Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Chapter 1 Introduction
These presentations are prepared by
Classification of Matter
One classification of matter depends on the magnitude of intermolecular attraction forces.
Intermolecular Attraction Forces Solid Strong Volume and Space
Molecules
Liquid
Medium
Gas
Weak
There are two other states of matter, plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate. www.edinformatics.com/math_science/states_of_matter.htm
This is done in the kinetic theory of gasses for example, but it is not practical for most engineering problems. We study most engineering problems at the macroscopic scale, where we are concerned with the behaviour of matter in the large.
That is we treat fluids as continuum and do not concern with the behavior of individual molecules.
In continuum, the smallest element of a fluid is called a fluid particle, which contains enough number of molecules to make statistical averages.
In the previous example, the speed at point A, measured as 10 m/s, is actually the average speed of molecules in the small volume surrounding point A. We can say that the fluid particle located at point A is moving with a speed of 10 m/s. Question: Is continuum a reasonable assumption? Practical Answer: Yes, in many engineering problems
~ 3 x 10 19 ~ 8 x 10 ~ 3 x 10
8 9
Kn
Average distance traveled by molecules between collisions (mean free path ) Characteristic dimension of the flow field
Continuum is said to be valid for Kn < 0.01. In this course we will always treat fluids as continuum. Kn is typically large (continuum approach should be questioned) for Flows at high attitudes and low pressures (numerator is large). Flows at macro or nano geometries (denominator is small).
www.lab-on-a-chip.com
Although not mentioned in this detail, continuum assumption is also used in solid mechanics.
Actually continuum mechanics, a branch of physics, is the study of matter as a continuum. It does not differentiate between solids and fluids.
These properties can be described in two different ways. Material (Lagrangian) Description: identified fluid particles are followed in the course of time as they move in the flow field. Spatial (Eulerian) Description: attention is focused at fixed points in the flow field and the variation of properties at these points is determined as fluid particles pass through these points.
Lagrangian description is suitable for solid mechanics, where relatively small and simple motion of individual particles can be followed.
Fluid motion however is much more complex and keeping track of large number of fluid particles is a difficult/impossible task; therefore the Eulerian description is more suitable for fluid mechanics.
Karman vortex street behind a cylinder http://www2.icfd.co.jp/examples/karman/kr2.htm
According to the continuum assumption, the density at point P can be defined as the average density within the small volume of surrounding point P.
be ?
Answer: Large enough such that the continuum assumption is satisfied. That is, it can not be too small such that there are only a few molecules inside it. Then the molecules passing in and out of will not give a reliable averaging.
m
Domain of molecular affects Domain of contnuum
lim
'
At 25 oC, 1 atm
water
= 999.84 kg/m3
water
= 1000 kg/m3
Air is much more compressible (think about the ideal gas law to understand -p relationship of air)
Specific gravity (relative density): (s) [ unitless ] Ratio of density of a substance to the density of water.
s
water
Body forces are distributed over the volume of a fluid, and defined per unit mass.
A surface force can be decomposed into a normal force acting perpendicular to the surface and tangential (shear) force acting parallel to the surface. External Forces
z
Internal Forces
z
Fi
Fit
Fin n
Fit t
F2
F1
Fi
F3
y x
F3
Fin
y
F5 F4
5
F4
At equilibrium
Fk
At equilibrium
F3
F4
Fi
0
9
k 1
Ft
F
Fn
P
y
lim
Note that stress field at a point is a tensor quantity (not a vector quantity). Complete definition of it requires nine components (not three).
y
yy yx
xx
xy yy zy
xz yz zz
z
yz
yx zx
Sign convention for the stress: A stress component is positive when the direction of the stress component and the plane on which it acts are both positive or both negative.
10
Put very little water into it, just enough to cover the bottom.
Heat the can for about 1 minute so that the water evaporates.
Water vapor will push the air inside the can out. The can will be somewhat vacuumed.
Quickly invert the can and insert it into water.
A A
Fixed plate
If a similar experiment is performed using fluid between the plates, a vertical fluid element AB will deform continuously as long as the shear force is applied.
B
to
t1
B
t2
A fluid can also be defined as a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear (tangential) force, no matter how small the force is.
12
We will observe a linear velocity profile between the two plates (why linear ?).
u=Uo
Linear velocity profile u=0
Uo
Uo
dy
y
dx
13
The deformation of this fluid element will be studied in detail during the class.
Uo
dy
y x
dx
y A x
A D
14
du dy
On a surface whose normal is acting in the positive direction of the coordinate axis,
shear stress is positive if it is acting in the positive direction of the coordinate axis.
it is negative if it is acting in the negative direction of the coordinate axis.
On a surface whose normal is acting in the negative direction of the coordinate axis,
shear stress is positive if it is acting in the negative direction of the coordinate axis. it is negative if it is acting in the positive direction of the coordinate axis.
15
+
Sign convention example:
+ -
Surface 1:
1 2
3 y x 4
Therefore shear stress is positive on the lower fluid and it is negative on the upper fluid.
16
Example
Area = 0.3 m2 h = 2 mm
x
Uo = 0.3 m/s
(constant)
oil = 3 Pa.s
Determine the (a) velocity profile in the oil. (b) shear stress distribution. (c) force required to pull the plate. (d) power required to pull the plate.
17
Time dependent
Thixotropic Rheopetic
Bingham plastic
Newtonian
Movie 1.2: Non-Newtonian fluids
Dialatant
Elastic solid Inviscid (ideal)
Pseudoplastic
du dy
18
Fortunately the most common ones, water and air behave as Newtonian.
Inviscid (ideal) fluids do not exist in real world. They have simplification for some analytical analysis. Viscous fluids are the real fluids. They have 0. = 0. This might be a useful
Dialatant fluids become thicker and thicker under increased shear stress. (printing ink). Bingham plastics do not flow below a certain amount of shear stress. (toothpaste).
Pseudoplastics become thinner and thinner under increased shear stress. (wall paint, blood).
For thixotropic fluids viscosity decreases with time (lipstick). For rheopetic fluids viscosity increases with time (betonite solution).
Movie 1.3: Capillary tube viscometer
www reference:
http://www.answers.com/topic/non-newtonian-fluid
19
Gas molecules have greater mobility, but weak intermolecular attraction forces.
Viscosity is due to the collision of molecules.
A eBT
CT 2 T D
3
Surface tension: ( ) [N/m] Surface tension is due to the asymmetric cohesive forces acting on the molecules of a free surface (interface between a liquid and a gas).
This asymmetry will result in a hypothetical skin (membrane) all around the surface
Movie 1.4: Magic sand
Surface tension exists whenever there is a density discontinuity between a liquid and another liquid or a gas or a solid. More about surface tension http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/exper2/exper2.htm
21
2 r
Liquid pi
Gas po
Force balance: pi
po
pi
r2
po 2 r
r2
2 r
pi - p o
A more general analysis for a double curvature surface (not the surface of a sphere) is given in the textbook.
22
ab ac
bc
If
ab
cos( ) +
bc
cos( ) = b: oil,
ac
then liquid b does not spread over liquid c Example: a: air, If > + c: water
ac
ab
bc
then there is no equilibrium. Liquid b will spread over liquid c. Example: a: air, b: gasoline, c: water
23
: wetting angle (angle of contact). It is always measured from solid/liquid interface to liquid/fluid interface.
ac
< /2
bc
Solid c
For equilibrium:
ab
cos( ) =
ac
Example: a: air,
b: water,
c: glass
ac
> /2
Example: a: air,
b: mercury,
c: glass
Solid c
24
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor pressure increases with temperature (high temperature increased molecular activity more molecules escaping from the free surface increased vapor pressure). Volatile liquids have high vapor pressure (easy to evaporate).
Nonvolatile liquids have low vapor pressure (hard to evaporate).
25
26