>U
4\ The Comlitul,,,,,
The peculiarity of the law that it "gul.t'" iu own c"a,ion, h..
been pointed out before in Ihese ThiJ c.n be done by a
norm detormining merely the procedure by which another norm
i. to be cre.ted. But it can be done al ... by a norm detormining. 1<1
a ceruin ""tent, the content of ,he nDnn to be cre.ted. Since, be
cause olthe dynamic charaet... ollaw, a norm i, volid bec2use, and
10 the extem that, it h.d been create<! in a certain w'y. tha, iI, in a
w.y detennined by another nOnll, therelore tha, other norm i. the
immediate r.,.,.,n lor the validity 01 the new norm. The ula,ion
.hip be,wn ,he nOrtll that ugula",. ,he cr..,ion of .nother
norm and the norm created in conformi,y ",-i,h the former C'n be
metaphorically presen,ed .. a relation,hip 01 ,uper and .ubordin.
tion. The norm which regul",'" ,he creation of another norm is
the higher, the norm cre.ted in conformity ,.,-hh th. former i.
the lower one, The legal onleT i. nOt. '1"'cm of coordinated
non", of equal level. but a hierarchy of different level, of le-
gal norm. lu unity i, brought about by the connection ,hat re-
.ul .. from the hct that the validity 01 norm, c..ated according
...
TH.I: DYNAMIC A&PtCT OF LAw
to another nann, ,es" on ,h., oth norm, who,,", aea'ion in <urn,
i, d.",nninrd by it third one. Thi' is" regrc..ion 'ha' ultimately
end> up in the ptt.uppo<ed bo.,ic nonn, Thl. b;uic norm, there.
foro, i. the highest rea>on fur 'he validity of th" norm" one created
ill (onfonnity wilh anoth",. thus fonning" l<gal l"d<r in iu hier
archical structure,
Considering. to l>tgin with, only a national ltga\ order. the con-
.titution '.p,..,."nu me high.., ,cHI of po;<i'i'" Jaw, "Con"i,",
tion" i. lInd.mood here in iu material ",me, 'ha' is, we undot
"and by cun.ui,u';on 'he po>itive nann or nor"" which regulate
'he e...,a,;"n of gco...l legal nonIl!. Th, con"i,u';"n may be ere.
.,cd by <,,"om "r by a 'j>'ific K' "",formed by one or ...,,,,,raJ
individual . 'ha' is, by a 1<gUla,i acL 1n the latter c;uc it is
alwaY' formulated in a document and hence called a "writte""
c<>""i'u,i"", in wn<radi"inction to the "unwritten" consti'ution
brough' about by cu.tom, Tbe m.terial constitution may com;"t
pardy of norm, uf wrille" and partly of unwritten I.w, The un
written norms of the constitution may I><' codified; and if 'hi.
codifiClition I, the work o! a I.,...reating organ and thorelot<'
acquit<'. binding forre, it becomes a ""ine" constitution.
The constitution in the material "n'e must be distingui.hed
from the constitution in 'he formal . e n ~ , n.mely a document
called "constitution." which. a. written constitution, m.y con,.in
not only norm. regulating the creation of general norm' (,ha, i',
legidatioo), but .1"" norms concerning other politically impor.
tant ,ubjects; and. beside<. "'galation. according to which the
norm, contained in thiJ document may be aboli,hed or amended
_nO/; like ordinary ,lamIC. but by a .pecial procedure and under
more rigorou, condition'. The....gul.tions ,epr..."t the COlUti
tutional form. and the docuJnent to whose content ,he.. regula.
tion. refer, repre..nts the constitution in a fotmal lense, which m.y
include any d..i,ed conlOn!. The purpose of the regulatio", which
",nd.,. mo", di!focult the .bolltion or .mendment of the con"n,
of 'he constitution in a formal .."'" i. primariiy to .tabili", the
normo de.ignated h.,.e as "'material con"itution" .nd which are
the positive_legai b,..i. of the entire na'ionallegal order.
In. mOOCTU legal order. ,he creation (regulated by the material
constitution) of general legal norm, has the e h a ~ t ... of legi.b.
<ion, The constitutional regulation of legisl.tion determines the
TIn, DYNAM'C .... OP .....w
n,
orgoJU authori.ed to croate gener.I1 legal notm>-.tatm.. and
ordinan<:es. I[ the COUTto .hould be r<garded a. authoriRd to
cu.tomary law aiSCI. ,hey noun be authori'.ed by the cOJUtitution to
do ICI in the .. me way .. they mmt he amhorized to apply "alUte.
In other word" the comti'ution lIlu" in"itUle a, a l,,",'<roa,ing
ran the cu.tom <:onstituted by .he beh.vio. of 'he indio
vidu.ls .ubjcct to the mtional legal order-the .uhjcc..... If the
application of cuotDmary law by com" i. comid..ed to h. 1"8:'';'
mate although 'he written constitution cont.i", no ouch amhod
"'tion. th.., the .uthori""tion cannot be con.ide,..,,) to proceed
from .n unwritt<n cU<lom<reated conotitution" but rou.. IJe
presupposed. in the .. me way .ha. it mmt be p'e>uppoocd that the
wrinen constitution h tbe charaw:r of an binding
norm if the .... tu,e> .nd ordin.nc.. i"ued in aocordance with i
... regarded .. binding legal norm.. Then Ihe b"'ie norm (tbe
c""stitution in the tran"'<ndem.llogical ""noe) insti,u"," nOt
""ly the act of the lcg,.lalor. bm .ISCI custom law<rc.,ing bc...
Th. connitu,ion of .bta,e. a. a wt;"cn constitmi"". can ap-
pear in the .pedfic form of a con"itution. that il, in norm< that
roay not be aboli.hed or amended a. ordinary Itatut.. hut only
und.. mo.. rigorou. condi,ion.. Buhi. need not be on. It i. not
on if there i' no written con"itution, if the constitution i' c..a,ed
by ,,,stom and i. not: codified; then, even norm, which have the
cbara<;ter of. material constitution may be abolWted or amended
by .imple ltatut.. or by cm.ornary law.
It i. f'OO'ihle tbat the organ .pccifical1y and (onnally ,ulhori<ed
to cr...,ehoH'h. or amend ''''u'e. haring Ih. character of. enn
"itution i. different (rom thc 0'San amhori.ed to cr....., .bo1ioh.
or arn<nd ordinary .tatme.. For examplehe fanner funCtion
be rendered by an organ different from .hel.,... orgon in comf><>"
.ition and electoral ptoccd.ure.uch a. a constituent national
....mbly. Bm umany hoth function..... performed by the same
organ.
The con"itutlon regula.ing .he cre.tion of general norm.
(."'tu.eo) may .100 determine the content of future ".tut..: pooi
tive entu.itution. do this frequently by pr...:rihing or excluding
certain contenta. Tbe (OTIllCl ca.c reprfiCn" u,ually only. prom.
Iso of Ram... to b<': created, not an obligation to create .uch
p. "II.
..,
nlE DVNAMIC "'PECT OP lAW
,tatuto" becau"" for logal.tochnicol ' ...lOm ,he nODcreation of
'tatu,e. with a .cttain content cannot .,,;Iy he connectod with a
"""lion. The exclusion of ,Um,.. wiLb certain contents, howevcr,
can IN, .ff"",ro .....i., bj" .. <:<>nstitutioo. The ",,,,,log of fundo.
memal righ" and frredom. which tl'pically con"i,u'.... pari of
modem COl1.!'ilUlloll.<. j, ...."'ially an attempt to pr,,'m, such
lUlUt... Th. attempt i. e/fective if the cuuion of .ncb a ""me
(for example, .. law ,h.., viola'", freedom of come;e""" or equal.
ity) i. placffi under ,he ""rsonal =po",iLili'j' of cCTtain
parlicipa,ing in iu creation. mch., the chid of ,tate or a mini.ter.
or il ,he p<mibili,y of com.uing and aboli,hing .nch ....'u is
pTovided; all ,hi, under the prauppo.ition that the oro!"..y
".tul. doa no, have ,he power to .OOli,h or ""'end tatute hav
ing 01 comtitution it d..ermin..
ordinary ..alUte', and ,hal ,hi, statutc can I><
abolished or amcnded only rigorous .. ,uch
.. majority, incrco<cd quorum, and Thi.
,ha, cotlSlill"ion preocrib.. far i" abolition or a
from and diff",ult ,han thc
provided {or ordinary Icgi,btion; that thore b..ide. the
fon" <.>1 ordinary .UtulC... 'pe<;i/ic lorm of statute.< having the
01. constitution.
b) Legi.lal;on and CUllom
N.xt down in hi'T>TChy, .ft<r thc corntitution. th.
nOfm' e"ated by or custom. Thc corutitll,io,,"
01 modern 'pe<;i.l organ.' .uthori<ed to
thc nnrm, to I>< .pplied by thc courts .nd .dmini.
trati"c organ', The level of creoting thc constitution i, followed hy
I....d of creating ordin,,)' .tatute. which, in tUrn, i. 10110",.<1
by of judicial and administrative p-.-ocedllr... However,
thcrc need not I>< three It i, I"""iblc that co,,"ti.
tution d"", not 'pecial legi.lati,'c organ, hut directly au.
thori,.. collrts and admininrative organ. to thmuclvc.
norm. they con.ider expedient or jll" to I>< applied in Concretc
co>c. We .h.1l dio<;u.. meh i",tanc.. lat"'. Far pre>cnt we .hall
only con.ider the normal ,itu.,ion; a legal ord.r which ;n.. i,,,, .. a
'p<:<ia11'1l'islad\" organ.
THIt Dy........C .....>:cr OF ....W u,
"Ibc "",ure of the Iqio4Un: orpn isone of Lbc _ .... port.oJl'
boondctnmining W oo-aJlcd lono> of SO""cm",mt. If UIC orpn
is ""'&k individual. a bn-tdiw-y """""'reh or a dictllOf who
a<'1Wrcd his powu by a .cYDIutioa. we ipCU of autDCnocy; if i. is
aD aooc:m.bly of the cD.;"e popuLo,;"" or a parli.lmcn. tkc.ed tor
the peopIc. of df:DKloa<y. Only in a daa>ocn.tiII: LrfUb.ioa arc reg-
ubu.- required m,,, dncrmiM w lqislauvc proadure. which
IICre J:DCam.: panicipa.ion in die popular asocmbly or in the clec-
.ion oflhc ..... lbO' r...mboerof i.. m....bc.... 'M p....,ccdings
to fWI rnolu.ioos. All Lbnc .qub'ions arc pan of 1M .... 'erial
""""huIi"", evcn if Ihey do '10( in all c;I appear in Itt< form
of II <"""im.ion bu. 1I ordinary ,u If. in additiOtl to <he
ordinary ltgisL..i"" orgall. a c<><llti,u ' tional a....mbly .xiot"
and if in a con,,;,ulional .talu,e Cleated by Ihi. laueT organ (for ex
ample. in '.'u'e lh., .",e"dt <he ltgi,)a,i,e pro<cdu,e). ,h.
ordinary I.gi.lalive organ i. aUlhorizcd 10 enuI an .Icetoral .....
uhen .he 1"".1 of <he "'''''ecul con"i'u,ion;' again .pHt ill .wo
10'",,1..
emcnl lcgal nOT crealed by lcgUIaoion are wnodoUfJy
pool.ed oonn.. Tbc tlllO. CORO'ilUlC 1<&iWo.ioo lie norm-
cr......ing aclS, .h," i.. wir ",bjcet."'" meaning is an Tbc
conu.i.utioa ckva.ts Ibis ",bj...i.... mnniDg '" a.. objectiye ......
C$Ulbiishing "'" bcr of lqUIation as a bW<fali"l bet.. Bul the
oomti.utioa lIlay aloo aoablioh cultOal as low<at.iroa bet.. This
bcr is, ditc"ed cui , char:tctcrirftl. tor tbc cimt.......1ICC
............ bclaagina: 10 Icgal communily bcha"" "tIdcr tbc
J;WICciK"m.. rva in tbc IllllC way; <hal mis bcbayior \ilks plac.
for II sullicicntly Ionll .ime; alO<l tlu. in the individual. whole xII
con"i.ute doc clUtom Lb. collec'i"" will ariots .ha. one ou.. to
bc!lay. in <Ju ..,.y. Thm thc ",bjectiYe mcaning oI'M bell .ha.
con";,u,e "'" euot"'" i. aD """,b."_he mcaninll WI one ough.
to behaye an::ording 10 Cullom. How""...., the ",bjcc.iye meaning
of lh. fac. of cu''''''' ""'1 be itllerpre.ed aI objcc.ivcly ""lid legal
nonn only if the ,hu. fact i. i""<lIltcd by th. COltI,i",.
lion a. nonn-crcaling.
Tnditional science of law ","umel tha. opin;" nUt.uil4lU i. an
nfCnlul com!""'.... of lhe lacll of CU'lOm. Thal io lOIy thal lh.
acll which conni'ute .he ewwm mull tal. plac. in .he belief w,
0. pp., ..... .,t
..,
they "",hI'" tau plo. 8uI Lh" opinion prauppc.ct an iDdiYid.
ual collective act of will wboot ...bjt.ivc !Man;.. is 'ha' CICIe
ouch- 10 bch'm, KCOnii.. to CustOaL If c........'Y 1>.., liu outu-
IOrJ law, is paoiti..., low, thm tbtnI: ",uot be au iadi't'idu.al 00" col
Iect;'., act of will wb,oo( ...bjcain _ning it 1M Ho.oll..
is inlDJl<w:d .. oOjca.inly nlid <lOI1II. as CUSlOGloI'T law.
A! <t:lted eul..... nw......,. l.Iw ....y be appliftl by ,hot 1Iw-
appl)'ina orpnl only illhey an be rq:mIcd as &1Iu-izccl \hereto.
if <his aulboriaation .. not confnTCd by the WWlitll.ioo in tht
poIi,;ve-ltpl "'..... (tha. is' if CUStoDl .. no< imti,uted by the coo-
Mi.u.>oa in the pooi.i....lopl as a Jaw<reo,iRl 1.00:.). 1.1.." i.
mUK bc preouppoocd 'hat cU'lOm as a law<ttuing fact i' already
in"i'"'M in the lwic norm a. the "cormitu.ion" in .he
'nnoccndcmal.I"ll;cal sen",. Thi. m",: a ba.ic nOll" mil be
prc'upposed which i"",,", nol only ,h. fac. of ,he OUlion of.
consti'u,ion, but also the fact of a qualified <""om a. law...:ruling

Thil i .., also if tbe cO''''''''';on of the lrg:al communi., i. no<
crea'<:<! by a lcgWativ. act bu. by CUllOm. and if the law-applyi"ll
otplU are wmid..... &II,t-i.<cd 10 apply CWtOllW'}' law, Thlt
oi.IOa.;';'" anno< be inltTpt'e.nt '0 D>UJt <ha. euHOnl is imt.i""nt
as a Iaw<ttaUog act by tlu: twtOCa<uoted. <ha. is. pooi.i_ltpl,
coouti.u.ioo. This would be a ptt;tit> prireripii. For if <ht poNli_
Itpl a>nstiw,loo. <lw is. a norm w. rtpIaus <ht era'''''' 01
Jtrttf2I ......... can be anted tor cwoom. tltta il m.... a1rady be
po_ppooed W, cw<oo>t It a Ia..-...:rtating bet. Thil
<ion can only be <ht bMit """"'. tlw is. <ht con>Li....ion in <ht
tnntcmdmLll-Iogicallmlt. Tbm u.. nrlit:NDtfllionod facl is
pl'CItfIt. <hal tht baric norm don t>OI. met" dinotoly '0 a
.ion in the pooiUe'-kpl lCIUe and ODly indirectly to the 1"g..J
ordtf aubli>bed in ac:eonl.ulCe wi<h th.>, corulil... ion. bu. tJiru'l-J
to <he ltpl Old.... crn<td by CUllom. Thi. i, pu.io:ulady ,rue with
,,"pect 10 .h" baoie norm of gen....l imem.a.i""al la..., whoot
nOm.. or" cre.ted by im"mallonal cUltom .nd .pplied b,. lh. or
pn. of 'he individu.l .1lI ...,
SII.utory law and cuJlOt1Ulry l.w cancel =h other according to
.h" principle of the lu fJoI.trior. How.v..... a ron"i.mion.ll.... in
.he formal ...... may not be aboliohcd by.n onlin.,..,. ....""t-<lCJlr
"cr. p. ODL
..,
q:oiD by 3 oocutituoiona. law; bu...........'1' \:ow don ha'," 3
CUla1iD& dea in ",tatJo.. to a lonJW wmti...uonal taw, and
in rdatioot to. lomuol lIl$titutianal taw !hal aprraJr 0<-
dllCla do( app1ia.WIa 01 CUM........, la....
The ........lo... CU1I(IIII. it lIw-arating faa is 'l't I by an-
od>tr 'tint according to which thil bet has Do bar
only dbn.torJ charxte1"; thaI. .. SaYigny tau aid. NO_ it
'M hodge. and not th( ori:gin. 01 ... law.N Thio lIK'fdy "".
prexo'Mth--r adnnd by th( c.rmm lIistorial School .....
La.. II tWthn Cttt'M by l'l1i....tion nor by cwlOm but only by.""
Popular Spin. (VoJ.ll,eoJ,): ,ha. titll.... method ",..ely .teenai,..
the n:iSlcnee of taw that had ....lid ""'0. The same
.hough. i dvanctd by a French ooeiologic>l '''eoI1' with the dil_
,......... th>t h'''' the Ja... i' nOC cTnlt<! by ""1",,.111 bill by solid-
or;11 sodol. (Leon Duguil' L'tol, I, droil objec/i! <11010; po,;'
ti"", 1!J01, pp. 80 If,. 616).
According to both IheoriQ, the law, only ue....
tain"" (not created) by ]OS'll.,;OI1 or maom, all claim valMlity
bta....,. and 10 far ... it it the l't'pI'O<luction of. prc-ni.ing I....
Doth Ihcmies uc """,ely ,..rianu of the ""tun'.b.. doctrine,
wboK d liml (of on<: law cru,m .". 'UTe and one cn:a."J bJ
man) it , tul in the d-wilm 01 <11K 13 produced by yt>lk.q..w
." 1O/iUri1i _We and .... Ia.... n:produad cw..
tonL What has been Did apin.. ,he ........,.I.Ia.... docnine is applic.
able 10 !hex o:wo theotiet. Ftoa'I the point 01 \iew oIa pooiu>Utic
theory 01 Ia.... ....bich (UO nritbn" _me the ""iM.mce 01 an
imat;ina..,. IlOr 01 an o:qualJy imagi.....,. 0<>-
riole, the <omt.i....ive. tha. is, the blf-c<a'inKo func.1cn 01 cuo.
10m in. indubitable" ..... oIlqii1alion..
The quction 01 whnher a bW-<:mlung cu_ it presen' may
he d""'i<kd only by ,'''' law...pplJ'Rtl otgan. This facl w,.. oca
,ionally 'IP: bou' of 'he doctrine 'bat a rule uprming the cw..
"""'IT1 heh.ovior of mttl becomes a legal""",, only by rognition
on 'he part of a low C<luil which appli" 'hi' rule; and ,ha, th.......
fore ,h. norm. of .,,"o"'ary law ue Cfcat.d by the la.. coum. YOI.
the ..elo'ion of the lo...applying organ (especially ,he 10.. court)
...... 1"1 .... ..-do> pooio' oIdo' _ EMM
"' <L' PYlooIrido Karl _ ......,. Ir_ho ....,
'.........
...
no' DYN"M'C ASPECT OF ....W
,oward (u>tOmAry law U no dilfe,ent from that toward 'tatlllory
1.w. For an organ who h.. to apply. n<>rm crealM by cu""'"
"",erl.in, 'he fact of (u>lorn (<hat is. doidco 'he que.tion whetheT
nOrm he i. about <0 apply was actually ,rcat..! by way of en..
lorn) prtti,ely in ,he same manner ao an organ who h:u to apply a
ooom crealM by ."....... iTU ,h. faCt of legislation (that
i., d""id.. ,he quell;oD wheth a norm h. ibout to apply was
neated by ""ar of legi,lation). Thi. b"er ques,ion may <a,ieT
to amw...., and <II"", organ. may ,h.",,(o,.., be I",. con.<:ioul oJ it
than of the qu..';OII ",hetheT a nOTm h:od been <ro"M by (""om,
if the ,l;i.tu, h.... boten published in an oIIici.l gazo"e.
Yel. the law_applying organ'. func,ion. namely '0 ."",,,.in the
e:<.i"encc of DOnn to be applied (Ih., i. ilJ con"i'u,i"n.l crea-
lion). i, ,he same in both in'tone",. And in both in"aru:elI doe
gene....] Irgal norm ex,,,. ae3ted before the l,w'.1pplying act. To
be tru., the .scer... inment of the f.ct by the bw""pplying mg,n
ha. con"itutive character. a, w. mall have occa,iotl to di",u" in
d.... il; but tbi. co",titutive a",.ttainn,.nt h... r"m3;'" !orr.
The fact i, consider.d to be exi"ent f,om the tim. a!<.Ttained by
th.law.applying organ, not fmm the tim. 01 the a"'alOinm."t."
The validity of c""omary law within the lrgal community i,
limited in",far a, the applka,ion of the general cmtom<u3ted
norm. to COllcr.t. c.... m.y take place only through .t3tutory
la"-that i. to lOy through deci.io", repre..nting individual
nonn' .nacted by ac", of ,,-ill 01 law.applying organ e,ped.Hy
courU. The differene. betw."" the l.w<rea,ing fUllCtion of a 1"".
i.l.,i,'e organ and th. )aw<,.ating function of a court comi't' in
that nmm, c'e3tet\ by the fo,mer havc-nonnally-a gener.l. the
norm. crealed by thc latter. nmmally, an individual charactcr."
A politically import3nt difference between ''''tutory I"," and
customary 13w i, the fact <flO' the fonnor i, created by a rclati"cly
centrali.ed, the latter by r.lativ.ly decent"li=:! proccduTe.
Statut.. are <T.ated by ,ped.l organ> who atppointed fm thi,
purpo.. and who function according to the prineiple of divi,ion 01
I.!>or. The nonn. of custom"y law. On ,h. o'her hand, are created
by the beh.vior of the individual. who aTe .ubject to the I'gal
ord.r. In the former, the nonn-C<""ng authority and tlte nann.
"cr. p, 'w.
-Cl.! N.
I>Y>;AMtC ASPI:CT OP .....w u,
,ubjected individual> are not iden.ic.l; in the l.tter th")' ore, at
least to JOme degree. To ""mider the fact of a law<reating custom
.. being exincnt, it is nm necessary for.n individualo obligated or
entitled by the cmtom<reated norm, to p.rticipate in the crea'10n
0/ the custom; ir i' ,umcient .hat the ,we-.whelrning majority do,
th", it i' P'J"ihle th.t individuals are bound by. custom<reated
norm in who,e cre..iOTl they did not take part. Tbi' i' particularly
true i" a norm of customary law tb.. had become valid JOme .ime
'go, For thi' reaJOn it i' incor""t to interpret customal)' law", "a
t.cit ""ntraet," a, i, JOmetim". done, e'peci.lIy wi.h r..pec' to in
ternational c",tom.l)' law,
c) SI4lUle 4nd Ordin4nce
The le...,1 of lhe creation of general legal "orm>-regulated by 'he
""mli'"tion-," the form.,ion of the "a.ionalleg.l onJer i' ,,'u
.111' di"ided into tWOOI more level . At this point we mention only
.be distinction betwnn st>tu"'S and ordinanc..; it i. important
".pecially when the ""n"itutiOTl confe-., the crea.ion of general
norm, (statuta) in principle upon a popularly electro ["',Hament,
hu' permi'" the detailed elaboration of ,he sta'utebrough gen.
e-..l "orm' which are i.."ed by admini"""ive orgam, or au
thori,.. the gove-.nment. ;IlStead 01 the parliamen', '0 i.."e all
nett....'y 01 ..,rtain general norm, In the event 01 excep'ion.l
circumstallC"., The general norm. i"ned by an .dmini>trative
.utlmri.y are called "onJinan..,." and may either elaborate or reo
place ....",... The latter are called onHnan..,. wi.h "at",ory
effect. The-.e exi.... therefore, a .peciftc ,tatu.0l)' form. just a.
there ""i,u a ,pecific con"i'u.lon.1 form. We .pe.1:. of law in the
10rm.1 ",ooe in contradist'nc'ion '0 law in 'he m..e-.lal ",n... The
latter d""ign""" .ny genenllegal norm; .he forme-. eilher a
eral legal ""rm in the lorm of. 'ta.ute. th.t i,. a senenl leg.l
norm adop'ed b)- parli.mennd publi.hed In a cettain w.y a'
de'ennined by mos. cUrt,dtu,ion,; <:>r othe-....i,. an\, COntrn' ap.
I"'''ring in .hi, form. Therefore. the 10rm "I.w in the forma]
......... i' ambiguous. Unambiguo", i' merely ,he concept of , ..to
tory form in which may apl"'aT not only the gene-..l norm1, b",
0100 uthe-. contents. including those who>e '''biec,lve I,
no' even a norm, Tn this Cate"'e ore dealing with. leg-dill' itrele
THI: DYN....[C ASPI:CT OF lAW
vont cOD[ent of a statute. W. have discu>&ed thi. in a diffeTen' con
te,tt."
<f) Malma! and Form.1 lAw
The gcnera.llrgal nornu c'eOlod by aC" aiming at the creation of
law (.tatul.. and ordinanc..), and the gentrall<'gal norm. created
by cn.tom, Ofe to be appliod by the organ. cOIn?,,"n' to ""e",i-",
this fun<;tion--<onr.. and wmini>lrath'e authorities. Th.... law
applying organ. have to be designat.d by the l<'gal order, that is: it
mult be determinod under which condition. a certain individu.l
function. as a judge or adminimative orgon. fktideo, ,h. proc..
dUTe has to be d.,.rmin.d in which hi. function_the appliC>lion
01 gen..-.l 1<'g31 no'mo-i. to be .x.rdocd. Th. gentral no,m,
which .ttach.. to an abstractly determinod fac,an ablt"'ctly d.'.r
minod con""lu.nc., need. individu.liza,ion in otdtt to be applied
in a Concr.,., ca..,. It mn", be a""".tainod whethtt in concreto a
fac, i. 1".""" which ,he gen.....l norm h.. d.terminod in ab
.t<aclo; and for thi< conc'. 0-'" a conett'e coerciv. acl mu.t be
ord"n,d and then .xecut<:d....... I50 determinod ;n .b'trocto hy the
gene",1 norm. Therelor. the applicalion of gtne",l norm '0 a
cone,."te c"'" con.i... in the creation of an individual no,m_in the
"indi,'idualllation" or "concretization" 01 a gentt.1 norm. Con",
quemly the lunction 01 the gene...1 norm to be appliod m.y al50
con.i" in de,.,rmining th. content of the individual norm to be
crC3t<:d by .n :tet of the jndiclal or .dmini"...tive .utho,ity.
Hmce th. gene.,1 nonn, to be appli<:d by judicial or admini"....
,iv. orgaOJ have a double function: (1) detttminatio
n
01 the",
organo and of the procedure to be obscrvtd by them: ('J d.ter.
mination of ,h. content of [h. individual nor"" 1(> be c'eattd in
Ih. judicial 0' admini.trative pmctdme.
Th..., two functiuno corr..pond with the two catcgc>ri.. of 1 ~ 1
norm. u.nally di"inguiohtd: Ihe norm. of fonn.] l.w and the
nonno 01 material law. Formal law i, the generol norm, regulating
'he org.niution and proctdu'e of ,he cour" and adminiotr;ttiv.
authoriti.., nam.ly ,h. civil, criminal. and admini""";"e pto-
""odingo. Mat.rial law i. th. general norm, th.t dc,...mine th.
conten" 01 judicial and admini"...tiv. act!, and whfch a"" ,.".
-Cl.Od.
"
"ria DyN"M'C ....PE(:1" OP ....W
."
forrtd to .. civil law, criminal law, and admini"rati.. law, al
,hough ,h. nonus lha, regulate lh. procedures of ili. law cou,,"
and admini.trativ. agencies are ci..il law, criminal law and admin
i":ra,i.. law nO 1.... Abo, about ilie nornu to be
.pplied by th.... organ. on. usually think& of the mllt",ial civil
law, criminal law, and admini"ratiye law only, althoogh material
civil, criminal, and adminutraliye la"" cannot be applied without
.imul ...neou,ly applying formal (proctdutal) law. Mat.r;al and
lonnal law itJstpatably connecttd wilh each other. Only in
th.ir organic combinalion do they constitute law 1M, regulate' its
own c.... 'ion and application. Each rule of law that compl.t.ly de-
scribe. thi> law must eon...in the formal .. well the materi.l .1.
m.n... A rul. of law d.scribing a "om, of criminal law lOU" be
formulated_much .implified .... n at tMt-app",,,irnately a. fol
low., "If an individual has committed a cfime d.. in a
general lego.! nonn, thon an organ designated in a general l"!ral
norm (a law court) ought tu ord.r a sanction. determined in the
fonn", leg-al nonn in a procedure d.tefmintd in a gen.ral legal
norm." We >hall "'" later that a still m"," complicated formula.
lion i. nec.....ry, nalody, "Il an organ. whost nomination i> de
tennined by a general legal norm, has ;ucertaintd, in a pracedu,"
determined by a general l.gal nonn. that fact. afe pr...nt '0
which a g.ne....1 legal norm .,tach.. a "'rlain 53nction, then
Ihi. org;>n ought to order a sancdon detrrmintd in Ihe earlier
men,ioned leg:sl n"nn. in a procedure d.termin.d by g.nrnl
leg.1 no:rm." Thio formulation of the rule "f law. ,hen, .how5----1lnd
therein li.. the eo.sential func,ion '" Ihe rul. of law describing the
I.w_he .yst.ma'ic conn..:,i"n betwren the SCK3.11ed formal and
the SCK3.11ed material law (that i., be,ween ,h. d.termin.,ion of
the delict and the ..nction on ,he one hand and ,he dctennination
of lhe law-applying organ and hi, procedure on th. other).
The r.la,ion be,ween the gene....llrgal nonus and their applica
,ion by judicial Or admini>ttativ. organs i.....nlially the same.,
that r"i"ing between the Hllli,itntion and ,he cre.tioo of grnr....l
legal no:rnu d.t.nnined by it. The creation of gmerallegal nonn.
i. an application of the constitntion in the same ..-ay that the
application of the gm....1 legal norm' by judicial o:r admin;"'.
,i..e organ. i, the of individual legal normS. Ju" .. the
grnerallegal norm. created by legi.lation or cu.tom are lonnal1y,
.,.
and ptthaps aloo matcrially, rletCTmin..J by ,h. "<>TOl' of ,h. ron_
"it"tlon (that is. by norms 01 a highCT le,-d) in ,h" "'me way
,h. illdi.id"al norm. c.eated by judicial or admilli",..,h'. 0<,>-
materially a' well a' lom1ally----<le,ennined by general norm. of
.tatutory or <u'LOmary law (that iI, nom", of higher le,'d). !Iu'
the rela,;on be,w" the formal and the mata..l dement i. diffCI'
ent in ,he twO instances. The con"i'u,ion (in the material st"..
<>, the word) u."any only de,em,ines ti,,, organ< .n<! ,be proce-
dure o1lrgi.Ja,ion and leav,", the detCTminalion of the content of
the .t."" ... LO ,he legisl";,,, orga",. The con"itntlon detennina
only (and dl;ti"cly only in " ntgativc """) the
ron"'"" of the .tatuto. to be <rea,ed, by excluding .....taln con
1<tI".
As lat law crtatinn by ,,,"om, the con"i'nt;on tan dolcga'e
only ,he procedure charac,cri>.cd .. 'cu",om." Thc consti'u,ion
canno, exclude a certain content af the leg.1 nonns created b}' cu..
tom, hc<;au"" the constitution a form.l, written con
"itutiOll-...<an be changed by legal normS croated by Cu",om. The
geoenl legal norms created in acwt<lance wi,h ,he conSlimtia",
hawev. not only detormine the otg'"' by Which, and the proce_
dure. in which, they are to be applied, but also-albeit in va,iou.
dcgrec>-the C""tom of the individual norm. th.t reptc..,n, the ju_
dici.l ded.iom and .dmioiot"'tive dec...,e. In criminal law ,he
p'ed<tctmina,iotl of ,he cuntent of judicial deci.io", usu.lly goe.
very far, -00 that thedi",re,ion of the criminal wUtt in creating the
ittdividuallcgal norm rep,..,..,med by its deci.ion i. 'elati,'ely lim_
ited. In admini",..,ive law the di'Cretion i. u.ually ex,.",ive. In
o,her wonil: The con"i'u,ion h predominantly tbe charnete. of
fo'mall.w. where... ,!Ie iromediatdy ittferio. level of law cre.,ion
ha. the cbaraClet botb of fonn.1 and material law.
e) Th. Soute.. of lAO!
Legi.la,ion and cmtom arc often referred to", tbe two ""'u""""
of "Iaw"---meaning by law only the general norm, of national law.
DUllhe individual norm. are al-oo "I.w," ju" a. much part. of the
legal order as 'he genCTal norm. on which 'heir creation i. based.
And if imemalion.l law i. con.idered, ,hen "nly cu",om and
treaty, nat legisla,ion, can be con.idered to be ,he ""'urcc" of thiJ
law.
TH!; D"'NAMtC ASPCr OP lAW
."
Source of law i. a figuTe of .peh. which ha. mOTe than one
m.aning, h can mean only lh. m.thod. ju" menlioned. but
all metho'h of law creation, or ","'ery higher nOTm in ,..,lalion to a
lower norm whme eT...ion it regul"... Therdot<. by "soute<: of
law" may aloo "" m.anl,h. ,..,.",n for lh. validity of. law. panic_
ul'Tly the ul'imate r..."". the ha.ie norm of a leg.l order. Actu_
.lly. how....er. only the po>iti r"'n for ,h. validity 01 legal
norm. that i., the high.r po>iti legal norm 'ha' Tegulat.. ito cTea-
tion. is called "source:' fn ,hi. "'noe. 'he comti'ution i. ,h. >ouTee
of 'he generttllegal norms c,..,ated by legillation or cunom; a gen
enl legal norm is the ",uree of the judicial decision (i.., of ,h.
indi ... idual norm) hy which the g.ncnl nOTlO i. 'pplied; but the
jndicial decision i''''lf may"" Tegarded .. the SOnrce of 'he obliga_
'ion OT Tight of ti,. con..nding parti.. eatablished by the decision.
Or a' the !DUrcc of 'he a"thorintiot' of the organ who has '0
""ecnte this deci,iOTt. A<;cordlng to a pool,i,-i"ic theo'y of law. the
""UIT.c of law em only"" law.
The ""p'=ion. llOwer, I. 'loed alllO in a nonjurinic ..n"" il
thereby all conception. arc designa'.d which actually influent'C
the law-c,..,ating or law.applying function, .uch a' motal and polit-
ical principles. legal th.ori.., expert vi.ws. Th.", SOurc" mu!t be
dilling'li.hed from lIOut'CCI in the s.n.. of a po;titivittic l.w th,oTy,
Th. difference betw.en th.m i' thi!' the la".r arc legally binding.
whe,..,.. the former are not, unl.u a pooitive legal norm delegates
th.m ao legal SOUTC". that i,. makes them mandatol'}'. In that ""...
how.vcr. they ."um. the charact.r of. higher legal norm. which
d..ermin.. the crcation of a lowe' legal norm. Thmbiguity of
the term .."'urce 01 law" mak., it rather un.uit>ble fo' scientific
di..u"ion. It "em' pref.",hle to ..place ,hi, figuT. of 'peh by a
term which unambiguomlj' describe' the l.gal phenomenon one
haoln mind.
f) Appli,,'llion, 4nd Ob,,,,,,,nu of lAw
At h.u been said, 'ho legal ord.r i' 'y"em of g.noral and individ
ual OOTm' conn<:<ted in such way that the cr.ation of e.ch norm
of ,hi, ,,,,'em I' determined by another and ultimat.ly hy the buic
norm, A norm il p"rt of a legal oro.. only bccau,"" it had been
c..ated according to the provision of another norm of thi, ord<-r-,
'M
THE O""'''''''C ASPttT OF LAw
ThiJ ,c!VelSion lead. e'-cntually 101m, l'u,upp""d basi<; norm,
whicb i. not (l'Q,od aco::m:Iing 10 the p",i,ion 01 another norm.
Spcal:.ing not only <>{ the legal order, hut aho of a 1<g>.1 community
(C<><l"'tu'ed by lha, order). we can 53.y ,h.. a IrgoJ norm ;. part of
a a'Tt.in leg-II order if it WaJ "",.,ed by an organ of lhat commu_
nity and, ,hordore. by the community. But the individual who
<rcalro a norm io an mg.o of the l<gal community bee.n.. and in.
",far a. MJ function i. dettrmincd by a norm of the legal orde,
that cQlUti,u'es the community and an themo I>< .tttihuttd to
,he community," The "ttTibulion of the law.;;r<:.\ing function '0
the legal co1mnunity i. ba5Cd cxdu,ivc1y on the 1"S"1 nornl ,hat
determine. this functio". JwI .. the lrgal comtnuni,y con,i,t> only
in the l<g>.l order. in ,he I3me ""r the ..menee ..ying lb.t a norm
i. part <>f .. legal ordor 1xcIu.. il i. hy an o<g:ln of ,he legal
only mean. ,h., a nmm i. pan of lhe legal onkr be-
nu.. il i. ae<:on:Iing '0 plOvi.ion of a norm of lhi. legal
mdor and, ul,imalely, according 10 the ha.!it norm of lhi. legal
order. The ..aliulion of lhi. i. imponanl especially if a national
legod order i. in ques,ion and therdore ,he legal communily i. the
'!ale-i, ;., importan, for the umle,..tanding of the mual ,"""rlion
that il i. lhe .,.'e that crealeslhe l.w.
A norm ,h.t delermine. lhe cr",ion of anothor norm i. applied
by the creation of Ihal other norm. Applica,ion of law i. al the
.,me time crealion of law. Th..., 'wO not in absolute
oppo.idon 10 each othor .....umrtl hy tradiliooal throry. II i. nOl
quite corrt to di..ingui,h betwem law"",..ting .nd law-appl}'ing
'Cts. Becau...parl lrom the bmdorline GaS<o-the p,..upp("ition
oIlhe bic nmm and the execution of ,he coercive a-be'ween
which the leg.1 pme'" taltea place. every legal act i. at 'he ..me
lime the application ola higher nmm and lhe creation of. lower
norm. II the national legal order i. con.idered wi,hou' regard 10.
higher inlen>ationallegal order, ,hen the b..it norm in faci deter-
mines the creation of the con"itution withoul heing i"dl the ap-
plication 01 higher nonn, But lhe comlilUlion i. cre..ed in
applic..ion of the b..it norm. In application of the conotitution
the genoral lep! norm. are created by legi,lation trr and
in application of the.. gener.lllegal norm. the individual norm. of
judicial deci.ion< and .dmlni"r.ltive decr... are Only
ho<
"

Ii
.1.
t.g,;;'ii'E. i'll 8.' II 9.,1

.. I
.a .. 'iia. .... i,oll .. .. -i ...... Iii"
! f II i
Jilj;'
_., <11. 1"'1." 1'1-'" ".
! r .. .. i
'!, I" f! p , " I,' i i 6
,et"L l'!,lr!!.
I .. U"".' , .... (.1. !'-i<'
S" e al r".s-
... >l_..... ....... , '. ... 51 dO-
Q, W'Q,. '" ..... g;;-"sEl .W'i!lliil ...
.. .. . i ' .... II.!,
.. J- '-.il"" ....
E
'.""-=','. , !:i Q; =.::"2. ",. c . 6 fa gill all -o:! IT II Q;
lliir i"rli lr 'i.li i.l.!,!!
."
TilE 'WNAMIC ASP(.Cr 0." ....w
cliff".", def:l'ees. Bm 'hi> determinali"" must "n'tt he 10 wuk
that the.<t in qu."io" cannot be considered .. an act of law oJ>"
plic.,ion, and it can n<VeT go'" far ,h.t the act am no loogtt be
comidcred a. an act 01 law trea'ion. Ev<n if-.:u in ,h. c.'" of a
judicial d"";,;",, ached on ,h. b<lsi' of '''''ute-nol only 'he
organ and the I'tuCedurc are de'enni"ed, but .1"" the content 01
'he dttision 'hat i. to be rendered. ,hi, niH docs no< rep,..,,,,m
merely law application but .Iso 1.w CTc3,ion. The qu...ion whe'h
or an act has ,he character (If law neation or Jaw application de
pcnili on the deg"". to which the function of the act-rendering
organ is prcdotormined by ,he legal order. But 'he,"" .,.., ael&
k'hich ..., only law application, nOt I.,,' creation. Th... >r. the
acts, mentioned before, by which the <(>eTCi,,", authOTized by
tl" legal n<>Tnll, "0 exttuted. And theTe i. an aL' of po,i,ive law
cre.,ion. which i, not 'he .pplica'ion of. positi"e leg.tl norm, 'he
en'ctment of 'he hi"ori<:aUy first con>ti'ution....hich I.kes pIa<:<:
in application of 'he presupposed. nn' po,i,ively created. b...i<:
nOTtlt.
Th' creation and application of I.... mu>! be distinguished from
'h, ob",....ancc. of I..... Law i' oh>e....ed by th.t beh.vior '0
whme opposite ittached Ihe coerd"e ac, of the u.nc,ion. It i,
'hat beh.vior. primarily, lhal avoid! the ..nction; i' is 'h' fulfill
men, of 'h, leg.l obligation eonstitute<f by 'he ..nc.ion. ere.,ioo.
pplicalion. and 'he ob"..... nce of law are "log"l func'ion," in th,
wid... sen", of Ihe term. MaiUng u'" of a posi,i,-e permission m.y
also be d..ign.wl .. 'h, obo.".v.nce of law_ In the narrow", sp"-
<ilic sen", of ,h, teon, only l.w creation and law applica,ion .re
called legal funCtion,.
g) J",.,diell'on
The cOOJlil"ti"" eh4'4el"" of the j"dk;,,/ d"iJi4n
Traditional juri.prudencc. " .. I.w applica'ion primarily. if nO,
"""lusi'-ely, in the decisions of civil and erio'ioalla... courtS. These
COUTt., in fact. when deciding a litig.tion or imposing. puni,h.
menl upon. criminal u",olty apply gene",1 legal norm, er,.ted
by l,gi,lalion or e"'lnm. Bu' l.w is .1", applied, a. has been said,
when gencratlegal nonns are created, when decrees are i""ed by
.dmini"... ,ive oJEi<:ial., and (as will be di""uosed lat.".) when leg.i
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....Yl D:ld'V ""WNj<l
-"
T"t """A><le "'PECT OF lAW
c<r,ainmnu ha,. con"i'u,ive, n<>l; merely a declaratory. charnel"',
The conr'< !lao to apply the genorol valid norm. of
oro." to conerolc co.., mnn dide the quc"ion whether the
Donn In "" appliM j. con"itu.ionol, that is. crea.ffl in a legislative
proccduro determin<d by .he cotutitn';on or by cwtom delcsaled
by the OOIlOliIUlion." ThiJ facl. 10 M "scOTlllined by th. enur. is
.. much. condition for the ..nction stipulat<'d by .he court in
concreto caS< the fact, to be ..cerlaioed by the COUrt, .hat. de-
lic, had been commiu<d. The 1"8"1 rule describIng Ihi, ,im"ion
-for example when a criminal law 01 a democratic lepl order i,
appliw._i. thi" if the constitutionally elected patli"",."., by way
of. procedure prellCribM by .he constitution, hils pa5$<:d a .latnte,
according '0 which bth.vior ought '<> he punished, as
crime, in a certain way; and if COUrt lou u<.,-rtained the fact
that a individual lou beha""d in that way; (oun
ought to imp"'" the prescribed by the Thi>
formul.tion of rule of l.w ",vub position of oo-<:alied
con.titutional law (th.t i., the norm. regulating ".ation of
generall"S"l norm.)_wi,hin fnmework of a legal ord.... They
"e not comple'e nonn.i>e<au..., 'hey determine only
On. of condi,ions of coerch" aCt stipulated by o,her nonn.
They are no"". only in connection with 'b..., nonn.
fore, fact tha, the nOITm of com,i'utionalla.w do not
.Cll i> not .ufficien' realOll '0 rejecl, .. i. JOII]e,imeo done.
'he d.fini'ion of law a. a (I(i"" order. Only by ascertain-
men, implied in judicial deci,ion ,hat a general oorm, tn be
applied by ,he COUrt. i1 valid_nd it i. valid if it w.. cre.,ed ac
cording to ,he con<titution--does norm become appl;e,ble in
'he C""', and thereby. legal .ituation ,. creatM for thi<
ca.", wbich did not before the deci,ion.
Tha' the ordeclng of a ....nc'ion ha. coruti'n,i.'e chua..
teT hardly need. much p<oof, The indioidual norm Itipul.ting
'hat a certain ....nction ought '0 be directed against a c.rtain indi-
vidnal lou be." "<ought ,nto by ,he judiciol decio;on; it
did not exi" before, Only ,he lack of in,igh' in'o th. norm.live
function of the judicial deci.ion, only the prejudice thu law
con,i." merely of gen 1 norm., only ,he ignoring of the exiot
-F.". ti..I..,lono ..., poolt! bw '" 1>... "(hI'" 'ho >1'''' and ..hrt bw
'PP'ring .'S'''' d. !!]j, ,.t-ctlon ...,.ho .....-It."....., ""ul<.
na DYot.UllC .una- ... \.4w 1!1l
""'" 01 iodjvidual IcpI ........ 1M boa thai judjci.II
dec....... iJ. COO.......tioa olIM laW.crn.<iotl proccoo. aad hM
'" tbt o:rro.- 10 1ft i. in a mndy dbnuxy l"na;""
10 is impon..n to ralizt ..... n-t:a <bt aocnuiouDea, 01: dor boa
w. a ddac. had bcea ......timy CIDGOIiuo-
f"nc.;"" 01 the coun.. U a kpI 0Id<1" auxba a JAin conooe
q......:e '" a CCO"llUn Ix. at ooaditioo. lhcn this onln m_ Wo <Ir-
<bt organ who aM 1M procah'", by ..hidl the nis<ft>oo
01: ooaditioains Ix. iJ 10 boe iD a """"'"'''' asc. 1bc
lopl ordn .....y aulhoriu'M orpn lOde..,.",..... <bt al
his O...n discrnioll; but orpn and n"'ut bt de-
,ermincd--<lirtly or indirectly-by the log:o.l '" "",-, tbt
gcn"",,1 nonn OIn M .pplillo cone...,"' ..... WiLh ""prtl 10.
f"", .. by order .. ,h. condition of a c"".. in con
d,. [,rot qUelli"" of Lb. ju.;'1 muot M which 1"!p1 organ
iI compclOnl, ac<ordillj 10 Ih. legal Old.., 10 aitt""in .bil fact in
,be o:oncre", <.1>1:, and which i. ,be procedure pr..,;.ibfd by .be
legal otdtt. I' iJ only by .hi, lUCnuinmCtll ,hal Ix. rucbes
I'OIm 01: law; only Ibm don. n.>.unl Xl alepl fau
-if, il aated at lcpI fact. 1bc objection: '1l<e momm. at
whid! the IcpI Ix. iJ 10 be regarded ...., iJ idto,ic:aI with tht
1DOiIlIl:D. at .....ido tbt ...'urn fXl 0CJ;InY1'd, may bt _f\'\'d by
Ilwo 0UI1m>n<1: '1l>e axenainmcn. of <bt boa by <b.la..
orpn has force. w 1bc boa is "'" COIIsidon'ed to bt aub-
liabed IIlhe _.of the .-nainm=\. bu. a, the -.l' <Ir-
..,.",ined by tht 0IpII. "",-, is. a, tht mo..",." II
10 the atem.I.ia....... of the la_pplyillJ orpn
-tl>t Dawn! boa occurrul. 1bc1IlOOlUin"""". of the condilioning
boa by the 0DUrt. dH:fon, iI consli i in If. &m-
nal lo:pl nonn a'ta</>(o a punisl<m <0 murdeT, <hm thiJ NIlG-
,ion iJ no< conttliy dcotribod. by tho ,.....tnt-t!>e faa <ha, III
indi"iduall"" murd"" iJ condition of """'lion.
No< 1"'= bCI in i....1f ,hal an indi.idual ha. commined a murd.. 4
Ih. condition .tip..laltd by legal ortla, but ,h. lac. ,hu an
organ. a.. thori!td by l"1Ial ord.., in a proocribM by
Ihe order, bu aoc....ined that an individual has cornmilled
murd...-,If i, i. said, "A coun that a cot...in individual
committed a CfttIin murder, al.hough 'in ",.lity' thi, individ....l
did "'" commit i,", '" if it il Aid: -n.e COIl" aacnt>ined that 0
.,.
THIl ....N....IC .una 01' LAW
un.in iDdividuai did not com",;. a cnu.in m"f'Okr. a1thoullh 'in
"""it"" he d.id"--thm, !.hit ....."", thu !be wuRaoc...wn.N thl: "",.
iluDa DO" ......".i>tcn of a [ac, whicb. accordi... '0 lho opinion of
indi>i<!ualllq;all, DOt compelftl. to :ucnu.... ohis, d;d not c:Utt Of
.....'"
F...... tbt point ", ..in< of a ltpI onin th..... 10 bf applird by
iodiridllal......Inan' U'C' onl, tht opinions of indi"id1U4 wbnbtt
an indiridual bas commi"ed mu,.,x". "I'MK opinions arc more
or I.... 'di>.ble. u..y .... y co,undiclorr. lhc ItIlf>OClN individ
ual himidf _, admi. or elm, the be.. Bu. if <he Il't"cnlltp1
norm is '" lit applied. only one opinion CIn be dec";,',, Which
one, mUll be Ml.t'rnIined by lhe order. Til .. opinion is u-
p,.*<! in .he lurt ded.ion. It alone is legally ..le.-am, ,h. opin
;0111 of all others .r. ;'....le...m. Still, a judicial decision may be
cont...<d by way of if 'he ."",,,.inmen( of Ito. condition
ing foci. conlainrd in the <1;,;01\, i' COIl,idttM crro",rolJ.l by 'he
parti...u,horiztd by dw ltgol o,d...-.o rna"" IlIell an appeal. Tlli,
mcalll ,hhe ,ubj.c.ilHl mcaning of the a,;t of IlOCh decision
need not yet be: """'cptnl ddnhcly .. its obj'iw nw:anlng.
meaning of lIM: let will dtlinildy ill objKliYc
maltiDg anly when the judiW.I dccWort has acquir<d lhe fnra: of
a wi judgment: wbf:n it GlIIDOI Ite <aDtt1<d br a IUIlIIn pro<r-
dure. 101 Wt caI<C lIM: opinioa tID.< HI innocm' iodiwidoul w;u stn
lft>CftI is loplly achille'!. This is 10 boa...., the lepI rule don not
NY: aanaiD iDc!irl'hNI hu murder. Ibm a puDio!>-
menl ough' 10 Ite impooed upon him. The Iepl rule ..,,: lIM:
in a JI"OUdure decnmin<d by lite lepl order 11M
urerui"o:d, willt lite Inra: of !:Iw. w. a cnuin indiwjdual hu
"""",inn! a munier, Ilten lite coun ought 10 UnJlOO" a puniih.
menl upon w. I" juri<tK: thinking Ih.e 'l'rUin.
men' of the be. b)' lite competenl authorl'y replleer the fie' in
;...,If lhal in nonjuriJtic 'hlnklng is 'be rnodiLion For ,he coerriYe
act. Only ,hi. aoccn..inment i. the condi,loning "lacl," and In
cerning the quertion whe'her this fac' In the CODere'e ...."'.
"'hether 'he as<:ert..inmenl wa, ",.de at all ur by the al1Lhori"'d
organ or in the prncribed proceclurr----<:onceming .11 ,I..", qu....
lionl just ... many different opinionl are pouible a. cOlKerning the
'1un,i"" ",hether 'he ..o::er,.. lnmn" was "COITect." Just as il i' P"'-
uble.o appal agoinsl. judicial d""i.Uoo on the ground> of inc....
DYNAM'C ASPECT OF UW
.,.
of the ascertainm.n' of 'he fact ('h.. a certain d.lict_.
commilled by a ""noin indiYidual), JO ;\ i. poosible '0 appeal
against the ""..::u,ion of a .annion on the ground. of non""istence
of a judicial d..::i!ion, or on the ground. of incompe,cnce of ,h.
organs or fauhine.. of ,he procedun'. The si'uation that. acCOM
ing '0 the view of ,he I"'''i.... thxecu,ion of a sanction was or
d.red withom a preceding judicial proo:edure, i. analogous '0
,he ,huation that Ihe court a.!Certained lhe wmmi..ion of a delict
although. according '0 the opinion of th. panie" no .uch delict
w.. commiued. 1n this case, ,he commisssioo of the delict can be
ascertained again in an appeal procedure or. if lhe Donwmmi..ion
of the delic, i. ascertained by ,h. wur' of appeal, 'he order of 'he
""ecu,ion of th. ",netion c:ut be ......,inded. In the former case, the
faCt con,..,ed hI' ,h. panie" ,ha, ,he "Mer of ,he execution of the
',Ulction w.. preceded by a cour, procedure, con be aocertained in
appeal procedure or, if ,hi. fact cann<>l be a""ertained, a ne'"
court procedure can be i""i'uled. The .i".... 'ion ,ha" '0
,he view of the pani... the judicial deci.ion was rendered by a
wu" incompetent '0 .it, or in a faolty procedure, i. analogou, '0
'he ,i'uation II. .. ,h. delict wos commiued by an individual o,her
,han ,he ","tenced one or ,hat the delict which he ac,ually did
commit was differ.nt from the one for which he was ..menced. In
an these ca... a wur, procedure i. Ihe .ubject of another wurt
procedu",. If ,hi, appeal from one procedure to .no,her i. limi,ed
by a I""i'ive legal ord.., then ,I...... ;, finally a cou.' procedure
,ha, can no longer be ,he .ubject 01 .no'h.... wur, procedure.
Then ,he borderline c..., of an ul,ima'e couTt procedure mu" be
....,pted lacl in i,,,,lf. Thi. happen. when ,he deci"'n of the
coun of 1 , in.tance acquir.. the force of law. ThiJ means ,h..
now ,h. subjective meaning of the act of deci.ion of ,he coun of
last in, lance ha. to be accep'ed it> ohjec,ive meaning. If in ,hi,
d"""'nn the p.trty-con'etted fact i. "see".ined ,h., a cou" proce
dute pTeceded the ordering of the ""reution of ,he sanction Or
that the compe,ence of ,he earlier court, denied by ,he p.tr'i.,.
canno' be denied or ,hot the faultine.. of ,he previous pro
cedure a.....ed by ,h. parti.. does not ""i,,_,hen any oth.. opin.
ion i, legally excluded,
Although ,h. coun procedure ,ha, ascemin, the laCt that i. ,h.
condi,ion for II. ... i. no' a procedute of lI(ien"fic cogn;.
...
Tn" DYNAMIC ""neT lAW
jon. but of cru';"" of Jaw.till. a cena;" p"ral1e1 ex;'" be,,..,,,,"
thi.< prottduu and the plttedu,.., by which IIdentific. cogniuoo o!
natural fact. is an.ined, pl"Q\liMd that we .nume ,ha, ,he p,occ.
dUTe of >cien,ifie cognition ho, con"itu,ive eh...""tet. In thi,
p'",Hd ,h" organ of ,h" cnrn';lu';,". couTt pr<x<odutt "",.,...pood.
to the subject 01 ,he """'ti.miv" proeedu,"" of scientific cognition.
10" '" ,h. ob]"". <>1 ,hi, cognition i. "cr..,td" in ,h. pnxe<!u,.., of
cognition. "" ,h" (X, th.. ",h. condition fOT ,h" .."",ion i. cr<:'
.ted in the cou" proctdu"", And jUlt ., the rourt procedure a, a
faet can iu..lf become the objec, of a rourt pmcedutt, "" the pm.
<Mure of <<>gnition i.sdf nuy hecome ,he object of a proceduTe of
><icntific cognition in ,he thwry of cognition (cpi''''ffiology). But
,he cognition wh.... object ;. scientific cognition a fact crmuO'
be again, a. a foci, the object of cognition. The ""l!T=lon from
pto<<dut< of .dmtiftc cognition to proc<durc of ",ientific
cognition wh"", objcci the fonner i. i. limit<d. There ni." ,he
I>orderline case of a procedure of .dmtific cognition. which mu"
be :occcpt<d" a f.ct in iutlf, which mcan., as. fac. that cannot be
created in .no,he. procedure of scimtific cognilion.
The ,dal;on belween a courl dec;,;o" ond
Ihe gene,al legol .","'" 10 be applied
The ac' by wbicb ,he individual norm of judicial deci.ion i. cre-
a.ed i. usually predetermined, u hu heen ..id, hy g.n..... 1
norm' of rormal and malerial law. In Ih.. ca.., Iwo posIIibilitirs
p....m .he.....,1>.. in a conn". ""'" to b<: decided by .. <;our<. Ei
ther the court ....,nains that ,be dd.ndanr or :occu..cl h com
mitted the drlkt a. claimed by the plaintil!: or public prosutor
and ha. thereby violated an obligation imposed on him by ,be
legai order; then ,h. <;ourt must find for ,he pl.in.iff or condemn
.he accu..cl by ordering a ...n.tion ptncribcd in ,he grtt....l norm.
Or the <;ourt """'rlai", .ltat Ih. dclendant or accused ha. no. <;om
milled ,he delict and ther.for. has not viola.ed an obliga.ion im
posed On him by the legaI order; ,hen ,he <;OUrt must dimi.. th.
aclion or acquit .he accuJcd---.thal is, the court must order that 00
.allclion ought to be diTC<:ted against Ibe ddrttdam or accu..cl.
""he.her Ih. cour' (aj finds for ,he plaintil!: or condemn. Ih. ac-
cused or (b) th. ac.ion or acquiu the acculed, ,h. judi
THI: DYN.... 'C ..sPl:CT OF UW
."
cial ded.wn .pplies the valid leg.l order; thil i. particularly 10
when the Court di.mil.lC> the action or acquiu the on ,he
ground, that, according to the cour", view. no ,'alid gen..al norm
exisu which atr.a<;hes a sanc,ion to the defendant', or accuoe<!', k-
havior alleged by the plaintiff ot pul>lic p""""utor. It has been "",
plained ..rlier" that the legal ord....gula,es human beha"ior
not only positi"eJy by ordering a cortain behavior, but abo nega-
tively by permitting a c..tain bebavior by not prohibiting it, That
which iI legally no' prohibited iI legally permitted. The <ourt, by
di.missing an ac,ion or acquitting the o<cu",d, applies the legal
ord.. which permi" the ddendont or accuoed ,he behaviotagain"
which w.. dirocted the action or a"mation not founded on ,he
legal order.
A. discussed earlier. the legally not prohibited, and in thi...nse
permitted, behovior of an individual can be guaranteed hy the
legal otder by obliga,ing oth.. individual, to tolerate thllbehav
ior, ,ha' i., not to p..vent or impair it. Thi. i> alwa}", ,he cue i",,,
far .. a general prohibition of the application of physical foteo "".
i.u, and ,hi> application of for"" U ....rved to OTgan, of the legal
community. But i, iI J>O<'ible tha, ,he permitted behaviOT of onc
individual i. oppoSC<i by. behavior, not co",1.ning in the applica
,ion of phl"ical forre, of .no,her individual_ behavior that lik..
wi.. i. permitted. mentioned befOT......... conAict of imot
es" 1.0 pr""",t which the legal order does no, pr..'rn'; no legal
order can prevent all p""ible e",,/lic,. of inte..m. In thi. ,itua'
tion the court mun di,mi" the .ction even if it i. direc,ed again"
a permitted behavior of the defendant by which a p<'TIllitted be
haviOT of the plaintiff i. prevented or impaited without applka
tion of phy.ical force and the court haS '0 acqui, 'he .""...ed
even if hi, behavior againsl which the accusation i> diroc,ed h
a
,
thi, character. In this ca", too the judicial doci,;on .pplies the
legal order_i, i, law .pplication. The application of valid law m.y
be con,idoted unsati.factory in ...eh. ca.. beca"", it ..frain. from
prot<:c,ing.n in'..est which, from SOme poin,. of "iew, i. reguded
.. worthy of pro'ec'ion. But .inco a legal order cannot pro""t all
in,nnts but only 'ped/ic imote.,. by prohibiting
vio'ation it h., to le.v. onprotected v..p....nt counter
interts. So the..f""e the conAiel between. permitted behaviot of
Cftjd-
Icll:Il 'A!'!rod .1'1 pou!UJ"'I>p:>J.d " ,mo. .1'1 po,"".I,
OJ UJ.lOu ,cll:I] [onplAlpUl JO 'U"UO. 4"14'" U! ....,
U! ""''''' ,nll "ULI0U [cli.[ 1"'.u:>2 U! '4'
uOlm,'l"'OJ '4' 4'141t uOl'''''!P P"lIwl[ 'I"![ 01
''''J U! "! UO!"""'lP '4' 4'!4'" U! , .I'UllOJ 11] ""4' P"ltWI[
>.lOUJ 4,nw '! unO. JO uOII> lP '4' ';><D '!4' ul 'A[UO 'nuou
l,nplAlp'" u. JO uOl'...... ApUJou 'uol,.,n ....[ 'I uno.
'4' JO UO!"u"J '4' >so:> U! U'A' ",nl!<l
''''']' ,n'l ....[ JO ruIDU ,,'u 48n04' U',bI '[=
S>l[dd. uno. ' ..OJ ''''''''OJ''ll uJ U'A' '..n-.l:] A[UO 'oU
JO ,uo'l """''''!I'P '4L p"'nJJ. '4' 'lnb", .10 uo"", '4'
IOplpnf JO 'u"uo. '4' "U!w.I>"p".ld "4'
uuou [...... u:>ll .,!l!rod JO u..q. ''1' u!-"nw uno. ''I' 4'!'1'"
ul .... ''I' UO!punJ 0, '! unOJ ''1'
'1'14" ul ...., ''II """"''''1 J>.Jll.p ul ",u""Dlp A,uo '! ='1L
'UJ.lOU I......
.u.>ll 'ou. 4.n, JO .. "[UO UJJOu
]""Pl'!PUI ..uno' ''1L .,'""'" 0, P"ll"J .lO"j'!S,[ "I'lsod
'4' 'l"!'1" ru.lOU ,,''''[.......p!mo. unOJ ''1' '1J!'['"
UJiOU ..u:>2 SU!"ldd .1'1 ""'Ou ""prA!pUl '1'1' m'''' uno.
'41 lnll ..OJ lu.....d ,.\8u!, ''1' .l0J I"l"" ''''''00 ,.npIA!pul u.
"0,.. 0' P"!.IO'I,no A[UO OJ unOJ ''1' .I0J. .UtlOU Icll:I, f'U,uol! JO
uOl1"" ''1' lu"w " ,)lU!'OI'lll>[.. .1'1 Jl 'J>J..IO' "lnb:wu " "'lL
.I0'01,!8.[ ,. uo!"unj 0' " '.10m ''1' '"'I' p!"' "lion",
'! 11 .... [ ..'u " ..... OJ unOJ ''ll _!""qlno '"'I' UUOD "[' lnq
"'.IOU 'pn, A]dd. 'OU ,:>01' uno. '41"" '!'I' uJ mO"n. ""
UOl'"I'lll>[ "'I 1'''''.0 uuou ,.ll>j (....,u.>ll q P"U!tw"'p>.Jd '"
OU UI '! ,,,,,,1100 ""''I'" WlOU [.S.[ (onpIAlI'''' U OJ '!'ll U! " .....
0, '! uno. 'lf1 "4' ,uO'UJ t1'lL 1'"'n ''1' """"U'"
OJ.lO DllU!o[d '4' .I0J pug OJ '''OJ''''J.p",un 's< '"'I' "['l",!nbJun
.I" "'n[un .. W.l"U jOl.u.>$ 0 'I,m jO '41 Sl.prsUO' lmOJ ''1'
JI 'mq 'p>sn.", '411Inb.. 01 lou '0 u"l'" "/' "!W'lp O,,0U uno.
'4' """"4,no 1Jp.lo [cll:I, "/' '"'I' '''''''',''0'1 "]'ll'rod Oil" '! 'I
.IOJnq
''''1 'J'I' 01 UO!lJU", 0 SU!4""'" ""0" 1 ""8. "'I p"1J"o.ld ,0u'1
'OlA"'!"'! '1'1 ,{q pl,"[Ol' ,,,,,,,,ul JI[1 "J 'I' pun p"llqlq<ud IOu
" JO''''I>q "4 "'''oJ",! 'AjD" p'''lnh.. p",nJ'" "" '0 'AIUO p.... w
"11' '! uop"" ''I' u"I1t lu:>s...d ....."[.,, """UOJ 'l'"S ",q"'!,""! 'J
,.nP"lp"! '''fIOUO JO .I0!"4"'! ''ll pu. [.nptAlpDl '00
"'..... .L'>"JdS">' '">1.1
.h
DOII1Il, a un.aiD amouDt of dixr'c<iou to.... be raefYcd for the law-
craw., fuDCtion of the court. n.c pooiti,.., gcocnllKlnll c:anno<
prcdctcnDincall the btlon which make up the pUliaritin oflbe
cooactC QIC p'dt at. for ClWIlplc. Ibe amoun' of damqc '" be
dctnmiDCd by the court whith bas 10 be OlIInp<nJ&rcd for by Ibe
coun.......rcd eiril eucution in tbe property of Ibe dcfcndan.; 00-
the -""CDt a' ..hid< the jail ocnt6>tt CD be imptllCd by Ibe court
aI>ould btogin or cod; or ,he day wbeD a death .....~ .. 10 be a-
ulCd. In thc proccduf'C in ..hich a gcnu.U norm i$ individual.
ilCd.he ~ n applying the gcnrnol norm m.... a1wars de'ermine
.be f ~ .. which arc: noo ye"'nd (JUtrtOl be. dconmincd by 'he .....-
cnlnonn. The I\"'"eral "",m .. ahny. only a frame ..I.hin ..hich
'he indh'idual no.m .. to be crc:.,ed. Bu' ,h" fr,une con be naT'
TO""CT or wider. It I. wldut when 'he Jl'O'itiv. general no.m con
.. Illi only ,h. au,ho,;,.,lon for ,he ete.,ion of ,h, Individu.llcgal
norlll, wlthou' predetermining its content.
If ,h,con'en' of ""'h a (Ourt..:\.,.] individuallcg.1 norm i, ill
no "'.y pr.,.]e'ermined by gencrol norm, '001 ,he individ.....1
norm bas tetroani,.. r........ A l<pl n<lnIl .. said 10 ha"" 1"CIl"OlICIive
force, if the bet 10 "'hieh the ncti"" ' ....hod """,ned before
the nonn bct:amc valid; the f then a. thc time of.he cru-
tion of the DOnJI noI )'CI' delict. but _ made intO one by th"
n _ a f ~
Th.... ., ..bca the COUrt .pplico 10 the QIC whidl it hal tn M-
<ide"" individ.....llcpl ......... wbca CUltent iI noI JftdctemIlncd
by a posit;,.., ~ !cpl nona; that mc:m.>: if thit indi..idual
~ noI"tII a....,btt a ...",.;on '0 a bcharioo- of 'M dcf<ondan, or
:IltUcd. a.ann""" whicb a' thc ~ thc behavior oo;urrl _
noo J'CI a dclicr. b... _ made intoODC ortly by the individuallcg;ll
normof the judicial dwon.
'rhe JIH.1ILd K"PJ i .. Ih, I.",
It Iollows from what Ito, I>n said ,ha, 0 Jl'O'itive leg.l OrdCT can
.lwoJ" be opplic<l by a cou., '0 0 conaete co... ~ n when the
Icgol otder d.... nol con.. ln, according '0 ,lte eOUtl', view, 0 ge'"
erol norm Jl'O'hively rcgllllliog the behavior of tlte dcfend>nt or
accu.... ; thlt i'lO oay. wlten ,he Icpl ord.... doct nnI con...in a g.n
enl .-mimpooing upon tbe dcfeDdant or aa:wcd .be obliption
'45 THE DY"AM,C ASPECT OF ....'"
of a khavior which he, according to the action of the private
plaintiff or the ,""cu..,ion 01 tile public PrQie<;utor, did not per
form. For in thi....... hi> behnior i. negatively, that i..
legally not prohibited, ami in this Ienle permitted. But tradition.1
juti.prudence in'erpr." thi. ease, under cenain ci""umstanc.., a.
a "gap" ill ,he legal order.
III ord.r to judge the thwry of "gaps" in the law it i. n..,....ry
to d.termin. the ci",,"mstanc.. under which, .c..,Tding to th.,
theory, a "gap" in the I.w oocu,... AccOTding to thi, theory, the
valid law is not in a concrele cue if no general legal
norm refe,.. to thi, case; therefore the COurt i. ubliged to 611 the
gap by aeating a corre.ponding norm. The ...."'ial argument II
that the application of the valid law, a." conclu.ion from the g.n
enl to the particular, i. logiully impo:<sible in thi, c.... l>eaou..
the nece...ry condition_the validity of a general norm relerring
to the c_i, mi"ing. Thll tlleoty II errOnwu, l>eaoUIe it ignore.
the fact that the legal order permi.. the hcllaviw of.n individual
when the legal order dot. not obligate the individual to kh.ve
otherwi... The application of the vaJid legal OTder i, not impo.. i
ble in thi, <;ale in which traditional theory ..."m.. a gap. The ap-
plic.tion of. ,ingle legal norm, to be tru., i, not po:<sible. but the
application of the legal order-and that. too, i, law
po:<sibl. Law application i, not exdudttl. In fact, the exi"ence of
gap i. in no way a..umed in all caleS in which the ol>[igotimt of
the defendant or accnoe<! ., ...."ed by the plaintiff or puhlic
prosecutor u not enabliolted by nOTOl 01 the valid law. Upon
du.er in'ption it turn. Out that the exi.lene. 01 a gap;' ...umed
only when the ablenee of oueh a legal nOrm ;, r.garded a, politi.
cally und..itable by the I.w..applying organ; when, therefore. the
logiully po"ible application of the ,-alid law i, rejecled for thi,
politic.l ..a",n., being inequitable or unju"" according to the
opinion of the law..applying organ. But the application of the valid
legal order may k regarded "' inequitable or unju" nOl only
wben thi, "tder lac.... general nOTm imp<>!ittg upon the defend
ant or .ccuJed a definite obligation. b\llal", wben il contains .uch
a nunn. The fact that a legal order lad. a I.gal norm IhOi "ip,,'
l.le. punisbment for Ih'lhelt of electricity may k tegard..J 3. in
equitable or nnju" a, much a, the fact that. legal order contain, a
legal norm applicable to murder with IObl>ery in the sam. way
nu: ........""e MI'T OP ....w
."
"*10 tbr aot ill which Ir.illo his inalrably ill law.. upon lbe
la,tt't'. ttqll<'Sl. A gap in -.., or 'M inapplialbili.y or tbr
...ricllaw is DO 1_ pram' tbr...., <ale' as ill ,he othn; and i. is
u IDS< iDco....su... 10 _IDe PP ....Ir ill ont <ale' arocI not in
IN: Olhn. Baicks. IN: juclpnml. 10 whidl IN: Ixlr. or
lqal norm or OUQi.. contm' is iluquitable or ..nj.... ,.p.........
"ar IIlbj<ctivc juclgmmt which ill DO _y op-
pooi .. 0.1"" judgmmL If. fOf enrnpk. a 1<p1 ord.... dnes not eon-
taio a gmenl l<pl norm whieh imP""'" ..pon tho 1M
oblil'"tion torompm.... forcbnugeauxd by emplO'fff io lb
mpl"'.. buoineso. and if. thtTdor tbr <our< must dism'" lb.
:><;rion against tho "",ploy.. and an find only lor ,h. plain,il'l if
Ill< action is dlrec,ed against Ih"'ploy.... 'hm 'h" Ipplic>lion of
,h" nHd lrgal onI... will he: judged a. unsa'i.flClory by. Socialist,
b.. , enti ...ly ""isl.cLory by a Lil>enl. The lICk 01 I general lepl
norm which result. in Lhe dismi"",1 or ,he pl.in,ilf"! ICLlon Or ,he
ICq.. i,...1 of Lh. "",uord will ,"ually be rrgarded a, saLI.lflClory,
.nd d,=fOJe ... equitabl. Ind just by the def.ndant or the """
.uord. bu, .. unsa,isfx,ory and <h ...,forc .. inequitable: or unju..
by tbr p1ain,iff or public I'f""C"lOt.
In .pitcof all <hac objecti 11K l;IP theory p1ayoan importan,
rol. ill <he techniq... 01 mod legioLatioa.. TIle foll_int ....1. of
tbr Sw_ Ciri! Clldc is .rpicaI: -n.e law is .ppliabl. to alIlcpl
po-obl...... for which it contaillS a ....1. t::<p1icitly .. by ill............
....... If no pr.....iplioa isconuined ill tho:: la tho judco:: ahall de-
ci</.c lC'COf'dilli to CUJI<'Il'l and. <his too is Ixlr.iJIs. xcordiDg
10 the ....11Udl tM: _lei .....blUll ....,.... bot a This
rule Jlf""UI'P""'" tho:: p-ibili.y w. s.... Ia. is inapplicabl. to
"""'""'. <ale' 10 be by a S.i. dYll COlIn. Bu, .i..... lhi> is
x .... lly not poaibl.,.ina al<pl ord... i. alwayo applicable: and is
x,ually applied ... thr COlIr< m.... di_i.. ,he aclion on
the grouru4 <hit <he lopl ""'.. doeo nOC """... in a rule
im!","iog upon ,h. defendanl the obli&>lion a>o<r,ed by the plain
tiff."" ,herdorc the ,up!"'"i,;on, on which Ih. dl<d n,l. u 1Jajed,
i, a fICtion. Th, 6ction conli", in ,hu: a l.ck, oosed 00 I "'bjec
,i .., moral'JX>litital ""Iue judgment, of I r ..... in I.gal Ootm
.. iLhin a legal oro'" upr...n.ed .. <he impoaibili,y of iu applica.
,ion.
Th, lrgisb.tor may be: induced '0 use <hu 6ction 'hfOllih the
OVSAM,C A'PECr OF lAW
con,idention lhat ,he application 01 a ,tatute c.,.ted by him may
lead to an un...'i,factory re'ult under cerlain unlore..en and un.
ciTCum"ance.; and that it ;, de.irable therefore to au.
thori.. the court, not to apply in .uch ...... the .,a{Ute that prede-
tennine. 'he content of it> judgmen" bu' '0 cre..e an individual
norm, wh",e COmen' i, no' determined by a 'la'ute but adap'ed '0
.he circum"ance, no' for...en by ,hc I'l'iilator, If he were '0 for-
mulate thl' .uthoriuuion in a theo.eticolly correct f..hion, ,hat i"
without fiction, he ""ould ha,'e to ...y: "Jf the application of th.
valid legal order ;, un<ati,factory according to the monl.poIitkal
opiniOTl of the court in the p''''''' ca.. then the coun may decide
the ca.., according to it< Own dilcte';on:' But .uch a lonnulation
would allow far too gr... t authority to the Court. The judge would
!>t autho,ired to decide to hi. own di"".etion ",hmev...
he con,id.... the appliouion of the ...lid legal otder .. uru.ati,f .
tory even "'hen he con<.idered., un.. ti.factory the application of a
general le""l nonn which imp""" upon the defendant or accu<ed
,he obligation which he has violated according to ,he pl.intiff or
public prosecutot. If ,he mORI'poli'ical op,nion of the judge re-
plac.. that of the legi.lator, th.n the legi,lator abdicat.. in fa",r
of the judge. The auemp! to limit the authori<atiotl to c.... which
rhe l<gi,bt"r h.., be"" f"'e...", i. bound 10 fall beeau'" ,he legi ..
I.tor i. unable '" pred...nnine the.. ca...; jf he could predeter.
mine them he would po.itively regul.te thetn himself. The al-
.umption of ,he coun that a ea" had uo' been by the leg-
i,I"Dr and 'hat the lI,gl,I",or would have formulated tbe law
diffetendy if he had fore.."" the ca.. u,ually rem On an unptov.
ble gu...., The legiilator. intenti"" i, recognirable with ."fficient
certainty only inoofu .. it;' expr..sed ;n ,he I.w he ha, <teOled. It
i, lot this Tea",n that the legi.l.tOT, to limit the authori,ation 01
the cou,," whiclt he regaro... indi'pen..hle. u the fiction that
the valid legal OTder i, inapplicahle in certain ca lor obj""tive
--.and uo, for subjective, mor-.l.political Tea"""; ,hat the judge
may function a. a legi.btOT only when b" ha gap.
But ,he valid law i. alwal'" appliathl .ince It ha. no 8"'1'"
in ,hi. sen... ,he fotmula, when it< finitio,," character ha.!>ton ex
posed, d0C5 not provide tlte intended limitation of ,he authori,,
tion granted to the Court but ill ..Ifabolition. nu, if ,he court a<'
"'p" the ","umption that ,h. law hal goP"- ,hen this theoretically
."
un,mabk r.:tioD the inttnlkd ell"ea. For
tIK judge mtrOllfti by:a higher coun_bo ;. not
intIi"""" 10 USUJl>t tbc r""'fOl'Sibili" lor Cfeo..... _ la.... wm '"'"
....... 1M aiOlmu of :a fOP ooly '""'T .-ardy and Ihndore o,d,
rudy mab ..... of hil :aulhoriu 10 talc thr pb of tho Iqio-
b_.
tbt toallcd mw: ppo. .......umel ppo
dittiDJuisbcd wbich ue coru.idoercd pooiibIe eYaI by lhoK ....ho
dm,. fronI thrir poo.i.i..it<ic point al vi..... ohc ClUmroo:l: of uue
PI'"- Sud> a <hlliat pp it pram' ",hnl me legislator bib '"
p'Q(Yibc ......",bing which he would 1\..,., '-l '" prnr;ri!>e iI it
ohuu.ld be technically pouible at all to apply <he law. 1.._.1'....
thl.t which i. d<*,ril>ed :I., a .tchnical gap 11 .',her a pp in <h.
original """... "I ,h. wont ,lla, ii, diffe,ence be,,,'n a pooi,i...
I.w and a desired law. or th., kind of uncertainly ,h., relul" fro",
,h. trame character 01,11. S"n=1 norm. The forme. ;1 1"'.""1 ii.
lor uamplc, the law ..:>rdi"g '0 which in case of a ",I., ,he Uc.
i. oI.>lipted to ddi.'cr ,he mcrchJ.f>di.. or, jf he doel not d.li , to
<<>O>pntY-'" for 1M""..om <bOlUS"'. don no< determine ,,'1>0 io run-
nilll <he ritk vh.... tbc told ....rduoDdis.t pttMn it i
...nded OI:I". tllroush "0 fauh 01: pany. It i. not \....,........
...-n, ,"'t tlw: Irgioh_ pceteribcs Hnothi"l'" for but only
llta, he dBeo n(lt preoo::ribf: I.... ,h. odIn- is diocba'led 0_ ub-
lipticJo> to deliyn tlw: mnchandioc "" r<:Ddttmmpcou;t..... ; a
ICripc.... "'hd is reprded ... dosinbk by thooc ...110
"""'"" Ihal a g:o.p Mf: a pcoctiptioo which. """'....n. in no
"",y needs to he IUpplied to ,"",U Ihe bw appliabll>. Sinoo tho: law
.dox1 noll ....... in Ihektcrilxd Clk a<mpt tho: odin- frocn tlw: ub-
fig:o.' ..... '" deli..." the mm:"'ndise or TnMkr compnua,ioo,
law in b<1 puocrihcs thai ,I>f OI'U.... i. tuBnin!! tho:
oecond a... i. p.nn'll if 1M law prc.:rihcs, for
,ha' an organ .hould he n'abli>hed by denion but <Ion nOl l'qlU-
lite doc election p"""edu.e, Thi. m'""', ,h., any 'ypc of dcc'ion
II in 1Ct0.d:on<:e wi,h doc law, The orgao a,,,hori,ed '0 Clrry ou,
.he cl.nion may d"'eTln;"o ,h. elcc,oral proccdu'e a<:cording u,
hi. " ..'n dUcTction, The d",..min..ion of ,hi. pr<><edu.o iliff, '0 a
10..... norm. AnOlh.... e""mpl.: I II'" pT<':ICTihcs, among oth.r
things. ,h in ot1l"t \0 function, mun be <OIwoked
by iu chailllUn; but i, alto pt...,.ibn that it IIlU" 01..:. iu _'n
'SO THr; DY.......IC ASPu:-r Of' LAW
dWIman.. If i. is I>CIl poooibk <0 lha<: ...,...,.. 10 man
tha.....y 'JP<" Dl C1IlI:l.......tion is law".1 in C2k DO chai......... is u fC'
dcacd. bu. OGly tha,. in obis ...uation. tbo comm;tl ""lid
<0 bl' C1IlI:lYUUd by ill cbairul&D, lhtn obis "''''''''''lC&DtIOt fw><:..
tiDn lawfully. Bu.o <>opp is po....., Mtt. nthn-. rOO" obo 1.>10' W3J1U
l.Iw "'" oommiutt bl' CDII"fObd by iu dlainIo.aa <'W:II if i. doan',
have one. If the 1.>10' had I>CIl prncribed )1.b.in. Ior.he CDII'''''''''
.mcl "'" ODUImiUtt in ..do ........ioD. y Dl C!OnDca';""
would bl' lawful. Thc 1.>.. "mply p..m lOIIICtbinS nonocmi.
aI. S,na laws.", DWImaok. this is lIOI. impouibk.
C.e_li"" of KenCIWI leg.1 n<>nIIJ lhe co",u;
of Ih Ill... _",I lepl unlrity
A COUr!. e'p""ially one of highell inll"""". may l>t au,ho.i,cd t<>
C.ea'e by ill judgonen. PO' only an individual norm binding for
the p._1It ca>oo. bu I ....e....l nor.... Tbi. happeJU wb.....1Ie jud'-
cil-l decisioa !>calmes a IOalied preced.... '. ,hat is. when ,he deci.
,ion of a DOC is living diue.ion '0 ,he derision of similar cases.
A judicial dec""'" ....y ha,'c obo ,haraaa- of a prccednl' when
me, inrtiridtW norm crn,ed by d"" ddioo is ...... in iu coo,....t,
pmic1mDincd by. gonttal norm of: .....u""1 .. ' ..n........, law ..
is ambil;uowIy worded a<ld Iht>cf..e
tioru.. In tM f........... cue w cou.t', pnadmtial dihon o:reo....
MW law; in "'" >C'CODd a. tbo implicit in "'" dcci-
lion -'mcs tbc chancu1" of: Imnal DDn:Il. I" both "'"
coun ...... 0,,"_tbo pocccdm. f.."",ion> in """ manner 01.. "'Ii..
1.>tOII poocioclylik "'" DIp" .lUhorid by <he COIUIitut>on.o!fl,
iolate. The jtdicial do:ioion 01 COI"ICTCl.e pya dil'tion '0 tbc
deci.ion <Jl.imilar COla in that tbc individ....1norm which the ju.
dido! dccioion repr..... t> is goncn.liud. This I""cn.li.llnionha.
it, the f"",,ubtion of the SCncnl nonn.....,. l>t done by the COUrt
.ha. crn,ed the precede..,,: bu. it can aloo he lef. to OOM couTU
bound by .he p'cccdential deci';on. In ,hit case i, t. not
that differ....' cou"' .....y l""eraU"" ,he precedentLol dedl;on. in
different way>: which don not help pu.pose of the inld"'tion.
namely. to achieve a uniform judicature. Si,see the prccmcmial
dccWon can gi... direction only to ,he de"',;"" of ,im'la. C:UCO. the
qUCltion wlscohct a u Ji",ilar to the precedemLoI coos< is of de-
.,.
(ui.... imponance. Sma 110 OM: is simibr It> an<>tIIn in "tty ,..,.
'flOC'" the "oimibrity" of tM twO ..... in question can consist
onlJ in WI tbty connpoad 10 mch Ol.her in enu,n ......tial
pain... j .... as two OCU of betl wtueh IDSlituOC w ..-delia _
nat Jimilar;n all poilu.. 001 only in cftU.in nomlia1 poinu.. But
the 'I_ion in whim. pain" tlwy hi.., Ul <otlapoud ;n 0I"Ikr 10
be "oimibr" can be ....wnni only on me buis of a
.....1PnI DOnn lhu defines the fact by tXm1IIininr iu c.mtial
dftnmu. Whc"",," twO CllIeI .u';m;w can 'h....dore be <kcidcd
only on the t-iJ of Lbe ....._1 ......... <:rated b, the
(\";011. The formulation of lhi' gn>rnIl r>orlIl is W luppoo.ition
und.....hid. the pr..,tdm,;al d...-ition can g;'", dim:IWn ." ,h.
deci'ion of "similar" ,'ott.
The l....<naling (unction of the cou.u 1)<lme. particularly
vi.iblc when a court i. authorized to oc,1< a general norm by .,-
labli,hing a predcnt. To gi,-c .uch :on 'Ulbori.. t1on to lu,t,
upi.lJy to" coon of 110$< in....n, i. p;lrllcul..ly commcndoblc
when the court is lulhoriud 10 decide" CU<c under ,,;... in cir-
c....ut."""" not by applying" ....."".1 norm of an .1rtady ailling
Law, bu. acooro.i"ll to iu 01''1> diJctttion; in other words. if the
coun i. <l.uthorittd 1.0 creou an indi,-id...1 Icpl nona ..how <<In.
ltfI. io not pud....... in... by a DOml of b ... To
u.., of a Jl'"IOdm. upon oud> a dilion io anl1 a
mlargemcn. of ,be coun. luna.....
Ir courts ar" auth.o;ri>.td to etta'" indiYidual...4 rencnl nor-.
....itlt ."'" Iqis!.1li... 0Ipn e><ablioh.td by """ CCIRSIi
'u..... , this mean. a decm'nl;g..... of "'" iY.. funa.....
Wlm rapcct to "'" l"<'1a.iombip bttWttl"l """ l..pIali... ""Pn and
"'" couns.'wo 'dtnif;ally diktml trl"" of I"PI .,...... :or.. dis-
.inll"iohabl<'. Wi,hin 11M: lint .pc..... I"'" ewotiOlt of ",n<'l"ll lop!
nonn. i. <'Il'i...,ly anl"'li , 'ba' i.. <e'fiVtd lor. (..nlnl lqisla..
liv.. org;on. and II><' (lm re .... '0 apply 11M: l ..n"",1 norm.
( .....ttd by th.. IqUl"iv<' "'Pn in rooc,..'" c;un by lh.. Individual
norm. '0 "" <tnlo:<! by 'hmt, Si"".. ,h.. leghl..ive p,ox<'dur., in
ord.r 10 func'ion. h to lurm(lun' m.ny ob"""I..., elpn:i.lly in a
parli.m.ntary d.mocncy, it il diflicul' to .a:ommoo". the law in
.och. Il'"em '0 ch.nging dKum."'nc.... Thil .y:".m h the di,-
adv.ntag. <>f l.cling flexibility. It has ,h. ad"",,,,,,, how of
1"Plon:"r;ty; this "'c.nl 'hn th.. judki.al deciuonl ..., fo bl.
.,.
to a amiD o'mt. iUId Ihtrd...., calculable mough ...., indio
riduili ....bject: to the law On adapt. tbeU beh;n-ior 10 the fonoee-
able judicial dtcilioo>s.
"The principW. to bind okd....... of caner..., QJOI by gmtnJ
__ thaI arc to be Cl'ftted befordwld by em..,) Iqisb.i"",
0fPI'. eon be.,.lCDdcd 10 1M fU""'MIaJ of admlnistn-
.utt-itieo. n.., principle, in lhisgrnrnll form. rqlrat<ltl W
principk of the RnAmMl, that is, .....'" p=>ed by law. h ;.
lhc principle of ltpllo<Cllri,y. RulowWird,,,il.
In diU'Cl oppooi,ion .0 this .y>tetn is .he one within ..'hieh no
c"".... orpo ai'lJ.\.II, bu. judges and Idm'n;tt...." ..,
lutho.illCO di<k individ""l caoeo auording 10 their ",,"n frtt di..
Cfc'io". The jUl,ifict,iOIl of .his .ystem i. ,he um?,l"n ,Iu.. ,u'
ase;. exa<:t1y like 3ny Dlher ca",; and .ha. 'h cforo ,h. applica.
,ion of gcne....[ norm.....hkh predetermine Ihe judicial <1;';00 or
the admi"i.",,,i,-,, d..:. .nd .11", pre'-cn' ,he relp':';"c organs
.0 do junke '0 lilt ptcu);;,';"" of .he individual (>.It$. m.ylcad
'0 \lOOn, .. bl" ,n.,l ... Thi. is .he .JSIeTI> of the Kl-Clliled 'rei.
RcdIJ(z,.duQg {frtt juritdk,ionj, i, i< a 'f"nn 'hn Pla,o J"'O"
poocd for his idnl ..... Btouse 01 ito 01
la.. creo,ion.bi<.f"nn II di>cinsuW>od by vn' lIttibili,y. bu,
lack< Kal.I,y. for under >UCh order 'M...biK'od
it>dlvi<!""lo <2fl iQ no way a",icip"'" <he disions of
In wltidl u..-, .....y as Of proecnllOl'. as dtlmd-
an' or pbintill". ,My an.- tno... in wha, is
kplly I"'""iu<:d and prohibi'<:d. wha, ,...., a"" ltplly IU'1Ior'izftI
IOtIo .... .-authotiftd '0 do. Thtyan Ian> rnis.,..ly ,brousl' oM
diJion in wbich lMy p"nilJtod or aoquiutd, in which Wit-
Kt;on i< dismi....,.j or dccidod in favor.
Frtt juriwliction ,Ita, gwtnon'ttl Raibili,y law is 01,....
dtmllndod in "'" of jw,"'_a justice pr.....f'PO'<d > be ab-
sof",e. "1".... in ,hi. ontte ;.... id '0 be decision of.
case only if it taka in,o all peculiar;,in of ,he ca...
Bu' .ince no ale i. like Iny o,lleT, ,he Ippl in,i"., or I gen-
e",1 norm '0 a conne'e CllC ca" nevtr-1O i, i'>aid-lead '0 I jll"
ded.ion. For I no....' nec.... rily PTI,supl'0oeimil,r a
whirh in TOllily do not exi". TherdoTO Illla'" must Indiyid-
uII ch.netot only, Ind ,he di.ion of <on<TO c'un mull no. bc
bound fMWttll.
THE DYNAMIC ASJ'ECT OF u..w
."
Agairut thi. jUllilicOlion of ftee jurisdiction the following may
be objected: wha, actually happen>, when the deci,iom of conc'.
ca"", are not d.termined wi,h 'pee' to eontem by g.n.",l nom".
i. by no mean> tb. complete elimination 01 gen.ral nOnn> from
tbe PToceu of law e..ation. If th. ora.n, who i, aboot to deeide a
cone.." cose, i, 10 make a "ju>!." deci.ion, be can do thi, only by
applying a gen...1 norm he coruid.... as jn". If .ueh a g.n.",1
norm i, not already created by legislation or euHom. the OTg3n
mmt procud in ,be same way as a legi,lator who i, guid.d in for
mula,ing Ih. general nornu by certain ideal of jmtice. Since
dilfe..", Icgi,lato," may be guid.d by very diff<'Tcttt ideals of ju,_
tice, the value of justic. which they feali,. con only be r.lative:
md equ.lIy ",Iative U ,be ju,tice of the general norm by whieb
the organ i, guided who i, called upon to decide the cone.." 0",
From the poi", of .iew of an id.al of jUOlkc-pouible only a, a
",Iati"e valuo-----.th. diff.r."". between the of f..e jurisdic.
,ion and of the jurisdiction determined by .ta'utory or euuomary
law i. ,hi" in place of the general nonn of posili"e law and the
gen.ral norm corntituting the legislator'. ideal of juOlic. function.
tbe gen.ral norm of tb. ideal of jUs<ice of the organ wbo i, to ren-
de' the decision of ,he conCrete t:a5C,
Tbe PTcsuppo<ition of thi, geueral norm i, indi<penoable. a, ha,
been oaid, if the deci,ion of the concrete cas. U tl) be rcgartled a,
"ju"." For th. quellion why a certain decision i< jUl' i, provoked
by the nud to jUOlify the deci,ion, to give a ..a",n for the validity
of the individual no'ID establi,hed by it. And .""h JUIlification or
foundation of the validity i, only p')I,ibl. by bowing that the in-
dividual norm conlorm, with a bigher genera.l norm presupposed
to be just. The norm con"ituting the value of ju"ice must. ac-
cording to i" natu... bave a general character.
A .peeial variant in tbe demand for a Ifu jUTi<diction nOt pro.
determined by ge"eral norm, i. a doctrine th,,, ha, appeared re-
cently und.r tbe influence of exi.tenti.li" philooophy." ActoTding
to it. reality, which i, e"""'tially concrote. canno' be comp"-
bended by al""ract concepu. or reguhted by gen.",l nottm, but
mllOt be "lived," Sinc. th. concrete case. to be decided by the
M Ct. G<o<w e""n. ".0".",,10.... """ (""0<1, '9S.\) ..... H,.,
K<lo<n. """"'m...' ...... In d<r A'<hl. M, 1thr>- un<! """-I
phllo'.pM., <I" (,g,l). I,
,
.,.
nu: llyN.....'C ASPECT OF LAw
COU," aTO thoroughly dilc,<tU, the ""rrte. d:i.ion_,b., is, 'he
one whicb (on.id.... ali pe<;uliari,ies of ,he case--<:ann<>l be found
in a ge".ral norm that has bn brought"" (rom th. oUI.idc, but
only in ,h. reality <>f ,h. concre,e cue ilStll. The jUl! law i. im-
manen' in oocul ,,,,,lily and can only be found by a cardul analy.
,i, of ,hi. reality. not in general "orlllS created by legislation. In
'hi> '''peel UUIClllialii, ,hOOty of law i. mCTdy a .aria", 01 ,he
dO('r;nc <>f na'ural Jaw and, lik it, the hopei... attempt III a logi.
cally impoooiblc deduction from an is to an Qught.
Botw."n ,II"", two eX'TOme types <>i a jurisdiction bound by
>late legislation and a jurisdiction (tee of Itale legislation arc (al
til"", types in which a centrallegi,I.,;,.., organ i.I .....bli.lh.d, j"C'
,h. cour" are authorized to CTOa,. not only individual norm.
within tbe fr.unc,,"ork of the general nornu crealed by the )egi,1a-
tive organ but al--under .pecial drcumotancCl, dcocril>ctl .bove
-individual nor"", ouuide thi> framework; and (b) that .),.tem in
which the court> are authorized to create general legal norm. in
ti,e form of pr;edemial ded.io".. These differeot .y"em. repre-
..,nt differen, drgrcc. of c""",.lization or d=mraliLation of the
I.w-cre.ting Junction and 'hereb)' differ-ent degreCl of the re.li",
,ion of the principle 01 Oexibility of law, which i. in inve.... reI.
lion to the principle of leg.l ..curity,
A,y"Cffi of a .peei.l kind u that in which general norm> are, in
,h. main, not crea,ed hy. central IcgUlative organ, hut by cu"om,
and .pplied hy the cour... Since in <;a.. of cu.lOm-created general
norm. the .daplation of the law to changing circum..an"", i. more
di/licult ,han in .... of c..ation hy a centrallegl.Jati". 0'S"n. ,lun
,h}"Stern of customary law h... favo",ble dimat. for th. devel-
opment of prccc<l.ntial jurildietion. It iJ unde.... od.ble, ,her...
fore, that ",cit jurisdiction 60"riihed c>pcci.lly in the .ph... of
Anglo-Amcrkon common l.w, which essentially i, c"""",ary law.
We h.,-. already pointed out th>t the application of gen
er.l leg.l norm created by cullom i. di1tinguiohed from th. appli
..tion of a general norm .reated by legi,J..ion ;n that the aliCer
",inm."t of the validity of a norm of CU!!om.ry law '0 be applied
--that U. ,he ."""","Inm.", tlut a I.w.creating .",tOm i, pTCICnt_
plal'" much more prominent .nd dear role in the judge'. con
leience than the "",.".tainm.nt olthe ....lidity of a norm created by
.'
nit DVNAMIC A'''''CT OF U.w
'"
legi.dation and publiJh<d in the ofTId.al ga,.cue, Thi, exp1>ins why
the view i, 'OlO<'Iim.. held that customary law i. coun.made law.
l! thecouru ha"e to apply usually customary law. a' in the .phere
01 the Anglo-American commoolaw, and if they. besida, have the
authority to cuate precedents, a theory can e..ily develop in .uch
an arca that alll.w i. courtm.de law; that nO bw e:<.i<,. helou the
judge'. decision; that a nonn becomes a legal nonn only because it
i. appH<d by the roun." Such. theory can be maintain<d only by
ugarding the nom" appli<d by the coun "Kluree. 01 law," not
law. ",heuby ,hi. ~ g u r e of opeech i. used a description (or all
facton that actually inRuen", the judicial deci.ion, .uch as mo",l
political value judgments. expert opinion. and the like. InRu
enced by the paramount ilOportan", which the roU'ts h.." within
the '1"tem. of customary I.w and precedential juri5diction. thi,
theory ignotes the ....nti.l difference between "KlUten" of law
that >te legally binding and those that a", not. The theory ern in
nOt rttogttiling that the 'sour<e o. law in the .pecific scme of the
torm (that i., the origin of law, that from which law ati.... that
which c"'.... law) can be "law" only becau.. it i. a peculiarity of
the la'" to regula.. ito own c",.,ion.
The theory that only the coum creato law. theory grown upon
.he ooil of Anglo-American common law, i. iust as one.. ided as the
theory, grown on the Klil of Europcan-Continerllal ,,",utory I.w.
that the Coutu do not erea" law at all, but only apply already cr..
at<d law. The lat..r theory amounts to the view thal only genoral
legal norm. exist. the forme' that only individual legal no",,'
e,dst, The truth is in betWCCII. The courtl do cre"e law-usually
individual law: but within a legal order that establi,h.. a legi,la
tive organ. or thal rc:rogni... c",tom a. I.w-creating b ... the
COUtU do this by applying general law previou.ly ..eat<d by legis-
lation or custom. The judicial deci,ion i, the continuation. not the
beginning. of the I.w..,....ting proc....
If (rom a legalpolitical viewpoint the difforence bet",..,n juri ..
diction bound by gene..l nonm creat<d by legi1lalion or ""tom
and a juti5d.iion nOl bound by ,uch nonno io comidor<d to con
stitute a principal antagoni,m between twO legal ,)'...mo, it must
~ Thh '''-'l' tl <!ndop<d tft Joh" Cbipou" _T. Th. ,'>'.,." d "."'" oj
t1>< I.-........ ( , , . . , ~ Cl, ](,_ 0::.-'" Th.., <>I Low .........., pp, , ~ r .
,
",
"'"" DYNAMIC ....ncr OF ....W
l>t taken into cOMidaation that thi. antagoni,m is comiMnbly
l....,ncd by ,h. fact tha, a judicia) deci,ion may have the force of
a Iinal judgment (Rechr,kml'). Th;" will be dil<u...d latr<.
h) Th. Legal T,ao.<o:l</;<>II
The l"/lal t,an,action a, ","..-"ting fact
Th. iudi,'id".1 nO,m t<pr...ntcd by ,he judicial ded,ion
l"<octib"" a ..n<lion which has lhe eluracl.t of. punl.hmo,,' (in
criminal proctdme) or of a civil execution (in a civil pro<e
dUTe). The of ,I.. civil sanCtion i. compensation, "p"-
dally .om"",,"";oo for damage," Th. behavior which caul<eO 'he
damage i. unlawful. a civil deli,t, if it i. the condition of civil
exec",ioll. Two type' of'Deh ,ause> of damag<' are di"illgui.bahle
depending on wheth., they arc Ctmnecled or not connected with a
proceding l<galtran",ction, c.u"" of damage of th. ieCond 'ype i.
p""""ol if. I"r "'m<body damage, or d<stroy. iOlon,ion
ally or an obj"'" ,ha' i, somebody else', property; Or if
somebody cau",. damage '0 "'mebody e1.., by a criminal dolict
'och a' bodily harm or theft. In 1ho latter c.a", the civil sanclion is
added '0 the criminal ",nction. Cau", of damagt of the fi ..., 'ype is
pr=nt if, lor example, Iwo partie. conclude a contract, and ,h.
on. party to ,he COntr.ct damages the o,hor party by not lulfilling
hi. con,rac,,,.l obHg'd,ion. In ,hi. ca", ,h. facts tha' ar. the coodi.
,ion lor ,h. civil ..nc';on comist of 1wO parts: the c<lndu.ion 01
,h. con,rac, and a beh.vior '''a' is con'rary '0 ,he ,cr.... of the
contrac'; or, exp""ssed in mo"" term.; the perform.>.nce of
a l<gal 'ransac,ion and a beha"ior ,ha' ,. oppooed to ,he term. of
,he'ran"",'ion.
A behavior m.y be comidcred as being opposed '0 ,he ,orm. of
a legal ,ransacti"" bee.u"" 'ho ,ubj""lIve meaning of the act (or
acts) ,"al consti,utes ,he legal 'ran"",';on i. a norm. The l<gal
tr.nsaetion i, a norm-crnting faet. In ,radi,ion.1 legal terminal.
ogy ,ho 'orm "legal ',..",action" i. used '0 d",igna,. bo,h ,he
norm-cuOling act .nd ,he norm c..a'ed by ,hc,. The 'ypical
leg.l tra"..",ion i. ,be contract. In con'..c' ,h. par,i", .groc
,hat ,hcrough'!O beluv. mu'ualil' in. cert.in w.y. Thi, "ough,"
THE OYNAM'C ,ul'>:.<;r OF UW
."
i. tb.e .ubjecti'e meaning 01 the legal tTlUUaCtion. But it i. all<> ito
objectiYe meaning. Thi. meaou: the .ct is a no,m-t:re.ting lac" if
and SO far a. 'he legal oro.. b.. tow. this quality upon the /a",; and
the 1.".,1 o,d.. doe. ,hi. by mal:ing the ..tabluhme'" of 'he lac< of
Lhe legal LranUCLion. together wiLh d,e bebavior that is o p ~ to
the temls 01 the legal tntuaction. the condition for a civil sanc-
tion. Thc 1.".,1 order. by instituLing 'he leg.l tran""ction ;u a law
c".ting I""t, authorize. the indi_idu.ol. subject to 'he law to regu
late tb."ir mu'ual "l>tion. within the lromework of general legal
nonns created by legWation 0' c"'tom, by norm' cr.ated by way
of legal transactions. These nonn. created by legal tran,actio,,",.
which do Dot prescribe ..nction. but. behavior ,,'hose oppo>ite i.
the condiLion for the sanction established by ,m, general no,ms,
ore not independem legal nOrm. They are legal nonn. only in
connection with the general .. nction-establi.hing leg'dl norm.
Tbe ci.'il COUrt which decide. a contr""."y re.ulling from a legal
transaction must determine no' only the validi,y 01 the gener.l
nann on which the leg.l 'ransaction "a. hased, lou< al,o the Iact
th., the legal tranuction was perforn,ed. that a heh"io' i1 pre<eOl
that is oppo>ite to the tertlU of tb.e legal transaction, .nd tllat the
damage thus Cl",oed has not bten repaired; .nd must issue the
following individual norm on \he basi. of tbese des..min.tion"
if the court-<letennined d.m.ge 10.. not been "paired within
prescribed period, sanction ought to bt executed, which i'
p,eocribed by 'he general leg.l norm to be .pplied by the COUrt.
The ..nction prescribed in the general legal nonn constitutes-as
the main oblig.tion-the obligation to refrain from bthaving in
oppo>ition to th" terms of the leg.l tr.onsacsion and thos \0 refr.in
lrom cau,ing dam.ge; and. in case this obligation i' violated, C""
sti'utes-a' a ,ubs,i'n'e obligation-tit" ohlig.tion to repair the
d.mage ..u.sed. The sanction ",ay be a"oided ei'her by rul6Jl
ment or 'he obligation directly created loy the legal t..",saclion
01', in """ or nonfulfillmelll or this obligation. by rulfillment
or Ill. obligation '0 ",pair th. damage. This ohligation ..l
,h. pi"". or the main obligation. Tlte ..me i' true "'hen the da",
age i' no' cauoed by a beluvior oppo>ite to the lerm' 01 a legal
tran...tion, but n.i,ber loy a puni,hable beluvior. But ir tho dam-
.g. i' caused b ~ a behavior tha' is ,he condition or a p"ni,hment
---such ., severe bodily harm_'hen thi' sanction Cillno' he avoided
THl: I>YNAMlC A$PU7 OF LAW
by fulfillment of ,he obliga,lon to GQmp'nu" fOT lhe dam'ge
cau><:d by d,. pUlli'hable delic,; for then the civil sanction con"i
tuting ,hi, obligation i> added to ,he criminal ,,",ction c<>JUlitul
mg lhe obligation 10 refrain from committing ,he criminal delict.
In relation to ,hi, obligalion, the obliga,ion <0 tepair the dam.ge
I' not a .ubsti,u" obligation.
The legal tr.nsaction, like the delic, of bdl,,'ing io opf'O$ition
'0 the ten", of ,he legal transac'lon and ,he delicr no' to repair
,he thuo-causcd dam.ge ate the condition. fot- the civil unction,
The difference between 'he logaltransaion .nd the delict i. th.t
the ,ransaCtion ere.,.., according to the legal order, ,he norm
which I' iu meming, wherea. ,he delict ii nOla norm.....ting f""t
instituted., ,ucb hy the leg.l order, The cnerc!>'e act o( the civil
sanction i, nOt directed again.. the individu.1 who ha. p'riormed
legal ,nmuion, hu, .gain" thc individual who, .fter h. hao
p'rIoroled legal tr.nsaction, behav.. in oppooition <0 ,he term.
01 i' or (ail. to cOOlp'nsa,e for the d.mage ..u;cd by ,bi. be
h.vior.
The con'",cl
Depending on ,he w.y in which. legal,ratllaCtion i1 performed.
that i. to ..y. whe,her i, i. consti,u,ed by the acl of one individual
or ,be .c" of '''10 or mote individu.ls. unil.teral and bilo.1C131 (or
rnuhillter.lj legal tran>ac,ionte distinguiohed. By far the moo,
importon, legal ,ran>action of modern 1."1 is ,h. hil.teral (or
multilater.l) log.l'ransaction of ,h. cont13ct,
In contract two Or more individuals decl.re theit agre.me"'.
,h., i. to say, they make concord.nt <kcl.ration. of will directed
tow:ord ,heir mutu.l behavior. The legal ord.. m.y, but nud nm.
ptelCribe. fonn which these decl.ra,io", 01 will have to have to
conSlitu,. legally binding con'ract, ,hat i., <0 cte.te norms which
impose obligatio", or conrer rights upon the contracting individ
".Is--for ex.mplc, ,he Low may prcocrihe ,h., ,he decl.ration. of
will h."" to he m.de in writing, not merely orally or by gcslUr...
."t any rate, ,h. individu.ls must "'pr... th.ir will in oome way.
,h.t is, rnak. ,heir will opJ>llrrnt. Otherwi", i, would he imp""ibl.
'0 o..en.in in. I.w-opplying procedur., especially a judici.1 pro-
cedu... ,h. f.ct ,h., a contract w.. concluded,
"
DYNAMIC ....PECT OP ....w
w
Between the actual will of a pafly and hi. ded.ution m.y be a
di"",epancy. bee.u... the other contracting pany or the law-apply-
ing organ m.y attribute to the ded.ration me.ning <Iiffer..",
from that which ,he paTty hirruclf in,ended '0 ..xpr..... The come.
quence of .uch. di"",cpancy COnnO' t... dcte,-mined by ,he sci..nce
of law. bUI only by th.. leg.l order, The ICS"I order may .tipul"e
that a law-creating contract hal not heell concluded if one paTty"
abl .. to prove that ,he ,ntended meaning of hi. dc<:l.ution i.
different from tha' attributed to i, by Ihe o,he, party. But the
ICS"I order may also .tipulate that .uch a discrepancy,. of no im
portaltC<' for the validity 01 the contractually created norm; th.,
the di!Crepanq i. legally irrelevanl; lhal what maUe," i. only lhe
meaning which. acc()Tding 10 the opinion 01 the law..1pplying
orpn, may normally he .ttributed lO lhe declaration by the Olher
pafly. The lCS"1 order may either place more weigh' upon lhe
ded.nuion lhan on the .<tu.1 will or more weight Upoll ,he .ctu,l
will ,h.n on the decl.ralion. Which of ,he... 1"10 solution! i. pul.
..rable on ,he principIa of legal policy which guide ,he
lcgi.lalOT. The weal of 5eCurity in the cour.. of bu.ine" may lead
loon.. solu'ion. the ideal of individu.l freedom to .noth.....
For a contract 10 be conduded. lhe ded.nlion of one pany i. to
he directed to the oth..... and must he a"]>led by that other partj'.
The con,nct, 'h....cfore, oon.i.!$, a. i, i...id, 01 olf.... and .ccepl.
nCe. By lhe .cceptance of lhe offe,- norm becom.. legally valid
that regulate. lhe mu,ual behavior of the contracting patrie. If
this norm stipulate. an obEg",ion of lhe offering party, then the
offer h ,he character of promi.... The differenliation t...'ween
off.... ond acceptance praupp""'" tha, the two declaration. do nO,
occur .imuhaneou,ly. The orr.... must pre.,.de th.. acceptance. The
quatio", therefore arise, Doeo lhe olfering party h"'e to m.i"'ain
,he will ""p......ed in lhe offer unlillhe momen' of so
that at the moment of both wilb mull .gree and that, if
this i, not the ca... (l:>cc:o"... the olfering party h., meanwhile
ch.nged hi. mind .nd hou expres<cd lhi. ch.nge of will by,etnct
ing hi. olfer) no oon'raet has been concluded? "TO Isflor the
olf.... hlU been made, the of will irrelevant, so that ,he offer
cannol t... re'raCledl and: If it cannot be retracted, how long i. the
offering party bound by hi< offer? Th......... ques,ions lhal can t...
an,wered only occortling 10 the J'O'ili,,,, norm, of the legal order.
...
IC the ord.. promi ..."ractiO<l of tht ofcr a.
:lily <.imt, llw:n 1M conch";... of a coatrxt bnwn indiriduals
not proent in 11Klame plxc at tht _ time is .... dilliculL T ..
,flftO'\'( thi.o di&ul,y tht lqal ordft ..-nimft prncribn .""'. tht
ofniD:I pan)' is bound by hit olf.... uD<kr =uift cirmllUOn<:U
and f"" a cnu.iD Ii=.. Thil mans. .ha. 1MrnlItrXt it nlidtr c0n-
cluded ifthc oil.. i. """"'f'lcd wi,hin u..., .ime.....en if the oftrill&
r-"y dwlltQ hi> d,..;lam:l wiU. By ;>tt"'f'linl!: ,he oIn a nOI"<Il un
he cre,,,o<d which, in thil n .., obIip'''' oM oftting pony nm
apin.. hi. will.
I'or wntnel to be concluded con.conbnt Mcb",uOonI of the
w;l[ of tilt """tnc,ing pani", mu.. boo ac-
cordIng to "'hieh tho p>r'i .. wanl the .. me thing. Tllcrcby. norm
is ....ca,<d whos< comtnt i. ,l.,....mincd byronrord.nl ded .,"nn.
Th. "ontr"". a. I no,m-crudng (M nd ,h. norm ....,cd by ,hi.
fo". nm to c.., clearly dining""hed, In tradition.l .. ,minolog)'.
h"..""...., ,h. word "contnc," i, 110M "" design.'. both. On
"".u of ,h. coocl".ion of con''''''' .nd mc.n. by thl. the acts
whkh con..l,o>'<' .he n.orm-c,ing 11<1 of bett. And OIIe .pn.1<.I ol
'M ""lidi., of a <l)Iltnoe. and mnm by this tb< nonn (rflllcd b,
theoc b<:ts; foronl,a norm_noc an aet-an be "nlid:
ponol of nlidi" of conlIX'Ulln, emil'" .-m"'"' be
,nmiM<! in ilJl contml; a CO<1tn<:1 ...., be a>ndudfd 10 be ftlid
for a ttrUin period of li....,_ TIlt """" ma,. "ip.o""e tha. <ho-
nlidity of <he (on'IXI ""',. '......i"""'<1 al any'ime by un"
....nal dtda....<ion of 0<><' of <ht pania AcconIi"l to pooilin
.... Ihis .....y to ilio il ,!> (JOIItn<:I had bftn condudfd with
....Iiditylor all undn...... intd Ii....,. If <ht period of ....I;dily is d...
' ........ in... in COI1tn<:1Ulllly cmtlcd norm ludI. tht paiod an-
nOl be by a unila,cral docb.....ion of of pan.....
T .........in.'i"" <he end of <ht ..ipula,'" time ""'1 be
bro<>gh. abou. ""Iy "y a nonn by booh pllrl;eI. In other
worth. ,k con,nel may be 'ermino,'" onl, by anOlller ron,...."
condud'" by ,he .. partin.
Ordinarily only obl;ll:nionoond righ" of the contracting poni.,.
(3n be nipula'''' by" (ont ..."uolly (re.'ro norm. Thil il tile w
all"" principlc of priva,c au'onomy. Bm a Iega.l order may abo
permi, contr.o<:!S b, which individu.l, who ore nO' (omIX,ing par-
liel.,e obligated or ,<;ve r;gh...........,...lled con'nocU u. ,be debi,
."
or in (nOT or <hird pnoons. 'llKcontract...lIy """"f(! noom .....y
;"'1"* lht lOme obIipt;ont "lid bestow lht .."'" rip.. upon ,he
conlnoa;"g panitt.. Bu, i....., aIM> impooc dilferttlt oblip.;...,.
upon m.. dill"nml pa:nia or i, ....y jmP""= an obIip.ion on anly
OM puty aDd bc>low only. rifl;h''''' tbt odtn. Bu, 'his conI....
mllSl: .1.....1' be In,md<IM oona has indi..;dual chana... such ;u for cnmplt<
in .ron....,. of ale by which one pony is obligated III deli.-a- only
(IOCC 10 lbc otI=a anain object, and lbc atMr pany is obIip<td
only once to pay " <......in sum ol "'''''''y.
Th<: cont_t, how""er, .my allo hue ' ....... 1ch.rxl.... tha. il.
il ""'y not obliga'" the p.ani...o" .ingle pcrfonn>ncc 0. "",fom>'
."'...ilfId->Un....perlorrn.ncc. bllt to ron"'" an undctcrrninf'd
numhcr of pcrformonca or pcrfo'm.nc....nd'-;Oulllcrpuform-
.nea; .uch 0' 'he cMtraCt in which .n in,uran,c COnlp>"y bind.
;<'If 10 compcltUlC In individual in clch cue of ,icknCSl for lh.
COlts of mc<:lkal '",s.m..,.", and .he ;DOU''''' indi"id""] bind. him-
telf to 1"'1 to the in'ur;IIf\: compo"y cnuin amount of money
"",,-"'-
~ imnna'ioNl trucks mIlta;n pnwilion conming ac
cellion to <he 'ru,,.. Such. pn:n-ioion 1 .. ,boriu:Ian,. ..,uor .....e
IUlCI to aor;cde '0 <he .m.,.. The >o<ttSion "",,. uke pbn: by I
un'b,,,,,d d:Lmlt"'" or by a proposi.ion ""hidl m.... ~ ~
by w parti<s ... ,... 1m..,.. by a majority of them. or by In "'XU'
i.....'uted by tI>c lreaty. In , ... biter c:uc W a<cetJion taka pbcc
by I """" treaty; in .... fom'ItT c:uc b,. a unibttnl oubnlimon
..ndn W trC2ty. B,. act 'ion 10 .... <=aty. tI>c .real,. b<o>aw:t
..,lid for I"," att:edinS pan,..
A opccial kind of ton,rxa or ITeaue. by hu,h ~ " " l non<U
an: CTealctl In: u.o.. which e.tabliJb <he <n of.n _ill......
(in n.tionallaw) or 'he .onOli.ution of an in,erna,ion.1 Otpniza.
tion, like the Lngue of N.tion, Ot W Uniled Nltion' (in intCT-
n.,ionall...). ~ i o n to.n ."""i.tion or to.n jntem.tion.I.,..
ganiza,ion mtln.......ioo to 'he contract or "e.t,. b,. ..hicb the
...,.i.tion or international organization i, .on"i,.. ,ctl. lI.ucb ...
<e"ion i, poooible only ..i,b ,he COn",n' of.n organ 01 the ..,odl-
dOlI or intem.>'ionll organill,ion. 'hen 'he ion ;. bued on.
con'nel "".....,." ,b. llsociation or in,.......t; l organ;.. tion on
the on. h.nd .nd ,h. acudi"ll oub)t<:1 on the o<bn band. If .be
...
acc";on <an lit KDDaIp!io/>td by a llftilat<Tlll <loeb......... of
acuding .ubjCCl, then ...bm;'ioro '0 a ,.,.lid pani.al order
...kts pIn". Br .he loCI of accnsion the I>OI11U of the .""";ati,,,,',
lIalu,,, or the organ;ta'ion', C<lnltiw.ion aTe put into rOT for th"
acceding .ubje<:'; th;. [O"aOS: ,hey at. created wi.h validity for ,hi,
... bjeel.
Such aansion of. priva.e ind"'id",,]to an .""""...ion. or of
....,,, to an intnna.iQMl orpn'''llion. is ... unila<tnllq;tl ....mac
lion. in cuunod....inction 10 .. conttxt or Ira",. Such ... ulliLltenol
__in pi.... 'e Ill', -],0 the publicly In.-need
P'""",iR cI. rnnrd fm a pn{(lt1DHtt. In both QiCI" norm or
...........'" an"'" by 1M act of. Itlb;.a. m<oush which tbe 1(1.
perform.ing wbjt i, (>blip'ed. Thu. ,rIllIt-
'(I;on, ar. di"ingui.hod from log"lltivc ac.., Judicial deci""".,
and .dminiotrlli,'e decrees, all of which cr,. norms ,hat oblig.te
oth.....ubjcc.. ,han thooc who perform lh.... ocu.
.) .4J",i...:'tr.tion
Beoida IqisI.,ion and juriodictioa. Indi<ional ''-'"1 topTdt lid-
min;..",...... "" ODe of oM 1lI_ QlmtW I"nc:tiom of .be ..a.e.
and j,"iodictiool at. IcpI functioN in tbe narroWtt
..,.,Ie of 1M <am. IN.. is, functiom by lOh"'" ""1lIU or ""-
lion.l legal or<!.... are ...... tod .nd .pplitd_wh....eby th< .pplica
lion of a legal norm ton,Lm in the croati"" of ."oth.... norm or in
the nt'tutiQrl of the .... at. pr...,n!>ed by the nonn." The
indiYid""l. performing the fUn<:tioor. organs ot the 10"'. Auch
tbey 0IplI' ot the ...."'. thaI ;", their funclion is attributed to
t.' lqal c.-munily ((IIWiruted br the: nalional lopl
0I"&r). ThaI m<1fII thaI thne fullCl.......... referred 10 tilt pc:r-
.....i&ation ot tilt conti .,.....,. comt.itutil\( !hi< cunlUunity.
This aItKin order nalional legal that ... a mrrci.... ord...
t:OOtliluting a bf:<;a (I) it i....ilu"'"' for thtot 1Sli func
lion' organ> """ling accon:Iing '0 ,he printipk of diy"i"" of
lobor--organ. dirt'tdy or indirt'tll1 calltd to ,beir fune'i""..
thot t. 10 ...y. ..iY"ly centnl organ" (.) ,hi, .""""i,.. order
is limited in ill t..-.itorial .ph.... ot ,..lidity 10 a Rri.d1 <\t.
fined ar.... the IO<a1led te1"ritory of the lUI"': and. W il is p",.
-a.I_
.....,; fWAAMIC ASncT OF ,..w 163
w.ppoo<d to br tho: bich"' onler,.". III 0I'd<T ineriOO" onl, to tho:
in<e:rDl<ioa.aJ. lcpl onkr. II it to br ooted. bownn. thaC IepI
hUictiono-thc acation IJ>lIlpplica,ioo. 0( .......... ollbe nltion.aI
Icpl onkr-Irc pnfo<mcd _ onl, by untnJ o.pns, bu, &I... ill
dca::Dtr.rJiM:I proadur-.; lbua tho: <nitian 0( F"ft'lllcpl D1II.
tbrougb CWtoIIII IDd 0( iDdiridu.a.l IDd &menl IcpI aonw
lbr<>U&b lcpI tnmaet....... The iDdiridWllo who pcrlorm thcoc
lcpl hmctiooo arc orpnI 0( lbe bw ju<t. lib: tho: lqW,itivc orpw
Of tho: judl""o IDd thei, fullClio:lol mo.1 be Ittrib,..ed to lbe OUCe
jll" at mucb as Icgillition and juritdinion. Traditional tenJl'noI
orr. !>own..... is DOl. in aa:ord wi.b lbis. L.cpl norllll ....elled by
CullOOl .". legal tnruaetion. Ire not chlncte'riud ... Ilw Cl"elced by
che OllCC, although lbnc norrw belong to the nlcionll (or .... c.)
Icpl cm:l<t just as much ill the norml <teltcd by legislacion Ot jUt
i"'ktion. Traditionllterminology hi. the tendency co delignale a.
"ltlte organ." oniy more or Ie.. ce",ral legll 0'll"no-che cendenc,
10 Imibul.c Qllly function. performed by ouch otgant to che lcpl
community, tho: ....te. It io chlracteriotic in lbi. rcopect ,hl', II
mentioned, the parliamenc io comidcred I ....te organ. bu' lbe
electorate.". the indiyidual vote.- is noL"
The hmctioo caJled OUI. admilliun.tion it 1I'I"ly of chc lIIIOe
tll'" :IIkgidation and jutitdic,ion. namely 11ep! flllK'lW:>n in tho:
_ IftUC 01 crftUon IDd Ippl.ication 0( I ~ I f\Of't1lL Tbc
fuDCtiort 0( tho: b;p... adminillnciw: orpn. chc sow:mmmt.
cor....a in III participlciott-ddqatcd to it by the .-sIi"ot;on..-
in the iqisb.tion. in tho: ~ i o c 01 ill mt>IlitutiorHklqued au
thoriI:atiot> to r n o d ~ inlttllUional <rnUes. in the issuance 0(
oniinIDceI and Idminiscnti", commlnd, dim:tcd II ill ",burdi.
naced adminismotiw: "'PIU and IUbjC'CU----Ihat i., in the ncation
Ind Ipplotion 01 &encnllt'ld ind,YidWll n"",,," Froon tl>c point
of Yiew of IcpI tcdlnique, tl>cTc i. no dilkrn> bctotn In ad-
miniolntin ....Cule chiC oblig'''''' the Icploubje<1I to behaye in I
eerta,n way by ptCOCl"ibingllnction. in mIllen of h...Ith, trlde,.".
trallic. and a crimi....l or eiyililw. The adminillratiye luthoricies
.ubotdinated to the ll<',..,mment (C'lptei.lly tl,e poll"" OTf(lns),
hlY, Co apply gen.... llcgal nOl"Ul3 prncribing ..""cionnd th"",
functioos diff<t from che jurisdiction of cour" nol in che;r con
tenc, but only in the nalure of the functioning orpn. The judg.
ctl ....
,0,
TilE D'NA""C ASPI:CT OF lAw
in hi. IUllion i. independent of a highec org"", that u, he i.
bound only by the general DOnn' h. i. 10 apply; whe" ,h. ad.
lIlini",.,i,'.orga" ill ."",d.ing Iti. function has to oboe ,h. in_
.tructions 01 hi> .up<Tior wgan. Bu. ,hi. i no, an .Iaol" diff"".
eoce, ';nce d,. high.., adminiotra,j,'e orga",_lo. lack of higher
one>--;l,e ju.' as ... the judge. Apart rom ,he ind...
ptude""e of ,he judicial orgam theT. i, no dilfe..nce ,he
function of a cour, which in ca... of thdt irnpo>e> jail and in cue
of imuh a fine, and ,he function of an admin,,,,.'i,'. organ who
in cue of a .iol.tion of .ox, sanitary, or traffic law order1 the cxe-
cution of a"aJogouooa"",ions. Besides, the exocmion of a oanetion
even if <>l'<krcd by a court, i. an ""mini.mulv. act; and ,he .,,<cu_
ti,'. organ i. 110' a judicial. hut an admin;",,';,'. org.n,
A fune<ional difference l>elween judicial and admini"n'i.e
funclion. exi", wben the coe",i.e act does nOi ba.e the chuac'er
of a ..nion_when Jogal nomu are .pplied which proscribe Ihe
forcible in'ernment of "",ie"u, the fmcible expropria,ion or de.
struction of property. and ,imil.r ro<rri"e acu, wbich do not rep-
relent ,hem..J,'" as reaction. against.n illegall>eh..ior."
E.s.senti.lly differen' from the 'wo mentioned 'ypes of ,tate ad
mini",.,i.e ac'i.ity. which com,i,u.. leg.l lunc,ion' in the n>t.
rower",,,,,,. is that which does not con,i" in 'he creation or appli-
ca'ion, bu' in 'he observation of leg.l nmm' by speci6cal1y quali-
6ed indi.idu.ls, ailed ""a.. offIcials." This acti.i,y, called .tate
administration, is of the ...me ')'pe as 'he C'Cotlomic Or cuhural ae-
'i.ity of priva'e indi.'iduals. Pt-cci...ly like the I.tter, ,he sta'e can
build .nd operate railroads. COll'ltrUCl I<:hools and hmpitah, spon
sor educ.,ion, .nd gi.e medical ca", '0 the sick. Thele acti.iti.., ..
state administration, do no, differ in thei, conten, from like ac,i .
i,ies performed by pri.a'e indi.iduab, bu' in ,ha' ,he indi.iduals
perfmming ,h.... activi,i.s >to logally qualified as state ollki.1<.
Tni, m'a"" 'hese functions. when perfontled under certain con
di'ions. "am.ly by ccruin qualir..d individuals. 're nut attribu,ed
'0 tbe indi.iduals, but '0 ,h. "ate. Th. natu", of this 'I"ali6".
,ion w'illbe dil<:uosed later.'" At ,hi. point i, need, to l>e ",...ed
'hat this activity, interpre'ed as sta'e administration, is ,h. content
! '0, ..'-ctioa 'Co.,ri...<to a<h..- ,"'...
-CI, pp. '90t
'"
of .pccific official obligation>. Th= official obligation. are consti
lUted by legal norm' which .ttach so-ean.d dio<,iplinary p<'n.lti
to the noncxrrci>. or fauhy exerci>e of ollki>.l func,;ons. Accord
ing to the ".ual terrninol<>gy, only ,he function p<rformed in luI
611mcnt of an official obligation j. attributed '0 ,h....."', not ,hi.
offidal obligation; pud.dya. lh. disciplinary p<nahy to be ;m-
p<>kd fOT nonfullillmm, of ,hi. official obligation is nol regarded
'" dira::ted against tb. "ate. If tbe puliamenl, in lb. form of
't'lUte, decid"" \ha' a ,,"'. ought 10 build and opeT'lt. a railroad,
and if ,hi, deci.ion 1> in..rprtt<d '0 com';'u'. an "obligation" 01
,h" ,tate, then it is not the ollieia) ohligation of the organs he,",
concern"'" which i> attributed to 'he ....u:. The.. official obliga.
tion. al"" ex;" if 'he >ta10, ><;cording to ,he wording of ,he ,tatut.,
i. merely authorrl<d '0 build and """Ute a rnilroad. If Ih. 1..-
minology of "oblig'alion of lh. ,(3t'" i, u$l h ...,. lhi. " nOl an
obligalion .trictly in ,h. 1"8'31 <en,. of th. ",ord'" If the .ctivi,y
;m.rpretcd ...Ute adminimation doe, not consiS! in lh. c,eation
and applic:ttion bu' in th. ob..rvation of 1"8'31 oorm!, that i. in
lh. lulr,nm.nl of offi<;ial obligations by Slale olliciab; if, in o,ber
"'ords, nol a la",'CrC3.tiog or law-applying. bm .. law.obeying lune
,ion i, auribn,ed to the """.:' th.n, .ccording 10 lradilionallon
g""g' u.c, ,h. beba"ior to be allribll,ed to tb. ,(3te mu" nol only
be dct.nnincd in th. 1"8'31 order lhal ron"itu'.. ,b. communily.
but mu.' also be lh. function of 3n individual qualified a. 3 ""ale
offi<;ial," BUI il i. '0 be oo,cd ,h.. la""'pplying and law'CT","ing
fune,i
on
may also be Ih""dr.c off.cial oblig>tion. of ,h. indi-
viduato qualified as .Ute offi<;i.I . NO! only adm;ni,tra,iv. Of
gan. who ""rforn, jurisdic<iontll fune,ions but also iod.pmdcnt
judges may have lh. character of .t.le official.; and lhdmini".._
liv. activit)" of ,hUte includ.. also ,be conducting of legal Iran..
aclion. lhal cr..le 1"8'31 norrrul, and the fulfillm.nt of the ohliga.
lion. cr..,cd by .uch legal tran..cti"". and lhxcrd.. of ,be
rights cTealed by them, Thi. m.."" lh... funclion" t(H}, Ibe
Contenl of lb. 1"8'31 ohlig.tion. of offici.to (and b.nce .. law-
obeying function') can be aurilmted '0 tbe s t a l ~ h . y can be in-
,erp""'cd acts of ,h. ,Ute administration. Primarily Ibey have
tbe chan<;'cT of I.",-obeying function, beeau.. ,hey aT<: p..-fmmcd
.. C', pp. ,"" t
,", TIlE !lYNAM'C A5Pr:cT OF lAW
in fulfillment 01 offi<i.l obligations of oIIicial organs; and only lee
ond:uily do tht)' h.,-<:-i act> of legal tr;onsactioru are concemrd_
the character of norm-aeating
The norm. regulating the behavior of Ih... individu.h by im
p"'ing .peci6c official obligatioru upon them and bestowing spe-
cific compete"."" on Ih..." (on,';'''''"_ within ,h. total legal o,d",
that regul.... lhe behavior of all individual. wi,hin it> territorial
.ph.'" of ,-.1I<llly, a partial legal ordeT th3t <on"i,u'.. only the
pania! community of official" the ,tat<: 0' a bureaucratic machin-
ery. h..drd by ,he govemment. Thi, narrower concept of It"e
muot be dininguish"" from ,he widn- concept Ihn indud... all in
di,-Idu.l. living on the .tate territory. The laller include. the
former. T"" one is ,he p<nonifiCl.ion of the lou! legal DId.. regu_
laling the behavior of all individual. on ,....ritory;
oth.... i. personification of a r<:gu]a'ing
funCtion. of official . at<rib",ion of ,h... function. '0
"at< mea", '0 uni,y of ,hi, ord....,
BUI by rel.,ing !unction. 10 unily of partial legal OT'
<Itt, at time ToJa'ed '0 "oityof 'otallegal
,h.. includes ,bi, partial order, The attribulion to 'he .late
in the narro,...... ",me implies .ltribution to the state in ,he
wid.. ..,nse.
lf it i. regarded a. a purpose of the national legal ord....--<:>r of
",he ,..hich i. 'hing_to bring aooD< lawful. obliga
,ion-fulfilling, sanction.;o"oiding behavior and to make legally pus.
lible a CeTla;n beha"ior by e<tabli'hing Tigh.. and permi.-
.ions-inoofar u thi. behaviOT i. not attributed to the Slate, is not
iot<rpr<:ted a, function 01 the 'late-then lhe purpose of 'he ,lat<
is realiud only indirectly lhrough Slale (or function,
whiclt con,im in puscriplion and execution of <:oeTCi"e acU. 1/,
ho,..ever-a. in the case of the "ale admini"ra,ion which <foes no"
or not primarily, have the charae'.... of c....ion OT application bu'
of ob..,,..,..,ion of law_'he behavior official i. attributed
'0 <he "at<, int....preted as a function of 'he stat. io ,h. nalTOw....
..,,,,e, the purpooe of the "at. in ,h. ,..idtt ..,0.., is directly
re.lized by <hi. funclion of Itat. in <h. sense. Th.n
can di"ingui,1t an indirect "al. :ulmini<tTation whose function
i. not diff.....nt from juri<diClion bIll, Ii'" it, i. law< ing and
law.. pplyiog, and a direct stat< :ulmini<tration which i
TN" nyNAM,C MncT OF LAW
'"
differem from juri,di<;,ion becaw.e it i, a law-obeying lunctian_
and il it u also a law",,'eting lunctian, it has ,be cbaracter at a
legal ,ramactian, nat a( juri,diction,
1, follo..s tbat. hcnn ,b. point o( view of a struc,ural analf,is 01
!.he law, twa dillereut fonctiom are d.signated by ,b. term ",tate
admini"ra,i<U1" and th.t tb. OOrderlin. b<otwnn tbese function.
runS righ' through the ...a wbich iu tradi,i"".l ,heory i. ditfettn
liated as Ita", adminutra,ion from the function de;igna,c<i as jUt
diction. Tlti. differentiation no, difference of functions.
but tit.. difference of two bodi.s of oAida], (admini",a,ion and ju
didary). Th.. wming into ""i"enc.. o( these 'wo bodies in th..
modern ....'e an be .:<plained only hi.torialJy. nOt ju"ifled from
,he point of view o( a ju,i"i<; 'l"t.ma,iza,ion.
1) Conflict betwe... Norm. at DiU.rent
The "un"'",r,,/" dec,.,,,,,
Since the legal ordet tepresent> a hierarchy of ,uperordinated and
.ubordinated norm and ,ince a norm b<olong> to " cenain legal
otd.... only bc-can"" and so far a. it is in accord with th. higher
notm that dctennin.. iu creea,i."" the problem ari... of a pol&ible
conllie, betwnn a highe, and a lower norm. The que,don ,hen
ari.." What u the Jaw. il. nonn i. not in canfarmi,y with the
nonn th.. prescrib<o. it. crea,ion and...pecioHy. il it is not in con
(ormity with ,h. norm predetermining iu contenL Such. conflict
..ems to be 1"' , if C"'toin expr...iom u.ual in traditional ..i
ence of law are ken such expr...ian. att "unlawful"
judicial decisiom .nd "uncomtiw,ional" "atut... which give the
impression that,uch a ,hing as "a nonn contrary to a norm" in
craJ and a "leg:ol norm wnlrary to a legal norm" in par,icular
were possibl. Indeed. the law iuelf ""..m, to b<o taking in,o
account the """,ibili,y of a law contrary to law and ,"k.. vatious
ptecaution. for th.. purpooe of abolishing such "un13wful" law.
A "norm contrary tn a norm," how....r, i, a .dl-conttadic,ion;
legal nntm which might be ,..id to b. in conAiet Wilh lhe norm ,h.t
determines i"creat,on could not b<o regarded as a v"lid legal nonn
_it would be null, which me.ns it would not be a legal norm at
"II. Th., which U null Gtnnnl be annulled. To annul" nonn can_
,6S
ntt DYNAMIC ""PEer OF UW
nOl wan to annihilate the act whose meaning i. the nonn. 8oowe
thing tha< acut.OJly happened anno, be ""'de to unhappen. To
annul a "otm means to deprive an a.:t, whose Illbje<;tive meanins
i norm, of the objedi"e meaning of. norm; and thi' me.IlS' to
"'nnin".. tbe validity of one notm by another norm. If legal
order authori,.. the .nnulment of a norm it mU&1 Jim 'e<;og"i.e
thi.< "otm ...n ohjtivdy valid, th.t i.. lawfnl, legal norm," tbe
following a"al),.i. will demoll""te.
Tbe question whether i". COllcrete C"e the factS are pr....n. to
which a legal norm attach... a ..netion mwt be connected wilh
the que"ion who i. authorized to amwer that lim qnes'inn. III 'he
.."'" way, tbe ques.ion whether a nonu Cte3tOO by legal organ
confonm to the high norm that det:mines itS eration OJ" con
tent, cannot be sepanted from the qUe>tion 01 who i. authorized
by the legal omer to decide the lint qu....ion. Both ques'ion' can
only be decided by the organ authoti>.ed for the purpose by 'he
legal order .nd in the procooure establilhoo by the legal omet. To
say that a judicial deci.ion or an administrative decree is unl.wlul
U1n unly me.n tha' .he procedure in which the indIvidual
nomt w" created doe. not conform to the general norm de-
termining this procedure or th.t it> content doe> not con/onn
to the generalnonn determining ,hi. Content. To .implify mauen,
let u. explore only the c.... in which it i. questioned whether the
individu.l nonn of the judicial deci<ion conform. to the general
norm which determines the individual notw,coment.
1 the legal order were to pennil everybody to dedde thi.< ques.
tion. a judicial decioion binding the partie. would hardly come to
pa... Hence, according to pooiti"e n..ional law, this quell ion can
only be decided by the coull itself or by a higher <onrt. If the
Court decides a ronctete U1se and a...", '0 applied 1 general
legal norm, lhen lhe question i. pooilively decidrd and temaim '"
decided nnl ... and nntil the deci.ion i> rescinded by the deci.ion
of a higher COUtl. Fot the of 'he fint rourt-and Ihi.
mUll. the individual norm created by thi. deci.ion_i' not null
according 10 po.i.ive I.w. even if it i, regarded .. by
the coun .uthoti>.ed to decide the que"i"". The norm i' merely
that i., it can be invalid.tn! by ptornlure de'er
minrd by lhe legal omer. Only if the legal order provide. "lCh a
procedure can the deci.ion be eont..lrd by .he patd.., if they
qu..,ion 'he ..lawfuln... of the deci'ion. BUI if the procedure in
''''E DVNAM'C ASPOCT OP L.4,W
whi<;h a judicial Mci'ioll may be COllte-ted i. terminated; if therc
i coun of la't hmance whose di,ion canno' be appealed; il
deci,ion has the force of. 6n.1 judgmem (Ruhuha/l), then the
"Iawfulneu" of the d""i.ion can no longer be quellioned. But
what doc. it mean: the legal order confen the fore. 01 6nal judg'
mem to the d""ioion of la" inn.ncel It mran. that: ",'en if a
general nmm, to be applied by the court. i. v"lid, which predeter.
mine. the coruen, 01 tbe individual norm tQ be created hy the
coun. an indi,idu.1 norm, created by the Court of I.... in<lance, can
become val id wbose content does not conform to th i. general norm.
That the legal order confen the force 01 a flnal judgment to a deci.
,jon ohcourt of la" in,unee mean, tbat not only iu genenl nom,
..lid that predelennine. the content of tbe judicial deci'ion. but
also a general norm .ccording to whkh tbe coun may itoell dOler
mine the content of the individoal notm to be created by the court.
The two nonu' form a unit: the court of laot insunce i, authmi..ed
to e",.te dthet an indi.iduallegal norm whose content U predeter-
mined by the general norm, or an individual norm whos<: content
i. not so predetermined. but i. to be determined by the court of
Ian inn.nce itoelf. But .lso the fact that the d""i.ion of the court
of fir<t iIL!t.1DCe and 01 any Court except the one olla.. in,unce ar<:
only annullable (that i. "alid until annulled by higher eoun)
mea",; th... o<gan. ate authorized by 'he l<'gal order to c..ate ei
ther an indiv'dual norm whosc content i, predetermined by the
geneT;l1 norm OT an individual nOIm wh"'" mntem i. not prede
termined, but to be determined by 'he organo them""Iv",; with the
difference 'ha' 'he validity 01 thesc norm, "Oflly pl'O'li.ional (tbat
i" may be r..dnrkdj, in contrail to individual norm, created by
cou,," of I.., illl"'nce .nd having Oluined the I=e of final
judgment. Thdr validity i. definitive. But both the provi'ional
validity of the one noMB and ,he definitive nlidity of the oth'"
reo< on the legal order, which mean" on a I'neral norm th"
exist. befote the individual norm, come into If the con
tent 01 ,h... individual legal nonn. i. by the pre
genera-Ileg.l norm, it i, '" in the ..n,. of the .ltemative
mmtioned h",e. Ao 1000g aj a judicial deci'ion i' v.lid ;t c,nnot be
"unlawful."' Thetefote the.. C1n be no between the court
created individual norm and the genual norm to be applied by
lhe coort-<:ven in ca"" of. d""i.ion of a cour, of fint in....nce.
dec;';on th" tAln be conteoled, that i' ''void.ble.'' The objective
'7"
T H ~ byN..M,C AS"ECT OP .....W
",...m thaI it can be void<d i1 not i.. "unlaw/oln..." (the fact that
it doe. notwnforffi '0 the gen..,."lnonn '0 he applitd; if it did n<>t
conform it would bt null, no< mordy annullahle), but the poul
bilily. provided by tb. leg.l ord...., 10 bring about. in a procoduTO
..ubli,hed for <hi. purp<M. ,h.. ddinil/,-. validity of ,h. oth"" .1
'<rn.,;..." the one nOI ruli..d by ,h. COtl,,,,'e<! deei,iOtl. If ,h..
COUtH""'M individual norm COn becunlcotrd at all. it may be re_
'dndtd by ,h.. d""i'ion of a coun of bot in'la""e not only if ,h..
coon of firn inOlan"" mak.. ou of lit. alte"'at;ve to determine
provisionally iuelf ,b. <omem of th. norm it .",.,td, but abo if
the coment of 'M individual nonn .",.ted by the cour, of firs' 10_
.tance conlorm. '0 'he general norm 'hat pf'edeterrnine. II. II 3
judidal ded'ion may be come"ed 3. all. then it CaD be cont<$l.ed.
objectively in bo'h cases by 'he par,i.,. and an be ,..,puled by lhe
higher court, even if 'he partieo .ubjec'ively juo,ify 'he appeal by
the fac' lha, .he deci.ion doe. no, eonfonn to ,he pude,ermining
genen.1 norm. The partiesean coUn' On the fac;' 'ha', if a deci.ion
olla" in"'mee allain, the forte of a final judgmen" i' i. impo:o.ible
'0 f'Tevent tha' an individual nonn becomes valid who.. content i.
not prederennined by any general legal nonn. They a"ail <hem
..Ives of .he p<>5Sibility to COn<e>t a judid.l decision only when the
<kei'ion i. prejudicial to their in<eres.... It i' irreleva'" whether
'hey con'ider lhe deci.<ion .ubjecti,'ely .. being in ron!ornlity wi'h
or con.cary to Jaw----<:Ven if 'he law prcs<.ibe, .h a judicial deci.
lion may be eonte"ed only for lhe rea""n ,h.. it i' "unlawful"' in
some resflCCl, which mean. 'h., it il eon.idered by 'he patti.,. a.
being eon"a". '0 law. For tLe que"ion whether a ded.ion i.< "con.
ttary to law" i. not to be dedded by the partie., bu' by lhe cour, of
appeab, and the deci.<ion of 1.1t in'tance a'tai", ,he force of a final
judgment in any ..... If 'here were any sen.., in .peaking of a
judieial deci'ion being ..per .... lawful or unlawful. lhen one would
have 10 gran, that even a lawful deci.<ion may be rescinded by. de.
ci,ion having 'he foree of a final judgment.
Thi, ,how, ,ha, 'he powbili,y of predetermining by gener.ll
nonn. 'he individual nonno beereated by 'he roUTt. i. ve". lim
ited. But thi' fae' does nOl jUl'ify lhe mentioned view lhat no law
exi.<" a, all before 'he judidal deci'ion. h.. alll.w i, judgemade
l.w, that no general leg.l norm. ex;". but only individual legal
norm.
.'
.,.
TbI: .....<'mCD. tkr.. a mid lU'ute io ..... _elf.
OIlIItndiaiaIl; fot ........u"*' CUI be ,':II.id only ... llw bui$ 01. u..,
lWI.i,,,tioa.. If one Iw to lha. :a 1UC1I,*, iI mid. the
,cason lor i.. nlidi.1' must bit tbe lWI.i,u,ioa. Of an innlid
.....ute <NIC onnol lOy <.bat it is IlDalOSlUIII"-'aI. for an ",valid
.....II'l' iJ DO ....<0'" at aU; il is nonexi>len and nO Iqpl
....tWltn. con therefou be made ab",,, iL If the .-rlion. UM..J1y
made by lndi,iooal theory, rna< .......'"'. is ullorO<Uli,u,ional,
'0 have a possible juristic me.nina. it cannOl be takm literally_
muning of ,he UIC1"lion an only be lmo. ,h. "a<u'. in quO$-
,ion Can be ,epealed nOl only in ,he otdin"y proced.. ,e :KC()ro-
lug to the corn'ilUl;on. namely according ", the rule lu (lOII.riOT
<krog41 priori, but alJO according to ... spi>.l pr<><:Nurc provided
for by the conotitution. UII'un,H it .. rc:.dlldcd it m..... be coo,id
cd at being valid; and at IOllflllJ it i. ",-lid it cannoc be ..nconn;.
'u,iomol.
SI""" the constitution rqulatn.1lt orgmoand the p....:edure 01.
Iqisl.otion aod >ODl .....,. also dctermine> to _ dC$f' ll>e evn
tnI. 01. I","tt ....., .,., the IqW.aWO" must .no UIIO COllU;kntioll
1M poaibili'J!hal the ncrms of the lWI.itu<ioll (as it it l'lprosotd
in 1M WUlI war) an: no< al_,.. and I>Q( ....Uftl' obwnrfli--...<ho..
all act oubjc>::.i.,., clai.... 10 ha.... cral.<d a oalu.., alt!lotlJ:b tbc
pr-odure '" which tIIi$ ace w&I aboul tho con..... 1 ol:
tho sta'u'" by tho a(1 do t>ot C<lItfona to tho CONtin,,"".
Thi$ raises tht'luCKioa ..bono tbe <x>o<tUu."" should aut/loori1c:
'0 decide whether in a concr<1C ax tht tKII'mI of.M connilu.ion
W<ff obocrvcd; "'hctbcr a lUI, "hooc subjtivc meatlinr;' '0 M
a '''Iu'c aa:OI'ding '0 1M conotj""ion. shodld M 10 to..
abo in iu objec.,vc mcani"ll.
If ,hc cOnlaw.ion "erc to IO'l>orize .verybody '0 dccitlc ,hi,
qu.,..ion, a ".'U'. binding .hubjccu and orpnl of ,he la"
would hardly ever te. th. Iigh. of day. In order '0 avoid such a
.itu"'ion. ,be (onni.u.ion hll'o lotbor;,e one specific legal organ
'0 decide this qUC>lion. If only one central legislativ. orpn exilil.
tbc dccilion of <hi. 1.....1 qutttion by x highcT organ i,
Only the ",inill( lcg"la.i"" OIV" i ....lf. Or
.,.
ASPECT OF lAW
organ----<uch a. court which ha. <0 appl}" ,h" "a,,,t., or a ,pedal
COUn--<:all be .uthDrized to d""ide 'h" question or Ihe constit,,-
,ion.lily of a .""",e. If 'he oo,,"itution conta;Jl.I no p",,-i,ion con
ceming ,he ques'ion who i. authorized l<} .,,,,mi,,e tI" constitu
tionalil)' of ,la,,,,.,, ,hen ,he organ< competent <0 apply 'ta'u,e.,
that i., "'ptciall}", ,h. cour". have ,he power to perform ,hi, .xam
ill<ltiou. Since they arc authoriztd to apply ,he lUlU''', ,hey have
to determine whe,her something who"" .ubj.e,ivc mcaning ;. to
k a .ta'ut. hal objec,;"cly ,hi. meaning; and it doc. ha,'c 'he ob-
j';.,. meaning only if it cooform. 10 the constitution.
But the con"itu';on may au,hor;,.., organ> '0 apply UalU'.. and
exp'<ssly ."dude from thi. 30th.,ri"";"n ,he examination of the
co""itutionalilyof tile ,taW,.. to b;, applied, Con"itution' "'n,e
tim.. comai" the "ipu1>'ion Iha, (Our!> and a<!mi"i"r.,ive au
thori,i.. are not '0 examine Ihc con"ilutionali'y 01 'Ilc "aW'.,.
they are '0 apply. Thi' r..tfic,ion, howe'-er. i' po"iblc only '0 a
cenain degree. The law-applj'ing- orgaru canna' r""""'ably b;, au
,horized '0 apply a, a "a'u'e ",'ery'lling 'Ilal presen" i",,1 'uhj",,-
'h-ely a, ,uch. A minimum of po"-er '0 ex,mine the (On"i""ion
ali,y of Ihe ,tatu'" 'n be applied mn" be gran'ed '0 ,hem. Where
JlOIU''', '0 be binding, mu" accottling to the con"i"'tio" be pub-
li;hed in an off"'ial gaze"e by the go,'e",n"m, the limitation of
Ihe po,,'er '0 .xamine mea", only thaI 'Ile law_applying organ. eS-
pecially Ih. C(lUrtJ, merely ha"c '0 ch""k wh<lher ,ha' "'hid' h.,
the ,ubjecti'e meaning of a "OIut. i, publi,hed in Ih. gaze".
Th. 1>w.applying otga'" are not autho-rized to examine whether
'hOI which i, publi<hed a. "".w.... wa, crea,ed by the (On"itu-
lional organ, in tho <onni,,,,ion,lIy pl'C5Cribed proccdlll'e. and
wi'h lhe con"itutionally determined <onten'. To ,'.,.ily th...
points_ ,h. go"emme'" organ, not identical with ,h. kgi;bti,-e
mgan, .",n",cd by ,h. (Omtitu,ion wi'h 'he publication of .1"_
"'c., may be authori,cd. Thi. au'hori",'ion, too. can I>t limited
only '0 a cenain ,",Uent. The g<)\'emm.n, mgan authori,cd to
publi'h lhe "amle or_if official publicOlion i. not required_'he
org.n authorized to .pply "'lUtc,. mu" be emitled '0 examine at
I" wh<lh.,. th.. which pre",n", i''''lf ,ubjec,i'ely a., "att"e w'"
e'-en decidcd upon by the orga'" au,horized by tho <omtitu'ion to
legi,late. eVen 'hough lhc otgan cntitled to .uch limited ,-erifica
tion i. no< autlt<>rized to cx.mine whethcr 'hc procedUTO in which
TI'I< /<$P&:J LAw
."
,h., which pr...,n.. i'self ...Utu'e w" decided upon o. the Con
,"", of ,hi, dedsion w"," con"',u"on.!. The organ cannot be
obliged to puhli.h a. 'la'ul. or '0 apply .. "a'u'e "'erJth,ng ,ha'
I""",nts i""U .ubjec,;,'dy a'alU'e. Then only 'he legislati"e
oegan itself iu,hori>ed '0 decide wh.th.r ,h. ".lU'e pas>ed hy i,
;, constitutional; ,h.n ,he flOSilj". deci.ion of ,hi. que>tion i. im_
plied in ,he legi.lative .et. This mns ,h3l "'erything which ,he
legi.I.'i"e OTgan is'u a. a "a'u'e ha. '0 be consid..ed .. sta'lIte
within ,he m..oingof the consti'ution: and ,hat ,he norm. which
a,." the subject,ve me.ning 01 a legi,lativ. act have the ohjecti"e
m ning oIleg.l norm. even if ,he statute-o:ording to somebody
.lse', view_i. not in eonfoTmity with the nomu of the Cl,""itu,ion
regulating ,he legi.Ia,i .. procedure and ,h. COlU""'. of statllt..,
Th. legi,l"i,'e organ is ,hen in a si"""on an.logon,.o th., oIa
coun of la" ;nstance whose decision has att.ined ,It. lorre of
final judgment. The meaning of ,he com,ittnion reguh,ing legi,-
b,ion i, no' that valid 'Utute. may COme in,o being only in ,lte
"'ay direc,ly stIpulated by ,he consl"""on, hu, also in a way d.
' ..mined by ,he legi.l.'i"e organ i...lf.
The provi.ion, of the constitution which TOgul",e legislation
ha>'e an ahema,i," .har.u:'cr. The con"i,u';on indud.. a diTOct
alld all indirect Tegula,ion or Icgiilation, and ,he leg-isla,i'" orgall
ha. '0 (hoo<e be,we"" ,h.-ul, Th. author oIth. consti,ution and
,he legi.lator may no, be aware, or no, fully aW're, 01 ,hii'ua
,i"". Bu. 'n "hjec'ive de"Tiption of the legal .i'u.,ion created
(omdously or unc""sciou,Iy by a constitution tha, d0C3 no, conler
,he examination 01 ,he constim,ionali,y oI.tam,e. upon an organ
di!Feren, from 'he legi.lator must come to ,hi, ("ndu.ion.
The legal ,i",a,ion is .",iT.ly (hanged if the consti'u,ion con
rcrs upon an Orgall different lrom ,he legi'!>"ve organ ,he power
'0 exam'lIe ,he conuittt,ionali,y 01 ... tut.. and authori... ,hi>
organ '0 repeal a statu'e considered as "unconsti,utional." Thi.
function ",ay be conferred upon a .peei.l court or upon ,h. 'u
preme <;(Iurl or IIpoli all COurts. 1 cOllr, is au,horize<! '0 ex
amine ,he con"i'utlonali,y 01 a .tatut. to be applied hy this rom'
in. Conetete case, ,h." the (OUr" if i, considers the law "un(onsti
tu,ion.I," i, u,ually only au,horized '0 Telul. ,he 'pplication 01
this sta,ulC in the ca... ,ha, is, '0 suspend its valid"y lor
,he conc,",. <3", hn, ,he Slat",. remain. valid for.n other cue>
."
THI: ""N"",C ....PI;CT .,.- ....w
to whioh it <"fen, and ha' ,,, be by all COUTU in the", c....
unle.. 'bel'. in tum, ref,..., application. If the eXAmination of the
con>l:i'u'ionali,y of ....tut.. i. '''OTved for OIle .pial court, ,hi.
Court may k .utbm-jud not only '0 .n.pend tbe "'lUte'. validity
for a cooc""te case, but '0 ,=ind the 'la'u,c Until
then, however, tbe .,.'Ule is valid and has to k applied by .lIlaw
applying organo. Such a law may be valid and applitd for many
j'''''' before it j. ""Kindt<! by the C{lmpelent court .. ""ncom,;,u_
,ional." BUl ,hi, mean. ,hat ,h. pmvuion. of the con.. i,u,ion ron
urning the repeal <:>I ....'ute. ,hat do not conform to lhe norms
of the constitution dire<dy regurating legi.olation ltay. ,hi< mean
ing: CVnl ".tute> that do nOt conlorm to the.. norm, ought to be
con,id.rei as valid until and '0 the extent that ,hey arc not TO'
",inded in the manMr prcocril>cd by the con,,-itution, The ....
called un<nmt;tut;nnal >lalUtco are comti"nional 'tatutco which,
howeveT, may be r..einded in a .pecial procedure. In ,h.,.. ca!C5
too, provi.ion. of the constitution 'CglJlating l"lli.lotioo have th.
mentioned aherna,iv. charactet. The legiilative organ h th.
choice between two p;>th" the one prcscrilJcd explicitly hy the
constitntion and d,. one to he decided by ,he legi.lativ. organ i,
oelf. The difference. however, con.i.ts in du., the .tatute. crca.,ed
try the latter method may be repealed itt .peeial procedure. even
though they .re. until then. nlid.
TI,i, <hOWl ,h.. 'he con>titu'ion, while being un.ble '0 exclude
the """nd path. prcf.... ,he fi"'t. Thi. preference may .Iso be ex.
pressed by the provi.ion th.. cCttain pcrSOIU who according 10 the
cou<titu'ion par'icipate the parliamen,) in ,h. legi.la,i"e
procedure, .uch a' ,he head of .ta'e who promulg.....he .tatute>
o. the minister who coun,cnign. 'he acts of Ihe fonner, may b.
puniwed by peeial COurt for their part in bringing .bou, a so-
called unconstitution.1 >t.W'e. Thi. procedure may, but need not,
be connected wi'h a procedure .imed.t .be repcal of the .talute.
Th. petlODa} raponlibili,y of an org.n ror the 1.""li.y of a
nonn b. crea'ed comco leu in '1n..tion in ,be r.larion between
consti'ution and .tatu'e than in tbe cela.ion between constilUtion
and ominance, and bet",cen .ta.u,. and ominance, The con"i",.
don may au'hori,e administrative orgam, pecially the govern.
ment. to '''ue under certain cin:um>taue.. general legal nontU in
.he fonn of ominane... which do nOl CJt<cure aiready exii';ng st.,.
."
uta but eecuin malton in lie" of ,tatute. II the go,"ern
mem u.u...w:h an mdinancc under circum,"'""". oth.r than ,h=
prelCril><d by the co,utilut;Oll, the meml><,. of the govcmmem wllo
i ..ued lh. ordi""",. may IKo c.alJ<'d '0 acco"n, and punUhed. Thi.
p...,.,.,durc may. but need not, be conn<'eIM with a procedure aim
ing at ,h. r'p'at of the ordinance. Similarly. admioi.tr3';'" <>rgam
au<.borucd <0 issue ordinance. on lh. ba,i. of "atu'" may be ac
countable for the i"U'"CC <>1 unlawful ordinances. without ,hi,
"unl.wlul" oromance n.c.....rily I><10g ,cpt.led. If the ordin.nce
i. ,'.Iid until it io t dndttl. or if it catmOl be rcocinded at all, ,hi.
mean. tll>! the administrative organ i. ". issue it; that
the au'ho, of Lhe coostilution or ,he legislator prda. however, 00
ruov. oroin.n, u.ucd which confonn to ,h. cxplicit p,<>vilion> of
,h. com,i'u,ion or within ,he .tatut....
In all ,h"", cuos, an act by which _.Iid legol norm. a" (,u,ro,
.inc<: i, i. the condi,ion of a ..nction, ha. the charaetor of a dolic.
Those c.....ltow that the principle ex injuria jw non orilUr, =
gard<:d by traditional theo,y a. uni"e",ally valid, h..
According to the lorogoing "marla, then, ,It. """mination of
the com,itu,iOllality 01 ".ltU"" by .he organs au'horized '0 puJ>.
H.1t 0' apply ,hent, can be rffiricted only in lOme dWtt but no,
emiuly eltCluded; th.,.., organ. h",. to d""id.", I.,,, the qu."ion
...heth that which pre",n.. i..oIf .ubi<'cdv.ly a' a "atuto has
been enaetro by the organ .uthotilW by the comtitution. il ,hi,
qu..,ion i, decidro neg;>ti"ly by the organ-for exarnpl. for the
rea"", th., tha, which claim. to be "nlid ".tute was i..,ued not
hy the constitutionally .utho,i,ttl p..liam""t but by a u'u'I""-
tbe organ .uthoriud to ell.mine the comlitutiona!i'y of ,Ita,
which 1""0""" i,self a. statuto will refuse the p"blica,ion 0' oppli.
cation. If Ihi. i. not done, and if. ,helefore, ,h. gen=1 norm, i..
sued by the usur!"'r b<:c<>me elf"",i,'e, ,hen we are raced by a ,,_0-
lu,ionary change of ,It. <on"i,,,,ion and therefore by cons,itu.
,ional "",uto bee.use it confonn. to ,he new con"itu,ion.
In the same way that ,h. publica,i"" or applic.tion of th.t
which pracn.. ilOelf .ubjec,ively as a ",,,,,,e can be denittl by the
corn!",,,,n, o'gan, 10 al"" ,h., which .ubjec'ively pre",n.. i..elf ...
d""i,ion of the COUt, of I." imlan.e may be rej""tro by ,lte orgon
authorized to Cltecut. couTl deci.ion. for ,It. rU""n ,hat, accord
ing 10 the opinion of that Olgau, ,It. deci1.ion w" no, rendered by
."
THE DVNAMIC OF LAw
individual, who. according to ,be con";,,,,;on, form lh. Supreme
Coun, but by individual. who h>.vc usurped ,hi. p<itioll. 1 "ev-
","lhel... theirded,ioJU are executed and ,hereby become d[=i,..,
,he" no revolutionary lOleal change of ,he constitmion has
place. as ill ,he prell;ou. ,;wallon, bm only a revolutionary p"r,i.l
dunge; heme. con"i'Ulion_1 judicial deci,ion i. valid.
The qu..tion of ,h. logalily of a judicial decl,;"n or the <;on."j.
<mionalily of a "a'ute, gentnlly funDul.ted, i, ,h. que"ion
whether all ac, that dainu '0 cmlting a l<gal norm conform. to
the higher norm which regula,.. il.< creuion or content. 1 ,he
que";on i. to be decided by all organ aulhori<M for ,hi, pUTpo...
,hen ,h. qua,lon ITLl.y ,rue whether ,he individual who rcndered
the deci,ion i.;n I"ct ,he compctcm 0rg""", ,hat is, ,he rngan au
,horited for ,hi. purpose by a ,,,lIid norm. Thi, qu... ion may
again be de<:ided by anoth.,- organ ",ho for ,hi. feailOn i. '0 be ce
garded a, a higher OTgan. Thi, fegre..ion to high.,- org;on', how
ev"" mmt "op some",here. Th.TO mu<t b. high." org;on. ",hose
authority may 110 longer be examined by .till higher <>rgam;
whos<: cbara,,,,, a.o high." legi.:Jative, administrative, or judicial
<>rgam 'flay n" long.. be qUe1,ioned. They prove t" be highe" or
gans by the lact ,ha, ,he n"nns i"ued by ,hen, are by and large
effecti'e. r"r ,h<:ll ,he nMm ,hal authMi", ,hem '0 i"u. ,he",
""no. i. pre1upposed a. valid ""n"i,mi"n. The pdnciple ,hat a
n<>tnl may be """'ed only by ,he competent orgu, i. the principle
"f leg.i,imacy. It it limi,ed by the principl. "f .ff<'<:tiven....
It foll""" lrom ,hi! .n.ll";' ,bat no conflie' i, pos>ible be,,,,een
"",ut. and judicial deci,ion, con.titution .nd SUtute, con"it",i""
and ordinance, .""ute and "cdin.nce, M, formula,ed generally: n<>
conflict is f'O"ible be,,,,een a higher and lower nMm of a legal
"rdOf. ",hich ",,,uld destroy the uni,y of ,hi. 'Y',em of norrtU by
making i, impos>ible to de..ribe it in noncon,radictory rul.. of
law.
l) Nullity dnd AnnuUabilily
It follow. from wbat ha.o been,..id that "nullity' cannot exi" in a
legal order_,hat :rlegal nonn belonging ,n legal oroer cannOt b.
n"n. but only "ann"nable." 8u, the .nnull.bili,y provided fOT by
the legal ",der may have different degr.... As a rule, a legal n"rm
THE IlYNA.UC M ~ l < C f 0' LAw
i. annulled (Le., repealed) only with dec, to the future, 10 .ha.
the legal ellec" brought aboul by it are left undiMurbed. BUI. ex
ceptiooally, it can all<> be: annulled retroactively. 10 tbat all legal
effec" brougbt abou, by it arc aunulled; .uch a., fOT e><ample, the
annulment (ropeal) of a ptnal ....ru.. wi,h .imul...n<"Ou. annul_
ling of all judicial decioiolU based on it, or of a d.it ....tut. witb
simul...n<"Ous annulling of alllegallranSKtioos and dvil<ou" de-
d.ions ba.ed on ;1. Bu. until ill annulment the I,atute loU valid;
i, wall not null from tbe beginning. 1. i. th....efore incorrec' if ,he
deci.ion annulling the sta,u,e is de.ignalCd. "declaralioo of null
ity'o (German: Nkh.igluilluk/lirung) and if tbe organ who an-
nul. 'he ....tUIC decl.re. in bi. decision that the ....'u....... null
"from the beginning." Hi. d",i.ion h:u a oon"i'u,i"e, nO,
",erely declara,ive, character. Th. mning of an ae< by which a
norm i. annulled, like the m.aning of an aet by which a norm i.
crealCd.. i. a norm. The legal OTd.... may aUthOTize one .pedfi
c
0'-
gan to annul a norm crea.ed by ano,her organ, or i, may au,hOTi",
.verybody '0 decide whether somelhing ,hat claims '0 be: a legal
nOTm objectively ha> thi, meaning and i, ,herefore binding. If Ihe
deci.ion i, decClltralir.cd in .uch a manner---for example, il ,he
legal order. as in gencral int<rlUltionallaw, docl not in"i,u.. or_
gan. working according to the principle of division of lobo, lor Ih.
ereation and application of the legal norllU--<hi. deci.ion may
differ if rendered by different individual" one individu.l may de-
cl..e a nOrm '0 be ""lid.noth.... '0 be: null. Th. deci.ion, how_
.v..... '" for:u ,be .alidi,y 01. legal norm i, ill que"ioll" all, hal a
consti,u,ive ch.nc'er. The Donn in question i. not null from lb.
beginning. Tb. deci.ion ,ha, it i, "null" annuls i, retroactively fOT
the deciding subject. Even within a relatively ccn'ralitcd. na,ion.l
legal order it tAlnnOl be excluded ,hat an indi.idual con.idon a.
"nun" JOmClhing ,ha, presenll i",,1f ,ubjec,i"ely as legal norm.
But this individual may do ,hi, only at hi, own ri,k. n.mely the
ri.k that that which he oonsidon null is dedared '0 be a valid legal
norm by .he compttcnt OTgan, and .b.t. oon"'quen,ly. the """,u
tion of ,b....nClion p.-...oibcd in ,hi, legal nonn will be ordered.
It is und.ni.ble ,ha, IhctC are ca'et in whie.h ",melhing, espe-
cially a command that claims 10 be a legal norm. nerd no, be: so
rcgardrd by anybody withoul Ihe legal older authorizing every_
body 10 maint.in such a ]>O$ition, that i., without. in bCl. an aCl 01
.,8 ntK """.... IC ....CT or ....'"
DuDi6c:ation by a opccial orpn bein& nCUary-for <:l<-
..... if a patim. ill an iNane as,I"","'.. a ..... If ...
..... <hat iIll.besc <:aXI "uUi'l..,...... Jnitn1, <hen.....ch ""Ui'l WI.
OIIuMk <be la. Nor it;. paooible IOdeInmiJM: JUdI <:aXI
1q:a1I,. no., l<pl or<la" cannot ucwtai" ,!Ie a:adi,ion. under
.hich .....cthitql <ha' cbittu '0 he a 1<pI ...,..... to 10 he cono.i<kml.
Jniori as null and t>OI as hei"g a .-m .hidl. n<ll 10 he an_
nulkd hl a pracrihcd by <be kpl ord..... Wbm. for a-
onkt .. ipulatet lhal a ......... to '0 he c:onsidtrcd ..
priori null (and titft'd"orc dots not a Dullif,;ng act)
if 'he ......m wu not cre",ed by ,he competen, orpn. or If i... ett-
a.cd by an indi.idu.l who doa POt n hl.e the qu.>li,y of an
organ, or if the nom, hl' a con..n, excluded by 'h <",,"i.mioll.
Ibe" 'he legal order would bav. to prescribe wbo h.. '0 C1tabli,b
lb .,.iu.nco of 'h..e condition! of nulli,y; .in.. this .....b.
lilhmcn, has <:on"i'u,i" cbU'ilc". (.incc the nulli,y 01 'he norm
in ques.i"" i. 'he ....ul. of ,hi......bli1hm.cn' and cannOllqal1y be
u ....,cd borfore 'hor ea'ablisltmcnt). 'bi, cstabliohment m"'n' the
<cuo.et.i,... Dulli6c>,ion of a norm 10 he regarded as valid until
.hen. if <be cstab!il!'...... ' .. fonnula.cd as a ud!an,ion of
nulli,,:' In thi< ttspC the law it lilt King Midu: ju..
thing he toue.hftI ,"TrN'd 10 JOId. 10 .....,-thi"ll: 10 which lhe I
ref... -....... Icg:ol ch.lncrorT. Wi,hin lhor Iorpl onl.......IIUit, ..
oall the h.ighesI dqtft <If an..
VI
LAW AND STATE
!6. eu...no>l OJ' LAw
..s" F"".. Of' {;oVUK........,
of ,he h"'''''..:toy of (he legal ord... COlnprd'endo

the Jaw in mo,i"", ill itl pcrpctually renewed procfil of ..,If
rcgellCntion. It i. a dynamic ,hcory of law ... oppo>Kd <". 'tatk
,beO<)' which attempu '0 compuhcnd ,he law wi."ou' <o""ide,..
.ion 01. iU"':ilian, oolf a.crulfd onl... , ... ol n
lidi.y. aDd 10 on. In Iho: flt" of oM prot>lemI of djT\>lmiQ of
law is lht 'I"......... of <he dilam, mttbods 01 I... ern.ion. If
tboK lcpl norms arc .--Wkm:! thai cowti'u,c lhf: main pa" of
.....mdy tbcot INla"acb. ADCtioo toa cl!1Uin hu.......
bd>aviol-, aDd if i. io "'"'8'liW thaI :tIl iDdirid....J is obIip'fd lOa
rUin bduoYicx- by l.aa WI """ opp<>oite b,,"...io.. is llIIdl: u..
ccadilioa. 01. ann......, lhnl il iI J"""ibk ... diobnguish lWO'ypa
ollepl nonru aubliobinJ ltpl obJiplioou.: tboK in w,"- era-
tioo the indiridWlI 10 be obllplCd participates. and ,m- in
whkh be doa not puticip"'c. Ttw: principle underlying this dis-
,inaion is tt.. principle of fl'ffdom in u.. _ of Ielf-de\Ml>in.>
lion. Fmon the po;n. 01 vi.... 0( the individ..al Rlbjcctcd to nonno,
tbe dec"'vc qllCOlion i....h.d.cr the obligation i. ntabli>llfd ..,ith
hi. COI,.."t, 0< wi,hout, or evcn .pin.. hi. COOl",m. Th,. ia the
dHl"erence ulUally dt:acribed u ,lle differm be'WrI aUlonomy
and heteTOTlomy. lwo prInciple. which ,he legal th"Ot"Y con.id.
OJ e""mi.l w'lhin the .ph..e or co"'timtional law. Here llle
differen a. lhe dilcluction belli'''''' democracy ."d au-
tocTacy Or betw""n ,..,,,,,blic and monarchy; and here it Ind. to
,1M: u.ual cl:wi6cllioon 01 ,helorm. 01 gooemme",. Bu' ,lut which
is compreheoded OJ form of is only a Il""'ial .....llOd
."
180 LAW A1<O n ..n
of lhe creatioa 01 Low. The '(lnD of &""C"'rnmt i, .......,1, W
-.hod of ............. Low a, lhe Iti&h..... kYd of ltpl onl",..
IWIXIJ .. the Ievd of tItc mnsti,uUoa.. OOIIlCIpI of tItc
of .......,,,,,,,- chanococila tItc mnbocI. of crali"" of
Iep.l aormt ... rquLolell. bJ obc aIGIt;'utioa. If IIMmund as
the form of p .,,,nmt (e.m.....: SIMUI_1 ODIJ tItc .......;IU
tioo .. tItc drtttmination of the mW>od oIlcgisLation. il, lhe
....tion 01 gmttaIlcpl nonns,. aDd if ..... <hUl, idmtif, the ,.
with mnstilution as tho: dc! tiun of ,h. mnhod of ,.
illJ gmnal n<>nrU, then w Iy '011_ tbe wual wa, to
co<uprchcnd 10,... It .. ulual to S in law simply a 'y"U11I of I"nenl
nonn. without rea1iLi"l tha, tM individual''''t''''' of g.n....l
nonn the progn:soion Iron> the g.n.... 1 10 the indi,ldu.:tl norol,
1110 must all wi,hin ,h. f",mework of ,h. legol order, TIt. idm'i6
ca,ion 01 the form of go".rnme"t with ,h. con"itutio" correspond.
nactl, to the prejudi of identifying law wi<h genenl nor",,-
The prolMm of the fonu of gov.rnm.nt as ,he quct.tiort or the
method of b .. cration ariscl, Ilow""... no< onl, "' the of .h.
ooruti'u.ioa, hn><c not only lor lcgiolation OJ <he cra,ion 01".,.,.
...J lcpl narmo, but a. a111...d. 01 Low ern, and especiall, fO'<
tho: nrious.,.... 01 ctntiQg i"di";dlUd nortIII: of *,minQ.rn-
lion, judicial dcriiions, and Icpl tranI&Cl.iDIII.
57. P'uu.Jo; ..,...........n LAw
As all ap""".n, chmcteristic aounpk In us dilcwl the d'"
tinction bet..."" public and poi..... law. which it 10 bat.ic roo-
tho: lJ'tC11IItizarion of law bJ IOCJd,c,u lcpl scicnat. Un.i1 this da,
it has no< t.o.en 10 ""h..... an ...tird, aliofactory <kini,
lion 01 the diffncnce. Aon;Iing'o tit. majorit, vi... w. are 10>.
Iron,"" It... with. daMilication oIlcpI r.lasiom/lipo: prj""te law
"'pr..... ts r.blionahip betw.... coordinotM. legol1y equal
nnking lubjecll: puhllc law, a ",Iation<!lip betwn a .upcr- and a
lubordinltcd ,ubj""t, ,hI, iI, betWttn tWO lubj""ts of whom on.
I high.. 1"8"1 ""I"... comporcd with th.. or the orh.., The
Iypial public.].w rel>t,oo'hip i, that betw.... IUt. (or govcm
.00 subject (in Gcnnon, charact..hlically,
Private-law relationship' arc called limply "legal ",lalioou!lipo" in
the narrower ...... 01 thoe ltmI. 10 jllltupooc 00 ,h"" ,he public.
....... """ STA.n
.t
La_ nbtiuonhipl or 01
-dominioa- In dill......tiation bo;...co pti....
and p"blic law ,m0 mnninll 01 _ dill<'l'ftla be;.
,woem law and a nonlegal, or at lou half I"PI. pol'<. and.
p'nicularly, "",wem law .ltd A doce<' analysi. of the
hig"" nJue .ttribu,ed to an.in subjecu. of their supero...
dination m'e<' Oll>cn, diJcloscs that we arc confn>nled Ioere wi,h a
dillCTmtia.ion bccwcm law<rellli"( faw. And lbe dilf...-
<DCe it the same ill that which it the \:luis the cluj.......UOll 01
fonm 01 govttnmenL 'I'bt IepI p1....n.lne uoiptd to the","le-
Iba. is, to in orpns in rmcion to "'"' subjc<:u--consists in lhat the
lepl ........ concrdes to iAdiriduals qualified ill 06:iah (or at lea.t
'0 IoOmC of lb"",) J'<""<T to obligate the subjtcu by. unila.enI
exprealion of will (commands). A Iypical ","mple of
public.law relalion,hip ihe on.....bli'hed by.n ><Imini..n,i
0T"d<T. ,h i., an individual norm i,.ul:d by 'n admini"n,ive
O<pn Obligating l"Plly the addT<:SKC to behave in conformity
wi'" the onl.".. A .ypia.l 01. pri....te-Iaw telalionohip it
the on. COUIbiiohl:d by _ ......... ion. eopec:iaIly the lftU*::l
(tha. is, the indiridUllI ootlIll cretllC'd by the lII<t3Cl). by which
tbe contnetina; panin are q.Jly oblip<ed '0 _ mutual bdoaYior.
\Vherraa hen, the IUbjts pani";"" in .he crati... 01 the norm
thai obIiga........_ ...it is, indeed lb. of con.ractu.lla_
.ubject obHgatl:d by Ihe admin"'R.iv. order under
public I.w h., nn pan in cnation nf the norm ,hat nbliga'e>
him. I< i, lbe 'fPical use of an .utocratic nt>Tm <"".'ion, where
tbe print"l.w contract r<pTaCnu _ typically demorn"ic method
of l..,....king. Th...-riore the Jphoere of legal 'Rn...i"". is chu
ar:wrimI u lb.lIphere of oUWl1<llDy.
31. T .... lH.oLoo;.....L ..
THE nuAUSW or h-.uc
""" PI.!.ATt .....w
If .h. dedsiv. diller.""" be.wee" priv:... and p"blic bw i.
as .h. differ.nce "",ween 'wo method< of Cr.
a.inll' law; if so-olll:d public acts of .he ..ate ore rt>gniltd ..
!qal acts jUS< ..... pti,...te If. _ 01 all, it i.
<mo<\nstood .ha, the lorn "'....itu.inll' the laW<relIung ben ane in
,',
............. nAn
both awl only obo continuations of the procaI cl ,he crn,ion of
_I1M..i11 of the lUte, and lila. in lbe adminian.,i,... on:le<
jutt as much u in the printe l<pl tnDuction only the indivld
ualw"ion ol nonn, au .lfce,trl-...hen il will nOi Ottm IQ
p.lr.doxical lhat the I'nre Theory of Law, {tom iu .. niv.ruti'li.
viewpoint, always dirce'td tnward 1M whole of the legal orda
(the iO<211M will of the >latc). IoC'CS ;1'1 I"" priV:llC lcpJ Innsac
lion jun u much M in:on ..i"" onkr an act of lIle
lNl it. a boa of bw-mniDg atlribul>.blc to the "Ili..,. of the Ir:pl
onkr. By doing; 00. 1M p",", of Llw "'" con
lRtt bttwrm prinK and public ill......boollitiud- br 1M .r3di.
tional ocimu of Low. changn i' lrom an ditre!'_
mer, .ha, i... betwem la. ond nonla.. O'T betWttn b.
and lUl,e, to an intn',....m.tie one. The Pu", Tit.,.,..,. pro_ 10
he. trlle telcnec by dl""lving 'he [,l..,logy COIlnc<:ltd with 'he .b
so]uli,ing of the dHrCTCn<:c in quution. For if the rontr:l.l. '*
Iwun public and printe law i. .. 1M aboolu'e CO,Ur.ul
of POW<Tand Law OUt 1<'20< powtt.nd 1.w, tIleD <he ide. ..
co,,,''''1Od <ha' ill public taw, opocially in the politically impor.
IaIII <UIUIimlicnll and ta., the principle all ;.
DOl nlid in the aIM snuc and with the ..1IIC Ulttmi.,.. in pri.
nl.C 1:Iow, .hich iI rq;on!t!d as 1M sphnl: of 1:10... il wttt.
AoxIrdins <0 <hil ideolop 1:10.. in thc "rict snuc of 1M won! doa
not p,"""H in IOO.llt!d public law_ It prt"";!. in pri""te law_
but u,he. 'he Im..ot of the .talr, the public wethTe which lind..
all eire"m".n,a nlult bt realiud; o(m"'quomI1 the Telationlhip
ktwn g.nt",1 t>Mtn and v:eaulve organ in public law is dilf....
en, from tllat in pri""le law; not (ao In poi","t. ta..) strict applial
ti<>n of ",,1..10 10 concrete noes. btl! the unfel!ncd realization al
the SUI.'. ""....... -my within the fn-..o<k cl the La. md.
in an ffik'gt:o<.'f (in CIOle al wh..t is called;" GemwI political me.
orr $1..1-..101) C'\'m again.. the lit" a cri.ical .....1,.... I'e>
,-.,,1. tha' thl hol. dlff.rentiation no ba.,. in poP,;", bw,
In..... uch .. i' "' "1_than referring <0 the foct tlut <he
iti.. of the legist"" .., gn"em"'''''ta), and adn,inlot..tl,. 0"8"'"
ore,", a Tule, I"" ....tricted h1 general legal norms ,h.n the act;"i
'iel of the COUTU; that the couns uSlUlIy are .l1owfd I..,. d;";""'ion
in positiye law than thooe orpns. Furthermore, the theory ilUm
ing on an ftIt'n,ial dilk'lMQ! betweon publM: and pri""t. bw iJ
....w AM> STAn .s3
'r.lppcd in lbe CO'Ur.ldic:.ion by IS
the ffttdom {rem whicll ,hi. ,lIeo,y for ,he .phcre of
public "law" IS the sphere of Ihe st.le, by pre..ming Ihis prin,
ciple IS the speeili<: q...li,y of public law. A. b<:st, II>ertt.,...., the
theory >Uk! spe:al:. of ,wo ,cehnally dilferm. Iflbcrn of law, bu.
DOl 01 an at.olutl: dilfct'CDCC bt..,,, the........,. 01 ....'" and law.
The logically en,irely " ..tenable d ...li><D has no .hcor<1.ic;<I. but
only an ideoI<Jgi<:a1 charac'<T, o..-"Loptd by c<llUl.i."tiOQ;I,l t\fx.
trine, il is dnigned .0 ",,",ure for ,lie rnnment.nd its adminis-
.",'i'e machinery a frttdom deduced, a' it w...." frem the na'ure
of publicalfain; a frttdom not from law, which-from the pointof
vi.,.. of a kgal thMl'}'-is impOlUlblr; but from ....'ut... from the
,.....m 1"P1 nonns acatcd by 'M p-t1iammt IS the ,"1".............
,ioa 01 the ptoplc. and noc only itt .be om.. that a far-mehin!
Ir:gal of the power of pcmmen..l.nd administ"..,,,,,
organs iI .......ed '0 be incompatible with the awn of their !une-
.iom, bu.al", in .h" ..n.. ,ha. where such restriction e>l.i". it may
be ignored when nett... ry. And IlIi, ..",leney. a' an elfecl of tile
Irabi....1a"...goni"" bftWtttl "'''nTHnent and pa,li.rnent, ""n be
obIervm not only in con...itPlional monan:hin bp, .1... in d........
....,K republic>.
On the ",her hand. the of .toe CCtlt...... bctwcm
public.nd poi...", law.oo tnOo'CS the idr'a tha, tbe poIilical do-
minioll is ..d to public l.w, <It ii, l"'itnarily to cotLS<hp
.io"al and .dmini.. "uive law. but entirely ....e1uded from pri"",e
law. It hal been ,h",," e>rlier .ha, this diff....,n bt.",,,," Ihe
"political" and the ..p,i"..... ,,'ithin <lte sphere of rights (law in.
JUbjoctin K1U") docI noc aist, that .be printe riJlttJ Itt politi.
c:al rip"'n the ....... ......., til d.... ri&lIu wlln alon" Itt ... tk:-
ICribcd; fot bolb .11_......... lhooglr in dilfcrcnt rs. ,,"",icipo
tion in thoe !ormalion of the so-<alled will of th" , that is, in
poli.ical dominion. Tbe dilfcren,i.,ion in prineiple bftwcm
p"blic (or political) .nd a pri"ate (or unpolilical) lepl .phcre i.
d..;gned 10 preve", II>c rewgni.lon ,hat the "pnv.,." right
l,ed by ,be leg:ol ""n....ion of a contra<:. i. just til mucb the ,h..
at.... of the poI"ical dominioon IS tbe public Jaw crealed by lqisla.
tion and adm.ini0n3lion. BUI "'" oo-alled priYtlle law. the c0m-
plex 01 ......... w'-'e ewe i< the Icg:rol illllitution of int!irid.....1
propnly, io (from the point of "iew of ,he fune.ion ..... <lti. polt
.If ..... 1'1<0 n ..n:
01. <he Itpl otdn OCItUpia .;thin lbr: toa..I l<pl ordtt) a <nfthod
of crca'ins Indiyidual -.no. charxtnisUc of lbr: capltallaic .,.
'nn. Tb;' method 01. norm ."..,.,ion conf.,...,. wilh the principle or
,,,If-d=rmination and, in thl, "'NC. h<t, a demoCf'"ic eha.--:,Cf.
But the cre..iOD of nornu within a capitaH.. k 'Y',cm
may ha jwt .. much aU'OCTa,ie al d..moc...."ic chanetCf, The
molt importan. capital,,,;,; ....... of 00' ,ime have dcmocn'ic eon
Ilitution.. but lbr: illlt'rntion of pr'"".e ptofKlIy and the =a.ion
of indi\idw IcpI .......... acnm:IinSlO lbr: principle of oc1f-dcm-
lI1w.ion a,e aho inat.olu", lIIoOC>U'Chin and Ita , in bel.
aiMed in lhcm.. Within the Icpl order of a IOCwiltic ic
ryJtmt. ... br as ;llIOl.tJ>iu only of coIlCCliye plopc:lIy. the crc:",ion
of indiyid....llcpl nomtJ mar h....e an autoen.;'; insofar
u the pri",,'e-lawcontnCl. iI replaced by the publk-Iaw adminl"....
<lye atl. But thlyllem too II jUIt 01 much compo,iblc wl.h a
democra,ic .. wi,h an au'ocratic creation of gcnCT1lllcgal no,mr-
e""'pl,ibl.., ,hat ii, with either a tkmocn,ic or an au'ocn,ic con
..ill"ion.'
'The lxt.ittg: ifuis/tl in lbr: bicnrdlJ of law pnymted <be (ogrti.
lion ""'. dilfCf.... law'lDltins tIICI.hods IDly tM, applied uporl <he
dilfCfmt Icvcll of lbr:......., lcpl order; and that a dcmocntic era
Uon of ""'""" IDly tM, combined with an autoenlic
ac.alion of indiyidual Ic:pl ..."...... and vi y.....-
!9. Til.. TUDlTIO""L DU..LlSM
or S.....-.z ""0 UW
TM con''''''' assumed by tndltional legal thooory between puJ>.
lie and pri,,"e I.Iw dcarly displaY' <he funda......t>l d....I'-
""'I dominates lDOIlcm legal tcimu and <hcrd>y our mtirc lOCill
<he d lilltl between ",eand law. If ,nditional tltCO<'J
of law and OM twO 'M ..... '0 <he law .. an .... ,;.y dilfcrao'
&om.he law. and., the IaD>C ,;m.........u <hat .he lIlOC iI a lcpl
bein" they accompli'" 'h" by COIIIpt'Chmdl"8 the 'Ll'" a, a IUb-
ject of oblip'iorl, and ,igb.., ,hat ii, .. a lcpl penon. and a, the
-cl. Ib.. 11:.1_ -r""..so""", of o.-,O<)'."l:'Mu, LX"" , ('9>51. P,n n.
PI' ,-,.,.
"cr. - IIJIco I _ ..... ('P>l, 1'1' ,., .. "'" e-...I T"",,
of _ s- (.flIJ. ". ,., ..
'"
um< timt auribuw., 10 i. an ado..,.,,, indtpmd... , of u.. l<pl
.....
Pri...<Na.. <hftIrr oriti".Jly .....-.1 WI "'" Icpt pnoooaluy
of the indiridu.al logic:IlIy and t=ponlly prcudct the: lcpl .....
<10m in the _ way "'" pooblic-Iaw Ihe<lry asMlJD<S that thc ....
as a ....... and Mlbjor;t <If orilJ.in( ........ aning. e<i$<s
pmdm. of. and nftl pnadin.. thc law. Aaordin& to <llil llMuy
the lAte fulfills iu hisulo"ic m"""" by creating the law, law,
Ille Iq:ol onLer. and ...beli.. ilXlf to it dterwud. whicb muno the
...... ;"'1'0"'" obligatiODl and f;OIIfns righu upon 'exll by mcanI
of ill own I.... Thus, the sta",. as. meu'[egal willi- u. kind of
pow<rful mM;rQ-o..n<hropos or aocial orp:nilm, iJ ",
the at ,he same ,i=.:ua wbjtt. of lIu: la., i.e.....ul>-
to it, obligated and a,,,l>a.-ittd by it, f"csuPf'OHJ the 10...
Thi. II the doctrine of the tWO lid... and ..,[(.obligation 01 the , ,.
which managa u. mainuin iexl! with 'en.dly despite
the 11l000ifcn conmdiction. which it i",pll...
40>. Tla IDCDI.tlI:ICAL Fu"""",, OP
nu: DuAUS>II or A.'<1l lAw
Tnditioo.:ol th"""1 01 SUIte and law canDDI abandon Ibi. do<'-
lriDo: and the dualism of ....'" and law manifnud by ;L For i.
ruwkn an idccMlp:al 01 imporuo thaI
on.QOt w"".....u..at.... 'T1K lUI,e 1ll\lOt be "poamled .. I per-
llOO;ll being diJloral' &om wb., in O<'der WI u.. law can ;-
.ifJ lhat ......,. whidl. crealet and ..1;lmiu iudf 10 th:.. law. ADd lh<:
law em justif, 1M... onl,. i( il is prauJlPl*d onkr aocn-
lian, diBerml (rom lh<: OUIU. oppaoed 10 Iho IUU'. ooilJi....l ".
l.. power. and orde'r in I<NIlC ICfIX or
"j\lll. In this way 'la,e II ,nnoformed from a bare be. or
pow.... '0 a legal irutitut""" j ....ifyinC iudf a communi., (0'"
.......e<! by I.", (Reehill""l), To ... degree lhat a relic;""'"
metaphJ'1ial jU'lificltion of becomt$ Ihi.
d<><:'tine of ,he a. a CQmmuni,y governed by law mUll bo-
come the ooly jUllifia.tion of the ni. i.
not by the contradiction tha, i. makt$ ,he ...., .u a
juristic penon the objt of legal cogn;ti.." """ at tM time
lAW AND sun
.m'..... witb greatest .mphasis lru" w. ltate_, power and tb..-.
for. diff.r.1ll in ....nco from Iaw-annOi be comp...hended ju.
ridically. lndeed, comradiCliom. inh....n' in ideological Ih.ori...
are ne,'cr a $Oriou, .mbarraso.m.m 10 lh",n. ideologies are no'
aimed at d""pening cogni,ion, bo< "' determining the ,,ill. Th.
aim of lb. dualistic "'beory" iI nol.., mucb to nnd....tand the eo-
sence of the .tale, but to ,he "ate', authority.
41. THE lDE."tn" OF STAn A"D LAw
a) Th. Sial. aJ a Legal Order
A .gni,ion of the state fro. of ideology. and h.nco 01 mel
apbysict and mysticism. can grasp it< ....,nc. only by comprehend
ing ,hi, >o<:ial structure a. an order of buman behavior, h i. n.ual
to characteri,e ,he .... ,. a, a poli'ical organization. Bu, thil merely
.xpre.... the id.a wa, we i, a coercive order. For ,he 'p.dfi.
cally "political'" d.ment of ,bis organiza,ion con.i,,, in the coer
don exercised by man againstu,"n, rognlated by ,hi. order-in the
coercive ac" preocribed by thi, oroer. Th..e are precisely ,be coer
d,. aclO which ,h. legal oroer auache. to certain conditions ";pu.
lated by it, A. a political organiza'ion, lh. >tate i. a legal order.
Ru, not e...,ry legal order is a ...... Neither the pre-Slate legal
order of primi'i"e lOCi.ty. nor the .uper (or inter-) state interna
tiOllallegal order represent a "ate. To be a ,tato, 'he legal oroer
must h.v. ,he charac'er of an organization in ,he lUrrower and
'pecific len", of ,hi, word, ,hat i" it must e'tabli,h organs who. in
,he ntanncr of divi,ion of labor, cr""re and apply 'he norm' 'hat
co",drut. ,he lcgal o,der; i, must ditplay a ccrtain degree of cen
,ralization. Tbe ""e i. a rel'I"..ly ce",ral iztd legal oroer.
Thi, ce",raUzation distingui,he, the ....t. as a legal ord.r lrom
rh. primi'h'e pre..we oroe. and tbe 'upe,...,"te ord.r of g.neral
internation.1 law. fn n.ither order are ,h. gmoral legal nonus
created by a n""llegislative OTgan but by way of whieb
"'ean, that ,he crea,;on of general legal norm' it decentrali,ed.
Neither th. pre-stat. nor the ,uper.nate legal order establish..
cour", au,horized to apply 'he general norm, c..... but
authori,... ,he individu.b subjected to the legal orde. ,hemselv..
to render thi, function and. p"rtleul.rly. to execute, by waj' of ,elf.
help. ,h...netions preoctil>ed by ,h. leg.l order. Accord;ng to
,,,,W AND 5TAn
'"
prtm,u'e I.w, it i, the memben 01 the n,urdered n,on'. family
who toke blood ,"venge .gain.t the murdeTeT .nd hi. bmily.
which meam, they arc .utllOri,.d to carr)' out the primiti"e pun
i.ho,ent; it i. the creditor hitrnelf who can .. tidy hi. claim again"
thedebtoT by toling some property of the debtor and holding it in
pawn. 1t i. the g<>VeTnment of the individual 'Ute which. accord
ing to general international law, i. authorim;l to resort to ""r or
toke repri ..b agaimt a I.w-violating ".te, which meano: again"
the .ubj" of the 'tote whose go"eTnment hal violated the law.
True. the individuals who in the pre-.tate and in the .uper..tate
c01llmunity cre.te (by cu"om) Or appl)' the law and exute the
.. netion.. are legal orgam and thu, organ. of the legal
but they are n<lt functioning in the manner of divi,ion of labor
and therefore not centralized nrgan, like a government, a lcgi.1a.
lU'", and COuTU undeT a na,iona! legal Older. The legal order 01
primit;,'e lOCiety .nd the general inter-natlon.l!.w order are en-
tirely decentralized coercive orde" and thele/ore not " .....
If the State i, comprehended a, a lOCi.l community. it can be
comtitu,ed only by a normatiVe order,''' Since a con1munity can
be con51i"'ted by only one ouch order (and i., inde<d, identical
with thi, order). the norm.ti"e ord.. comthuting the !t.te can
(mly be the rel.tively c<:ntraJizcd .oercive order which i. the 0lI
,ion..l legal order.
In " ..ditlon.) ,lowry ,he .tate i, eompo5Cd 01 three elements.
the people of the .tate, the territory of the 'tate.nd tbe oo--called
power of the .tate, exercised by an independent government. All
lhree elemenll can be detcnnin<d only iuridi<:>lly, that i., they
can be comprehended only as the validity and the .pher.. of valid-
ity of a legal order.
The IIate. population is the humao beings who belnng to the
,tate. If it i. a.ked why ao iodi,i<!lL11 '<>ge.h., with oth., indivi<!
"alo does belong to a certain ,tate. no olher critorion can be found
than that he and the othen are 'UbjectlO a certain. relati"ely cen-
ualized. roe",;,'e order. All a"emp" to find anotl..r bond that
holds together .nd unit.. in one unit individual> dHfering in lan-
guage, =Oe, ,"ligio
n
. world concept, and ..parated by .onOic.. 01
iot.,...", i. doomed to failu,", 1t i. particularly impoMible to demo
O"-,trate the e"i"ence 01 lOme IOrt 01 p.yebic interaction which.
.. Cl. PI'- Is t, aM ',0.
"
."
independent of any Irgal bond, un;'e, all jodi,liInal. bdQnging to
a ".'e in .uch a "-ar that ,hey can be dWlngui>hed from other in-
d;yjdual., belonging to another .tate, and united by an analogow
interaction as lWO "par."e group!. i. i. undeniable tbat no "Kb
interaction exim uoiLing all individual. I><longing '0 one "3.Ir,
and only them; and it U undeniable that individual. belonging to
different >la'eo may be COlUlted .piritually much d""" ,han
tbooe belonging '0 ,he same >late. For tbey klong to ,hitate
only legally. They ceruinly may have a psychic ,,,lotion '0 d"le
....t., ,h...ring goo: they may ]O\"e it. even deify it, and be pre-
pared to die lor it. But Ihey belong '0 it even if they do 1101 reel
thaI way, if they hat. it, evm betray it. or are indifferem to it, The
ques,ion whethor an [mli,'ld".1 belong>'o a ....,. I. lIot:l. P'yeho.
logical bu,:I. legal question. The uni,y of individuals COll.!,ilUling
a"'...'. popula,ion can only be seen in the fact that the same legal
order;" valid for ,h... individuals, ,h.. ,hei, behavior i, regula'ed
by the lame leg.1 order. The state population i, 'he pe"",nal
.ph..e of vo1idity of 'he national legal order.
Th. tate ,erri,ory i,. certain delimi,ed 'pace. I, i. nO! a delim
i,ed pi",e of ,h. earth'. ,urface, b", a three-dimensional .p.ce
which includ... the .pace below ,he ground and ,he 'pace al:>o"e
,he 'eHi'ory enclosed by ,he so-ca.lled fTOntie... of ,he ,tate. It i,
obvious ,h.. the unity of thi> 'pace i, nO, natural, geowaphi<;
one. The same .tate territo,y may indude au... "'parated by ,he
oc,,,,,, which i. nO' ,he .erritory 01 one .tale. or by the 'erritory 01
ano,her ,tate. No natural .dence, bnt o n l ~ legal ct>gni,ion can .n_
.wer the que.tion wha' cri'eria d...rmin. the lTO",i.... of ,he
'pace ",bicb;' ,ha, of one ,tate t...i,ory. ",h., ron"itut.. its unity.
The 5O<a1led Sla'e '.rri,ory can ""ly be denned a. the .pa,i.1
'phere of validity of na,ionallegal ord.r.'"
A ,pecial <a'" within the question of the .patial .phere of valid
ity of ,he nonn, con"i'uting ,he national legal order i. the nature
of th""e legal entities llta. ,es"h from terri.orial divi.ion of the
'late. Thi. i. the p,oblem of centralization and decentraliza_
tion.'" From thi, point of v;.w we " , a ~ comprehend admini,_
trativ. decentrali1.alion. ",If_governing bodie" pTOvinees. ,tate
"'cr. Ham ""torn. _ ",,'.Iop 004 dH ;,..;""""" J"'"b'ri6. ad ed.
(TOM"ren. 'i'!'\.
-atI.'d.
.'
1,.0'" '"IQl ITA""
..,
fnplaI... and 01) 001. bu.. particubrlyabo the ......... 001 ....IG, __
faltncio 001 OW... and fcdu.ol Mat.... 8cida, ..-..:Ii.ional u..-
orr of bel tha. ....,t ha> nOl only JPltial bUI
temponl tltillC1\Ct. tnal timt muH be ... an
rotn. or tht JUIl a. much as tnal ..enct 01
.tate i' limited in time ... mucllllJ in ......" can
;"loaiotentt and I"'" And j .... a> Ute aislence ltate
in Of>& it tht ......i.Ll of ""Iidity. 01) the mte', in
Ii"'" is Ute mnponl 'f'bn'c of ."tidily 00I1hc nalioaal J.epI OI'dtr,
And ju.Sl a> the 'I...-ion of the bordtto of tbe SIIlte...
the q_ion of ito temponJ borden, dial is. the quntioD wtwa
....te bqins and when i. ttaXS III aist. is a!cpl 'luation and IO<M
a qunlion thaI an be by a e<Jgni.ion di.ted toWlOrd
naw",1 reality, A.... 'nail 0, it it gtnttal intrnulionaI 10...
whkh the ,pa,ial and Itmpol'31 .phOfe or validity of
lhe national legal orde..... delimit> lhem againn and
lhw " ..Us it lcpUy poor.iblC' that ,tates aiot bdidc in
and Follow _h othtt in Ii"""
h is a1mosI ..,If-nident lhat tbe IOGlIed pow.... which ..
cxnrioocd by .ll""CfD. a ....te. popuJal>on wit.hi.n a ....
is D.Ol.imply tbe pow which......, indindual .,..uaIly
Ia:I O"a' aootbtt indit<id...J rnmiIIing in tbe formcr'l abiliIT 10 in-
Ute I.".... 10 belLov.- .. 6.... 0IlC' delir... Many wch x."al
pow.... ,dalion.hip" exi.. wilhou' Ihe one who nauch
oytr Inolhtr being regarded a. an organ of Iht "a'e. ,dltion'
ship daignaled ... powtr 11 diltinguished rrom OIh.... powtr
reb'ionlhip" by.1Ie be. that iL i. lcplly rqulaled. which mean.
tlw iDdiyiduab who ercilc this powC'O" in their capa.ci.y ..
m.....bnt of a mte arc by. lqaI ortl.... to
...m:ioc lhis I"""'tt by and opplJinl lopS nonm-dw Ibc
pooott has ...,..",..Liv.- chorw;..... 'Ibt ao<al1ed ....te pooott it
1M ...Iidi,y of an dleaiv.- ...tiona/lopl order. "Ibo. the pC'O"n'
"'till aming tile nate powCT mU" be indtprnden. m.......hot it
roWI nOlIle bound by any oth.... tu.ionalltpl order; that the na-
order;1 inlerior. ir 10 any legal at an, only
to the internatio"all<'g:>1
In the .,,,,n,;'" of the ...., ., POW"" u"'olly .... lht manifeo-
tolion of a POW'" which OfttCOOlid....... 1IIdt a" CIIC'TItialauribute
of the Itote thaI opnbof ....os .. 001 "powcn." if oh<ey .n:
.,.
_lOKaIled powers.N The of a.ule em Ibow i ..
orlf only in tpCICilic IIlnn. of which at the di.posol of
a pn1l,nmt; in .he and pr;""'" 1M gun. and pollo...$.
the individual. uniformed a. policemen and ..,ldierL But ,heae
and prisons. the.. gun. and ganow. arc dead object.;
,hey 1001, oIlu'c p<>"'CT only 00 br u they 'TC wed by.
IUle l""emmOl' or by individ....1< aoxording to ordtn dir..:oed to
tbcm by ,he Il""=""'.... t. only IOlar:ll ohc poIicc:mm and IlOIdi,.,..
lhc .-u.s tN. rqubtc .heir bch...ior. The 01 .he
....'e i. no m,...iaIlorOOIlI<:Dld bdIiDd the lUte .... it> b ..; it io
only lhe dfcnivm... of 1MnaLional onitt.
Thereby.he .tue wt..... ns<11,;,,] popbLation. ttl'
ritory, and po"'''' il defined ... ,,,101i...,1, ccr"nli>ed onkr.
limited In it> 'p;l,lal and ..mporal .phere of ,."Iidily. oove...,ign or
.ubordi".ud only to interna,;on.1 low, and by and la'll" ell"ec-
ti"".
b) Tb SIdle .... juriJlic
The probJnn of ohc ....Ie ..... juristic ptrSOO. that i.. H an ""Li"ll
...bjta aM as the ",b;"" of obIip...... aDd riplt,. is nam,ial1,
1M sa.... problnoo ha. 01 the COtpourion ;II a jurUtic I'""""-
Tbc lUte too is p"'.'ion. !ha. il. a <:om",uni'r NOWtut'" br
a normari.", order which in..i'utt$ orptU diotl,. or irtdir<Ir
called "po<t '0 petform .heir lune.ion...cconling to 'M ptinciple
of di.llioll 01 labor. The order COnlti,uting thi, cornmuni,y i. the
legal o,der, designated u "",ional legal order in contndi..inction
to the in.crmtionallcpl oro..... Ju.. a. ,he eo.por:uioot """"it"ted
br a IUtute i, IUb;eet 10 the national ordeT which irnJ'C*'
obligations aDd coofer1 tights upon i, .. a juti"ic JIe1"IO'l. au.hoe
lUte our he .. hei"ll" IUbjert 10 the int,,","tionallqal
onkr wlticlt impoon oblipt..... and eonf.... ri3l" upon tlte lU,e
u juristic prnon. ADd tltu, <:X.emal and internal obligation<
and tigllll mar he dil.illguW>ed wi.h to.be ltate ... a 00f'
por:uiofl IUbjec. '0 ;n'........ion.11aw jult ... with ""pet:! to a CO<'
po""ion ,ubject to the narion.l leg.l order: extern,l "blig.rlonl
,ighu of the ....e are stip"lated by the internation.!. in' ..na1
OlIes"" 'he national legal ord... In tlte following _,ion we "'ill
dUcust. fino:. only the problem of the Ita,e .. a Juril,ic penon
.....w .o.NO ,s....n "9'
prdJeso ol internalional law which impooln obliplion. and con
fcn righl' upon ,hc IlOlc.
The JIIII( ....n ..ain, Jul1iu'; 0,( ,,,,on of lhe .lalc
It the OlIlC io pramlnl as an oniDg subjca. if it ia Aid lhal IlK
lU,e h.oo don<: lhio .... that. the qucotion ari"", which io <he cri-
lerioo:t aording to whid> (fttI;n ;IICt> pmorm<d by ceruift i ......
Yidualo arc .nritM.nnllO!hc .....te. are qlllli6n1 '" acll or fuoxtion.
of !he ..ace. nr. whal amounlilo the some. why <emin indi"idlillo
in perfnrn,;nll' certain leU are conlidcred to be org.nl of the OIatc.
The an.w.". 1o !hi. question i' ,he some a. the one give" earlier to
lhe analagoo, 'I_ion """'eming the juriotio: J"'"OI\ ol the o;or
pon.Uon IIlbjca to the na'ion.a1ltpl order. The Iluibutioa ol.1Ie
behavior of ... jJIIdiYidlill "" tile IU.!C OO1ly cq>r_ thaI ,h.
beh.nioo-. dnerm.iMd by !he tio<W lepl order as a .......itiOot ....
<on>equC'n. Sinu'M probI of tile oote as an acting penon-
I"nirullrly a p....on fulfilling legal oblig>lio'" and ..x..rci,ing
legal rig)'u-i. a problem of Ittributioll. it i. n<'l:<'\SOry '0 know
th.. notur.. ol!hi' mental "P"""tion In order to comprel>end 'he
llICUling ollhe problem.
Thcqu........ whelher a <ertain behavior. panicullny whether
1 ttrnIln act, a (fttIin function u an act .... fUDeI"" of the o o l ~
tha' is, WM""'" it io the .....1( as a penoa that perfonns an lIC1 or
ue",i... 1 fUDCtion, is 1>01 a quuti"" directed ,.......td the UiM'
cnce of I flC' like thc qu",'ion ..heth..... cemin hum.n being h..
performed I certa;" ""ion. II 'he qu""i"" did h.ve lhi. m... "ing.
it cooold n........ be an.......m .Illnnatively_ For in fan il i, """"" the
.....1( bul a1wap a unain individual who is acting. Only if tile
lUte u .... acling J"'"OI\ u ttp<COftJted as a TOOaI being. '" a mllil)'
dilf"""'t froa> a bwRltn beinJ. II a k.ind ol ...ptmI3n. 'ha' is. if 1M
autilia..., O)lISInJC,ion of a penon is hypctltatiaed. OIn the '1u.... ion
whelher a ...1( function i' prcoent have 'hc me-ming of a quntion
directed toward the exu'encc of. f"".--onl)" 'hell can ,h.. a",wer
'0 the qUeMi.on be ,ha.. a cnuin a or <erui" function if or if
"'" a ,,",'e act or "'1( function. In Ihi. 1eIUe. lor e u m p l ~ . the
queslion h.oo been dioeuloed in tile li"""'''re ol >ft\o<i."........I1aw
whelher Iqiolation is fuactioo of the , .. and h.u _i.....
'-n ""f.......m aflimtaliveJy and """,,,,ita negatively. B"t una
,.
.....w A.'<D ITA'n
the stal<: a. an acting penon i. not a reality but an auxililry con-
"'ruction of ,hinling. .he quullon wheth... function il
ault lunction annot be dirttted tawlrd u.. ""istCD<C of. bel. If
question it poHd in this _ and am_nul. thm;\ is crrone-
OUilr poHd and u,fd. C".o<n'ctly pooed. h, _
ina: ell> onl, be: ...hnh.. and unckr what circtllDJUJl<u I fUDCtion
rmdcn:d by certain hu....." wing ""'J bc Iltributed co the
aute.
From the point of view of cognition di'tM towud the II.,
only I function dflnmintd by the lqal onltT_tha. io lqal func.
tioa in c.be no..-" or wider ....... of the be
bnl<kd "" a fUtl(ti(ln 10 u.. ItIlt. Sina th< .uributiaa of I Iune-
,;00 dntnnincd by It.. lopl onk< .nd p"'f<A'ucd by uru.in
hum;on being to Ihe .....tt "". f'O"OO iI only I war of npttlSina;
.he idea ,ha'. funttion is ,dC1Ted 10 the unity of the ["lII.1 order
which dCICno;".. Ihis funclion. In, funetion detennincd by the
order""'J be <riwted to tIIc te .. prnoni6c:llion of
this kpl ordtt. U...... motaploot. i r bc Wd of an, Iuncioot
delnminood by the l<pl ordn that ;\ is pnlormed by the ltalt U I
p=on. For by ohis i. is only aJ>lQSld Iha< .he function io deu-r.
mintd by the lqal onIer. One ""'" uOC ,hi. metaphor, but need
nOI beau.. the (acll may be described without ;1; one uteS il if
Ihi. i. loS ad ntagWU. for JOrDe re'lIOOI. Since lhe prob-
Ina 01 the ...Ie loS """ina; pn--. it. problna of .ttrlbulioa.
and pace this auribu.ioa it npruoed in liag\oislic "'"1". i.......
ing the queotioll whetheT. ecrui.. fullCUon it. Mate fullC'ioa we
lirot hove to _noin whethtt thi. fullCtion it attributed to the
lt1te in linguisti( """Il". Thil 100"'''''<:1", il "ot un,fonn and
nOl ro",i"enL To re'urn to ,he '1ueslion ",helhe. legi.lllion i,"
func.ion nf the Ma.e: .hi. lunr:<ion io. al 1 .ule. pr me<! loS 01 the
1Iale. W. it. it it luribuled to the lUte'. B... _ Ihon do IlCII
do III. TIIoer refUSC' to intnpm kplatioa as 1 fuDctioft of the
...,e.- Tllcy..., frft 10 do Ill; bIlt they en if they by W'.
that l<'gif.lation. in COIltaditlinuion In Oth<:l" function. 0 .. ac'u
ally nOl be perlorme<! by the ""e; lhot the .lIlean conclude trea
,i"" p..nl.$h oim;nlll, ...n railroadl, bUl <.an not make III'ut""
The Inte meanins: of their reiUIIl it ,hoI, for _ reuoR. they do
UW AND .<TAT>:
."
no, u"" 01 """"Ibility 01 .",ibu,ing 1.g;.la,ion to
jult u. uOll.lly. d"", not altrlbut. a
mined 10 .... 1 although thi. would be poa_
in sam........, in which any lunction I. attribu,ed '0
OUI. For such .tI,Ibu,ion of a funClion to "ato
Ihallhe lunction I. in logal ord... conolitullng lh
tile communily.
If lbe linguistic usage io analyzed, that i If on. a'tomp.. 10 di.
CO"'" under which condition. In legal I.rminology ceruin fune
,iom determined by Ih. nallonallegal ord... atl,ibu,tt! to Ih
..... by saying that lh...at. Ihrough a ""naln indiyidual a. it>
organ. a c"'lain funuion, ,h.n i. 'pp..ro Ihal in
a [unction i. au,ibuled 10 ,h. Slale. i. u a "ate funnion
onl)' if i' i. pctfonned by an Ir><Ilvidual calltt! upon for .hi. put
P"'" by .h. legal ord... and funclioning according 10 ptiocipl.
of divi.ion 01 labor; or, whal .mount> to the ...m Ihat an individ-
ual i. regarded a. an organ of .. only when h. i. ""Hed upon
by procedure d.'etmlu.d by ,h. Icgal ord.... 10 p.-rfotm ,hi,
[unction. By ,da,ing ,h. func,ion to Ih. unily of the I.gal ord..
tha. .. iI, and ,hutI,ihu,ing i, '0 ,h , and "'pte-
...n.ing it ... function of the Ihi, lcgal ord is p.""ni6ed.
"ate a onei.l ord... i, na,ion.l logal
orde,. Thta,. a, a perJ(lll i. the p"'.IOnlfica,ion of ,ha, orMr.
But il i> '0 be noted....tated .a,li."., ,ha. be.id. thi. of
,htate a =ond conctp'. dill.,.en, from i, bu' doo.]y ...,Ia.ed '0 il
and indudtt! in i i. being applied. Thi, "al., i[ ",p"""nttt! ,.. an
acling penon. i. aloo only ,h. peroonl!ica,ion of a logal ord.r_no,
of the lolalltgal ord.,. ,ha, "'gula... boh.vior of all individ.
ual. living wilhin ito lerrilorial of ....Iidi'y and thu. con"i-
'u,iog .h. "ate a. a legal community to which .11 individual. be
long who Ii". wi.hin cerlaln I.ITilory. bu' a parlial legal ord.r
which rrgulal" Ih. bthavior of indiyidualo who hay. ,h. chane_
,.,..- of organ. lunctioning a, "officialo" according to ptlncipl. of
diyi.ion of labor. Thi. par'ial logal ord.,. co....im... a patti.1
communi,y '0 which only ,h... individuals belong. To thl. parlial
<.ommunlly attributed only Ih. function, of th... indiyidu.l>.
I, i, ,h. ,tat... burr.ucratic machinery 01 official., h.aded by
,h. government.
Sine. thi. of .tlTihu.ion to a jurio,i<; penon "'"' dio.
...ill 'U101,"' Aq "Uj' Inll -"." \0 ,""pU,'!>pU! AI"]IU' Supq
OIU! ""wo, )0 PUPI " '! .1'1 ]'"
...., "l lOU ]"U "'''I UO!''''''UO' .0J IU'WOS
_.. u" '" "'''I AJ.""'''o, >I!, ru,wou.'l'! ,U'I'I1!P 0,., ,.r "'"I pur
""" ,.,.,.. -ll' ']'pul '''01' 'lllio <IOjUUOj" '" p'".d
-I>IUj lOU 'j '''01' 0' ]luqjUI' IOu .] wOI"" Aq U<lJOU I""
'u>1I JO ,"ql-p>Ol'q'! uo<>><I'
SU)'''J!urw <IOpoq!J"" JO ,.OlOU ,0J II -'lOp
->.:lOId " <I! u.s..o .1'1 UllOU JO UOj'"''''
''1' pur '<IO!'''I' .1'1 ucilJo ''1' JO "Ojlr,,,,, 'G' ,1<1,,, 0"" 0''')
,,0];><Ud '!'I' <"l"W "I ']1"'1' ... ""rl ''11 "'I "up
...""d 'G' JO ul'<! I"j'''>= "" '! '"ofuo ''I' \0 "0',.",
'lll ''''q ]A\OAU! UOjl:'.lnj 'll' ''I'uw '" ..of P!"' >q P\OO'
'III'S ',u,wr!IJl'<! 'll' "'''1' "",, 'G' 1"'1' P!"' .OU 'j '! '.....rl
"lllW"." '''ll' P!"' 'j '! 'll/oO'l'IV -UOj"UO}"ns" ]11"" 10"
'j uo,,'uuJ pu" .udIo ,,,,,, ]1\'" 10" ,-'" ';1!J"U!pIO 'S,,!IO,'
JO I"'G,llu!'j;u;lX' """W"!I'oo 'I.OP!AlpU!''I1
lua ",uop'uuJ ""'1'0 jO ."", ''I' 01 UO!,uq!Jl'" JOJ 'A!'!"P '!
G'!G-" A'j\,ob "'II ""'110<1 op "'G' "I"!"lJO '>rI' ,ou"" (,<I'W"![
.,0<1 JO t.loqw,w ''11) UO!':>U"J "'j,"[,!ll,[ ''I' UllOjL><! 0'1'" "l"OP!'
-!PU! ]IOU oq 0, 'j '1 'I>pIO ]&1 ''I' "q ]q)IlSOJd ,mp
-,;><Ud ""! ]'''1' ''''W''H'od ""q-Joq,,[ 10 UO!'!A!P JO 'Id!,u!,d
''I' 0, SUlpJO"'" "J "u,m"!1Joo .1'[ p>w'0J-l><l " 1l0!PUUj
"GI '! I! '"",, UO)}'UUj"" p.,,,d,,,u!.! "O!I"['!llo!
JI 'uo,,'UOj llu!''''l.o-.,,"! .,poPU! 00\" '1"''1'" ",u"''''P!'' "'1' U!
'UOjlOuoJ '0 'UOj'"" Iud" M"[ pur UO!}"", ,"r[ JO ,"O!})<IO! AI.W""
.,..... ",'>\01JOU "I' <I] <UO!u"j lo:ll'l "qll>-------<uOjuuoJ [ri.!
". :IG' U" 'u,"0'l' '" -UO[I"1"!,uf pue (,U'OIUI.,OS .(l,,!pu!,
.U!) ''OJ,,,-,lIlu!wpr '<lO"'I'lll'l "'!-'OSo"" Ol"! [l"J ",r" 10
,m'G' Iruo,,!!,'''' ''1' Aq 0' ]'''Ql'"" '1ID!U"oJ ''ll
',]SOOU' ]lj.r'ldw. >q lOuu"" I! 'M"[ WOIJ
IU:>J')j!P U1!1'Qm 0 ,r "ou><l .",,, ''11 )0 ,d')]JOO ."OOUOU. 'G'
o,(o.""p }'lSI'U! '1'1' UlS [O<lOPjP"" JO UO!'!,'" 'rq""'p!'
'U<lO '1'[1 JO 'IU'OU "1' 0'''1 'p"u",,,d ....'1
"oJ 'G} "G oq A''Il "tqoP!o".un ... " UOO-l><l ...
"""''11 JO W'lqo,d ''1' JO <IOj,.m""'Jd 'G} II! ...O!,!,><I,. '''Ol'l!.l
-odJOO .ql JO uou><! 'p,pof 'G' JO ')'''1''''" SUI]".d ''1' UI P""'"
uvu ",y,
<0,
....w ASO '>TAn
<i,ely a' by l<gi.l.,ion. general l<gal Donn' a.. cr<ated. cmtom
could attributed to the .tat<: ju.' a' much a. l<gi.l.,ion. II ,he
cre.,ion of cu"omary law i. no' attributed to ,he ,tate, ,hi. i, on
it i. not, like l<gi.ladon, ,he func,ion of an organ
,h.t operates according to ,he principle of divi.ion of labor and i.
called upon, in a .pecial procedure, '0 perf"trn ,hi. func,ion. Du'
,h. attribution of ,he l<gi.l"ive function to the ..... ,ak.. place,
a' has I>ttn ..,id, without the organ, funcrioning in ,h. manncr of
di.'i.ion of labor. being qualified as an official of the stat<:. W.
might ""call here ,h. circumstance, mentioned in a diff...n, con
nection. that the individual legal norm repr...nting a judicial de
ci.ion i. looked upon as a func,ion of ,he .tat., but not ,h. bring.
ing of a .ui, (which conSlitut... an ....n'ial part of the proc.dure
in which ,bi. individual norm i, crea,ed); ,hi, can only be ex
plained by ,h. fac"b., rhecouTl. bu' no, ,h. plain,iff, i, an organ
functioning according to the principie of division of labor and
callO'<! upon to perform ,his funclion. Bu, if, .. in a criminal pro-
cedu"", ,he judicial deci.ion i, condi'ioned by ,he indicemen, of a
public pro=u'ot appointed by ,he goVCTtlrncnt. ,hen thi. func_
tion tOO i. imerptctO'<! .. a function of the st"e, i, i, per.
fmmed by divi.ion of labor-by an organ called upon for ,hi,
purp""'. I, i. said thal ,he .tate accu... ,he criminal as i, i. said
,hac the .tate condemn. the criminal. For the .. m ...,.onD ,he con-
tt<>C'ual crea,ion of general and individual nOrm' i, nO' called
Sl.te function. unl... i, i. perfonned by sta" official. functioning
by divi.ion of labor, .lthough ,he ""ecu,ioD of l<gal '",n",c,ion.
by "pti,..." f"'T"'tl.... like l<gi.l.,ion and jurisdiction i. a legal
func,ion, in ,he narrower- KD"", a' dctennined br ,he l<gal order.
We have occrI earlier '01 ,hat the activity designated ...tate ad
mini"m,ion consi,u of two paru. different in ,heir I<&"I "rUe_
'or.,.. The (unclion of ,he government (the chid of ,tat<, ,he
rnembttl of the cabinet, ,h. miuist". or "ate secretari"" and
hrgely ,he administrath'e officiah .ubordiMtO'<! '0 ,he
ment) i l<gal function ;n the "'lTOWcr or th.
'''m. namely the creation and application of general and individ
uall<gal nonn. by which the individuals .ubjccted to ,he bw, ,he
"",bjec..," arc obligatO'<! '0 a certain bch3\';or bccau"" a cDC.cive
act U ",,,,,hed '0 ,he op!""ite hehavim. and .he execudon of thi>

"
."
LAW ..''0 nAn
.""rei,'. act i. ,mibuted to ,be .ta,e. If it i< ....umrd ,hat the 1><.
bovine whkh i, the conlent of the legal obligation, oom",u,ed by
the sanctio'!'- it intended by the legal on:I". httaUIt it is ". I>t
brough, about by the ,hr, of. sanction. and if ,he intention of
,he l"!lal order i, repreoented "" the purpose of the 'lale-jn,' as
,he l<'tti'ori.l .ph..., of V>.lidi,y of ,he na,i<Klall<g>1 ord" i, "'p-
.....,med a' the ltrritory of the ....'e-th." one can ..y ,h,t ,hi,
purJ>OOC of the Slale is reali,ed i"d;r.cl/y, because it is r1ilM in
,h. <>bligated !>th.vi<>r of the individuals, which j. nOl attributed
to ,he , ...., . But a 8'"'''' p;1Tt of the activity interpreted ...,al. ad
minimallon represent. a dired realization of "he ,ule', purp""'.
II is !>thavior .ltribmrd to the ,tate which comll,o'" ,he coo-
,"".. of ,h. Irg:o.l oblig'lioTU. The func.ion aurlbmed '0 the Slate
i. not a law<n'ating and I''''-applying, hut x function.
The obligation, ",h= oMt.-ance i, attributed '0 ,he "ate (il in_
terP'eted a> st,tte function), are obligation, of "o/&ials" (u",,-
tinning aaording to ,he prindple of ,h. divi.iOll of I.bor. S",,,,
(unctiom in ",hich the ,taU'. purpose is directly t<xlized are
p,."..nt (or: direct .,at. admitLItration is P'..."t), if. as ,he oaying
goes, th. s",te does not limit i...lf to bringing .bout a c.,.",in ,lat.
of affairs hy i..uing I.,.. by which the individuals subjected to th.
"at. a.... obligated to a bcrn.vior which brings about thi. "ate of
.ffain; and by xpplying th... Jaw. to concrete u ... and executing
the oanclinm P'.scribcd in th. laws; but if th. ",,,. i...lf h,ing.
about the intended stat. of .ffain. that is. by iu oTglm, in man-
ner ",ltich-accotding '0 ,h. prov.iling linguistic ulage-is attrib
utabl. '0 it: ii, for .xample the " ... operat.. nilroads, build,
scbool, .nd hoopi ..I., provides education. offers medical
brief, if th. s..te engages in """"omic. cultu..l. or bum.nit.rian
activi,i in tb. oame m.nner., priv..e individuals_ The "n..ion-
.Iintion" of .1>..., activiti .. m.an" '" to 'peak, ,heir "offici.li,..
tion," ,h., is '0 oar-their pctfonna"". organs qualified .. 'offi
dal," .nd functioning ao:oming to ,b. P'incipl. of div;,ion of
labor, In what does thi. qualifica.ion as "olf.dals" co",i,,1
Firs', in that th."" individuals arc called to th.ir functions by xn
admini",,,tive act of th. govemment or of an autboriICd admini..
trative authority, and an: legally ,ubotdinated to ,h. go'-.mmen!.
Second. in ,hal the execution of ,h.ir function is made .h. content
of. specific obligatiOll, the o/ficial duty, who>e fulfillment is gllar-
............ STAn 197
anteo:d by dUciplinMy pttUollia. I.... to n.ou:d. tha, Ihe Xli.il}'
thai p<ft(D" i ....U ill dilft;l ....te lIdmiDia<ruioa may be IDadc Ihe
oIIicial du'yofan orpn in ouch a way thaI Ihe orpII in fulfillmm.
of hi> du.y is all",,cd ......t or lao ",u,udt. Thil. la,i,udf =y 10
widt, Lbt diKlfuollary powtt <Ii thf oI5cial may be: 10 Wilt li....
hro. ,!I.I, ,lie flemw.t of ....bligation K<:1ll1 10 be: abunt. Bu' it
Itill row, be ;wumed 10 be: pr.... if reduced ' .. I mini
IlIUI:l>--lO far a. official dUly il conlidcrro 10 be: an n'ial
1lIftI. of Lbt cha"""Ott of an ollicial. Thin!, in tha, Lb "'Pili
h:n., to carry OU' thrir rll""'ioaI "'" occuionally and temporarily.
but pcruw, y (perhl,," ",nil lbcJ hi rncho:d &II limi.)
and pntI na:lIy. which mctlll U <he: ad of othtt plllful
am.;', and cbcref<n ap.\nI< Cu..id "Ibcy IC' ulary
from Ihe te; this mano tM compcna for <he:ir .......ic.. ill
tatCTI tM IUl.1 .....111}'. a cmlr.lol rllnd .,hoof .admini......
tio<', illCOm ""pm.... and .... arc legally rcaulued. Tht
iJ fonncd tnlillly by taXCI F-id by ,1M: individual ..,bjce.ro 10
,be law....ho are ..blipted by ltatUt.. to p;<y ,hem. and i, adminil-
lerro by ,tate ol'fu:.i>b. No, only ,h...lary or ,hf mile offidal, but
abo other expen... of the .... ,. admin;Ilnlion Ire C<lVtTro by lh
....tt propmy (in Ihe Mitt lern. of Lbt ,crm. compriling In ,lie
financial rillb.. of the te. SIMI/stIc'notBfCJI). If Lb. anivi"
ptttcd ill dirtn ....'c lIdminiwatioa Iw the ch:lJxter ol a com
rtIC'Irial CTlltrprisc (lUd:IilI eM openl..... of. nilroad .... alObao:c:o
--.poly). thm the tikU and the liabili'>a of this CTltcrprioc be-
Jo:Jos 10 Ihe ..... l"0pUll. Thio ....,..;lu'.......iinn. dilf........
......ftn ,hf acuvity of dirca adminiJInlion attributed 10 1M
....te and Ihc analogous ac,ivity of priva'. individ....l.. nOl lurib-
u'ro to lh.llale. Th.lcpl nature of Ihc t,,"wI}' will be dlocwscd
later.
If the lta,e whOle int.rnal function iJ llmitro to 'egi,l ..ioll.
juridiclioll. alld CltCCUtiOIl of 'he ",,,,,cion. iI called a "jutildio.
tiooal" Jlat. (Gerichl"I"'). ,hal i, can be Slid .hal wilh ,he
.....blioJuncnl 01 dirccl 1. adminilln..ion tJw, .... bccom.. a
juriodict......l and ...Ie (CtTicllll-Ulld Yn-!
"..,..1"1). 11 .. the TtsUlt ol a Jona: d(\tlopmcn. oloocly con-
ntctcd with the &""""iDs cmtnliz....... of the Iq;al 0<C1.... e.pe-
dally with the growth of. CftItrall""'""i"l orpn and the ""'m
lion of i.. compncna. Tlw! orpII of lhe ....'t ill .hf
191 lAW .... _ .....n
type of UK IUIC oIIicia!. But an: nu-
mnow in-bec..eat "'wdo, not ""Ioibl,in; all m<n,ioocd
istia: Irc 'e officills ..ho are 1101 J><'f"1I"Cluly
hlwe no fixed llry Of "' Ill: and .lIt. oIf,dal. who IP.
poinLed not an administ,..t;'-. ac'. bu, uf a civil.l.w
<Onuae..
'11w 'oIIiciolit.>,ion, tha, ;., the -uC'rin&: of IUlK'ioru to
o/Iiciols. con hmd in hand .i'" the 'r;....ition from a ju,iidic:
tiooa.I to an lUte. At lint oaly c""taia Ic:gal f\ItIC
...... ill the narTO'>l'U 1ft>"" of the :on: tnnll""", to olidals.
npiaUy the aUUor> of the cwrcift an. the politt funoion
and the cor>ducr of ..... by 'M ClUbliolunent of a .undi"ll army
and ,he of a._. utroccn. HI" <>n .""It
of ofIiciob i. ou,ed it <:an b<: cha'll'" with lopl function.
,han ,h"", in ,h. "orrow", .,h"ini"... ,ion incrs-
ingly bom.. ,h. direct realization of the stlt.. purpoon: but
,his rcalit.>tion /lao the charaer ol a ItIPl lunc'''''' in
widtt ....... thai is. a law-obcyi"l function. It .. abo in tM direct
... adminislntioa .hat <h<: ..... nir..... lit lc'pl ch<uxrtt.
Sinu part.ioJ Iqol ordtt...1Uo:.II itut.. the in tM .....
.....n imK ;a a machinny of ol&cial.. Itooadcd by 1M
go'Vtr".......t) an intqnll"'n of tb<: ""-,,I Itpl onkr, whkh
wnOlitu'Ci the ,. in the .. iller (,he Ilate whole .ubjecu
an: tM ""........I.ph.... and whose ,elTi",,, i, ,he ,nri,,,,.ial .plIe..
or validity of the leg.1 order. and wh.... power " .he effective"e"
of thi> legal order), iO .herdon: mribu,ion 01 fltttClion to
the m'e in 1M narrower ........ (II a refcrmocc 10 unity of ,he
1"'1Iia! Jqpll onlcr) i",p1ies 'M .... ibution to rhe IU1C in tI..,
wider _ (u to the unity 01. thc <oul kpl order).
"Tht- transitioa- to the ldminiMroti.... and ...., inoct_iDJ: ira
poounoe of the machin..., 01. oLlici'!s is conrteICIftI with a .....in
tendctlcy to idmtify the concq>I of .... orpn with tha. of .he
""e oIicial: thai """.: 10 limit .he ."rib,"ion to the ... '0
func,ion, de..mtinl the Jrgol order. ""rForm'" individllah
func'ioning according to 'he principle 01 diyirion of labor and
.. official. It may be on accoun' 01 th.. '.nd.ncy ,hll
>orne ... .. ,rfuK .odf:lignat. porliamnll'ry lqi-'uion .........
[unction.inee i. is noc a function po,fuI m'" by lOUl< officiala. Yn,
thc porliomntt tcIGIni",a has".in F""rurel whicb are chancl.....
.....w A..... STAn
."
iaic or .... oItici.all: for (ample, ilS m.....ben ,rui_t toa>pm-
.tOoo fmm tbl: unsury. TIw chid or OP'" m tht aboolu,", alld
J<t&tituu...aJ ........ reby iI comidnrd a .....e <><po, ........ if br iI
_ otlbj<anl. ttl nlticiaI dutia. Tl>c: chirf or >aU in a tkmocnti<
'l'JItIblie:lDd tbl: ""bintt ........be'n in:l _reby and in:l rrpub.
lie prdurm thrit lunaiom, whidt raentially :tn' ItpI funaioo..
as nlticiaI dulin; b.1l thftr arr _ constituu:d by tht IttlnaI da-
ciplinary law. but by .ptcial ttjUbtiom wbidl aublilll 'JIt'<iIic
mpnwibility. Th<-y,.oo. al"t op,e 0'3""'- "'" as ....,t oIicial. bu,
to br as thC'J' pnfono a fune.ion by tht lqal onkr.
aa:otding.o the pTintipl. ol dl_ilion of labor.
R.eP.e,"",IIion
Tilt all,ibution of ,h. MKribtd function '0 the pt<lOn
of the .'ate i. not the only p<>tIibl. on._ 1n fue" liugui"i. u"'go
tnlploy. anothe" which i. cloocly connec,ed wi,h_if no< included
in-d", attribution to the penon of the ....t. I, il,ht a"ribu,i""
in, plied m th.. """"ept 0( , ..pr.....n...'ioo. Soontli"'t. attribu,ion '0
Iht penon of tht ....... iI identi6ed ..-iUt 'rpresen..tio". when i, u
said Wllbe ....'t "'1l"n ,tpr tbl: OP'''. Bu, in the .pteilic
'M concept of ,rp, tion i. turd only '0 011"""" allribu-
lioo or a funttior> ttl the peopIt. or tttUm "'1I".....uch as .
......... it is said W .. io pnf_iD& ....ir funau., thC'J' ,.".-..t
<he P""'I"k. but this does "'" _ tIw: lU:tribu,ioo 10 tht pnooo
0( tht ....,t, tho, ia, ,br or thtte orpIII ,t
orpn.. is o:duded. To bt "'''. ant speab of ,.pt...." 'ion of
tho:: people ....wly only when the fur>c:tioo:t is.-cndtred by an orpn
.!ted by d.e P""'I"k. But I......istic ""'ll" is _ c:oruQ>tnL Rq>-
ram..tioo ..b" daigna"" ,he attribu,ion of a fUlK'Ooo or an
orpo DOt el""ted. and "'" only allribulion to the ptnple. but a1Jo
wanathet OlpIl. Thu. i, is altOsaid 0( an abtolu'e and a
dic..tor who usurped pow.... tha, ,hey .ep.esen' " peop1t; and or
a judge. appointed by a monarch;n a m""archy ,nn,forn,ed from
an aboolu,e '0 a "om,i,u,ional ,nonarchy. ,hat h" .eprcscnl> the
monarch. "R.p.....n..'i"" .. n,eanu!'i'u,ion. W. say: an indi-
who hat no "apacity '0 ."t does no' a,,' him.e1f, bu' ht aeU
through hi. I.g:1i .ubtlitu'. IS hi. representa,i,.. ; d,., i, 1.0 Ay. one
attribute> to the ,ndi,idual who lad.. the <;opaci,y lO It. himself
the aeu 01. h;, , .. ,utory ...pr........'i'e. bcawc the lalln- to
...... AND nATlt
rt'ali>e the inll:raUof If _ ..y tb>' an orpn in
the oJ. h.. runclionl p' ..."u tht pcopl.........u.. indiv;duaIJ
who CltllUtiIU<e l.hc ....<e tDaUDunuy--;( ..... ohlll auribtt<e b.. fuDC-
.ionI '" iDdiriduab.. ......... by ohi. lha. the individual
..haw f"Daion _y alaD be- a.uiburcd '" the and ..ho. there-
fen. _y be- CIllIlSickm:I as an orpn oJ. <be <e... IcpIly or
DlOt&1ly obIig:1.rcd '" lUI fW>nian in the 01 the
peopk. in jurillic Ian(uqt and aK .......,
or lao iden.i6M i... _mod ""'t an individ..al ..-ill."
that which .. ill h.. in<ernt) of i. Ix--
.0 be .ba, will of rtp'CS(tltati"" i. ,be will of ,be
,eptfStn.ed-tbal by hi. action. docs no< rcaliu
h.. own will b'" .he will of rtp'tICn.cd. This iJ. fiction.
iI.he will of Lbe i. more CIt" 1.... bound by 'he will
of ..en.eds in .he t .. of a ronlcat""l r.pre",,, ion or
at a "ott divided in.o ....., .. wh"", COIlstitution oblip
pr........ i'.. of W-a'" '0 follow iJUtruc.ionl of tltti,
VOT1 who the power at rcalling Lbe r.p.cxn....iva. Fot
.v.n in lhese cases "ill of the prnen...ivc is dilfuml from
will 01 <be rep'tM1I.td. Scill "-. patent .. II.. ficlion of
ilknlily 01 will. whet1a will of the np,nenulin il not bound
by ..ill of as in the of ........0<)' ttp-
.esenta'ion of the int!ividuol laclins the ap;ll<ily III act or the
,"p'cxntabo<t 01 tht by. llII>Ckn> I-liamQ" "boot .......
bns. ill the 01 their functions,. aK kpIly
which is waallJ charxttriK'd by ..ying han a man-
dale. The ...... 6ctioo .. prato. wbm il .. sUd <.bat the iudtt- in a
......i .... ionaJ_rchy. re... eKlI" _ldt. that the judicial
decis.ion ,. tht will 01 tht ltIOOl&tCh; and ..hen il io even uid lha' lhe
.... i. '",il.ibly pl'Qtn1 at the moment the pronounces
hil ""''''Dee. Aurib"'ion nscsllially al...Y' ;nyolv.. a fiction.
whcLbc-r ,h. fUDt:lion or'M will rnliznl by the function of' defi
nite individ....l io anribultd .0 anoth.r individual or to 0 juri"ic
penon. Th. lac. 'hal .h. parUomcn. i. elt<;ted by Ihe pcnpl th..
he judge i. oppoiDlcd by Ih. monarch. doci not change d'e ficti
tioul cbanc.e, of Ih. ollrihutiOll embedded in .he ..,.-.;ep' of rep.
relCnta.ion. Thcrdorhe me.hod by ,,hi.ch an organ il cttalcd i.
i.,..,levant for Lhc pouibili,y 01 auribu.ing hil fUlloClion .0 anolher
-Ct. pp.
UW AND .<TAU
'"
OTgan OT to tb. peopl. D.d.. i,'. i, m.,..ly tb. assumption that the
function i. to be (>'rfonnod in tb. intereot or tbat individual or
tbO.!C individuals to whom th. functioo i. auributod. Th.refo..
tb. vi.w found in cenain political doctrin.. tbat an aboolut. mon-
arcb Or a dktuOT ". i. the "tru." ..p....nt<ltiv. or the peopl.,
.xp""'" an atttibution whkh i. ju,t a, fi<titiou, a. tbot a..umod
in traditional thoot')' <tcrOTding to wbkh the parliament el,,<tod by
the people rcp",..nt, tb. peopl. tb. ,tatut., are <r.alod by tb.
(>'opl. (wher. a parliam.nt ""iot'), "th. pcopl. a.. the oou",.
or law," or "tb. law crnanat., from the pcopl." a. it i, said in the
ronnitution. 01 OOm. d.mocratic ..publia.
Th. only question i, und.r wh.1t condition, a ",ienti6. p....n
tation or law may u.. tb. fiction that con.iou in the auribution of
the funetion pcrlonned by on. individual to a juriotic peroon or to
another individual; or, in other words: under whal condition, the
u.. of the concepts of "organ" (C.nnan, Organschaft). ".uboti
tute." OT "r.presenta';v." arc ",i.ntifically legitimat., Th. answer
i;, the u.. i, legitima" provided that on. h awa.. 01 the nam", of
tb. attribution. and th.1t one wish to ""ptffi by attributing.
fun"ion performed by a d.finit. individual t<l a juri"i. pcoon, OT
by characterizing rhi, individual a, an "organ" 01 the community
pt"""'ted a,. juri"ic P'''lOD, nothing .1.. but th...luion.hip of
,hi. funCtion to th. unity of: the legal ord.,. constituting tb. com
munity; and tbat on. wish", to ""p""" by attrihnting a function
pcrformed by"". individual to another individual or to otber in
dividual,.pecially to ,h. individu.1s forming ,h. people of "
"ate, nothing 01.. but that the individual "".",i,ing ,h. func,ion
i. legally or morally-politically bound to ""erti.. thi, function in
tb. int...., of: ,h. individu.l or individual< '0 wbom, fOT thi, r
son. the funcdou i, .ttribu,ed, Th. t"" of: fic,ion i. ",i.ntifically
iIlegitimat., bow....,.. in the following : (I) if byauribution
of. function to a juristk pcnon (by ning that the juristk p"'"
>On of a corporation Or ,h. ""e ... a juristk p""oon pcrforms ,hi.
funCtiou, fuI611n obligation, "".rei,,,, righl Ihl'Ough an organ)
i. meant that the juri"k pcnon (a. the performer of ,hi. Func.
lion; a. the subject of obligation ,hat i. fulfilled by the funCtiou;
as tb. ",bj.Ct of ,h. rigb, ,hal ix.rcised by tb. function) is "
-0. It... kl"" T"" T"""" ., .. ('!1M). P. 1M
"r....nd>'I"'" 01 !>eroo=qo." Io!:li<a, LXVl, , (t'lMl. P,.. II. pp. 61,
,..
UW "''0 5TAU
being. different loom the members 01 'he corporation or the
'ta,e; (oJ if in ca", of a >la,ulory ropre&eTl'a,ion of all indi.idual in
,"""bl. of aCling hi, legal capacity i. (3) if, by character-
iting the parHament a. the repre><n.. ,ive of the p""ple 'he lact i.
'0 be conculed th" ,he democTO';C principle of lhe people', ,elf
deteTmination i.o mooifie<l wheTe thi.< principle is re-
stricted to the dtction of 'he parliament by a more or less """n
sive group of citi,.",; and (4) it by ...."ing that an ah><llul.
rnon.r<h or a dicta,or TOpre..'" 'he people, 'he validity 01 thi.<
principle of demon.c, io .imul ..ro, though in fact it " entirely
aboliili..J. Thado 'he fiction thai 'he independent judge Tel''''
...., .. the monarch i' otttlly Beau.. by ,hi, i, no'
meant. and cannot be meant. that ,he judge h to J>CTforn, hi'
function in 'he ,ntoren 01 the monaT<h, but only thot thi' func
tion i. aoual1y the monarch'. p"'rogati'e who del"!!.... i, lor
som. te<LlOU to tb. judge .ppointed by him. Bu, thi, fiction i, in
conflict with pooi';'. law 'V<tl if ,h. legi,htoT him..1f u", it_
even if lh. law ord.n ,h. judge to pronounce hi' >entence "in the
name of" the monorch. Thi' flc'ion ha' no oth.r purpll'e than the
political on. to "'ioe th. monarch'. authority by .ttTibuting '0
him a fu"ction of which h. w., explicitly d.prived wh.n tho ,,10-
lUl' monarchy w., ch"nged to" comtitution.l monarchy.
Th 141.... 4 JubjUI 0/ 4blig4/iom and rights
Th. obligatio,," and righl. 01 , ,,,,to a juri"ic per>oU. wh"""
"ruclu,.. i' "n"Ij7-W below, are not th"'. impo,,<1 upon or
gtamed the .,ate hy" high.. l.g.1 ord.., in'ttn.,ion,ll.w. Thel'
arc obligation. and rights "ipul,'ed by the national l.g.l ord.r.
The oblip.';o", and righu stipulaled by intern"tiOll"I1aw, which
are analogous '0 lh""" of corpora,ions "ipuT"ted by nationalla"..
will be discu.sed in lh. pr...n'a'ion of ,h. relation.hip betw..n
international and na'ionallaw.
Oblig'''ions of /h. ,IoU: ,lat. obligarion ond" 'Mit d.'icl; liab;liry
of th. 'II>1'._1n" juristically inexact '""'", "oblig.tiom of. ,,,,I.
'T< oft<n talked .bout. without a prtti ..ly defined concept of legal
ohligation being applied. 1 ,uch concept i. pr..upposed. "po
cially lh. one acc.pted her. accor<ling to which a legal obligation
,.,
'<> ""have in "c<Ttain way ex;'" if ,he lrgal ordor .."'eh", '0 the
opposite behavior a coercive ac';u ...nclion. ,hcn ",,,ally no leg.l
obligation .uributod '<> the "ate ,. pTtsent, but only a rno",t.
political uhlig:uion. Thi. i.lO, ror cIao'plc, ....h... it i. said that the
Sl". i. ol>ligattd '0 puni,h ,h. <:,ihlotr. although inflicting a pUll.
;,hmem upon the "'ild",,, i. not the coment of a legal obligation,
l:>eG>u.. ,he noninfliction of ,he punUhment i, not mode ,he '00'
di,ion of" ..n<tion_the low.applying ol'g:m i. no' obligated, but
merely all1borittd, n' inflict ,h. puni,hment. If such an obliga,ion
exim a' an official ohligation of the law-.pplying orgon. this obli
gation can be allribllled '0 the >lat. only-iF one i,
i" viola,ion i. abo audhuted to the "X,., becau.. ,ubj<:<t of ,
legal obligation i. h. by whoo< beh.vior the obligation may b., vio
100l_th. potMltia! d.linqu.nt. 1 the official obligation to puni,h
the .vildoer i, by a criminal sanclion. and if. a, i,
u'ual, no puni>!>abl. d<:lict i, attributl to the .... t<, then_if on. i,
<on,i".",_the oblig.uion in q"..tion cannot b., auributl to the
,tate eith..., But in everyday terminology it i, not thi, offici:sl obli
gation of the organ at all that i. attributed to the ,tat. A, an offi
cial obligotion it i, n,gordl .. a dmy of the individual who," b.,.
haoior constitute, the <ontMlt of thi, duty. With thi, the nel for
the existence of a 'ubjttt of the obligation i, met: and an attribu
tion to the juristic PC""'" of the state i, lhe,."fo,." unnre....ry. For
thi, reason. when ,peaking of the state', obligation to punish one
does not m.an the offic,al duty of the organ, but "'p, by thi,
only a mon.l.political postulate dittttod at tbe legal ord .
It i, customary to juxtapo," to the constitutionally gua",merd
",",,"Iled fundamental rights and elvil Hbertl .. of the ,ubjret> of
the state <orusponding obligation, of the state not to violate by
"aWt.. th. equality or lib.,rty that i, the <ontMlt of ,h... rights, or.
in otll... "'ortI,, nOt to intet"Vene in ,he ,hu' pro,ected 'ph... of
individual. 11)' ,tatut.. r..ttieting or .!>oli.hing thi, .ph..... In the
rarlier of ,h... fund'm.ntal rights and elvil libert'" "'
it Wa! d.monstrated tbat ,h... a,." not righ in the .prcific 'MI'. of
,h. tern>; that 'he "prohibition" to I..ue < tain .tatutes violating
the CO"'ti'utionally g"a",me<:<'l equality or lib.,rty doe, not
a I.gal obligation of the l.gi,Iati,-. organ. but oniy the pos.sihility
"'c', PI' .to'.
UW ANO <TAn
to annul a .oo-olled unwnJtitution.l .tatut. by .pecial procedu...
Since a legal obligation of th. legi.lativ. organ to ..fnin from
creating viol.tivtalUU. docs no, .xiot, and .Ince ,h. poooibly
.xi"lng legal obliga,ion of th. chief of .tat. or ,he cabin.t mom
ben not to participate in the cr.ation of .uch .tatut.. U'egard.d aJ
an obligation of th... organs .nd therefore docs not .-.quire attri.
bution '0 the juri"ic penon of the .tate, '" thOTelor. the JO-Calle<l
obligation of the Jla" '0 r..pec' th. equali'y .nd libcT,y of ,h.
subjects motely m.an. ,h. moral.polltical postul.te, directed a'
th.l.g.l order, mentioned .bo....
If i' i....umed that a l.g.l oblig>!inn to. cerlain behavior.,,-
im only if the kg.1 order '''ach9 a ..nc,inn to ,h. opposite b<.
h.vim; if. then, lcgally obligated to. c.ttain b<havior i. tha' indi_
vidual who by hi. beh.vior c.n nOl only fulfil/th. uhlig>!ion bu'
.100 violat. ,t, th.n thub]""t of the obliga,ion attribu,ed '0 the
"at. is ,h. individual who-as. Jtate organ_has to fulfill this obli-
g<uion bj' hi> b<havior and ,h.more also iJ .bl. to violate this ob-
ligation by hi. b<havior; .nd ,hen i, would be wnsi"CIlt to at
tribute to the juri"ic penon in gene",1 and '0 the juristic perooD
of ,h. "at. in pat1iculor a legal obligation if not only the ob..rv-
.nce but abo th. violalion of the obligation by the organ i. aurib-
uted 10 it-----especia)]y ,f on...."m.. th.. ,h. "ate can <;OOlmit a do-
lict. But .ince .ttribution i. only. po..ihl. mental opctation, not
a ne<: ry on., and .lw.Y" im-olv.. a fic,ion .ince It i. actually
n ,h. it.t. a. a jori"ic penon but a cert.in hum.n b<ing that
f"lfill. or vlol.19 the obligation "ipulated by the legal oroer, it i.
poooible to attribute to the ".te .n obliga,ion and th. b<havior
that ill fulfillment, without al", attributing to the "ale
the violation of the obligation; it i. possibl., morcover, to main
tain_in the int.....t of th. authority of th. "ate, and that mc.n.,
of ill government--th. idea that thtaU can do Tigh" but not
-,.
To be Jure, if th. d.lIct' fact determined by ,h. internation.1
legal Oro" and eon.im in the viola<lon of an obligation imposed
by that order upon th...... as a jurittie person, th.n ,httribu
,ion of tbe delict '0 the Ita.. m.." with no difficulty in common
terminology. For, a. w. ohan se. later, tho national legal ordeT
may authori.. altate organ 10 in a w.y prohibited by in
tern.tional law. Thi. b<havior tCPT""""" a d.lict only aocoroing
'0'
to international Jaw, no. according to nltional law. The nann of
....'ionaIltpi onkr that ...thor..... !he behavior violating ,no
tarllllicalol low is not .......l.Lable to inlenUltional law,
law lDCfdr auacllft to thJt beha,,* of
ill unctiam.: W;lr.,.. r...,..u..J rnorted to by the lUte w",,"", in,...
es" protected by ;memauOr\llI 1",. Ire violated. III p,evailin,
"""'ge of language no rui<w>cc .. offered to ,h. aJOeTtlon that
...... hao ,-iola,cd ill ;ntnna'ional kpl obliplioos or IN. the
unoWwu proyided lot by inmnation>llaw _ dlruud .."iml: the
ddiJlqumlOUlC itxlf; this m<2II* Uw. UM: ....... is liablr for tht <It-
lia it has con>miucd.'U
TIte ,ilua,ion is dilrermt.. I>o_vcr, if the q...,.'ioon i. to be an
Iwertd wbether the facll <:o<lI,it,uing I d.lkt according '0 the n,,
tional kpl order .....y bc .,trib.. ",d to the ...... ill lhc penoniJiQ
tioa of 110.. Icp.I order and wbfthcr a PncOoo otipub.I by <bo
...nc-.l Icpl order mar be inlnpUd as bri"l dir<aed apiDa
!he lUI. the <mo:kocr boecon>ft 1ppa1l1 no< to .ttribute
10 the >tate a bc""viol ,hat Iw <he ChafXln of. oklict oaordi"l
to the natiO<lallClfolI ordtr; the tende"cy u> consider as an Org>ll of
the IU'. an individual aDed '0 perform. d.fini", functico only
imof.n ... his behavior doco not coaai...... a delia aaurding w lhc
....liorW Icp.I onkr. Thio <etldcnq is upreMtd ill the (_..la,
"The Su Can Do No W........ This fonn..b is jl'Mi&e:!. by 1M idea
that Ih. Sl.11.......... "will" is ,h. law Q,,"'" will the wrong and
th....for. QnnOi da wrong. If. d.lic, i. commille:!.. it .0" a"ly 1>0
the ddi<1 01.." individ..,.J, b>ugh' .bout by.he i"dividual'. be-
haYior. bill ..... the delict 01. ........,............. organ this illdirid
..,.J bdIa""" Oftly if his bdlavior io .utioc:Jrinod by the IepI order in
1M ....... lbol his bduvior is aeotlioa. .pplicat...... ot" t>bsaYaDU.
but "ot violion of the law. taw rioluioo bIt. ""tUd. the ....
Iharhy giv.... ,h. organ .nd th.,efor. is 11<" .llTih.....bl. '0 the
IUt. A ..."""g-doing ltlt. would W a OOIl.r.adi<;lion in iuelL
Suclt ran-ietim of the aun1..." ..... 10 is mtirely possi.
bl Bu., i. is IlOl""'''''''' in the..,.,.. that "bot...... of a delict
to .......... would com,i alogicll JI\tndition. Tha. the law is
the of ,h ...... i meuphor 'ho' npraon no m lIuI"
,hat Ih. camm.. ni.,. constitute:!. by th.logal order i. ,h. Sl and
tho. lhe peT1OIIifi<;a.ion of this legal ord.r i. 110. per10fl of the
-a. .... SO" .... """
and 'M ..rona.. (.he delict) i, not a neptioo of the la...
-.10$ i. allIumed in rejec,iIlg ,he of a delict romUlillcd
by the ....t_bm, ... <I<"."",U'lle<!, a conditi"" to which the law
alLaclta a opa:ilic ecnxqunlC<!. TM '(lnc:nl lha. a behavi.... i.
'l,Ul\.;ow[w" (illepl) docs ..... expr a 1o(Xa1. b.n onl, a
Ioc;cu (OQtTUt it aDd tile (1qal) behavior 10
Ia. as Ode a"""," that the lepl ooder au=pu to pr....." the
'orn>cr bul not the Ian... by attacltina to .he iIIcg;ol beha,ior a sanc-
,ion ag..i",. the individual behaving in lhat wa)", Si""" ,he delic,
i. a (ae, determined by the lepl order, il lIIay be .elated to lhe
unity o>f. lhe legal order pc..oni6ed, !hal is to Ny. it may be
auribu<cd '0 the Thio is in bet done in CC'ft.ain <2>ca. The
p<inciplc !ha. the .....e anDOl rom.mit a <1<1;", is noaintaiIKd in
c_...... of only ,,'ith "sniian, cxcepoioos.
To be "\Ie. lbe delict cortKilu<cd by a puni,i'.., oanaioa is
wua.lIy not Ilttibuted to the ....,e. At; the fUhj""t of the obIigalion
10 whose violation a puni'!>lIIe'" i. attache<! he individnal il re
garded by whose behavior ,be oblip.i"" wa, viola,ed. Sinc.e. ac
cording to commOll uRge oi language. only thooc obliptiona are
a,tribu'ed to the which arc to be ful6.1led by indiriduah
functioning xcoodina to <he principle oi divioion 01 labor and.
alIcd to this 'ulfilhDcrll by the IcpI onier, it i< _mcd that ouch
an individual in vioto.ing .he obJig:>tion CO<ntituled by a puni
ive Ia""tion doa not act u an org:on of the .... So rar as only a
behavior eomi"ing in .he ("16Ihn.,,, nf ,h. oblig.>don (not in it<
viola,ioaj il altributed '" the ..... re. ;ul obllga,ion is allributed '0
the which lbe """e Qn fuum bu. no< riolate. I. Iw bttn ex
p1_ined earlier why ,be objoccion that JUdI an a.tribu..... ill ill<
compo.i!>le with IlIc 0llaCCpt: of IcpI obliptioa ......, dCldopcd i.
ilDma'eria!...
In behe violation 01 an obligation ..i""la.""- by .he national
legal order-and hence aloo .hi. obligation_i. to
OIIly when it> ctllH""" "a financial performance...hen i. i.
'0 be fulfill""- from tM lUre propcny, and when the """ution (if
s.ucll applico) ill to be directed into the properly of 1M "ate. n.c
Iepl nnkr may prcoaibc: if it Iw bttn ucmaincd in a judicial
procedure that an ""-ent individual was punilbcd. not 0111, .he
amtmee .......ld boo annulled and thcrrlore .he forrible dcpri"".
"a, 1""."'- ... d.. lalo<l<-.-
,..,
lioa of life or liberty l><It be c:oosidcred as pwIdhmm.. btlt allo
.... _1Cri.>l dam.&e QlW! I(> .... iodi."idual Chlt<! or b.U
nilyohouJd bc rtpoirul by. po,.-..' lrom >UlU'. ptopttty.
To 1tUCU'" lhis payment,. cma.iR ou'" "'P" is oblipl.<d. 1Il.be
pljlPml isD<ltmad.t. ''ml 00 it isoaid-<he lUte -r be Nfd:l..lld
condmmcd by court to make .... pa,"""'.; and if this lomDC" is
not out-wbidl will lw-dIy ner happm. but wltith is p"""
directed in'" u.. property of .... ou'" could lake
pbel:. I" iIIis cue it io uid tlw I.hc lUte b;u rio!a.((l bis lqaJ obi;
pilon to repair thul;unllge eo\lSCd lID innocent individual. 'nul io
to ..y .... obligation as wtll as iu lul&llm... , .,,<1 violation aTe .t
tributed to the ....,t; lOud, lUIumi,'i <bat ,Ite p',"ly in
is ''''''pItied to bc .he pr"I"'''Y of the .ta"'. oval 'he luflcring of
the ..netion is auributtd 10 the I"'t<.
The ..me attribution 1'1"". when an individual ill hi, ca-
padty u "'te "'ian !'trior"'. a legal 'ranoa.tion by which are
ere"" obligatio", of the ""e whkh are to I>< fulfil1td from the
p.opeuy inteop,clcd.o be lhal of the .ta..,. TI>e attribution to the
p"not> of ........,c. 01 'he delkt lh>' com"'" in the "00uI611"",,,,
...... obIig;otion u ...,..;bl", becau.., the bell COfUlituting tho: dt-
lict dotlttmin<d In na.lonallrgal orda as :mdi.i(lo. 01. the
*""'C1ioo--t.hat io, as condllions of the acrn.i(ln '" bo: dir<cd into
the "'opel". 1f,Iocno't\'eT. the p<optrtJ in qUftlion can bo:
i".trpret<"d as the (D/kcllyt' 01. the individuals
'" tbr kpl CDIIl.Dl.W1i., calWd R ... ---th.is ..ill bo: diseu.wd boer
-dim this obIig:lIIiDa _y boo IIIr,buu:d '" <hotot jft(!1"iduaJs. aDd
thftI '"' "",y.peak cl coll<,yt' obligations 01. the mnnbo:n 01. the
Tht clliciaI duty iolltl b, the orptI I" lIOl. fulrillitlll the
oblig:otion 01. the ....Ie or-whal amouo" to 'M a-wml-
lti.-., obligation 01. the Iltttllbo:n m.... be dlstinll"Wltd II'IIUI
Ihl. <>bligatloD. For ,his oblig:o'ion i. con>tilutM by
nutioo inti> the ,<a,t', pr.",..bt official du,y 01. "'1"" br
, dlocipl'.....,. Unt.,on dirted "Pin.. organ. Only 6nl-
mentioned oblig>tion. no< tho "ffid:al du,y 01 ,b. "'1"". ,mil>.
U'M to Ih
Exttution in,o .. pfOp<rly Ottm. to be an al>turd in,et'-
pr....llion if ac, i,,,,I ,....ribu,M '0 ,h. ,ta, and
lhu. ,b Ottm. to be carrying oul an <':l<<<u,lon again.. iutl.
BUI Ilti. interpn:ta'Wn i. avoidablt. T'ht actual "'UlI'''''' io tbi"
tbt hal 10 uk a",ina .... will orpn in
Whol.eCUllpcocnce Wls <be adminutntion of lbc ",0poty in qun-
.ion. Hi. ,rioual 10 (;lory 011' onl.. of .... te. u<cu,ive
orpn i. a viola.ion of hi. offici..l du,y. The cnerdve act, il in fac.
it should become nccc....ry. would actually be di,re.ed "ll"inll ,hi.
individual Sin<:c auriburion it only a noo a
<he ..u,ibu.ioon .0 ......... of sulftting of
.,-il lha. COOUti.... .... com;:ive acI is by no .......... ncoeJoU}'.
aDd m.... DOl ulc place if """ wishes to a,"Oid <he ide>. of :on eu-
a>tion by tbt ..... "Pm.. ilXLL The ..........>00, <hto. ukQ pba
into tbt pcope"y of doe ....te. bu. is DOl dirud ap..... Ibo: ptr.
..... of.he ........ Tht- indiridual."iait whom tbt a"onion inl.O"
propeny io dirMed ncaI. noo ncusArily be lhe ...bject of
tigh, which oom.i'u'e1 ,h" properlY.
financial obligation. .", if dcscribtd wiLhoul
<he aid of amibu.ion, oblip.ioN of ....t.. orpn ..h.,.. beh....
>or """"ilu.a .... corUenl of .I>nc oblip.ions.. They ....
tiom 00 be lullillcd from lbc ",opt'" in""",ncd as propnty of
........"'. Tbry an conotiluled by .... DUblishmnll of smccioot,
_Iyof an ..........>00, in.trptncd 00 be dita:lcd inoo Ibn prop-
my, bul DOl apiDsr. the penon ollbc lUte.. c=;ution it di.
n'Clcd ..,ina lb. penon of tbt ...."'., '"ll"",,1>0 ..:Iminislen lbis
property. Iflb;, propeny io ..uribtlted to <he "ate as lb. lUbj:. of
,he rigbt constitutinlf .he property. then ,h ....1. i,li.bl...ith ito
properly for the delic. which an individual hu ,ommilled by non
ful6lhoen. of th. oblip,ion which he h.u to fulfill In hi. ClJl"Ci,y
uan orpn of the ...., . Wh......., in aM 01 t.hc oblip'i.ono; imp;llCd
on tbt .... by illl,""","iDll4l "'.. the obliguioon"'" the sullning
of oIx conciv.. aclUu. cut<tiwteS <he oblip<ion a...uributcd to
the ......... of ........"'. in ax of tbt obliga....... imp;llCd ocr d'e
...... by -Po-llqal Older only the obligation. DOl tbc In
inlf 01 lbe conciyc act, is .um"bu'cd to the penon of tbt k.
cording to common .aminologr. lbe Ita'" a jurio.ic penon Ott
commi.o. d..lict by not fulfillinlf.nd lbu. violliing. a financial ob-
lip,ion impo...d on him by n..lonalltgal order; bu. nccu
lion dlr.ed in'o the property of .h ta"', which thl' na,ion.1
ltgal ordC'f atlachct II a .....,I.ort 10 thi, deliu of <be su.e. i.......
interprnnl u dir<'CIni .pi.... the pnaon of .he SUI. Thio
meaRI: ,"" ...., .. is no< liable "';lb hi> .......,." bu. only "';lb hi>
L.\W AND OTA'U:
''''
proptrty for ,h" d"lict attributed to him." bu, ,h" <ng>.n a<;ting
contrary to his du,y i, liabl" with hi, penon for thi, dolict of ,h"
.... t". 1 th" ....",'. property can be in"'fJ'T"ted a. ,h" coll""ti,"
property of th" m"mbers of th" ''''''. th.n... will be .ho..... la'''''
tb. liability 01 th" ,tat" i. tho coll"",iv. liabili,y of its members.
RighlJ of/h. a righ, in th" 'echnical""n", of th. word i.
und.mood .. a. roft"" right equipped wi,h .h. j"g.>l POW""o be
"xon;ise<! a. a roaction against nonfulfillment 01 .he obliga.ion
id.ntical with the rofl"" right and if the .ubj<c' 0.1 the right i, tho
individual on whom tho l<gal order be>tow. thi> l<gal powor. th""
.h. righ.. in",rpt<ted to be ,h"", of th" ....t" ar" .h. ,igh.. of tho
indioidual who. in hi. capacity .. org.n of the ......, Ita. to """,ci..
,hi. l<gal pow.r. If w" attribut,, tbe .xerei", of thi, 1"8.1 pow.r to
the .ta we ",I.. i. to th" na,ional l<gal ord.,. whkh "ipul....
tha, th" 1"P1 PO"'''' has to be e""reixd by a rtain individual.
The obliption agaimt whoot: nonfulfillm.m tho legal POW'" i".
=i.ed i. also in,"'pttted ... an obligation toward tho su,. and
.h" roft"" ,ight identical witb ,hi, ohligation i. int",pretod a. a ro.
lin righ, of tbe SUt. In act .b. obliptod behaoior of one indio
vidual can only 'ak. place toward anoth", individual 0' oth.,. in
dividual. But tb. "".rei.. o( the roft.x tight may be tb. lunction
of an individual wbo has the quality of a ..... organ; that i., thi,
behavior may"" atttibuted to the ...."'. Thi, i, true of ""rtain Db-
1iption.. for example. the obHg;o,ion to ,,,nder military ",noi." or
pay ta""" Th" "",fonnan." of military ..tok" is """"ptod by ,he
.....'. militaty otgcan., ,h. payment of tax.. by th" "at.'. financial
organs, and this acc"f'<'lnc" con"i,u"" ,h" content of their off,cial
duty. Bu', it i. laid. they do nOt ace"p' ,he perlorman... for them-
",[v, lik. an accepting ,he performan.. 01 th" em
ployee Or a croditor ac..pting tho payment of the d.btor. Th"y ac
cept the porlonmnc.. "for tho ....te:' Thi, m.ans that Ih. acc.pt-
an i. int",pretod .. a "ate (unerion_it i. auriburod 10 the ..ate.
In c..... 01 th" obligation 10 pay ta"e, one hI< to add ,hat tho pay.
ment does not flow into tbe pro!","y of tho individual lunctioning
as a .tal. organ. but into propo"y int<'Tp","'d a, ""e pm!","y.
Th. obligation.< '0 render military servi.. and to pay t.".. are
eha i:d a, publiclaw ohlig;otiom. Bu' tb. lam" .itnation "".
i... in of pri""..law obligatiotl.! (to ,,,,,dn- a. performance)
3'0 LAW AND ......n
cn'at1 by lepl transaction, eucuted by the .tate, tha, i" by a c....-
lain iudividual .. a state olpn, authoriud to do i<> by the legal
order. The e:<erei><' of the lepl powe< to Slart pro<ecding. leading
'0 the u<'muon of the sancuon preocribed as reaction agailU< the
nonfulfillment of the duties here concerned, thi. e:<ere""" too, i.
carried out by a "ate olpn. and i. attrihuted to ,he ,tate .. a .tate
IUllCtiolL eonsidering that theoc duties an' nOt ..tablished in the
interest of the individual> who accept ,he ",tyice. and are charged
with reac,ing against nonfulfillment, and assuming that it is a ....te
intere", which i. guaranteed by ..tabli""ing theoc du,i.., ,hen thi,
can only mean_ince only Jiving human being> can have "inter
e.u"_,hat the", duties arc e.tabli,hed in the int<re" of all indi
viduals belonging to the legal community. It h poosible ,hen to at
<tibute ,he a<:<:epta"ce of the pcrlonllance .nd ,be exerci", of
,he legal power not to ,he lietitiou, pcrson of the ....t<, but to the
individual. of tbe legal community. Thh means: we may designate
the individual, accepting the performances not only a, organ. of
tbe .tate, but aho .. orgam of ,he people wbo belong to 'he legal
community. To this ""tent it is possible to interpret tbe rigbts in
que"ion a, the collective righ" of these individual.
Sometimes tbe obligation, to refrain from. certain behavior,
which make up the bulk of criminal law, are ime<p'eted in that
way that they exist no' only in relation '0 ,be indi,idual. dir&tly
affe<:ted by their viol.tion, but oJi<> indircclly in !'Cl.tion to the
"ate; we say that ,be .... te ba, the right that iu .ubjects refrain
from committing these delictl-thi. e<pe<:ially in view of the lac.
,hat i, i. ,he public prosecutor who reacts againSl the violation of
the.. obliga,ion" Th.t it i, in rel.tion to the ,tate tha' the delict
must llot becommitted. presuppo"" that the delict i, not merely a
behavior which i, injllrioll' to ,he individual directly affected but
a beh.vior violating the int"""t of .11 individual, of ,he legal
community; and this i, ""pr.....:! by the fact that it i. prosecuted
not by the direclly affected individual but by an org.n of the com
munity in the inte1'COt of the community. On the ba.i. of the..
con.ideratio,," we can ,pe.k, in ,hi, ca", too, of collec,i"e righu of
the memben of ,be "ate.
Sonletimes one speaks of the .tatc'. "righ," <0 puni.h the evil.
doer. Such. right-u a rellex righ,_i. p,"""'t only if a l.gal obli.
g,ttion exim to tolerate the I"'nithme"" ,rutt i,. if the behavior by
,n
which the eviW""r ".cape' the puni<!ullent to whieh he i< ..n
,"mod i& connected with an additional puni,hmenl.
01 panK"J., importanCe aTe Teal rights (SMhenruhle) and ...
pcdalJy prop<:tly rlgll" in the narrow" ....... (EjgenlUmsrechle)
of the I.I.ale. For th... COM;!m...he core of the prop<:rly in the
widor ""0", interpret! as .taU properly (SlaalJIJetmugm).
which plays .ueh an importam role in the attribution of funCliom
to the .... ," ~ " bu,..,aucra'ic mochinery of officiolls and r.heore
plaY' an important role in the attribution of that function which
is d<1ignated as direct Ilate adminiJtration.
An individuaJ', properly right witb respect to an obje<! cnosi,u
in that all nth" individual. are obligated to tolerate the actual
disposal of the object On the pan of thi. individual_its n.., non
n.., even its destructioll-aod tha, the individual Iowan:! whom
the o t h ~ obligation to ,olera,e aim has ,he legal power both to
di.pose of .he objc.ct by a 1"8"1 transaction and lo ..act agaiml the
nonfulfillmelll of ,he othe..' obliga.ion by bringing an actiOll
against th""" Ordinarily it i. the same individual who i. entitl<d
to the (actual or COIl.=lUal) di.posal and to .he exen:i", of Ihe
legal pow... Thil individual i. Ihe own.. of .he obj. If we d ~
ocribe, wilhoul the aid of attribution, .he .\e' 01 facts int<rprcted a,
the property right of the Slate with rC$pcc, to a certain objt, we
om" ....y that ,be (actual and cOlllractual) di'poal 01 the object i.
feserv<d for ""rtain individuals, who di.pose of the object in ful
fillmcn. of an olftdal duty, in 'ucb a way that all other individuals
are obligated to tolera,e .hese actS of di.posal and are .hereby ex
c1uded from tbe dioposal of tbe object; and tbat, also. leg.l power
to reaCI by an action again.. the nonfulfillment of ,he obligatio'"
to toler:ue i. beSlow<d upon cettain individuals who h"'e the same
qualification. u tbo.\e for whom .he (actual or contractual) di..
posal i. reserved. Obvioudy it i5 nut the ....m. individual who i.
entitled to thi. di.posal of the object and who has to .xerci.\e the
1"8"1 power; the function. are di.tributed among different indio
vidual. lt i, to be noted that tbe actu,l di.posal of .11<: object
which i. cOll.idered to be ownro by the ....te-particularly its u50
_i. not due.o all rnembe... 01 the ....'e. A hOUle ot a vehide be
longing to the ..... may be used only by certain individual. in a
legaJly tegabted mann.r. But even if all functions in qUC1tinn
"'ere combined in the hand of a .ingle individu,l. which never
,..
happ<n., ,his indi,idual ",""uld "ill not k OS the owner,
for it would be ...um"! <1>.. in ,hi, co.. <00, a. in lhe mho""
,he [unctiom are coolent<! up"" ,he exerri.ing individual nol in
hi, own i"tereOl, but in ,he i"'<Test of all individu.b of ,h. commu_
nity; in Olh.... word<: it would k u.umtd thot ,h. right in qu....
,ion does lh. prottioo 01 the imer"" of ,he mcmionl'd
indi,'idualo bu, of the inte,..,'t of the commonity. The ."umption
of .nch a community ;nt.,,-e>t ,oppli.,. ,he criterion for an amibu-
lion of the function., by officiob, and thereby of ,h. ,e
,,,,,,,'ive rigbt. to the community mcmh<n. In fact, ,hi. attribution
to the mcmbm of ,he ..ate community i. induded in lh. auribo-
tion 01 pt<>p<rty righl> ,,, ,h. fu;,itiuus ""no" of lh. ,tate. The
notionalil.. !ion of property is alway. undc""ood as sociali..,ion,
communi.... tion of propeny. In thi, """,e, "ate i. col
lec,i.-e property of the m"",hen of the <tate; that meano that pre-
ci.. a' property can be att,ibuted to the per"m of the ''''te, it
Can be att,ibuted al", to the re.l human being> who fono the
community ulled "..ate." In both eases the aUribntion implies
a 6c,ion. In COmmon terminology the one i. included in the other.
If one i. "'....d. we ..y that the individuals rendering the property
function are orga'" of the OI.t and then the property;" .tate
property; if the oth.r io m......t. we .. the indi,-idualo 'epreoetlt
the peopl., and the property i. the people'. properly.
0) The S<H:Qlled Se1f-<>blig.tion .f Ike SI.te; Ike Slole
COV<'rned by LAw (Rechuw.at)
Only on ,he ha.i, of the onalysi. 01 ,he concep' nt.tate, ""hibitert
above, i. i, p""ible '0 und."tond what traditional theory ull
..>elfobliga'ion nt the ..ate" and d....ibeo .. a fact that the state,
exi>ting .. a social reality independe", of law, ere.... ,he law and
,hen .nbjec" itulf to it, ,-oluotarily a, it were. Only then i. it a
.tate governed by law. a Ruhlwo.I. A Itate not gov.rned by law i.
n",hinbble; for ,he "a,. only exis" in .Ctl of "ate, and ,h... are
..,,, perfonoed by individuah and attributed to the Ita'e a, a jn_
rink penon. Such attribntiott i, """ible only ott the b..i, of l.gal
nono. whkh .pecifically determine th.... acto. That the .tate ere-
atet the law merely means 'hit individual., whooc acu, OIl ,he ba,i.
of law, are attributed to ,he "a,e, cre.te ,he l,w. Bu' ,hi. me,,,,
'"
mat 1M law rquLotos ill OWl! crea...... It doco not lupp<ft. and
0 ....... can happen. Wl a .hi<:h in its tristrnre pm:aks l.be
law, <ttalt:ltbt law and <hm IUbmill iDdf 10 iL 11;' not the >UlC
..h..idI ...bmi.. i...lf 10 'M law. bu. " is l.be la. which ..
<Ix behniot of man ...s. <heir bdlarior aI
1M er.......... 01. Jaw, and whidll.hcrd>y oubjccQ tt>ew. 11Im '0 Ia.
We can op<2k of. wlf.ootip.ion ollhe su.", onl, in .he IImoe
,hat theoblip'>oru and tigtlu "lnw,cd 10 the penon of the
Ire .ipub.cd br the ..me kg:a!ord.". """"'" po:noniJica.ion is l.be
$Ule. This attribution of obligation. and righlJ to lhe 1Ute-tN.
iI, menlog tlu!1tl '0 thc ..nity of .he 1<p1 ord.t:r and ,hw to the
p"TSOIli6cJ.<ion "",fonn! ,hereby-is I lDfiC mnll.ll operation, ..
mult hc tCP'"'-url for .mphui$. Wha, Ic'ulily aill' .. the obj.
of cognItion. is only the law.
Jf ,hla'e i.comprehendl leg:ol order. ,hen every ....'" i
","t. go'<."mM by II'" (R.'ItIU/441). Ind ,hi, t....m bo<n".
pIMll....... In fa.;., how he ,....... is used to d..ign,,,. I "l""'ill
'IP" of stak or go'''''''''.'''' ",ely. that which conforms with the
pooIubt<:o of dentOCnlCJ and se<;uri,y. A RltlWMI in this
lpeO'i6c senw is " f'el;ttinly ct!ltnli..d Iqpol order *CCOI'ding to
which juriJdiccion and adminiMn,ioD boond by smnal Iq:II
.-..u- CttJI.td by a parliament by a
of Ita,., y or may -. poni<ipue in lhil ttfttion; lhe
.....ben of ...., lOr tlleir Xto; the
lItttI iodq>mdtll'; and amin 0..;] libfttiel; of lht' ciu-..,
apeeia1Jy &.dum 01 rd;p.. and freedom of opcech. are I""nD-
,.....
C,",tMli,.,ion 04 DeanluliJ4li<l.. "'
If I'" ii romp""htnded .. an ordtt of hunn and
0}'>l.C1Jl of nornu ....Iid in ,ime and .pace. ,hm lht p.-nb.
I.m of .cni,orial lUbdMllol1l of .....,., into provinca or on.
call"" mnnbtt .tI'O 1>on'" 'J'C'Cial problem of .11. 'CTT"or'.1
.ph... of nlidiLy of the norm. forming orM. Qlltd ......t . "
The normal cOIlCept of .tot......... fTom .he IUl'pooiliOll llut
all ",mmof llI.iorto.Ilepl onicr valid tqwJly for the entin:
.....,., tnritory or_if they are r.lated to the norm.gea,illg o<garl--
"a. ........... .J<-ulo.... "" ., ..
,'.
LAW AND STAT-"
emanate from a ,lngl. authmity; and ,hn a .ingle authority ",1
ove, the en,ire ,erritory from a ani... In this la.' concept-the
cor=pl of lhe Kl-Oll1od unit,ny ....,<'-the id"" of ,he 'trri<orial
.phOTo 01 '-alidily of ,h. nonn' forming ,he ",ate oMtt is milt"'" up
with the ide... of the singularity or multiplicity o>f the norm
creating organs. Yel, both ide mm, b< kept dearly ..parat. And
to the ""..", ,h.., ,h. ronll'2st between cenlrali ..,ion and deem-
",,]ila,ion i. expT...ro. by ,h. concept of a "uniury ""'0"_10 ,h.
extent, a, ,h. unitary ....'e ... a community i. op"
pos<od to) ,he type of dtn,raliud legal community_.hi. contra
Can bt pre"mro <ololy from ,he point of of th. territorial
.phere of validity 01 the nonm which form the n.tional Tegal
oroOf_th.. iI, it can IN> d=ibcd by a static th<orr of law without
regard to ,h. dynamic dement of the unity or multiplicity of the
nonn-a",ing orgam.
The idea ,ha' ,he norm. of ,he na,ionalleg;>J ord.... re equ.lly
.alid for ,he eIllire terrilory of lhe >tate ;" .upported by the ....ump-
lion lhal th;" legal order, the order of the .tale, comi", only of
general normo-th.t the order of the .tale i. identical with the
nonn, enacted atatutO$. For the .i,ootion that ,he I..... of ,he
.tate .re valid for the entire territory of the ..ate-th.t there are no
law. of the .tate v.lid fot" only a part of the >tate territory-i. quite
frequent. If we identify the pow.r of the .tate with the legi,lative
power, then th.r. i. little conflict betwn th. idea of the ",,"te u.
centralized legal community and the hiSloricallegal ,..ality. th.t i.
the poohive legal ord...... But if w. al", thint 01 the individu.l
nonn> " ted by judici.l deci.iom and administra,iv. con
".tiling the general nortno cre.ted by the legi.lative organ, he-
cau.. th... norm., too, belong to the nation.! legal ord... a. the
ord.r called "'tate:' then it appea.. thaI a pooitive Wlte hardly
""er conformed with the idea of a unitary .tate .. a centralized
legal community. Fot e...en if the general legal norm. created by
legi.lation are valid fot" the enti"" territory of the .tart, the con
""i",tion of tit ... g.n....llegal norm, tat.. place, .. a rul . in
individual norm. valid only for pat" of the teuitory: fOt th....
individual norms a,.., cr.,ed hy organ. wh"", norm-creating com
petence i. territori.lly limited to a pan of the total ..... Th. his-
toric.l ,tat... tn.t is, the pooiti.... n..ional legal ord...., are
neitller .ntirely centra1i<ed nOt entirely decentralized: they ar<
l,AW AND $TATE !'S
onlr partlr cmlnliud" and., armnIiJltlr. partly <ktt.unl
Aoed. lilt one. Iht 0IMr i<kal
,,,,..
CoactpIuallr cmtnliztd Itpl communilf iJ ..... _hoot order
consisu ad""'''''!r 01 kpI __ n1id f(l< Iht tIlu", l.tnilOrJ',
whtroo d""tIltnlilird communilf iJ ..... whalt __.", nlid
only for paru 0I1ht l..rnlOrJ'. "fba, lqal co...... un;ly it d'Yidtd
;n partio! IcgaI commun;,ico 1nnIl. thu Iht nonnI 01 the lqfoIl
0Tdt. O>nIl.i.U1ms: lilt lqal eo<nmun;lf. or _ of IIlttl: n<maI,
art ....Iid oolr for I"'ru oI.he to:rrilOrJ'. TIItn .Iot lqal onin
COrtIt;lul,ng Ibt communi.y iI c<>mJK*d 01 normo wbich baVt
diff...rn. tC1Titoriallph..... of ....lid,lf. In ax of IOU! (no! partial)
denlnli.,,,ion. tbtre CI""O< tX'" nornlI valid for ,he onliro 'or
.itory be>ide norm. vllid only lor paTti of Ihe lorritory. Sin<:e
the unity of the 'erritory i. OO"'titutcd by ,he unity of the legal
ordtl" vllid f.". t.ltiJ ....Thory. it ..em. qut"ion'ble whelh... in
the idcal of loul rlccen.nliz.>,ion we an ..,II lpeak of a
IOUI territory and of Me legal urntt. DcttntnJi...ion CI.I1 txil,
....ly in ClIO of Iht wbcliv;...... or tl>c one and the AIDe lopl
communi.y. of Ol>e and tbt Ame 1C1T'lOrf. If dCCCTttnliution
wen: II> &"'" bT thal.....,..1 kpI cornmunitia, lqal or-
dtn wi<h indq>mdml (Ilprate) Irrritorial ophera of n1idilf.
were to aisI lide bflide. witboullht P'*ibililf thaI ...... wbdi.
,........ could be: IooUd upon &I paru 01 a r.oull.tnitOO'f. tbm Iht
limit of """,,"bit dmtnliatioa ........ II> be 0VC'I1Icpptd. A Mul-
utude 01 IcgaI COUIm.,n;lia or lqal order anding oide bJ ,ilk
withoul total order Ux:ludi.., and mutually delimi.i... thCIc
Ic:plllt'den,. OOI'lMiIUUns a totalltpl community iI u,,<hink
.. will he obowrl"" And jult,.. alllta,_ b. ltI thtr.",
oooui<kttd II> be coordinaud l<pl cornmunitiel-mlllt be re-
prdtd :as memben of cornptthe1Uive m,nm,ioN.! Icpl com
... un"Y .., oJl mtt tC1TI,orl.. m,," be regarded :as pu.iol
ter-ri'oriallf'htr.,. of ....lid,ly of 1M unive.....llcpl orde.
If cornplt,e d.n'TlIliu,ion_trording to ill idca_xilll only
wh.... ,h.r. att no nOTm. valid for lho enu", lorrit.....,. Ihen lhi.
con be undtntood_ith Tegard .0 the nee.....' un,ly of <he
ordcr--only 'n the tha, .httt must be no posit;"" ammo .....Iid
for lIle enti", territol'J'. bu. lila- .. lUll the prauppooed Iwic
"a.I_
,"
LAW "'''0 STAT.r.
ootm i, valid lor ,h. en,ire "Hitory. The unity of ,he cntiT< ten;
lOry and the uoity of ,he IOtal legal order, <;<>mpri,ing the panial
legal orden. mw' be c",,,,i'utw at lust by ,hi, b..k nonn. The
bord.,-line cu_ of d""m,nJiza,ioo is ,h.,..,forc at the .. mc time
,h. IJo,-d..-line case of the >ide-by-side existence of .. multitude of
legal cammuni,i... The minimum amdition un&r which it u"ill
poosible 10 .peak of d=nt....liz.:"ion i. at ,he .arne time ,he mini
mum condition fn' ,h..."umption of ,he <"",xi",n of multi
tude of l ~ l cornmuni,i.., But we can .peak al", of d.,.-.<:ntrali....
tiOll in a ""row", ..me only il ,h. unity of ,he entire territory i.
com,;'utrd by positive norm> and 001 m.,...ly by the pr..uppotsd
ba,ie norm. But ,hi. i. hardly impor...n. b<!<.use ,h. 1 ~ 1 ,..,.lily
doe1 not ",vent.p ,hi. narrow,,- limit. ei,her. The ex,reme ca.", of
d""tnltali,ation that rome. into ronoid.....tion within !""itiv. law.
the ,uWivi,ion of the int.rnational community into n3lional
,tat.. too. ronform. with thi> """""pt of d""entraliz.nion in Ihe
narrower ..,n..,.
11 the nonus of a legal order have differtnt 'ph".. of territorial
validity. thtn the p<mihility, although not the n""e$lity. i, p"""nt
that uonm of different content arc valid for the variouo 'uWivi-
.ion,_ In the theoretical bntderline ca.." where the nnity of the
territory i, r.nn"itnted merely by the pr"",ppo",d b;uic norm and
wh"e all "",itive, that i., po.ited, norm, arc ""lid for .uWi.;'ious
ouly, on. legal OTdrr exi,ts without aoy "",iti,.., legal norm hav,
ing a de6nitc material c""lcnt bcin:g valid for thn,ire t.lTi
tory.
The requirommt of norrm wi,h diff"en, COntcntt {or different
.uWivi,ion, may ha.e variou. rca""m: geographical, national, ro
ligiott. difference. wi,hin ,he material ,h'l i, 10 k legally regu.
lated may rcquirc a ,errltorial .ttWivi,ion of the legal commnnity:
and thi11 tlte more the larg.r i. the 'otal territory and the lorger
tlte J'C",ibility of differentiation wit bin the oneial relatioIU tbat
need to be regulated. Thi> territorial diff.ren'iatloo of ,h. legal
oro.... must be di"ingui,hcd [rom a mer.ly penonal dilfet-entia
tion of the legal order. It i, po"ibl. '0 i"ue legal norm, of diff....
cnt content, valid [or ,he entire territory. for individual> who
differ ",'ith ' ..pee' to their language, ,eligion, race, ""', or prof....
,ion. If, in tlti. ca.., w. 'peak of a "divi,ion" of tlte ,tate, i, i, a
UW AND .<TAT!<
",
"divi,ion" according to the penonaHty principle, not according 10
,ho ,orri,oriality principlo,
It foUow. from wha, has been .laid rhar the problem of cen,nli
"lion and drccmralization i. primarlly a problem of tho lOrrito-
rial .phorr of validity of ,ho norm, of thologal ord,,. Sorondarily,
however, to thi. >tOtic olomont of tho .pa,ial .phorr of the norm$'
validi,y, a dynamic elemen, i. added which, although entiuly
different from and independen, of th.. rorm.... i...ill used in a
muddled mixtu.... with it wh..., centralization and dec..m.... li.. tion
are being tal1ced about. Wh..roa. ftom th.. Ii"t poim of view ,ho
vaiid norm. are being looked upon mordy wi,h ""nsideration of
their difFerenl territorial .pher.. of validity, from the !auor point
of viow. the co"'id.... lion i. directed at ,he method of creating
,h= norm., th.. i. to Jay. at ,h.. act of norm crealing and lh.....
lor.. at the norm-creaLing organs. A di"inc,ion i> n,ade whether
th.. nonm. valid for ,h.. entire territory or par.. thor..,f, arr crr
ated by a .ingl. organ or a plurality of organs. And although.
cen,nlized .nd a decen'ralized legal commuoity (in the ILllic
sense) i. possible wbether tho norm. are cre"ed by one organ or a
number of organs. ye, One oormally a>soc;at Wilh "conttaliza.
tion" th.. concepl of norm. (v.lid for th.. "",ire are.) created by a
.ingl.. organ. constituting a. it were ,he c..n'", of tho community
and somehow phl"i<:.o.Jly .itting in the conter of it; wherea. one a._
....i".. with "decentrali,..'ion th.. conc.p' of plurality of or
gans. nol ..ationed in the c",,'..r. but di.pened over the en,i" t...
ritory, each authori,ed to c".... norm. valid for one partial t..r
ritory only.
It i. to be noted that not only ,h.. c"..ion of legal norm., but
abo ,heir appli<:.o.,ion, indoed all function...ipulated by a I..gal
ord.... may be cen,,,di,ed ur decontt.li,ed in this drn.rnk ...nse.
th.. i., to be performed by on.. organ or veral. C.ntrali...,ion in
the dyn.>mic ..n... reach", i.. high..t dcgr wh.n all fuoctions ate
perfonned by a .ingle organ and, ...pedally. when all norms of a
legal order. the general and ,h.. individual, a" c"ared and ap-
plied by the ..me individual. Decemr-ali... tion in the dynamic
sense Itach.. i.. high.., dcgr... if all function. may be performed
by all individualJ mbject '0 tho legal order. Both c..... are only
ideal borderline case. whicll do 00' OCCur in '<lOia! rrali,y.
"
,,'
lAw ANn ......n
e) Abolit;"n Of the DlUlliJrn of Lsw ond Sidle
Once it is rttogniltd that 'he " ..t<:. '" an order of human beh>.v
JOT, i. a relatively ccntnlizcd roerci,.., o.d<'T and that the ,tatuificalion 01 this coerdve order. the
dualism of >la,c and law i' aboli'htd M one o>f thOM duplicatiom
,hat originate when cognition hypoota'i,.. ,h. unity of it. ohjre.
(the conpt of "1"'1"'$Ofl" being ,h of weh unity).
Th"" 'he du>!i"" of the p'''''''' of the ,tat. and ,h. legal On/OT
pa",llcl., when ..en from an cpi".mological viewpoint. the
wise conlnodic,ory theological do.H,m of God and the wMld."
1'"",,'..lya, theology ....Tn will and mighl as Ill' ....n of God.
"" ,h. th...,')' of I,w and .Iale regard. will and PO"'" as 'he ....n""
of the .tat. P=i..ly :u thtology :olMTU Goth 't3n,and,net in
relation to 'he world and ., the $.lrnC time hi, immanence in ,h.
world, so the duali.tie throry of law and .ta,e aOOCTt' the ttanscend
enCe of the .tate in relation to the 1>10 (the nate's meta-legal ""-in-
elKe) and at the same time its immane""" in th. law. Precisely a'
the world-err3ting God in the m),th of hi, inc>rn3tion must wm.
into thi, "orld. must submit to the I."" of th. wotld (.nd this
m.an" to the order of n.ture). mUlt he born, ."ff....nd die. SO
too nlUst the .,.... in the doclrine of iu ..l-<>bligation, ,ubmit to
'he law ete"ed by the ..... it>el. And preci..ly a. the path to true
'dence of naturc is opened by pantbeism, which identifies God
with the wmJd (and this mean" with the order of n''''Te). '" i,
the identification of 1.10 and .ta'e (the recognition that the .We i,
a legal order) the pr"upf'O'ition of. true sci.nce of law. Jf the
identity of .1ote 3nd law i. discovered, if it i. recognized that the
13w-th. f'O'itive Jaw, not the 13w identified with ju,dc.--is thi.
very coCTeiv. ord.r u which the stote 'ppe>,...o 3 cognition which
i. nO! mired in 3ttthtopomorphic metaphon but which penetnt.,.
through the veil of ptrsonificuion to the man-e",..ed nonn'. then
it i, .imply impoo>ible to justify the >tate thTongh the I.w; just
it i. impo..ible to jn.tify the Jaw through the law. unl ... tbi. w<ltd
i, used OIl one occuion u meaning positive law ""d on .noth", U
meaning the "right" law, th.. iJ, ju..ice. And then the attemp< to
-0. K.lotn, On d" ;"';',i><h, l,.. od 0<1, (TO";"...,
'90S), pp. .
....w ""'''D sr"on ,.g
lqitimiu !he .... u by ..... a$ a RullUllMf, il re-
ao mtird, uoclao boa..... III _ have aid. ......, lUte ..
by 1:0....- in Ihe Ia>lC that ""'"' is a lcpI ordtt.
11Us,. ""-n:r. ..;lftI.U no political n.t..., judgalcDL The tDCD-
tiocwd , ...... i<tian ollhe Ruillut-.l COI""'PC 10 a which CIDIt-
f<Inw with tM p<*ul:o.la 01 dtwl .., and lcpIwcuri., iD'lOI_
1M ......mption tha, onl, lUCh a """"'Un IJIdn- ma, be as
a M.
rue
" lcg:al ordn. Thlt ......mptiorL bo.. .... is a Pftjuditt
on lU.urallaw. A "'la,inl, centralized. aUtoenlli< com:i...
<>rtI.. which, if iu ft....ibilit' is unlimited. oft... no Irpl teeurit, is
a lrpl onICT too; antt---.o far ao onI.,. and (OmlIluni., a.., dilf.,..
communi". by.udI a <On'cive ord.., il a
lopl communi.y and u .uclt, a from .he fin. of ... of a
l<gal pooi,ivisrn, I..... ,htal., Clllnot be CQmpr<'-
hrnded ,hall al a COl'rci ... ord.,. of human beh....ior. Th.
d(6ni.ion oafS nothing .00U.IIt. 0'.....1",oIu. or of IX"i.iv.
l.w. Th.o th. lIa.. can bo jurillicall, compn:hmdrd no and
no I....ltan law i ....ll
Thil ai,ic::ol abolition dualiml. or ou...nd I.w .lto rq>re'
teIlU Ihe.- tadic::ol annihililion or on. of !he _ dftin itl-
or lor:gi'imacy; lome. 1M pillion.te rniotan with which
traditional tMory of "wand Ita.. "I'P"'"" Ihe docrri... of thto
idmti., of .... and la", as founded by Ihe Putt Th....., of Law.
VII
STATE AND INTERNATIONAL
LAW
,,) The Legal of }nle>""a"""l LAw
A.=rding to the traditional ddinition, intern.,;nn.1 la",. is a
.l-\.complex of Donno the mutual behavior of "",OJ,
'he .pcei/ic ,,,ltj""u "I international law, We s1",11 disc"," below
what it mean. to say Ihal ,h. 'ubjects of atc >lat..
and ..'he,he, it i, truc that only .tates are .ubject. of internotional
law. At 'hi> point we ,hall answer the quen;"n whether interna-
,ional law i> "Jaw" in the same ",me.' na'ionallaw, and therefore
a f'O"ihlc objte' of "'iencc of law.
In accordance with 'he conc"}>t of law here accept..<!. ao<allro
international law i. "law," if it i "",reiv.. OTdc', that i, 'e> say, a
ON of Donn, f<gUhting human behavior by .,uching unain .."",.
dve aen (unction.) con,,,,! ueru;e, to certain fact.. '" delict<. de
'crmior<! by 'hi> order a' conditions, and if. Ih...r"re, it can
descrilxd in stmenc", which_in <;<>n'udi.,,,inetion to legal nOT""
-may "rul"'of law."
I' wil[ demonstrated below that imernational Law regulat
th. of human eVOn wheTe it n:gulu.. the
of sta,eL A, the momen, we wan, to anower the qucs"O" whe'her
intemati""al law rcgub,.. ,h. of .tat.. in .ueh a ""'y
tha' it reacts against a certain a. a delict by providing for
" ..nction u tbe conoequ.nce of ,h. delict. The ded.iv. qu..';on,
wen, i" d",. interna,io..! law e.tabli.h coercive aeU ....ne-
don.,
The .pedfic ..nct;oru of internat;onal law are rcpt;..I. and wor.
'00
IITATE AND tNTEJt."'AT10NAL l.AW
'"
It i. ea.)' 10 d.moo...",,,, thaI lhis a..umptioo i. cOlTttl Wilh TO-
'pre' '0 TOpri.!>. For it is a p<inciplc of gene"'l illl.m..ionallaw
tlu' a .t.1te wbich con<iders ",m. of ilO ime<CS1. violated by"'"
o,her ....., i. authorized to ......." to TOpri"'l. agains, tlte .ta'" r..
pon.ible for ,h. violatilm. A "repri..I" i. an imerf<:r.nce-und<:r
nDInlaI circuu",..nces forbidden by imern"li""al i.aw-in rho
.pI'<:re of ime,."" of ...tale; il is an imerler""'e 'hat tak.. place
WilhoUl and ..gainst lbe will of lhe .tale Wn<<Tn<d and i. in thi.
'<:rtse a eo<:rciv. act. ev.n if i' i. OX;Ul<d without phl"'ical force
(i.e" WilhoUl force of arm.) when ,b. affce''''' .ta'" docs not resi".
How.v<r. ,h. application of pbylical forte i. not excluded, Re
prisal. be execuled by force of am" if ncce""ry. But this CO-
<:reiv. aet has lhe cha""'l<:r of a tep,,,,,1 only a. long as the ac'ion
of 'be armw force hal 00' ""um<d-because of irs and
magnitude-,h. cba",cter of war.
The difference be,wee" anued rep,i",l and war is only one of
degree. A reprisal is limi'ed to lhe violalioo of certain inter..".
war i. unlimited iOlcrf..encc in the .ph." of in'<:rcs, of another
State. By "war"' i. unden'OCKl an armed .ction of oDe 'late against
another even if ,h.,." i' no 'imila. ",aclion. ,h.l is 10 say. 00 coun
lCTWar.'" Since repri",l. are ad",i..ible ortly a. reactioM against
rho violation of c<:rtain inter.... of ontate by .oo,her, 'hey h.,e
rhe eharaeter of ",netions; and lhe violalion of inter.." condition
ing ,h. '''Prisa1> ha'''' 'he eharae"'r of. violation of imernational
law. 'hot i ,h. ch.racter of.n imernatioml dtlict. In lhi. way in
ternalional law protects "'me-nOl all po"ible-im<:r.... of rhe
..ales .ubjecllo il. The in"',.... of a .ta'" p'o,,,,,'ed by general in
tcrnationallaw aTO p,ecisely 'ho"" agaio" whose violation lhe .ta'"
i. authorized by iO'<:rnotionall.w '0 U"" reptioals. TIl< limiled io-
terference in rhe .phe", of inter.., of another .tale is itself an io
l<:rna'ional delict if it i. nol a traclion against .. violation of ,h.
law (i.e., a ,cpril). The imorf"enee. th"". iith<:r a sanction or
a delic,.
Docs thl. al'" 10 Ihe unlimiled in'<rference in 'he sphere
of im"..!> of aoolh<:r .tate. called "w....) 10 rhi. r..pee' 'wo op-
"""iog views are maiolained, The fi," hold. 'hal according 10 gen.
eral international law. war i. neither a delicl nor a sanelion. every
state may go 10 war for whatev"," reason. wilhout violating inter
-c. It... lehon, """.;/*/ '-- ("'" vorl, '90')' pp. 'S-
,n nAn "SO 1.'nI'.J.NATIONAL lAW
n.Lional law. Th. ><:cond hold. that war, even a<:cording to g<n=1
;nt<rna,ionaJ kw, is permi..ible only ... a T<ac,ion again" a viol.
Lion of inlemation.llaw. War. tile rrptjoaJ, i. ;,,,,a. deli<:l, unl...
it i. a "'nction. This i. ,h. IO-aU.d prineipl. o( bellum iw'um.
The view that ,hi. principle i. part 01 poIitiv. imernationallaw
was at lhe I>o..i. of ,b. peace ,,...u;., concluding ,he I'im Wodd
War, the Covenant of the uague of Nation., b<ing a par' of ,h...,
treati... Since then. however. ,hi. principle has l>ttoroe untquiv<>-
cally 'he Colltent of tWO important IT'i........'h. Briand-Kellogg
rac, and 'be Charttt of the United l\at;ollS. The (ouner h.. been
joined by practkally.ll nation.. and the la,r d.iml in 'hi> reo
'pe<:l validity for all .ta,.. of the world.
In view of th.", facu it i. hmlly posoible to ..y any longer today
,hat according '0 valid imem.ationallaw :my 'ta'e, unl... it ha, ob-
ligated itself otberwi"" may wage war againl( any o<b.,,- ,la'e for
any reason wilbou, internat;onal law; it i. bardly poui.
ble, in other word" to deny the general validity 01 the b.Uum
in.tum principle.'" The assumption. then. thai ""r, like r<:-
pri..h, i' a lanet;on of internationall.w, i. well founded.
These ,:metion., like tbe ...nction, of nOlion.ll.w, <;o",i" in <be
forcible deprivation of me, liberty. and other good.. notably eco-
nomic valu... In a W"'. human are killed. maimed. impri,-
oned, and nation.l or private pT<>pe"y i. d..troy.d; by way of ..
prilal. nat;on.l or private prol"'''y i. <;on6>ealed and other legal
righu are inltinged. These '"-nction. 01 internation.al l.w Ol. not
different in e<>ntent {rom <bose of national l.w, But they are 'di
rected again" the ,tate" .. the ..ying goe. If war and repri,.h
"'we the character of ..netion" .nd if th... "'nctions are described
.. being directed .gai"'t tbe ,tathhough they are directly di
rted .gainst human beings, th.t i,. if tbe mffering of th nc
tion' i!tributed to the ....te. <ben thi. auribution ""rre, the
idea that the hum.n beings wh" ",lfer 'he ,.nction. "belong" to
the state, that is, .re .ubject to tbe legal ord" whose pet<CInific.
tion i> the ,tate a' the "'hject of international law, and, a. such, the
subject of the imemadonal delict which i. the condition for the
laDetion.
'"
.) /au.-liauJ U. ... Pri",iIWe u"u arlin
Intern..;"...! law, u a cocn:"'e order, ob<nn tbt _ dw'ann" ...
IUtioDo.Il:ow. ;4 the bw of a aaa. wi dill..... frcm;' aDd Iboon a
(mw. oimiWitywiLh the law of primiti,..,. i.e., oatdao IOCiftJ ill
!hat iw..,......i..... ! 1:0" (:ao a law that blndl.U tulCt) <loa
..... ewobllilllp..dal organ. for Ihc cratioa aM application of it>
DOI'1IIL " is otiJl ill a Ute of far.rucbiDg deunlr.l1intion. " is
only althe begin".... of. <k>'clopmcn. wh.ich na,ion>lla. has al-
fftdy """"pkled. Gmcn.l lIonnalU created .,..,. t;ull0In or nury.
which mc:mJ: by tbt ....mMn of ,h. lcpl community IMmaclva,
not by peei.llcgi.l; ""P". And lhe ..me i. truc lOT ,he Ip-
plial.ion of the gene",l nomll in a concrete cu... It iI the '1lI1e il
KIf. believing iu righu h.ve bn vioJatrd, which ha. to decide
whether the bet of a delict auu lor which Inolher "ate i. '"''p'''''
.ible. And illhi. Oilier Itat. drni .. lhc ;werle<! ddicl, and if nO
"Fer"",,,, can be reacl>ed bl:1Wn the two partie! concerned. nn
objectJ,c ."thorit, competft1t to d<cidc the con8ict in a le-
gally "..-ocMure.. And i. is tbt ....te wI..- rip" b ..
btu. 'l'ioWtd which is IU1.horiud to f'eacl ag;linsl: 1M viola by
reptiab .. war as .... XU provided for by intemlltional
law. TIle technique of oclf-hoolp. of low,
",""ilL
c) TM 0( 1.lnuliaMl z.-
'nten.><ionaI law comiou of.-.... which oricinaU, w_ croealal
bJ cwtom, that ... bJ Kli of 'M IUtional otal(S or, "'Or( COITtd,
furmulaud. bJ the ....,e orpn'2utborin:d bJ ....'ioIIallqol ord.....
'0 Rglllale intn1tll'e .elation.. T!>dI' an; the norms of "a.ltCI1I.l
w
inl(t"tL\ot.ionallaw, boa..... '''''7 CItt,. obliga,iow or righll for all
.....,(1. Among th_ nonn. one " of '1'0111 iml'O'unce, known
a. ,he prindpl. /><I<la .u", ,e"",,,doI. 11 al.l,hori.a the '!.>In u ,he
.ubj..,11 of ,h. int<'Ttl&lional communi,y '0 b, ".&ly ,h.ir
nl","al b<havior, 'hat iI. ,h. bohavior of ,h.ir OWn Orgall' and .ub.
jKII in ",laLian 10 ,h. organ. and lubjocli of ",her ,u,es. 8y the
con",n",. of the a",!>oriud O<plll of ,wo or mot'<! ltaln ntlTtltl
an; ClttIM by which obJigaliom ar. imJ'O""l upon the contracting
n ..n ..Sll ..'In,bIAnON........W
....<a" aDd ripu ar., o<l thnn. International law ernwl
br lfnUa, u IOd..Ir, apart from. ccrta.itI. ac;q>tiocu, don Dot
have scncnJ. but oalr panicuJar charxlcr; ito DOnI.. arc Dot nlid
for aU Ka bu. _Ir Cor 'WO or a Iarzcr or >mallei" JfOUP of
-.: tber a i....., ,..Ir pa.tiaI COI:IU:DUDI.ict. I. uto be DOled
<ba. particular izltClGlltioa.al law cr....<ed by tIa..... and
izl<Cl"1!.. Wal CU>IllIIJ>ary law arc DOl to be rcpnkd a< 1>(lnl:II ....
the wnc lcwl Since t.hl: buit of the one group of norms is a """"
<bat is pan of the <MhCI" group. the two h....e a rclation of a hitltu:r
and I lower lewl in a hi.....rchr. And if we conoidel" alto the lcpl
nomu created br imCl1lllional couru and br othtr interna.ional
<pm. caablishal. br Ircl,kt, a ,bin;llevel aPJ>C"rI in tile ....uc
'U'e of int.,mationallaw. F", .h., function of .uch an ",pn il i...,1f
t..srd on an intern.'ional treaty. lhat is .0 "'y, on norm of ,h.
1CC0nd I.vel of ;ntem.tion.l!>w. Sincc thi.5ttOnd I.vel, ,h.t is, tl..
im.motion.1 law <rcotcd by inte.....tional trel,in, rail upon I
norll' of g.neral eu..""""',y in'cma,ionallaw (th. high... l.....l). tile
prcsul'l"""'d t..sic normof in'ema.io"ollaw mwt be a norm which
CltIblishcs e....om Ullmi'utcd by lbe mutual behavior of >lItes as
la;w-crlati"ll: bet.
IlfdirUl Ob,;",I'.., .,,11I AUI.ori:i1Og '" /Jr...
h.tll'Datioa.al law obl"'''' and authorius ......... It oblip<es Ka....
to a anai" bcb>.va by IU>dlint; (rcpoSll or onr)
II) the oppmite bcha<riot; in t.his ....., izltll'Dational law fori>ids th"
bcb>.va as I delia and prclCribcs ito Dolit.. arl Dtll con
IlCCtId with the anctiorII by IYUoa: cmaizl ddicllto the one lind of
sanctions and otha ddiaJ to the: other lind of lalK'tioou: th"","
whool righ.. 11",," '-n infringed hat I cboitt bnWttrl thl two.
Besidco. .hl te is nor obligated. but only IUthoril.cd,
acwrding '0 gmcn.1 int lonal law, 10 onet with a ..nc.ion
19aitut In infringcmettt. TIM: right of the on., sta'e ",hkh ih.
rcllcx 01 doc obligation of the o,her state is "'luippod wi,h thllU-
,hOTi..ti"" to .xccU<e the N.ncrionl. e".blished by ;nternadonl)
I.w, Iglin1l thI1la'" which .ioilla ito obliga,ion, Th;l COtllti,ut..,
thlsubjectiY' righ, (ill ,he Ipcci6e tlChnial ..,,,..) r>! the
>lItl.
This right i. dilfcrml from a .igh, of printe 1.0. in ,hll the
,.,
....ruo:...s ne<d DOl be <Iflkrod by a court decision and nted DO<
WC2uted U, a op<rilI 0Ip"; lho:n:fare u..e NIt bao no
lo:pl pown 10 irulilUlt a lcpl 1"""'Cd'''. din"Ctrd 10'WUd. a ......,.
lion. but bao the kpI p""""" 10 decide iudf that in lht pmt"l.
_ .. """"""'" is 10 be :ogainot a sure, and _lAo j ...l 10
lht sanctioa.
Thil <loa DO< man U if, IOelima i .....-
,ional la.. doa DO< oblipu 01" a.. iodi"i<h...1I. Since all b
....."tiall'Ttt"b,.,. human bd>anor. bo<h a ltpl obliplion and a
lqaJ right can haye nothinl ebe,.. IMiT con""" bu. huD'lall ....
hayjor; aDd this cannot be an}lhlng but the 1M! ;or 01. i"di"id l
h"rnan being>. Tha. intnn,,,i()lUl b ....blip and "u.hori!..
>lain ",enly me:ln. ,hu: it docs not obliga'" and authori.. indio
vidual. dirtly. like ,h. n.,ionll Irgal order. but only indircclly.
through ,h. mtdium of ,h. n.,ion.1 oTd.... (whooe ptrso"m-
C'a.ion i. "thella,e') The obligation and "mllari",;o" of 'lie Ilate
by in..ma.iooallo... hu th .arne chand.,. U 'he obligalion and
aull>ori ,ion 0( a COTJ'ORlion II a juriuic penon by .he national
'<pI onI The .... ,. i juristic ptnoo. and ,he nonns of
national law. by which lht .....es a. JUCh are obliplcd or a"thor
ized. an iDalmplete norms. -n..c.,. determine mnely the ....lnUl
...,....., I'C'fJ"D"I elnncJl. of II"",... bo:Juyior. whio:h"" M1Caaity is
their WlItmt. n.,. _Iy ought I(> tot dam or
..., ....p.t f>OI I(> !w dOlW. b,,, DOl .."" (wllidl hWDan !willI)
ha$ 10 pnfonD the praaibfd aaioa ..... r.:..bQranu. Hil
il!m.ifi",,,ion is Irit .". in,,ma.iaa..aI law 10 tho: national
ortkT. TM bd>a...... of this indiridual commanded (10" prollibiud.
.". intC'f1l.ll.ional \.aw c_iltllina the luUiUmmt or riob.ioa 01
tIM: obligation .". and cooucqumlly
thio obligation. is attribu.ed to the ....te. u.... i. to $lIy: iJ ,cf=al
'0 the ..nioy of tbe ............1 legal on!n. 'r"ob.... 'bis !whn.....
b do:t=oined by the national lqal onkr as III<: function 01 an
lndivid....l ""'-'ng .....peci.al org>.n of the te. TM $lInle is true
of the Mhavior 'ha' cOIlIi". in 'be n d of 'he right and
.be aUlhortz.a.ion to reae. wilh repri...I, or Wir again.. tile viola
tion of Ihe oblig3.ion whose ten.... is .he righ., There iJ no diffi
culty in amibuting to the ....te b<havior prohibited by int
lUlionall.w, thlt i. in I""mi"l that I ""te can commit an int
....tional M1ict. The national legal ani.... an ......, well lutlloriu
,d STAn ...... 'N'1'D.NATJONAL Ul.
and obIipte ......rpn of W tate <0 a behn..... "' which ....
ternaliolYl bw au...:.bes a NJKtiDo. and wbida. lh""dOff. hai Ihf
c/u.ncte. of .... "'<cnI.a,ional deli.
AI. """ bcaI said. <be ...."'....... tha, npriah aDd .llr :u .u.DI;-
...... of""on;llional bw an diueted ;opinsl<.he: lUte. "'"'" tha,
Lhc ...Icrio& of <he e--il CQ:lMitu'''' by lhcoc oanctiow which. in
be. is ...lcnd by bn""'.. bciQ&$ beboging "' <he IU"'. is a,trib-
uled 10 k<be "",non of tM lOa"':' Thf: ,,;,......... CUI be dacribcd.
howe.-cr.... a """" reali$tic !albion ..-ilhou' <he aid oflhi, 1icLi-
.iDu. auribuLion. In .. far:u in'frn>b<;ll1.Oi delia<, wtoich a'f <.he:
condition< (Dr oanctiD<t.. llrf commiurd by human beilip ..00
func.ion u Ihe gmt"",,,,en, of ....""'....heleu .be ...netion.
arc di,cc.c<! not again.. ,hem. bu, agairu. other human beings' ,he
",eanina of ,he ''-"'emen' ,ha' ,he ...""tion, ale dir:,cd 'apim'
,hf .""e" un be in\erpretfd '0 mcon; th. ",net ion. s,ipul.,... by
in'ernational Ia... (war and rcpri...Js) con"i,u collcctiv. liability
of ,h. mcmbera of tho ",-",.for ,he imematio"al dclicu cOII,mined
by.hoc g......nll11mt.'"
Thi. collttti", li.bili'y il an aboo!ulC liability Dr liabiJi.y wilh-
out faull. bca,...., tM behavior which <:cmIi.UIC:I <be in,erllalion>.l
ddiCl is noI the beh.lvior of the individ....l. ;opilUl w'-- the
pnaiDo is dinacd. and thcrriorc the Yiobtioa of intercmcnated
by the ddicl is neitbcr ilUctttiocoally .- nqliscntly brough.
abou. by lhcoc individuals.
This a>Ilttti", Liabili.,. allo molli,ulC:l a IimiWit, bclwun
ICf>Cnl intem3tional bw and the bw of. communi.,.
Ao:ording", gmcnl in.........iorW law,." of W1I. OUP' <0 be
dirttd anl, apimt """"bert of ,he armed foruo who ..c ""Pm
of <.he: >tale. A,tributing their ...lcriDg '0 <be lUte an
al.. aptCSl.he ida tha, the """'of ...... lire directed agaimt orpns
of the >tate. But i, i. not ncludcd tho. in bet the ac.. ol ...... alfl.
poople ..ho ate nos IItfmbfn ol,1Ic arm'" forrer, at ,he prncrt,
.tag< ollcchnical ...nare ,hi, is no long.. noidabl .
.. 111< 01 tbl. .."I""'1on I, ...y <t>o rio<k i dril w.... The I......."
wl1l , Iluo, tbri< .... ""' d'to<tl >phut ,he M "", ""Iy
>plnoo II., ortu.I' ,h" _ tb<y ."ribu" ,II< ,-ttl{ 01 tb<
..-It .1"'" bd"P .... '0 ,he "'l<. 8., ,he _"_, ..I...
_Ioldo. -.lias ... ' _, 01 ,he ........... _'l "",100 io
diooolAL LAW
'-7
The legal meaning 01 the puliar;,y 01 international law. ac-
cording to whkh "only .lat", are obligated and authoci,",," and
according to which "only .late' aTe ,ubjects 01 international law."
i, completdy in the .laternen" international law dele-
gat.. to the national legal orden th. ta.k of identifying the indio
viduals by "h,,.., behavior the oblig"t;"'" .....bli"'"" by inter
nation.llaw ace fullill"" or violal"". and th. right.< ",,,,hU,h",, hI"
international law ate execd.ro. By this ,t.lement nothing d .. i.
but the indil"e<t ohligation and authorl",tion of the in_
dividual by inteTTIalionall.w.
This indirect oblig"ti"" "nd authori...tion o! individu.ls by in
malionallaw. however. i' a rule "'hkh hal some imp,,".nt .,..
cepdon, both in !l""neral .nd in partieu!>r international law.
There.re a ... in whkh a nonn 01 inteTTIationallaw dic"".ly ob-
ligates." ind"idu.I--ca.... in which internationar bw not only de-
termine> whnl ougllt to be done oromiu"". bUI .bo whkh human
being ought '0 behave in that way. Tn th= co... individual p-
pear directly as .uhj"".. of Internallonallaw.
If individu.l. are dil"e<tly obligated by intemotional l.w, ouch
obi igation i. not brought about by otlaching the 'pific ..nction,
o! intemotion.l I.w (repri..b or war) to the beh.vior of the indi_
vidu.1. The ohligations dil"e<tly impooed upou individuals are
corutitute<! by ..nctions which are ch.rocleriOlk for n.tional law,
n.mely punl,hment .nd civil ""e<;lllion. Intern"ion.l hw m.y
l<av" the d..ennination .nd execution of th""" ..netlon. to an',
tion.1 legal order. a, in the co.. of the intemotional delict of pi.
racy. Or the sanction' moy be determined by an intern.tion.l
I"'aty.nd their appHcation in concrete <:3... may b. cbarg"" rn
an intemadon.l court created by an intemotionalt",",y; thi, h.p-
pened. for .".mple, in th.. c.... of thel'fO'<:Cution of war crimin.l>
according to the London Tleaty of Augtlot 8, '945.
To ,h. "",.nt th.. inmational law penetn'e> ar"" 'hat her..
tofore bav. ne.,n tRe e""lu'iv.. domain of nation.II"!(31 ord.... it<
'endency 'ow.'" obliga'iog or au,hori,in!!: individual. directl,. in
ae""". To the .. m. ""tent collective absolute li.bilitv i......
placed by ind;vidual1iabilit,. .nd Ii'bility lx"ed on f",h. Thh de-
velopment i' paronele<! by lbe est.blisbment of cen'ral for
th. creation .nd execution of I..gal norm_ development I"", up
'0 "OW i. ohserv>bl.. unly in portk"l.r i", ..notional communities.
Thi, cen'....li""tion .pplie., in the finl place. 10 j"riodiet;on; i'
,.. STATE ANI> lAW
aim> at the formation of 'n'ern";onal <oum. In thi. ,b
,..,lution of intern..ional law i, .;mllar to that "I national law.
H"..,. too, ccnttaliz'''ion b<!gim with the ...,.bH,hmem of tri-
bunal .
43. IO(]'U.NATIONAL u.w
ANn NATIO>lAL L<.w
4) The Unity oj Inlerna/;on41 lind NIII;"",,1 /JJ.w
Th" entire legally lI,chnical m,wern.IIt, as outlined htl., Ita_in
'he I." analJ"Lo-the tendency 10 blur ,h. bor<:lc. linc ""(W""" in
temational and tu.ional law. '" that .. 'h" "ltim.t. go;ol of the
legal de>".lopmem directed toward incr<.,ing centralization, "p-
pe'''' the organiutional unity 01 a unh-enall<'gal community, that
u, the em,'S""cc of a world 'tate. At this time. however. there i.
nO IlICh thing. Only in Our cognit'<Kl of 1.101 may "'e a""rt tl><
unity of aUla... by ,howing th.t we .a" romp,..,hend intttnational
law with ,h. national urde" a, une 'p",m 01 norm.,
juot ... we au used to consider the national logal <lTd.,,- ... a unit,
Traditional thMry, un the "untrary, i' in international and
national I.... tWO different, mutually independent, isolated, norm
I)'stems, b.ued On tWO dil!erent b..i" norms. This du.li"i" COJ1'
Slrtl<tion-or ralher. "plurali"k" "onstruetion. in view of the
multitude uf natiun.llegal nrdert-il unten.ble, if buth the norm,
uf intern.tion.1 law .nd those of the n.tional logal ordors.re to l>r
considered ....imultanMmly valid legal norms, Thi. view impH..
alre.dy the eplSlemologinl p<>!l\llate: to understand .Ul.w in one
'l"tem-that i., frum one and the same 't.ndpnint......... one dosed
...hole. Jurispruden"" ,uboum., the norm, r<guloting.he relotions
bet.....n .tates. callo<!. im.rn..,;onall...., as ...ell .. tho norm, of the
no"onall"8"l ord.n undor on. and the same cat<gory 011..... In so
duing it tries tu present it> ubj"'" as a unity. The negative <rio
torion of thi, unity;. its lack of ""n'radi";on. Th,. logical prind-
pIe i. also ,...Iid for th. cognition in tho r..lm 01 norm'. " is nne
I""'ihle to describe a normati'-e oroer hy a...-rting the validi'y 01
the norm, "a nught to be" .nd at the sam. time "a ought not to
be." In defining the relation betw..n inurn.tion.l and notional
l.w. it i. important, .b.,.-e .11. to .ns...er tho question whether
,.,
!here can all Uuoluble conlIicl the I.... of
DOI'm$, Only if ohis quntion has to be in lhc a/Iinna,;vc,
<he uni" 01. aDd n:r..iQnal 1>,. il acludcd. In lhaC
C"". ind.N, only a dualistic or pluralistic comtruCI;on ollhe ,ela.
,;onl international and f\l.tional!aw would be p<>OIIibl". II
10, boweyn, ",eannOl.pnk 01 bolh being valid at <he ..me time.
Thi. U dnl1OQW'3ud by 1M ,..,Ia<ioo be'Wttl> la.. and mona
Hne, indeed. oudl conJlkuare pouible-lor .........p1e. if a """"';n
......,.. on:ler forl>ilb ..l.i<lg aI. hu.....n life uno:In all circumluncft,
..!ill" at lho: _ lime a pooitiYl' IepI ord..- pn:f<rihn tM dalb
pma1.y and autborita tbt <0 JO 10 W1f undc'r ct...
condi,ioos dflennincd by law. In Ihio dilmuna., :on
individual who repro. II>e law .. a .y,t...., of nlid nonn' has lO
di"cp,d moult 01 .ueh a '1""01, and One who 'fiOrd. moral.al"
.y...m of nJid norml has todi.rtg:lrd Ii.. as Illeh. 'yOlem. Til;. II
txprcucd by ..ying: ."rom (be viewpoint of mont . the de,lh
penally and. .....r a,.., forbidden. bu. from the v;cwpoinl of law
both all: comm.nded or II permitted. By this is only ....
prnotd. hooon"tt. lha. no rit-wpoin.1IO<isu ionl which both monh
and law .....,. be rcpnkd :01 nlid DClInDaO -
den. No"",,, ca:a Inn.wo maoun..
If an eo<lfticI ""rd IKtwttn llu""a.innaI and ...
,iooullaw. and if a dualil<io:: cocutroc.ion Wttt indl.pm.
.. could nO< rtg:ml law a. '"law" 0. ev<:n ill a
binding norma,ivt ord... "lid ,imuhanrou.ly wi.h nMIOtlal law
(usuming thai laue. Iegudrd ill a .ptem of valid norm.).
t'fla.ionIconrnrd could bf in'np<t!.ed only tith.... from tile
vinipoin. <A tJMo ....tiona.llega1 ordtr .... from l/.., of <be inonna-
tiona.llfpl ordn. Inoobr as thil is asaumrd br. tbmry wbich bf..
tha. imoIubk con8ic<s ais< bct.WIl inl......';""w mod ....
tiorLal law. aDd wltich oJoo,:s no< Iool< u ...... inrnnatiorLal law as
bu. ooly .. a kind 01 io.nna.ion,al monli.y. oothinS ODtIld
k obje<:lfd. au. mOIl t'fpt'(K1tl:ui"a <A du.alil.io:: <Itt
01")' fefl obliged .0 regard both lm""",;"",,l and na.ional law as
valid leogal ord...... independent of tacit o.h.. in ,heir validlLy and
.ub./. to pouible conRic.. with NCb o<b.... Sud! hrory. how
n .... ;, un.mabk
.) No C_/IiCI J"ur_iOf<.l &lOll J.-
n.e ritw th.u IPtiooal aDd inlemationa.l Jaw _ tWO d'.c:rml
kpl O<&n,. iDdepmdmt from t:iIIdIo otbc:r in their ...Udity. io
.......lIy jwtificd br lhe aiacna <Ii imolLltdo: coo/lieu be<w_
tMm. Up"" do........mi....tion. bowCYc:r". it bccomel _if"",
that wlut it! nprded "" o;on8ict be<..'fttl the n....... <Ii 'nlema
.ionallawand u... 00I1tU of IP.;"""I Jaw is not a conllict of nortDI
at all; t"". 1M"t.....tion can be detcribcd ;n rules of law which in
no waycomradic, uch nth"r.
Such a i. aem primaril, in ,h" fa thl' a n..;onal Ilw
can bt in confl;,;t wi,h an imerna';ooal trea'y.or example; A
.... 'e can bt oblill"t"d by UN'y '0 gr,Int 'he members of I minority
,h':IIne political .ighu al th" members of 'he majori,y. bu' 0 no
tio"ol ",a,u'e deprives ,h" "",rul..,.-. 01 th. m;nori" 01 poli,ical
,ighlJ--this coot"",. ho...ve. docs not aff= the vilidi.y of .ithe.
,h" ".aty or the Ma'u,e. Tlte .itul'ion is cxac<ly a"aIOlloLll ..... si,.
""";00 withi" 1M ...."'. lopl ord..... withou., on lito. KC(IoUn
uu<inl!" any daub! u to ;u uni.y. TI>e :l{>QJ1cd .,ncONtit.. ti.....1
llat.ne, too, is and remains ....lid law, w;tbou, the corut:'.u.;on
lurio&: 10 he ooupcoded or chmpl bta. of it. The IOOlJed il
lepl dtrioion. too, io a olid ....... and rs wid until ill ..lid',y
it .boIi1ohcd br aDOthtt decUiool. It been .......0 bele....""
....... ......,.I<> a doeI a mnlIict bec_. '-'"
of a Iowu IC'Vd and a of a hip..- ko'cl bu. only ........ lItot
the wid,.y of the kr.er _y he aboJiohcd or u... .-..pcnsiblc ""Pn
may he puniohcd. It ,. 10 be .....ed panirubrly lito. lhe ICI. by
which a ''norm co.lIn.,. I<> a is -.blio/w:d ....y coruti.,u: a
delict to ...hich the: !cpl 00"Ckr mlY anxh ill.peo:i6c lanc'Oono. I.
fellow. from wha..... bn laid that a delict don not constitute a
negation <Ii Jaw (u the Gcnun ttrm Unof'ultt indiatct}-
oornething tlto< i. not i. only. rondi.ion to which the
law ."...It .. pecific COIllCqucnc; in other word. thot lit i. no
con,ndiction btt",een low ond delic. The Ioc. thlt ""lid legal
nerm. "'oy bt created by on oct wltich has the ,haroc'", of a delict
don not "'itlt any logical diffICulty. Th. of a norm
may be conn..:.ed with Anction., yet the created norm ma, be
v.oIid; ....Iid, that if, not only in the ...... tN' i........ ino v:olid
ITATE ...... '!<TUJ<Al1ONAL ....W '"
Wltil aboli>bed by !cpt aa. especially provicIcd by the Icpl
orcIfr r... lb.iI purpooc, bu, a"" In the _ w. such. llOnB .....y
DOl bo, .boI.id>cd at all in ouch a ptoeedutt, bca_ tbc Iq;al oo-drr
doa not proritloe a opccial procedure of lb.iI kil>Cl Thit is the Ii,...
,.... i.. tbc rcbliatl.ll>ip be<Wftn in"""",tional aDd lU.ional law.
The mean,ng of ,he fact IIw intemll.ioo:allaw ilDptIICI ... tbc JU,e
tbc obliptioa to perform ac... copc<:uUy to cn.uc norms of a
~ (011""", it m",dy thit: Tl>c oppai'e _ or tIM: OQ'ion
of 00t'ttU with oppoal", con....., i, tbc C<>nditioo to whicll i n ~ .
tionallaw a.tachco iu anctiotu: .eprWls or wn. Bu. Uw norm of
the na.ional Icpl order, created in "wla,ion" of in'erna,ional
~ w , t'C'tDaino ""lid---cven from .he point of view of in,erna,ional
law, beau", in,erna.ionall.w provide> no pr<><:edure in whk.h .he
nonn can"" aooliJhcd. The rel,,,ion,hip of in, "a,ionallaw '0"
non" of " ..ional law whlch-o. oue oars-;' " ....ry ,.. in'erna.
,10...1 low, i, the .. me Of ,he reb,;"",hip of ,he co""i ... ,i"n of a
na,ionallcpl order, which, for cumpIe in i.. pro>'i,ion. cooccm
I"g fuodamemal righu, de.ermineo the .on.tn, of fu'ure m'ut..
to a ......'e which ......a.C1 rundammtal righ.. and .herefore i, con-
,idercd to be uncow.I.u.ional-lf .he consti.u.ion doa not pro-
..ide for a procrdure in whiclllUtu<cs, bcalUC of their unt:onotitu
.iona1itr, .....y be .boI.isllcd. bu. conuino only tbc provi>ion Wt
ecruin oopno may bo, tried in court ptnooaJly for .heir pan in
,he esu.bllihmmt of 'M M tu'.....l
w
Ob'u",. Intem.>.ionaI
law dClcmt;ncs the coaten' of the ,iona]lqal order in 'M RfDC
way;u the <:on$Litu.ion, whidl doa """ nu.blisll a judicial watrol
of tbc (:<ltUtitutioBaliry of m.u<cs, dct i tbc con""," of fu
,utt ....u.... The """'"bili,yof tbc one pi<'
""bed .. not acludcd, .nd the aeation of norm with such
(on'tnt i) thncby-if only occondarilr-dcltptcd. Such a nonn it
dioqu.li&cd only inJofar;u the ....,..ioo of ouch a norn> i, qualified
:u delict according .0 In.erna.ional I.w wi.hou. prejudice '0 .he
""Iidi.y of ,hi, Jl(lnIl. Neither .hit delict, nor .he norm o ....ed
.heleby and labeled a, (on.....,.., '0 in,erna,Ional law" logically
.o,"radi" in,erna.ional law. Tni, ,i,ua';on.he.eFore. dOCl no.
preven, the a..umpd<>ll ofl uni'y 01 in'erna,ional and na.ional
law.
".
t) TAe M..t....J Ikktto'ItSAi,. Two N_ S7"nt>
The WI;', ol intnnatioml and n>.ti<o:W law IIW/' be undenlood in
tWO dillnnl..... and if hoch .youms :ltt.."...;"jfrtd r.o be Jim..l.
"_'''''', nlid ordrn of biDd.... norms, i. is iDniuble 10 .......
pltlocnd both;u.,..., IJKCm .,hidI CUI be dacribnl in """""'tn-
dcO<}' rul.. of Low.
Two norm oompJ...,.. of <be dynamic like
Law and lou........lla.., can form .png!c.,..enn in .... .."y that ,he
one order '"m. oul 10 be .ubordinottd '" tlIc olhn. becalU<' one
contain. a norm ..hich d('crmin"" the era.;"" of 1M IKlmIJ oIlhe
other, and hen"" the lauer hao the inIOn 01 ill validi.y in the
fu,mer. Th. bali< 110rm ullhe higher ord..... Ibm, i 1$0 ,h. ,ta
IOn for ,h. vaUdity of the lower order. But two norm complex
may form a .ingle .ystem 01 nom...100 in th.. b,hion ,h both
orde".", eo<mlinall!d. tha,l" ,ho. th.ir .ph...... of validi., ... dc-
limi,,",, .gal".. nch otht:r. This motdin.>.<ion, how.".... P'''''I'-
pl*I' Lhinl, hillOO. order which decerm;"" 'M Cf12lion oJ. ,h.
oth" .wo,drlimiu their Ip/ln.. of nJidit, .pins< nodi Olhc'r. and
Ihus coord.....,.. thml.. lkt....,..;".."tioo. of the of ""Iidi"
ma... of :on 01. COOln>. of 1OW<T by
h"her ord<T. "1M lktc:rmination oflht cr<:lling y
be dulOtC or UxIitut: .-mof 1M higbtt ....y ckttnnjllOe lht p<t>-
adu.... iudI by whidl w -.no oflht Iow'er order an: or
the highn DI'lkt may conliirw iudf ... an orpn 10
attording ... iu own dioctttion,.-ms fot cnu.in *f>I>t'te In Ihi<
spe;o.k of and unily of tM nomuo';,..,.yo-
InII in wh.i" .... connlOtCcd hu .he
WIXI<'T of Hconncction by Hmtt tIM: o
to I""".". orden lkl"pud by lhe ["""""" mUK be. ot
"""" of. lOUl a<der to orn.,n it
<omp.i..... FOl'. .he nt>nll th., the for the
..alidity af 10,,'er i< a p.t< a bigher arder. to
the may be cOn(c1ved oJ !""ti.l contained In the 1.,-
ter as the total ard't. h.>..ic "OttO of the higher ord.--... the
l.v.1 of ,h. ... rchy_npt.,...".. the highe" ..a"", fot
v:olldily of all nonn. it>e:lnding those of ,he low.... orders.
If notional and intrm.,ional law fonn a 1Y'I<tn. th.n

,.,"g. ".," ... hi 'j .... " .
""il i\ !:iii' loll' ; .,.0 at ..
.
JilES'
2,",:; "-;;::;., li ii;;: .;', 01 [I ;;. .. ..!o
.'. ' '1 >:T .. ...... - ::.. _ . "",_0 _
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"$;;",,,. .. :t... & .. ,,_;;'_ ";;l t

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- . """ :!."a t --i r: i ";:I_ l'l 2.-
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n!! ........ ..i' 'j. cr .
S ... 5,::;;1 ;.!i
.. .. ..... O!. C .. -"ile.."' ...
>,,-=" ;.5 II'
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..
..... ::;." .... a:1;. ... i" ...
"'6 ,,""<>'tl a-II"a.- i.l ... C... " ;0 i!
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',a '. ,\.-.,. 'ih'l"-' .
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.... ' i' ;." ,.I,'l' o ". 'I
!!d.1l ,,;:1; . -._n_.
_..

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rnH
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hntP I"
< =] [.'

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i
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pin,l
lhWJ.
uim ouch a provWon. m;t!piUon of intnnaUonaI law by
Ihc i...uvidualltate iI ..... a oondi.ioa of i.. ,-al.idity foe thillta'c
Kipulato;!. by in..,.....a'ioo.1 law i...1f. A nlid DOrmof international
Law QIIDOt .....blisb oudt a condicioa. beg",,", the Yalitli.y of ohio
........ iurif anooc dcpmd 01:> oucb a condition- Bu, JOOthi.., ""'_
..".. law courts and oobcr Iaw"'pp1rini orpw.o reprd. intnna
UonaIlaw ... nlitl for their OWII ....te oaJy if thal ....te bas 'CClJI-
ni.rctl it ... biodirtg. mull of IIICh a Yicw iI thaI in,erna,ional
Law iI not binding for a ....te which bas.- rewgniud. it. Tbc vicw
thaI imcmation<d law 4 not ""lid. 100- a ....te. tha' the .... lC. reb-
Uono '0 other ....,es arc not ""bj< to in,crna,"""'1 bw. i. qui,c
poosib!c.
Internali""",1 la..., accor<ling to iu own imclllion, i. applicable
'0 <hc 'cla,ion of a t. '0 anothcr community al a ...... only
u"dcr .h. condi.ion II ,hi. wm",uni,y has been recagnid by
lh. "a'c ... a ....,C.. in .h. ICnle of illl.rLUllionalla.... Thi. recog
nition of a communi.y ... a ....t.;' l"C<juired by i",ema'ional bw,
it _ to be confoondcd with 'hc rocognilion of in'cn\lltionallaw
by a ..... 'e. If, in >JlJwcring.be q ;"" I.,.. ..... rca>Ort of lbc valid
I,yof inlCrrUtional law, OPe from the validity of nne'. OWII
na'iowollcp.l ord...._if one tub ..hy in.........tionallaw i. valid I.,..
.he lUte already conccjvcd of:as a Icpf order, the only pwoiblc ...
.w.... is: InternationaJ bw h:u to be by this ltate in
onlcr to be valid I.,.. it. The fonnula'ion of the qUol:llion contain.
already the assumption ""'. the rc:utlIlI fO< the nlidi.,. of in........
ioDal bw mUll be found in the lWioDallcp.l onIcr. ""'. io, the
iIIIIlmption of.he primacy of the na,ional legal ...scr. its
cip'y;' or_wha' _to to the ....'crrif;n'y of the
....te for "'hich thor validi,y nf inlCmatinrtal law iI in qucotion.
The ...."ttrigD,y of the .....te iI thc dneilive bctor lor "'''nling
.he primacy of ,be na.ional l<pl ord.... Sovereign.,. il not a _u
ally perceplible or otherwise objoctively cogn;"abl. quall'y of a
real object, b'" a prcluppolition. It ih. prcoupJ-i.ion of a
normative order OJ .h. high"" ordcr whaiC val idi,y i. not d.,i.....bl.
from any other higher order. The q"."ion of wh.,h.r ,h. "a,. it
oovercign canna, be aOlwere<l by 'n .nalroi. of na' ....1 rc.lity.
Sover.ign,y i. not. maximnm of rcal powc:r. S,..,", which,;n com-
wi'h 'he I<>QHe<I (lJ6.' po,,ert. havc very linlc power
are comidercd as "soyereign" pow..... jlUl: as 'he gren powcn. Th.
'"
qllClllOll ...hctbtt ....te it _reign ill u., qU$ion wllcthc:r the
nationallcpl ordcT is prClllJl'll"Kd:as .. This it don<:. if;"
tnnatio...a] bw ...eprded u a kpl order ddc:ptal by <be "".
tioNIllepl anl..-, and noc .. " kpI onin 1tUldina: abo'vc the "".
tiona! Iq:>.l ordtr_in o<ber W<Jr'Ois, if inll:J1>a........ll.a. is :pnIed
as nlid. fQl" <be ....te only if lhc.ulC bas recogniud it. This is j ....
at po.ibk, ... i. is poosibk 10 RpId the natiolW ltpl Ofdcr ..
\'\\lid """ the individual hUllUn bei"ll only if he bas rccniud it.
If thc.aooD far thc ""lidi., of <.be ",..ionalltpl ordtT;, -.. in
the 'trngDi".,.. of ,"", onkr by the individual. 110m .... hu
mned from the cig.uy of the indjvid....l. bi> freedom_in Ihe
"'me ...ay .. ODe ru f,om the JOVeI'cign'Y of the ot:Ilc, if on. oea.
,ho;ason for <he lidi,y of ;n'<'T"..iQru,lla... in iu recognition
by the individual'latc. For. "aIc I(} be '",ver.ign" merely me.,n.
that ,h. e>labli,hmcnt of ,h. hinorically firs, constillltion i. prt-
JUppooed os fact .. j.hou." pos;tivc norm of in,ern'-
tiona! law uktn in,o KroU". which im,i.u'.. thi, fae, a la..-
=atingfw.
International law, "ppnTl not :as " ."pr&tution.>l
deT. nor as """ ind<-pmdmt of the nationallqal onkr, and ;..,.
bud from i . b..._if:as law at a1l-as" pan of the na.ional Iq:a.l
It "- beal '(Ol.ernal bwof the .... .....ming ......
i. tht rdll,icIaI of a ""'e ,_ani""tht lOW1<rd
od>n ......... Bu, in,,.,.,,a!ioonal law ClIllDtIl bt dtfinftl oaoniiftg
l(> tht objco """lft' by i.. nomu. Aa al,tad, pointe!!
OUI, ;",.......iom.I bw no< only the bd>avior of .........
aDd thotrtfott iDdirud, the btN'l'ior of iDdindUlh. bu.. <qlIla,es
abo dircaJy this btNvioo". lmtmationalllw ClIII bt 1Old,
by the wa, in whid> ill I\OrlTlI an: <;n':II,.... It is a fJ",tn1 of ltg:al
.-.... cr....u;d by the tuM.... of .....,es, in'''''''21ional 'm",. and ;,,-
,ern>..ional orpno csubli.r..d by un.,.. Ir ,he norms, ,hu. crt-
21"', are "' ..lid only if lh.,. bt>noe pa.. of I Ill
,ionalltgll order hy rOglli,ion. if, ,h...,fo.-e. ,heir uhima'e _.
IOn of nlidi,y i. ,he prtll'ppoootd bl,i<: norm of ,hi. IOS.l ord.....
,hen ,he unhy of in'ornation.ll.w Ind natinn.l law i.
_not on ,he bui. of ,he primacy of the in'<'Tnatinnal legol OTd....
bu, on ,he bul. of ,he primacy of the na,ionillegol order.
The duo.lilti<: con"ruction bKnmes impos,ible "" con""lumce
of ill indupe"..ble ..... Olp'Wn ,h.t the YIlidiryol the _ 01. in
,.mational law for. "'>t. d.prnd, on ,h. rognilion of lhi> law
by Ihulle. For if im.m.lionallaw i. regarded a, maely a pan of
national law, ,h.n it canoot be: a legal order differ.nt from. and i"
validily cannot be: ind.penden, of, na,ional law; hen.. lhe,.. can
be no conmet beIW the ,wo, btcau.. both are ba,.d on ,h.
"will" of lhe sam ale. according '0 ,he ,erminology of tradl'
,ional juri'prude""
PrIma" of 1M inlern.I'o",,1 legal orlfN'
Th. ""om! m.,h<>d '0 e"abli,h 'he unily of ;Dlem.,ional Jaw and
n.,ionallaw "",." ffOm in,erna,ion.1 law., a v.lid legal orda. If
w' "at" a, in ,h.. preceding p"ge., from the validily of a national
order, the question ari ... how ,h.n ,h. validity of inlem.,ional
law c.n be: establiohed; il can only be: don. by ,he ,ecognilion 01
int.rn.,ion.llaw on ,h. p"rt ollhe lIale for which in'erna';on.1
law i, valid. Thi. mean' primacy of ,h. national legal oroer. If one
Ma,... hOkever. lrom ,he validi,y 01 interna,ional law. lh. que>-
lion ari.., how from lhi. "arling point tl,e validi,y of ,he nalion.l
legal order can be: e"abli,hed; in ,hal case lh. rea",n /0' ,he valid
i,y of ,hi, order must be found in interna,ion.llaw. Th;, i, po<,i.
ble, beo.u<e, a, we men,ioned in a differem collle",.'" ,he prin.
ciple of elfecli""ne.. (k'hieh i. a norm 01 I""i,ive i",ernalion.1
law). determines bolh lhe re."", for the validi,y and the terr;lo-
rial, pe...onal, and 'empo",l ,phere of validily of lhe na,ion.llegal
oroe..; and 'h.... ,h.refore, may be concei,'ed a, beiog delega,ed
by i"'emalion.llaw and lherefor. mooroinoted '0 it---wn..ived.
in other wom., a' partial legal order> ineluded in a univer..'
world legal order; ,h. coe"i".n.. of ,h. national legal ord.... in
....c.. and ,h.ir auce...ion in lime i, ,hen mad. legally po>sible by
imernational law. Thi, primacy of international law i. eompat
ibl. wi,h ,he fact that ,h. COn"i'Ulion of a ,tale contain pm
vi.ion to ,b. effec, that g.n.,,1 international law ia valid a
pan of national law. If we .UrI from the validity of
Jaw which doe. no, rtqnir. recognition by ,he .tale. lhen 110. men.
tioned comti'Ulional provi.ion does not mean ,loa, it pu.. into
lorce in'.rnationallaw foe the atate concorned, bUl m.tely ,hal in
lemationallaw_by. dauoe----i. ,,,,nsfonned inlo n.tional
-Cf.lC'Odm. if <he "'F'U of the suo........
pccio.lly II> IribwWs, are oaly ."thoriud (by the C<lnIl.i'Il'ia:>.) to
apply ...tiooW taw; tI>ty an, lhn-c:lott. apply m......1ioP.I1 b.
oal1 if il> aICI'tn' haI.......m w fonD. of lWional taw (OUI,"1e,
ordi.n.mcc) that ... if i. has bem lnDOfonz>ed into n.a.jon.l law. II
in ddlult of In-lUl...-;on, a DOflIl of intnn.>.UonaI b .. cannot
applied in a COIICfC Clal'. lllm (if we.an from <he ""Iidi., 01
1n,""",<ioo.Il law) ohio doa .- mno UY' ohio norm of in'........
.ion>lla.. is llOl ""lid for 1M....e; i. only ...... n. ,hal. if it is no<
applitd and intntu,ioRal bw is violalCd by ,he oule',
lhc ot:l,e""polIn iliell.o ,he p"".i""" prncriWd by in-
.ema.ional low.
Sill international taw RI"I .... the bell.nior of Ila,.., it IQUS'
d ...rmiM lOhot i... "natc" in the Knle 01 ,"tornadonll I...._i.
mlUl determine under Whal condition. individllolJ a,e <0 bc re.
ll"tdcd ao <he go,'trnmelll of 'e; th<"rdore. unMr lOh.. condi-
tions the cod,-.. OrdOT und which lhq function i. In be TO-
prd<d .-alid lopl order; u,llkr ...flat conditionheir acu.", to
bc rcpnl.-d u aetlof IlalCh,,, is, ltpl,..,1S in the me<>ni"l of in
terna,ional la... in........tionaJ b .. stipulalO oJ... indi.id-
uaJlan "" lot Rprdtd 'M so,'......mm. of a ""e if.""" ..... in
dcpcndcn. of OIbcr orpnI of the YmC 'rpc and able \0 brinl
about pcnnaocn' obcdimcc lor the <XlCfci.c ordc'r 011I ..hir.h thrir
f.......w-. an bucd-<>bcdJ.cncc on thc pan of the indirid..a1J
_'- bcharioo- i:. .....la'ed by Ibi:. eottci\", order. ito adocr words:
i( ,hit rebtivcl,. ccnlr";ll.Ucd conciY'C order, oubordina<cd ""I,. ...
in'...... 'ional law. iI by and Ltrte cfJcaiY'C, rcprdl<:il; 01,,,,, "",,. in
..hich the indi.-id..a1l furoc.ioni"ll all haY'C obuincd
,""it pooi"""" Thil mnns ch,u 1M communi.,. mnlli,utcd by
.uch a ettivc order iI. ....<c:' and ,be COCKi..., ord.....hat am-
.. ;.u'eo ,hi. communi',. it a ..",Iid 1"ll"1 oro.... in ,he.ofmC of in'...
na'ionaIla.... lntcma.,ionalla...100 stipula,es .1Ia,.hc ....tc. ,erri
'OT,., ,lie ,orri,ori.1 .pherc of ..Iidi,y of ,lie nalion.1 leg.l order.
extend. a. rat .. ,hi. order is permanently effective; and that .11
individual. lj"ing on thi. 'erritory (wlIh <:erl.in eJlCepclonl deter-
mined by int....nationalla...) are ... bje<;t '0 this .nd nOl <0 .ROIh....
national 1"ll"1 OTder. Acrortlillll '0 i",cmuioo.1 I ".,e may.
on principle, lunetion in ;\1 capacity .1 coc :he machinery
"a
ocly UWde it> own lOI'}'pannl<! 10 this lUte
by in.e......;ollOl b .., To Conau.b this dllfaaltly: the
kpl onkr ....... thai it> conci"" ;>01 are 10 be
only .ith", thor ""","re of o:al.idi.y ......ud u by in<enla-
UoDaII.a.... I" this .,., the tpatD.l of a "",hi...s.. 01
multitude 01. c:om:in lcpllr poooibk.
Bu. aot onlycoaiKr<>a abo tbc.....,........ ill time (that
if. the ,.....ponl <>f validity 01 ....tioGal lqal orden) ;. de-
.....un.d by intem>.tionallJw, Ikgillning ud mel of tbt ""Jidi',
of" no'iono!l<glI1 order are.dctmnincd by the !qat principle of
clfecti"t1ln&. The CODling inlO <:I<i$tcn<e and the downbU ollM
lU,e, ,hen, ptto<'ht themll'l_. >m thi, point 0( a, Itpl
ph.llom""" compatable ""!'" "...l;on and dUoohl1ion of I co<pO-
ra,iOl' as I juri<'k perOOIl within the mmc.mrk of ,,'u;OI,ol law.
Bul international 1.10 if important .1", for 'he materiallpll.r. of
validi,y of the national lta.l order. Since ,he nO"nl of intema.
donal la.., apcd..JJr "'_ Cr<:IlM by in'<TlU'ion"l ,,..,.Iy. may
refer 10 all kind> of "''';'':' malltn, in.cludi"3 thol.c which up ,m
lbr" had bttn '<'gUllled only by l\1lional I.... iman"tiona] bw
Ii",;.. the matnial op/>m!: of v.lidi,y of national I.... A1lhough oM
indirid.w IlIUS.nna.in COIDp',m in (eftn und,.,. in-
lerNlional 1.1..) 10 rquLaoe C'Yn'J'hing. lbory rna.in .hri. COIDpe-
lentt only fO la... inoem.aliclDal 1.1.. docs DOl IqUboe IUbjul
......"'" and thereby ..ithdra... I' "011I [rcc rqulatioa by_ico:LoI
1.1... Undn the -""'p'ion of In'.........ticlDal Ia..... IUpnnaico:Lol
lcpl ordc1", lbc nationallopl Older. lbm, "'"" DO .."..... III ilIim
lI..ble """"pro""", (X_P"lnulollril). Hawn'",". ill coonpctmcc
.limi...ble ""Iy by inlCnNll;onal La.. bu. il is 1101 falrictcd by in
........ 'ional La.. from lhe &rN '0 dcfi.ni'e ...bja:' .....,o.fn. The "".
tional llI'e. lhen. in iu lopl iJtcoa 'ppnn <koenniM<! in an
direc.;ont. by in,ernalional I ',,"I is. itS .. lopl 0I"lkr delCS"cd
by in'.......i""aJ I... in illYllidi,y and .phere of ,.Iidlly. Only II",
in'em"'on.llcgal ord.,... noo 'he n.,ion.llcgal order. il klvccign.
If ....'ional lopl orden or 'he Irgal communi'i en""i,u,e<! by
,hem. i.e. Ihe !to,... arc deno,ed a. "lOvrreign:' this merely mo.",
'ha' they are .ubj1 only '0 ,he imcrnationallcgal order.
It may be obj.cd lhal 'he Individual te COnno< be conceive<!
... an order delegaled by intem"'i"""lla because hi"o<l<:ally Ihe
....,C'-Ihe natiOTlllllopl ordns-prcdcd lbe ct'CIllion ofl"nrnll
in..rnational l.w, whi<;h w'" ..t a ~ 1 i , h M by cu>lom preval.nt
.mong .... t... Tbi, objeetion, how.ver, i, based on tbe lad:. 01
difl<'tentiation betw...,n the hi.torlnl relation of foct' and the logi-
cal relalion of norm. Tbe family '00, ao a legal communi,y, j;
older ,han Ihe .<at. which ctnb""",. lOany famili..; and je' the va
lidi,y of family law i, ba.<ed upon the national legal order. In the
<ame way, the validi,y of lhe order of a .ingle member 'late j;
based upon lhe con'li,ution of the fedenl .tate. al'hough lhe lat
ter'. creation i, la,er in ,im. th.n the formerly indrpendenl .la:O
which only subsequently are gathed toge,her in a federal SUle.
Hi.tork..1 and Dormativelogical reladon, .hould nOi be con
founded.
If wlart from intemationall.w .. a valid legal order. ,hen the
concep' of "'lite' canno' be defined withoul reference 10 interna
tlonallaw_ F.om ,hi, point of view. lh.....t. i,. relatively central
iled paniall.gal ord.r, subjttl only 10 int.mationallaw_lhe ler
rilorial, lctnponol, and malerial .pher. of validity 01 ,hi. pattial
lcg:al orde, being Iimiled only by international law.
Th. differ... ," belween lhe two moni.l;c {omlrucl;On.
The intema,ionallaw which from lhe viewpoint of the primacy of
nationollaw is regard.d as merely a p"-n of n..ionall.1w. i. in con
tent the .. m. inl.mationall.1w which from lh. viewpoim of ,h.
primacy of ,h. intern..ionallegal order is regarded as a legal order
.uperior to all n.,ionall.gal orde" d.l.g;lling ,he legal ord.".
Th. difle",,,ce belw...,n the two monistic con"ructions of ,h. rela-
tionship betw.en n..ional and inlernalional taw ron=only lh.
reason for the validity of intemationallaw. not ita contenl for ,h.
6m, s...ning Irom the ..Iidily of a nalionallcgal order. the re3$OTl
for the validi,y of internalionallaw j; th. presupposed b..i, norm,
according 10 which the .....bli.hmen' of the hi'lotlcally 6rst con
otitmion of ,h....... i. a law-crraling foct. For Ihe second. s<arling
from in<emational1aw, the re""", for il. ,..1idity i. ,h. preiup-
posed ba,ic norm, according 10 which ,h. custOm of ,h. ,<a,.. is a
law-crraling fac'. Cu"om of the " .... i, a law-cualing fac' alllO
wilhin lh. fram.work of all jntemalional I.w which i egarded
only,,-, pan of a n.tionallcgal order. But her. cu"om of ,he Slate
i. a la...-creating foe, not because of a me.ely pn,."pposed norm
'TATE AND lAW
a<roTding '0 which cu&'om of .ta,.. c",.teo law. but !>au.. of
positive legal nonn ..tablished by the act of rccogni,ion--th. r.a.
<on lor the validity of !hi'l'O'itiv. norm being ultimat.ly the P""
.upposed balic norm of the nationallcgal ord.r whieb constitutes
,b.....rting point of ,h. conmuction.
Sine. in both cascs int.rnation.llaw Ita> the ...m. content. it ha.
abo in both case. the .. m. function" it det.rmine 'hrough the
principl. of .ffectiv.n.... tb. ",aoon and sph.re of v.lidity of rh.
nation.llegal orden. On. 01 th... na"onall.g.1 ord.", i. ,he on.
from whieb ,he con.truction pr..upposing the prim.cy of .hat
ord.r ....r.. omt; it i. the one wbieh .ccording to .hi. con'truction
contain. international law .. a pat<. Thi. c.n be only n"., though
any. n..io.... ll.g.l ord.r; if intCtnation.llaw i. looked upon a. a
part of ,ho ttatiottallcg.l order. th.n i. i. u=... ry to distingui.h
hetween a national legal ord in rhe uarrower sen...nd an.,
tion.l 10g.1 ord... in the wid.r Th. national legal ord... in
the ....rrow... >etUC compri... the norm. 0/ the constitution and
.h. uomu created-in accordance with ,h. constitution_by rhe
act< of l<gillation, jurildietion, and administration. Th. na,ion.1
legal order in the wid.r ..m. i. the ..arting point of the conmuc
tion in<ofar 's it .1", includ.. the recognized imernational law,
that is, the norm. cre.tcd hy int<rnational custom and interna-
tional lTcaty. Th. int...n.tional bioi th.. form part of this na,
tional law d.t...min.., through its principle of effceti,-.n.$.>, ,h.
t'<:""'" for th. validity of all nation.l legal ord..-----<)f th"", ,,'hieh
are not ,he st.rtiog point of ,h. comtruetion and of the on. whieh
i. and whieh th."'fore includ.s imCtn.,ionallaw part. i. ful
fill. this func,ion in the la".. ca..... a part of the national legal
order in a wid.....use, only with r..peet to the ....tional l.gal
order in. narrower sen... Th...do", th. relationship of the tWO
par.. of this nationallcgal order in the wider "nS<': i. no' to he re
g:ordcd r.lation.hip of coordination, but "" one of .ub .nd
.uperordination. That part of the n.tionallegal order whieh i. the
imem.tion.1 law i. at a higher level than the part rhat i. ,he na,
.ionallegal order in the narrower ..n... Figuratively .peaking "'0
ltLOy say: the .tate whieh recogni= intern.tionallaw thereby sulr
milS to ioternation.llaw. Howev.... the .ffectiven... principle of
,nlOrna,ionaliaw, con"ituting. p.rt of the n..ion.llegal ord..., i.
not the ultimate re.SOIl for the v.liditV of tho n.tion.llegal order
ITAn .... _ UW )4'
in l.M nanowcr ........;.hot ulli_te rcasoa;' the prcsuppoocd baoic
norm of .h;' Iqp} ordcr-Wc ba$.ic norm which, a. thot ""_ .i.....
.. the u1'i.....'e rcaaoa for the validi.y of the in'crnationallaw tll.l.
i. pari of thl. n.,ion.1 legal order. Only bctwCCfl thi, ....tion.1
lepl order in the wider ""'.. and the Internation.1 Icpl order
contained In i .,.im that relation.hip bctWC'en nlltion.l and in
ternational law IIcre ill prlmacr al the Dltionallcgal
"'"'.
The ocher fuftction, ...... which I." tiooaI law pcrlomu br
i .. principle aI. I!Ic limi tion of l.M ipbcrc 01 .,.Iid
ilJoIl!Ic natiooallcpl ,..,.fulwcdao. put al. natm.1
\cpl ordtt onlf with rnpccI iO lhc ocher part al this lqpI onlcr.
the na.ional legal order in the ""fTOWcr ocnoc of the word. Only
the Latter', .phere 0( validi,y io limited by the in'.......tional law
whkh i' part of the n.1'Ionallcgal order in the wider ocn". And.
again. the principle of elfcctiw:n... of thi. internation.1 law It not
the 1m ruooa for the ,,.Jidi<y allhb limi...,iQn-thc last rcuon i.
the prcoupposcd buic .-m of thio ""tionaIlegal order aI. which
in...........1I.... a pm.
AI br ill the odIcr Icp.I 00"dttI amc iniO 'I. from lhc
poin, aI. ricw 01 <hoc Icp.l order tha, CIDDSliltita the ning poin'
of the ccn-uc.ion aDd indudcs intemlliooallaw. ihcir <dation
ohip 10 intnn.>.Ional law diffcn from tha. which .,.it a<rording
to the prillIX}' of in'cmationallaw only 10 lar as the principle of
... of in'ernational law II no' the "!limate re.."n for
their val idi,y and for the limitation of their .phere. of validity: the
ultimate ruooa. from the of the ""tion.1 lcpl ord""
wbich io the OIarting point aI. the cooutruC.iOIO, if ihc p......pposcd
buic IIOI't1I of thio natknollcpl or-dn. This "",ionallcpl order
tl>crefore .. k... in iu wider ...... indudin( <he.-..:osniJed inter
na 1 la_is alt>n.! """""';p In the ...... of a hlghcoc IcpI
order which no hJshcr one io pn:onpposcd. Sintt.
whin this ....tional lcgal ordcr in the widcr ...- one pan {the
national Icgal order in the narrower ........} iI ...bordi.... ted to the
other pan (the intemation.1 legal Older), thi. na,ion.1 legal
order in the narrower ocn.. i. nOi oovereign. but-lile 'he other
....tion.l 1<'ll"1 orden tha' art nOi the ....ning point< of 'he COn
Olruaion-.ubjt only to international law. The ....'ional legal
order which io ,be ....nin( poin. of <be con.ruction bcctImct. in
01. oM which 10 pon 01. it,
0II'<kr <k1qa.'iDI :all 0lhe1" .....iooul Iqpl orden. TIM: raul. is 1M
_ ... <ha. w which 1M primacy 01. lht intnlUtioPal Itpl order
lnds, 1M ulli.y 01. all nJid law. Bu. tIM: tuning
""",. 01. lht CDnWnIt;tioa in tIM: c:ue 01. tIM: primxy 01. in.......
.iooullawan onty bio!bit in........t;"mlla., the amine poin. 01.
ClIn>UUCtm in the aK01. tilt natiooo:W legal ortIcr an t--.....
""" bHn I<pl Older. onJYODC eacb .itne. And
only if oM mnnrue.ion 01. the relatiorultip tlnWttlt in......... ;",w
1Iw national , ....... from a ...ti"",,1 q,,1 orde1", must oM
pri.....,. of .11... national orde1"!x a$>umed----indecd. ihi, primacy
prcsuppoocd.
Ao has bun phuited, the of one or ronnm<:-
,ion hu no inJIu on .11.. conlen. of international I.w. in
which i. con,id"ed p.n of n'lional 1'1l.1 onl..
hu ... content as law eamid.red luperior
to national legal or"".... In the content of nllional
law .ho .......iru uLUff'd bylhe corutTUClion of i,.
.0 in.ernalion.allaw. I. i, an abuoe of tIM: con".....
,ion or the Olher if (as .... pp"... rtpaledly) dilioru dtdl><ed
lrom th= which an only be drawn from ;n.......lional
lawor lrom pooil.i.. na.iona] Thus, tbooc who prtalppooe oM
prj.....,- of intnlU.iootal law uoen thu i, folloW1 from the facl.
that international law ioalpttior to ...........1bw-tlw i!l C2IC 01. a
ocotllict tIn.un the (Wo, inl......liootal law has prlOCCdmce 01. Ita.
liooul law; that me:ono tIta,lht.-... which it canna.,. 10 int.......
tioon:al1lw it null. AI; an Itt from what """ tw.en ",itt. ouch I
con8ict of DOTmS bioi.UII in iional ..... aod DII.i"",,1 law an
A nona of ...1 1law artnOi bio null, it an only be
and can bio annulled lor ...,.....,. 01. bioi"l1 "cont"'.,.
W inl........ionlI law" only il intnlU,ional law or n ional law
a... prnvidinll lor I proetdur. in which lhi. norm may
be 'nnulltd. G.n.... 1 int.......tionall.w dOl!S DO' for .I><h
pnxtdu.... The r:<ct .luit internlli""al 1.... it eOllceived !xing
.uperior to nalion.1 law doe, not make 'uperiluau. ""ell. provi.
,ion. It i. widely ....umed '0 be flOI'ible w deduce from lhe tub-
jection of the stat.. to i"'..nation.1 law .he lac. that the lOver.
eignty of the ...... i. essenlially res.ricttd. and .hal therd"", an
e!fCO'.i... legal orpni..,..ion of the world i. poooible. The poimaq
n ..n. ....... ....w 54'
ol iaterDatioDal law plaY'. de<;io.iw <ok in tho poIi.ic:aI idftllogy
of pocifiom Tbc of ....U>-wbidl ia moimy ....
cluOcd by tho primoq" ialet1Wltional law-io --mine q..
dilIn.... fran tho oo-c:aUed _aeignt}' ol tho ......, rnoricud by
laleJ1>a<ia:lal. law. Tbc /ormtt Dlftn>: J>i&bno ...tbori.y; tho
f......bD 01: ac.ioD. lor tho ouu.. ThiI frudom 01: acUao. is
rauiclCd by inoem.a.i<:aal law wbethcr law is U1Q.
uin:d '"" tupnordinaud or ...1>onI.... 1Cd <0 tho natioN! lqpl
onln- aDd bmu tQ(l(rived at put 01: tho p.,ion.1 Wpl An
dfca.i"" kp.l orpnWo.ior\ 01: world io por.s.ilm whc-oher
or otba corwnw;.iop iI
primacy of nationallopJ ordtt, baKd on a.... mp-
.ion of the oo"",.ignty of .... i, npo6ed <0 .\Idl
aburc: ,han the prirttACy of interna.ional I.... From ,h. fac. thot in
io ...Iid bec.u,," of ill b<ing 'ecognl...d
.... .nd b<ina: a pa" 01 oh. national legal order,
o:onclllda oh .... i, """ n=.... bound by tri",
..hid> i. had concluded; or that it i. incompatible wilh ""'......
riptyof lO...bject iostlf <0 an iDoem.a<iona1 rou..........cn by
a ....,a,y ccnd.uded by that 10 b< bound by. tD.lIjori.y de-
cioion of a rolltgia,. <><pll, rYflI if oh" orpll and i.. pro-
duK hod bem C'CII.ed by a tftt'1 concluded by oh. aI'" J.... as
tho pru...q- 01: in,.....tioa.al law plaY' a de<;io.iw in UK pacilUt
id<oIorJ, 00 <be primaeJ of <be ....,ioIIaI kpl ...doer, the: ..........
....Iyol <be IUU'. pial'" a tltcioi..., rol<' in iockoklcJ.
In both <be ambigui.y ol <be conal" ol .....nrigt..y ia an .idilll
anti abctt..in rae..,...e... if a .... inoem.ationallaw,
and if, obnd'Ott, la'......1.iona1 law ",.-;did I... that .....,. then i, is
valid in oh....... _y as If i, "nr valid as a ouprattatioo.al IrgaI
onkr. In .1Ia. arc: ohe ill 'iQlJ..;ll law p"ndpk of flul. tIlt'Jl
............t. '" ....Iid...prdl ol what Ita... I\a"" given
cotltta<llJ.llly =a,ed norms. Attorrling '0 in'crnional I....
no conlen, ean b< e",lud"'" !tom ... ttQtm Cleat"'" by intem>tional
trtaty for b<ing "itlCOmpa,ibl."' wi,b ,b. na'ute of .he contracting
".", wi,b ill soverelgn'y. The fan ,lla, ,loc KI"e",ignty
of. "a'e is unhampered by upc:rordina,e imcrnllion.l 1.10 i.
emin,ly rompatible ..i,h .he fact .h.t th",te lu.ing rec:ogni...d,
on .he basi. of its sovnrign.y, in"mationallaw ond th....lon luv
;IIl made i. part of i.. Pat,OO\&I I..., itself rffirio:,. I.. HII01'CI".
'"
.-rATE ANI> 1.'ITE.." ....rIONAL LAW
eigmy," "'hich now mean' in freedom of a",ion, by accep'ing ,h.
obligation. es,abli>hed by general imeT"o';"".] law and by ,h.
'rra,i", <""duded by 'ha' .to". The queltion of how far 'he so._
erdgnty of .. soy.,-eign "al. may be limited by the jot.m.,io""l
law by 'he ....,. an only be answered on the bui> of
the coment of ''''''rnational Jaw. and ""flnOi be deduced from the
eoncep' of oov<reigmy. The ...,."inion of nalinnal lIO\Iereignly ...
,he .... ,.'. f...,.d"", of action i. nOl limited by posit;,. interna
,innal 1.1'1'. An international '''''''f muld .,..,.Ie an intenu.lon"l
organiutiOSl which i' <0 ccntrali,od ,hat it h it..lf d,. <h.ractc,
of a ...te, 00 lhat ,h. Sla'es which h.,". wndudod ,hi. tre.ty and
.,." Olemb.n of the organ;ution 10" their char",,'.,. as OIat. To
decide. however, how far. gov.mm.1ll ought '0 Or i' p<Tmittod to
frttdoltl of action of iU O\Oin i' a qu...ion of poli_
tin The can be doducod fn,m primacy of in-
nor from primacy of national law.
THEakY "" loAW AND VIEW
0.. Tn... Woo.1.O
The COntI1L!1 of (\,'0 monistic construction' of
betwun imern.tionallaw and national low-that i of the 'wo ap-
by which unity of all valid law i. achieved
_h... a .triking parallel in contrast th.. betwe.n a .oh-
jre,iv"'ic and an nbjretivistic world view. subjretivistic
"art' from 'he sovereign Self in order to Ihe
world which. Ihe,..,fo,..,. i. nOt coru:<:ived a, an CJ<,ernal but as
an internal world. a, idea and will of the Self; in 'he ..
conmuc'ion 00,"" on the primac)' 01 na'ional law 'tam from its
own so.'ereign in order '0 e"ternal world of law,
international law and na'ional legal ord...., and
can, therefor<, concei'"e of thi' e"..rnallaw only a. int",nal I.w, a.
a pari of its own na'ional legal order. subj=ivi"ic.
tri<: of 'he wo.-Id lead, ro soH!"i'm, 'ha' i', the view
,h.. only Self aim a, a so"<reign being. and .1",
""i'l> only in it 0.- a Te$Ult of ito ,hinking. and willing,
and 'herefore cannot honor ,h. cl.im of other beings th., ,h..,..
'00..... sovereign Selve$; in th.. 4O.m.. way ,h.. primacy of n._
,ional leg;>I m..ano ,h.. only one'. own ,ta,.. can be ron
<TAn AND Imu.NAT10"AL ....w
'"
a, being be<:au", the of the Drle ",ne
(one', own) exdud... the ,",veteignty of all nate'. With thil
in mind, Cm describe the ptim,cy 01 one', own n.tional legal
order atate .ubj""tivi.m, inde..! a. na" soli!"i,,,,. The obj",,
ti.wk wotld view .tam from .he reali.y of the external world in
order to conceive .he Self_not only the Self of the ob",rv", but aU
Selvco-but doe< no. allow thi, Self to exi" .. 3 ",vereign being
.nd .. th. ,..,nter of .he world. bu. only .. an ...,nti.1 part <>I
.he "-orld; in the Arne way the ronnn"'tion desc.ibed .. primacy
01 ,he in'emOlionallegal order .tarts from the extern.1 world of
law, intem"ion.ll.w," ...Hd legal order. to conceive of .he legal
exiltenee of .he indi,-idual ".te., but cannot .flord '0 con.idcr
them a. S(>\'eign auth01'itieo-only .. partial legal orders inte-
grated into intemotional bw. The ,dentmc cognition of reality i.
no<; .flec'..! by ,he antith",i. betw..,n a .ubjectivi.tic and .n ob-
jecti.i"k world ,-ie"'; the "orld .. object of cognition. the law. 01
n.ture deocribing thi. world. rem.in the same whether thi. world
i, concci,"C<! a. in"rnal world 01 the Ego or ,he Ego i. thought
of a. being ,he world: in the ..me w.y ,he contn" be.w..,n
the two legal co""ruction, docs nOl affect the content 01 ,he law;
be it intem3lionallaw or n..ionallaw, ,he tul... of law deocribing
,h.ir content rem.in the sam' whether intemation.1 I.w i. con
eei,-ed a. indud..! in notional law, or national I.w in international
law.
Th. antithesis ,he twO leg.l cono'ru<lion. may abo be
compar..! with ,he .nl;,h..i. betw..,n ,he Ptolem,k
and the h.liocentric Copernican of ,he unhet. Just as ac
cording to one con"rw;tiDrl the own state i. in .he eemer of .he
world of I.w, in the P,olemaic view of the world our .."h i. the
center around which ,he 'uu lOr"" Ju.. a. ><;r;<>tding '0 the other
con"ruct;on international law i. the center of .he wotld <>I law. so
in the Copernican view Ih. 'un i. the center around which our
earth turn._ However, ,hi, con, t be',...,n ,wo a"ronomic view.
of the uni,..... i. only a coo, t betw..n two diff..,<nt reference
.y..em. Max Planck'" ..yo; "1 we ,tan from. teference 'Y'",m
that i. connected wi.h OUt e.rth, "'" mmt say that the .un
moveo in the .ky; but if we tran>!er the reference 'Y'tem to a fixed
....r, then .he .un docs not move. The contru' be.wccn the tWO
.. "" 11..... "."'40 .od ';"""""f'" 19;91 P- I"
fQTIIlula'ioo. Implies nei'her a oor .n ob.lcurity_
only ,wo modes of viewing ,hlog... pr=n'td, A""or<!iog to the
phy.ical ,heoty of rela,ivi,y. may be looktd upon today ao
linnly establi.htd in ",ien"". bo'h reference 'j'S'em. aod 'he corre_
sponding mode. of viewing lhings .,.., "'lually ,orrec' aod justified.
and it is impo"ibl in principle. to deeide be,,,,een them_
without arbirrariness-bj' m"suremen' or compu"'ion." The
"'me is lTue of the lwo legal of the ,..,Ia'iomhip be-
tween n.,ional and in'omatlonall.w. Their amrr." rem on the
differenee be,ween 'wo 'jl,.m. of rele...nre, One i' .n,hOTed in
'he legal order of one'. own ""e. and the other in 'he in,ern._
tional legal ord.... Both syslen" are "'lually correct .nd "'luaUy
jUSlifi"". I' i, irnposoible to dedde be,,....n 'hem on th. ba.i. of
the science of law. Thi. scienee can do no mo,.., ,h.n dt'SCribe them
both. and ..are 'hat 'he one or the other rele""nce sy"em muOl be
.,copt"" if 'he relarion,hip betw""" n.,ion.l .nd intem.,ional
I.w i. '0 be determined. The deci.ion Ii.. oD"ide the scien""
of law. II can be made only on the ba.!i' of non"'ientilie. politkal
am.ideration.. He who '''''Dres 'he ide. of lhe IOve,..,ign'y of hi
...,.. bec.oD,e he identifies him..lf in hi, ioe,..,.sed ..][-<:oo",iouo-
ness wilh 'he 'tate, will p",fer the primacy of the n.,ioo.l legal
mder. He who values 'he idea of a legal organi""ion of 'he world,
will prefer lhe prim.cy of in,.,-national law.
Thi. doe> not mean, as h been m....rt. ,h., 'he theory of 'he
prim.,y of national law " les. f3\"tlrable to the idea of a legal m.
ganl'atlon of 'he world th.n the lhcory of the f'Timacy of ;ntern.-
,ion.l law. But 'he theory of the primacy of nation.llaw _m. to
'upply the justificatIon for a policy 'ha' rejects farre.ching reslric.
tions of the .ra.. r,..,edom of .t1ion. Thi. justificatIon i' based on
a fallacy. caused by 'he ambigui,y of 'he concep' of IOverelgoty a.
eI,her hlghe" leg.l au,hori,y 0' unlimi''''' fr=dom of a"ion. But
the ."i"eoce of thi' f.lIa,y ha. to be ><:cepttd as an ....nti.1 ele.
mem of 'he political ideology of imperial;'m. whkh open... with
the dogma of ..are "",,,,,,igoty. The same i. 'rue, m .. m ..
diJ, for preferring 'he primacyof ioternalinnallaw. Thi. idea i. in
no way I... f"'crable to the idul of an unHmit"" "",ereigoty in
the sen.. of a sta.. ftdom of actinn than the prImacy of ana.
tinnallegal omer; bot it ..em, to ju"ify much mOTe a far'r<:aching
limiratl"" of ra.. freedom of action ,han 'he primacy of the
s.....,.., AND 'NTD.NATIONAL LAW
nalioDallegaJ order. Thi, tOO i. a fallacy: bUI Ihi, bllacy pbys a
d:i,h'e part in the poliliul ideology of pa.cifi,m,
By unmalling bolh faUaLie'. by depriving ,hem of ,h, appear.
ance 01 logical proof. Ihal_ .""h-kould be ine/utable. and by
reducing 'hem 10 polilical arguments that em be mel wilh coTT<'o
.ponding C<lUnlentrgumenu, the Pure Thcory of Law open. ,he
mad 10 ei,h,r ,h, one Or Ih, olh..- political d....elopment. whhom
poslulating or justifying eilher. because .. a ,heory, lbe Pure
Th,oryof Law is indiITerem 10 both.
VIII
INTERPRETATION
I
f law io to be applied by a l<gal organ. he must detormine 'he
meaning of the norm. '0 be applied: he must "inlOrp'"'' ,h...
norm. Into'pre,a,ion. 'herofore. i. an inlOn",,'ual ac,ivity. whkh
accompani.. ,he proceSli of law applica,ion in ia from a
higher '0 a lower le"eL In the ..e u.ually ,hink of when "e
,alk. abou' interp..ta,ion. ,he imorp,eta,iOll 01 a "atuto. the quos-
,ion "ud. to be a",....ed a' to what .untom i. '0 be gi,,<'TI '0 the
individual no,m of a judicial ded.ion or an administra,ive doe,,,,
in deducing thit individual norm from ,he general norm of the
.tUulO to be applied in a concre'e <;>.... Bu' ,he,e al", ."i.a an in
''''Pr<'ta,ion of the c"""i'u,ion, if i, i. noe.....ry to apply ,he con
"itu,ion on a low..- le,el. ouch as in the pr<JCCdUfe of legitlatioo,
in iSliuing emergency regulation., o. in ,he of other
acts "u,hotiled dir""tly by the co""im,ion: and 'here al", ."itu
an into'(>r<"a'ion of ,he norm. crra,ed by international "ea,ie. ot
of ,he normo of genen! in'Mna,ion.l law c",a,ed by custom, if
the... norm. are '0 be applied in a conC"" <;>... by a gov"'r1men'
or an in'erna,i""al or national court 0' an admini'trative organ.
And there at", ."i", an in'erpretation of indi,;dual norm., judi.
cial doei,ion. administntive command., legal transac,ion., and '"
on_in short, of all legal notm. ,hat are '0 be applied.
But al", ,be indivIdual> who h.ve '0 obe)' ,he law by behoving
in a way ,ha, avoid ne,ion., mn>l undersullld the legal norm.
and ,he..fo.. mill' t.in their meaning. And finally ,he sci
<'TIC< of law, too, when describing ",,"i,ive l.w, mn" im..pre' ita
oorm.
..,
,
INTUPUTATlON
'"
H.nce we hve twO 01 interpreutlom which rnu be
clearly di"inguiohed: the imerpretation of law by ,he applying
organ, and the imerp.....,ion of the law by a private individu.l
and ..pedally by the ",ience 01 law. First we .hall con.id.,,- the In
terpret.,ion by the law-applying organ.
..) Indefinirme" 0/ Ike Low-<lppl)'ing Ac'
The relation,hip 1><:tween a high.. and a lower level of the legal
ord.r.uch a. con.titution and ....tut. or .... tutnd judicial d.
c'.ion, i relation,hip of determining or of binding: ,h. high.,,-.
level norm regula,.. the act by which the low...I1norm i, cr.
ated. or ,h. act of ex.cution: the higher.I1norm d.t.rmin.. no,
only ,h. pT<Xedure in which ,he low.r norm i. created or ,h. act
of .xecution i, performed, hut-po"ibly--..l", ,he Conten' 01 that
norm or that act.
Thi. d.t.rmination an ner be complete. Th. high.. norm
annot bind in e..ery ditection the ac' by which it ipplied.
Thcr. mu" .Iway. be more or 1... mom for discre,ion, so th.. the
higher norm in r.la,ion to the lower on. nn only h"'e ,h. ch..,...
ICr of a [ram. to be filled by ,hi, acl Ev.n 'he mon d.tailed com-
mand must le.,.e to the individual executing the command som.
discre,ion. If the organ A orden 0'1\an 11 '0 a....t .ubjec' C, the
organ B rnu". according to hi, own diICterion. decide when .nd
wh.... and how to carty out ,he order of ....,,-<leci,iom ,bat de-
pend on 'x,r:ancolU cirrum"ances "'hleh the oTdering organ has
not fore...n and to a cert.in ""ten' cannot foreo.
b) In/mllonal rndefiniuneu of rhe lJ;J"'-<lpplying At/
Hen" ....,ty law-.opplying act i, only partly determined by l.w.nd
""ttly undetermined. The indefinitencss may concern either the
umdi,ioning facts or the conditioned con'"'!.u.nc... The indefi
niten... can be int.ntional, that iJ. intended by the org.n who Cte
ates the norm to be applied. Hence a merely general norm i, al
way. created with the ;wumption that the creation 01 the individ
nal norm by which the g.neral norm is applied will con,inue the
p......,.. 01 determination which constitutes the me.ning of the
hierarchy of the legal order. Here are two exampl...: A law pte-
,,.
ICvibes that at the ou,break of an epidemic ,he inhabi ...nll of a
,own hAn to take, by pain of punishment. certain me..",.. '0
prevelll the .p,..,ading of the di",...; ,h.. administrative aUlhority
u authori.w to mte""in. the various m...ur.. =ording 10 the
variom di,eaOd', A criminalllw provid.. in ""'.. of. ""naio dolict
a fine or imprilOlIm<'lll leaving it to ,he judg<' to decide in the
concrete co... fot the one Or ,he o,hor. and also to detenn;ne Ih.
ext<:1It of either: wherehy ,he law may pTOvide an uPf"'T and
jower limit.
o} Unintended Inde{ini'eM>s of the LA",.,.pplY'n, Act
The indefiniten... of the legal act may also Ix: tbe unintended re-
.ul, of ,he way in which ,he legal norm is fotrnul.tcd that i, to be
applicd by 'he act in que.tion. Thi. happen, lUnally lOh... a wonl
or dau.. "",,d in formulating ,he lIOTffi h.. rno,.., ,han one mran
ing: 'he lingui,tic expression of the llorm i< ambiguou.; dilf""ent
of wording .. poo<ibk .. happen<
when individual who hal '0 .pply norm btli",'" th.. th<'TO
i discrepancy bttw..n worning of norm .nd tho wHl of
tM norm.,;re..inll' authorlty-regardl ... in which way thi, will c.n
found oul. It mu", bt reg:lrdM" p"",ibl. to find out ,h.. will
from sout'> oth... than wortb of nonn i<klf. poo<ihil.
ity th.. ,h. """"oHM will 01 l.gi,l.tor or th. in",,,,i,,,, of 1'".
in legal transaction dOOi not conform with ,h. o:pre!!<:d
wor<:h i. recogniU'd by tradilional juri'prudOTlO'.
dill<repancy will .nd .xpr...ion may be total 0' partial_
!au..., whon will of legislator or i",.",ion 01 th.
pani.. confornu at with on. of th. intorpre.. tio,," which th.
wordi of ,h. nonm allow. Finally. th. ind.fini,on... of legal
:o<:t that i. to be may also be ,h. of th. fact ,h.t
'wo nonn, whi<:h both daim volidity-perhap< bean.. they are
bo,h included in the ..m. ,ta'ut<'-partly or wholly contndict
oth.....
d) The /..4w 10 B. Applied T, " F,ame
1n all th..., ca of in,rnded or unint<'ttdM indrfinitrn... at th.
low.... l.v.l, ICv 1pos<ibiliti.. at. opoe" to the .ppliatioo of law.
'N"fUPIU:TATION
".
Tbe leVI aU appl)'ing " Irgal nOT'll may be performed in luch a
w.y ,ha, i, collfornu (al with ,he oue Or ,he other of 'he differelll
meanings of the legal uorm. (b) with ,be will of the "onu-
crea,ing an'horit), tbat i. to be determined ",mehow. (c) wi,h tbe
expr...i"" which the nonn<re.ung authori'y has chooen, (d)'
with tbe one or the otber of th" cOnltadictOTY norms; or {el the
co", to which the two contndicttrry norm1 r.,rer may be
decided under the ...umption Ihat Ibe two contradic,ory norm.
anonl ea<:h o,her. In all ca..<: the law to be Ipplied con"i
tu'" only" fume within which ..,"",1 Ipplk.>.tion. are po..ible.
whereby every ar. i. legal that "ay. within th" frame.
If "i"'''rpretatlon'' i. undetSlood at cognitive ....,rtainmm, of
'he meaning of the object that i. to be interpreted. ,h"u ,he ....ult
of a legal in'erpretation can only he the _ertainm"", of the
frame which tbe Jaw ,ha, i. '0 be interpreted repr.."n"" and
ther"by the cognition 01 ",v"ral possibillti.. within the frame.
The interpretation of a .tatute, therefore. need not nec""",ily
lead to lingle ded.ion at th. only Corr"", one, hut potiibly to
I.v.....l. which are all of <qual value, though only on. of them in
the action of the law.applying organ (..pedally the court) be
",m.. politlve law. The fart that a judici.l deei.ion i. b..-d 01' a
actually meam only that it leeps i",lde th. frame r<pr..
5Cl"ed hy ,h" It"nre; it doel not ,nean that it i. Ihe individual
norot, hut only th.t it il one of th"", individual uorm. which may
l>Cer"ated within ,he frame of ,he general norm,
Traditlo""l juri.prudence. however. expect> hom in'erp...ta.
tion not only the a"' inment of the frame, hut the fulfinm.'"
of another ta.k, and in the latter actually in main lunct,on:
interpretation I' '0 develop a method. ,hat mak.. il poMibl. co'
rectly '0 /iJi ,he ......rained frame. Traditional lheory will have u.
believe that the ltatute. applied <0 the concrete c.... can alw.y.
mpply only one correct deci.ion and tha' the po.itive.legal "cor-
Itt"'..," of thi. drci.iou ;, ba<cd on ,h" .lImle il",11. Thi. lheory
deocril>co ,he interpretive procedure a. if it ",,,,I,,cd m....ly in .n
intellectual .ct of d>tifying 0' undc.....nding; a. if the law... pply-
ing <rrgan hat!. <0 uoe only hi.......'" but not hi. will .nd a. if by.
pu...ly intellec'ual activity. among ,he va,ion. exi",ng poMibili.
,i.. only one correc. choice: could be m.d. in accord.nee with
p"'i,ive I.w.
"
".
e) The St><alled Melh<><lJ of
Fro",n a point of view di,ec,ed at pooi\;ve l.w, ii no c,i,.rion
by which one I""'ibility within the I",me i. preferable '0 "limh.
TheTe .imply io nO method (that Can he characterized u" method
of posi,;"" law). by which only OIle of Dleanings of a norm
may ""in the di.,inc,;on 01 being the only "COlT""!"
vidod. of COUl.., ,bat .evenl pouiblc inte'p"la'io....TO available.
Drspil<: all dfon. of traditional jUTi'p.-udcncc it ha. not been pos-
.ible so u' to sol'" in an objectively valid fashion 'he conflict be
lween ""ill and exp,ession in for 01 the one or the m"", All
method. of interpret"ion developed 50 fa. lead only to a pouible,
nO' a nec......'y, , .. ult, neVeT <0 one which" alone corre"'. From
'he point of vicw of positive l.w, one ",,,hod .. exactly ... g<X>d
the o'h...._'o neglec, the wording and adh...." 10 the presumed will
of the legIslator or to obot"'e strictly the wording and p;1y no at
tention to the (usually problematical) will of 'he legislator. If it
oceu,.. that two norm. of the .same ,taWte eontTadiet e..d, other,
then, according to poslth'e Jaw, the mentioned possibilities of ap-
plying the law.n: 01 equal weigh\. It is a futile endeavor to try to
i"'tify "leg..lly one at ,h. exdusiOll of the o'her. Tha' the
menWm .nd ."alogy .s ,ne.", of interpreta'ion >Te
entirely wonhl... can Le Itt" lrom the fact 'hat both lead \0 op-
posite resuh. and tha' no iteriOll exi'" to decide when 'he one
and when the o,h... ,hould be applied. Similarly. 'he principle
called "weighing of imeres"" (Tnl...... i. merely a
formulation of the problem. not a solution. It does not ,upplj' 'he
objecth'e me:uu.. or ..andard for comp;1Tlllg conflicting in'......
with each o,h and does no' make i' possil>1e to ",I"e, on this
ba,is, the conflict. It is impossible '0 de.i," thi' mea.u.. or "and-
ard from ,h. norm 'hOI' i. \0 be Interpreted. or from 'he ,ta'u,"
that contains fhe norm, or from the .n,i.. leg..1on!l'r.:U has been
.,..,Tled by 'he 'heory of 'he so-o.lled ..cigbing of im"e",:' For
'he nttd for an "imerpretation" t'CSults precisely from the I>et
that the norm \0 be applied 0. the '1"tel of nnrm. Ie:..... open
several possibiliti..-nd this mean.tha' i' con,. in, no decision as
to which of ,he in'....... in qu..,ion has a high... value than fhe
o'hers. bu' lea... ,hi. deci'ion '0 an act of norm creation to be
performed. for example in renderIng a judicial deci.ion.
JNT..,.PR.ETAll0N
'"
46. At, AN ACT
OF Co<;NIT:lON 01. W'LL
The idea on ,,'h;ch lTadi,ional theory of in'erpte'ation is based.
nam.ly that the d.",min.,ion (of the legal aCt 10 be pelformed)
not rendOTed by the norm th.. i.! to be appl ied could be gained by
>Om. cognition o( the eailting law. i, a contr:ldktory (all.cy bo-
cau.. iL is incompatibl. with the presuppo:scd possibility of an in
t.rpr.tation. Th. qu."ion which 01 th. possibiliti.. within ,h.
frame of the law to be applied i. ,h. "righl" on. I. not a qu."ion
of cognition di,rcl.d tow.rd posi,ive are not faced h.....
by a probl.m of legal thou!)' but 01 legal rolitic. Th. "lk to g.t
from the "a""e the only correct judicial drcilion or the only Co"
reet admini"rati'-e .Ct i. ba.icolly the "m. a' the "'ll to Create the
only corrrc, Itatute< within the framcworl of ,he eoru,i'ution_
Ju.. OJ one unnOt obtain by in'.rpr.tation ,he only correct ..at
U'e' from th. eon"itutlon, '" on. e.nno, by interpr.tatlon
,h. only eotrec' judici.l drci.ion. from 'he .tatute. To be 'ur.,
,here i difference be,,,"un th... t"o c...., but it i. only on. of
qu.ntity, nOt 01 quality; th. difference i. merely tha, ,he con
maim ercioed by the con.t;tution uron the legi.la,or, a. far .,
the conl.nt of the lU'ut.. i. concerned which he i. authoritcd 10
i..ue. i. not a. strong a. the ton"ra;m e.errioed by a ItalUte upon
,h. judge who has to apply ,hi. '''''u'e-that ,h. legl.lator i. much
f..or in erea,ing law than ,h. judge. lIu' ,he tOO create< la...
and he too i, r.latlv.ly fr.., In thi> function. For the erution of an
individu.l norm. within ,he frame of a general norm in ,h. prO(.
eM 01 applying the law. i. a funion of ,he "'ilL So l.r a. in apply.
ing ,he law a cognitive aelivity of the law..applying organ can tale
place, beyond ,he nec....ry ucertainm.n' of ihe frame, within
which the act to be performed i, to be lep'. it i. not cogni,ion of
positi,-. law, but of o,her norm. that may Aow hore in,o th. prnc'
'Mof l.....r tlon_____<uch norm' 01 moral., of jUstle. consti,u,ing
",dal value< which are u.ually dcsignated by catch word. ouch a.
",he good of the people:' "intere" of the otate:' "progr...:' and
,be lile. From th. point of vicw of posi,iv. I.w nothing con be
said about thdr validi,y_ So.n from ,be point of vi.w of pooit;'-.
l.w. 011 th... nonn. Can be cb.""'teri,ed only n<gati"ely; they at<
norms that are nol of po.i,iv. low. With ...pect to thi> law, the
lNTnYUTATlON
establiohm=t of a legal aCt, so far ;u it uh. within
fnm.work of th. logal norm to be app1il, i. I",., that i.. within
the d;"errtian of the organ upon to coubli.h ,h. ae<-
unl""!",,iti". law iw:l( d.logat.. lIOme norm. like mor
ab or ju.tice; but ,h.n 'hes< nor"" a", transforml into nOTlO.
of !""itiv. Jaw.
If not anly the interprcration 01 the ",,,ure. by eoum or admin
istrative authoriti.., but the interp"'tation 01 law in gen.....l by
law.applying ott"'" i. to be characterized, the following may be
said; In the application of law by a logal organ, th. in
terpretation of the law to be applil i. combinl with an aCt of
will by which the law-applying organ ch<><ne> between the poosi
biliti...hol\'o by cognitive interpretation. Thi. aCt of will
.ither a lowerI ..'el norm or i. the ""<eutian of a coerd.. act "ip-
ulatl in the legal norm to be applil.
Thi. acl of will diffcr""tiate. ,he 1<-g31 interpretation by Ihe law
applying organ from any other interp"'t.1tion, <spedally from the
interpretation of lal\' by juri.prud.nce.
The interpretation by the la",-applying organ ualw,y. authen,
IIc. It creat", law. To be .ure, wpcak of "a",hentlc interp"'ta-
,ion" only if thi. in<erprw"ion ...umesthe lorm of a "alUte or an
international treaty and ha. general character, that i., if it creates
law not only for a concrete ca", but lot all .imilar C1lCS--in other
wonl., if the act described a. auth.ntic ha. the charnot.... of the
creation of. gene",] nOTlO. How.,er, the interpretation by a law
applying organ i, authemlc (law-aeating) also il it cr."es law
only lor a eoner... cue, that i., if the organ creat only an indio
,'idual norm or MlCC"'es a ..netion. H... it i,.o be notl: By w.y
of a",hentic interpretatioo (that i., interpr...tion of a norm Ily
th. iaw-appiying organ) not only one of ,he """,bilities may be
realirl that have be"" .hown by the rognitive int.rpretation 01
the nonn '0 be applil; but also a norm moy be cr.atl which Ii..
ntirelyolluide th. f...meof the nonn to be applil.
By .uch auth""tk int.,,-pretation low ..n be ....11 not only in
a c"-'" in which the intcrptetation h.. general ch.racter (whete we
.te, th"", .otllrontl with "authentic interpretation'" in the tra
ditional ",noc) but also in a ca.e in which an individual legal
norm i. creatl hy a law.applying organ, a. IIOOtt th. VllJidity of
Ihi. no"" cannot be fescindl, a. soon a, thi, nonn ha. gained ,he
tNT.un.ETATION
'"
Joree 01 a final judgment. It iI well known that much ne,,' law iI
created by way of .uch amhen,ic inte'pretation, especially by courU
011.... resorL
Tbe inte,preta,ion by a law.applying OIgan i, different fTOm
any other interpretation-;oJ] other intttpreu,ioru are no< outhen
tic, ,hat i., theydo not create law.
Jf an individual wi.be. to obey a leg.1 nOfm that rogulates bil
behavior, tba, ii, iJ he wi.hes to Jul/ill a leg.1 ohliga,ion by behav
ing in a woy to whooe oppo>ite the legal order a'taCh.. a ...nction,
then thi, individual too, must moLe 0 choice be,weon dillerent
poosihilities if hi, beh.vior i, not unombiguou.ly determined by
the norm. Dut ,hi, i,not on authentic choice. Jt does not bind the
organ who applies ,bi. nOTm and tberefore always run. ,be ,ilk 01
being rega,ded 0' ermneou. by that organ, so thot the individuol',
beh"'ior moy be judgod to be a delict.
47. bnu.PkETAnON ~ v n ... S c t E N C ~
OF LAw
The imetpretation of law by the science oj low (juri'prudence)
must be 1ba'ply distingui,hed a, non,utheotic from ,h. interpre.
tation by legal OTg.n,. ju,i,prudemial interpretation is purely
cognitive asc..uinm."t 01 the meaning oIleg.lnorms. In contra
distinction to ,he intcrpr..... tion by legal orgaru, jurisp,uden,ial
intetpretation docs not neate law. The view that it i. poosible to
creato new I.w by merely cognitive interpretation of valid law i.
the bo,i, 01 ,he s<X.llled ConceptuaJ juri,prudence (Getman:
B".,i{flju'i1p....d.m) which the Pu," Theory of Law tej"'''' The
purely cognitive interptetatioo by juri1prudence i, 'h....fore un
able to /ill alleged gaps in the I.w. The filling of a so-alled gap in
the law i, a law-e'eating function that can only be performed by a
law-applying org.n; ,.. ond the Junction of """,ing I.w i, not
pc:rlormed by juri.prudence interpreting law. ju,i'prudential iu
to'ptetation can do no more th.n exhibit all poosible meanings 0/
legal nOTm. ju,i.prudence as cognition of law cannot d",ide be
tweon the poosibi]i,i.. exhibited by it, bu' must I"","e ,he decision
to 'be legal organ who, according to the legal order, is autho,i",d
to apply the I.w. An ..tomey who. in the interes, of his dien"
"'CL '!oJ. .u_-n.e oo-ollod PI" '" Ill< "w."
"
",
',;'UPUTATlON
prop<>und. '0 the judge only one of several J'OS'ible in"''Puta.
lion. of the legal norm to be applied in ,hi, (a or a wr;,er who
in hi. commentory ""'oil> a .pecific in"'rpr don .mollg many
pcwible one.... ,he only "corr'" one, doc. 1101 ronde<' lunetion
,dence, but of politi", He seek. to influence l'lIi,I.
,ion. Thi.>, of com.., he cannot bc denit<!. But he c.nnot do ,hi,
in the n.me of It:g.J !lti.ncc (juti.>ptuMncc) '" 50 frequently i.
done. Juri.prudenti.1 intcrpreta,ion mm, carefully avoid ,h. fic_
tion ,hal a Itgal norm admits only of one .. the in''''1'tc,
t.tion. Traditional juri'prudence u"," ,hi. fiction ". maimain the
ide.l of legal .\<'Cu,i,y. In vie,.. of the ambiguity of most legal
nonm ,hi, ideal i. only approximately .uainable. It shnuld not be
denied ,hat the fiction of legal nann' ha.ing bul one meaning
may hove great advan...ge. lrom SOme poli,ical point of v'ew. But
no poli,ical adn...ge can justify the use of th'. fiction in a ocien.
t,f,c description of positiye law. II is. from a ocien,ific .nd hence
object,ye point of y,ew, 'n.dmi..ible to proclaim .. solely correct
an in'erp.......'ion ,hat from ubjcc,i ..ly political .iewpoint i.
mo.e desirable th.n .no,her, logicoUy "'loolly p""ible, interpreta-
,ion. For in that case a purely political value jndgment i. falsely
presentW .. ocientific 'TUth, Beside., the >!ricdy scientific inter-
preta,ion 01 ta'ute or international "",,aty, e"hibiting on the
I>.o..i. of a cri,ical .naly>i. all po.,ible interpretatiotlO (induding
the politically und.. on.. and those nOC intended by 'he ltgi..
lator or the contrac,ing partie., ye' inclnded in the wording
chosen by them) m.y ha " practical eIf""t by fa. outweighing
the poli,ical adnn"'ge of the fiction of unambiguousne.., of "one
m""ning only'" .uch scientific interp....t.tion can show the law
creating authority how rar hi. work i. behind the t""hnical postu
late 01 lormulating legal nonm a. unambiguously .. p""ible, or,
at I..." in .uch a way that the una.oidable ambiguity i. reduced
to a minimum and that thereby the highest p""ible degree of
- legalsecttrity ,. achieved.

The Pure Theory of Law. Hans Kelsen

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The Pure Theory of Law. Hans Kelsen

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PURE THEORY

Liob.ill'J llJoed on F.ult 'nd AbooI"l< Li.blll'J

. Til. Acr ....... ITlI "lEAS'S"

...ppootd to ais< (<ba. m.. is if lhc: will.ea>eI

S. TK. SocLu. o.x..

pr_ two con8icW1s poli.ial lDW!encin a l.elcological ((IIl.8ia..

LAW ... '<0 NAT1JU.

'9- TIIZ 1'Jw<o"-& Of' l ..PVTAT1O!'< ".

of ,he h"'''''..:toy of (he legal ord... COlnprd'endo

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