European Scientific Journal - Jan2012 - Vol8 - n1

European Scientific Journal January edition vol. 8, No.
1 ISSN: 1857 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431

European Scientific Journal
2012 / January
European Scientific Institute
with support from ,,Egalite Society for equal opportunities
Reviewed by the ,,European Scientific Institute editorial committee 2012,
January edition vol. 8, No.1
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Scientific Institute. Neither the European Scientific Institute nor any person acting on its
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ISSN: 1857 - 7431 (Online)
ISSN: 1857 - 7881 (Print)
European Scientific Journal January edition vol. 8, No.1 ISSN: 1857 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431
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Jovan Shopovski
University Ss Cyril and Methodius Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
Editor - in chief
International Editorial Committee
Nino Kemertelidze,
Professor at the Grigol Robakidze University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Kseanela Sotirofski,
Professor at the University Aleksander Moisiu, Durres, Albania
Vayia Karaiskou,
Assistant Professor at the Open University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Jose Noronha Rodrigues,
Assistant Professor of Law at the University of the Azores, Portugal
Sima Farshid,
Assistant Professor at the Islamic Azad University, Karaj Branch, Iran
Francesca Spigarelli,
Assistant Professor at the University of Macerata, Italy
Dejan Marolov,
University for Peace, Established by United Nations, Belgrade, Serbia
Meena Singhal,
PhD, Dean of Academic Services at Long Beach City College, California, USA
Nazan Yelkikalan,
Associate Professor at the Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
Faranak Seyyedi,
Islamic Azad University ,Tehran, Iran
Robert Sandor Szucs,
Senior Lecturer at College of Szolnok, Hungary
Dragica Vujadinovic,
Full Professor at the Faculty of Law, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Adnan M. Okour,
Professor at the Alghurair University, Dubai, UAE
Katalin Foldi,
Lecturer at College of Szolnok, Hungary
Mahmoud Sabri Al-Asal,
Assistant Professor at the Jadara University, Irbid, Jordan
Xu Changqing,
Assistant Professor at the Sun Yat Sen University, Guangzhou, China
Nkasiobi S. Oguzor,
Provost of Federal College of Education (Technical) Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria
Jacinta A. Opara,
Visiting Associate Professor, University of Azteca, Mexico
Thi Mai Hanh Do,
PhD, Lecturer at the Hochiminh City Law University, Vietnam
Table Of Contents:
Implementation Of Reproductive Health And HIV and AIDS Curriculum In The Teacher
Education Programmes In Nigeria............01
J. A. Adegboyega
Alade T. T.
Funding strategies and sustenance of early childhood education in Nigeria: the way
forward.........12
A. T. Alabi
N.Y.S. Ijaiya
Political Regime Type, Liberalization and Fiscal Deficits in Developing Countries:
Evidence from Nigeria22
Elijah Udoh
Nsikak Joshua
Ekemini A. Etok
Social Partners and Poverty Reduction Strategies in Ghana Can this be a Development
Success Story?.........................................................................................................................39
Daniel Kwabena Twerefou
Attitude of students to adult education as a course of study: A case study of the ekiti state
university, Ado Ekiti....65
Adedokun Mary Olufunke
Concerning domestic violence against women, is there a threshold for empowerment? The
cases of tho areas in Mexico...73
Maribel Lozano-Corts
Luis Cabrera-Castellanos
Career aspirations: An investigation of senior secondary school students awareness of
contemporary high profile careers..87
Oluwatimilehin J.T.B.
Owoyele Jimoh Wale
Application of Keith Morrows Features of Communicative Language Testing to a Test of
Communication Skills at MBA Level.98
AbdulBaseer
Sofia Dildar Alvi
The quest for quality management in Albanian public administration The case of CAF
menthod at TIPA...116
Blerina Gjylameti
Petrit Dollani
The Topic: Economic challenges in Kosovo 2011...124
Sanie Doda
Rapports between compositional parts of rural area in Gjirokastra region and its
perspectives136
Albina Sinani
Valbona Duri
Kozeta Sala
Elvira Shapllo
Basic Issues in Primary Education Delivery in Nigeria..150
Asodike, Juliana D.
Ikpitibo, Clinton L
Towards Effective Early Childhood Education Plant Planning.165
Asodike, Juliana Dibugonwanyi
The Region of Elbasan during theoccupationbyAustriaHungarian Army (1916-1918)..177
Lira Gjevori
Sokol Gjevori
Dimensions of the Quality of Service in the Jordanian Tourism Companies and their
Relationship to Customer Satisfaction.187
Omar (Mohamad Raouf) Hayajneh
Mohammad Nayef Alsarayreh
Mohammed Abdul Razzaq Abu Rumman
Marwan M. Al-Nsour
Toleration or Recognition. Towards A New Account of religious diversity in Contemporary
Egypt..207
Samah Ahmed Farid
Intergenerational households and well-being of the eldery in Nigeria...239
Elias Olukorede Wahab
Oludasa Ololade Anike
Sociological study of contemporary family..263
Baqir Sarukhani
Faranak Seyyedi
Dveloppement et conscience sociale en Cte dIvoire: les enjeux du pouvoir
alimentaire.267
Bouabre Gnoka Modeste
Test of Acceptability of profit and loss sharing financing arrangements by small scale
businesses in and around Kano City in Northern Nigeria..293
Suleiman Muhammad Hussaini
Hussaini Usman Malami
Socio-economic profile of cycle rickshaw pullers: a case study..310
Jabir Hasan Khan
Tarique Hassan
Shamshad
No Retreat No Surrender Conflict for Survival between Fulani Pastoralistsand Farmers in
Northern Nigeria...331
Isah Mohammed Abbass
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Multivariate Granger causality between economic growth, electricity consumption, exports
and remittance for the panel of three SAARC countries.347
Sharif Hossain
Theoritical evidence on the effect of motivationon individual and public organization
performance...........................................................................................................................377
Gentiana Kraja
Fiscal presure on SME in Albania and its impact on economic development...................387
Robert Celo
Lorenc Kociu
1
UDC: 616.98:578.828.7].084(669)
IMPLEMENTATION OF REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND
HIV AND AIDS CURRICULUM IN THE TEACHER
EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN NIGERIA
J. A. Adegboyega, PhD
Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education Unit Faculty of Education
Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria
Alade T. T. M. Ed
Department of Health & Health Education College of Education Ikere Ekiti, Nigeria
Abstract
The global concern and the recent scourge of HIV & AIDS brought to the fore the urgent
implementation of the Reproductive Health and HIV & AIDS curriculum in the Teacher
Education programmes at all the levels of education in Nigeria. This paper, therefore
examined the prevalence of HIV & AIDS, the objectives and rationale for the implementation
of reproductive health and HIV & AIDS. Also, the paper highlighted the Federal
Government and UNICEF (B-field) initiatives on HIV & AIDS and the roles of health
educators in the implementation of the reproductive health and HIV & AIDS curriculum in
the Teacher Education programmes in Nigeria. It was therefore recommended that the
curriculum on Reproductive health and HIV & AIDS constructed and vetted by experts
should be implemented in all the Teacher education programmes in Nigeria.
Keywords: Reproductive health, curriculum, HIV & AIDS, Teacher Education.
2
Introduction
The global concern and the scourge of HIV and AIDS worldwide brought to the fore
the urgent need to deal with adolescent reproductive health issues. Millions of people are
already infected with the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV) which acts to destroy the
T-cells and macrophages in the Immune System. Those who are infected with HIV may
progress to a much more common type of Immune Deficiency known as Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a disorder in which the immune system loses its
effectiveness, leaving the body defenseless against bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic,
cancerous, and other opportunistic diseases. Without the immune system, the body cannot
protect itself against the many organisms that can invade it and cause damage (Brannon and
Feist, 2007). AIDS, therefore, suggests a state of health in which the body system lacks
resistance to infectious and degenerative diseases. The victims of AIDS find that common
diarrhea, meningitis, pneumonia and tuberculosis could easily kill them, unlike in the past
when their bodies could have helped to prevent such diseases. The disease is known to be
contagious. The highest concentrations of the virus are found in blood and in semen. Blood
transfusions from an infected person, injection with a contaminated needle, unprotected
sexual intercourse and mother-child transmission during the birth process seem to be the most
common routes of infection.
The AIDS epidemic is a global crisis with impacts that will be felt for decades to
come. More than 28 million people have died since the first case was reported in 1981. In
2005, AIDS killed 2.8 million people, and an estimated 4.1 million became infected, bringing
to 38.6 million the number of people living with the virus around the world; 24.5 million of
these people live in Sub-Saharan Africa (where in some countries one in three adults are
infected) and 8.3 million live in Asia (UNAIDS, 2006). The UN report stated that the use of
anti-retroviral drugs have risen from 700,000 in 2004 to over 5 million people in 2009
(Makinde, 2010). The report, further stated that Sub-Saharan Africa continues to be the
region most affected by the epidemic, with around 70% of all new HIV infections occurring
at the zone.
The HIV virus was discovered in 1986 in Lagos, Nigeria, the most populous nation in
Africa with an estimated population of over 140 million people, has over 300,000 of its
citizens dying yearly of complications arising from AIDS (Makinde, 2010). The author,
further reported that official records show a steady rise in HIV prevalence rate, from 1.8% in
3
1988 to 5.8% in 2001, 5.0% in 2003 to 4.4% in 2005 and more recent figures put the
prevalence rate at 5%. Similarly, Oyakhire (2010a) reported that with about 3.8 million men,
women, and children currently living with HIV infection, Nigeria ranks forth among
countries with high disease burden after Uganda, South Africa and India. The author, further
stated that the HIV prevalence has moved up from 4.4 in 2008 to 4.6 in 2009. In some states
of the federation, the prevalence levels are twice, or even three times or more above the
national average.
One reasonable conclusion that could be drawn from those findings is that not much
has changed to reduce the rate of hetero-sexual transmission of HIV. Studies worldwide have
indicated that 80 to 90 percent of HIV infections occur through heterosexual mode of
transmission. Starting with an initial male to female transmission ratio of fifteen to one, the
situation in Nigeria has rapidly deteriorated such that, the ratio is about one to one
irrespective of biological factors (Oyakhire, 2010b).
The best way of fighting the HIV & AIDS scourge in the absence of a cure or vaccine
for protection is through a comprehensive programme of education, testing, counselling and
treatment. Education is the most effective preventive strategy in the war against HIV &
AIDS. Nigeria should use its rapidly improving school system as the main plank in the
teacher education programme, as this is where the highly vulnerable population of
adolescents and youths are to be found. Education is vital to dispelling the myths and
inaccuracies about HIV & AIDS, and providing the youths with the information that they
need to ensure their own safety. For instance, progressive social changes led American
schools in the past century to include citizenship training, physical education, vocational
training, driver and sex education. These subjects are considered useful for the youths to
flourish in the new society. There is no doubt that the implementation of Reproductive
Health and HIV & AIDS Curriculum in the Teacher Education programmes in Nigeria will
reduce the present menace arising from multifarious sex related problems.
4
Teacher Education in Nigeria
The National Policy on Education (2004) in Nigeria stipulates that Teacher Education
shall continue to be given major emphasis in all educational planning and development.
Thus, the goals of Teacher Education include:
1) To produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all
levels of the educational system;
2) To encourage further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers;
3) To help teachers to fit into social life of the community and the society at large and
enhance their commitment to national goals;
4) To provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for
their assignment and make them adaptable to changing situations;
5) To enhance teachers commitment to the teaching profession.
Based on these goals, the Teacher education programmes in Nigeria is structured to
equip teachers for the effective performance of their duties. One of the ways to equip the
teachers with adequate knowledge of the concepts of HIV and AIDS, including WHAT to
teach and HOW to teach the youths under their care is the implementation of reproductive
health and HIV & AIDS curriculum in the Teacher education programmes.
Teacher education programmes are available in the following institutions in Nigeria:
i. Colleges of Education;
ii. Faculties of Education in the Universities;
iii. Institutes of Education;
iv. National Teachers Institute;
v. School of Education in the Polytechnics;
vi. National Institute for Nigerian Languages (NINLAN);
vii. National Mathematical Centre (NMC)
The institutions enumerated above are required to train professional teachers in
Nigeria. The Teacher education programmes take cognizance of changes in methodology
and in the curriculum, hence the implementation of Reproductive health and HIV & AIDS
curriculum in the Teacher education in Nigeria is not out of place.
5
Objectives of Reproductive Health and HIV & AIDS in Teacher Education
The UN General Assembly special session on HIV & AIDS in June 2001 adopted and
agreed that by 2010, at least 95 percent of young men and women aged 15 to 24 should have
access to youth specific HIV education (Oyakhire, 2010a). Reproductive health and HIV &
AIDS education should be the concern of every individual, parents, teachers and students.
Students are expected to possess adequate knowledge about reproductive health and HIV &
AIDS if they are well guided by competent professional teachers. Teachers by virtue of their
training are supposed to be knowledgeable enough about reproductive health that they will be
able to disseminate such knowledge to the children or students they teach on graduation from
the institutions.
Comprehensive reproductive health education as stated by Adegboyega (2005) is a
planned process of education that fosters on the acquisition of factual information, formation
of positive attitudes, beliefs and values as well as development of skills to cope with
biological, psychological, socio-cultural and spiritual aspects of human sexuality. The main
goal of Reproductive Health Education is the promotion of sexual health by providing
learners with opportunities to:
1. Develop a positive and factual views of sexuality;
2. Acquire the information and skills they need to take care of their sexual health,
including preventing HIV & AIDS;
3. Respect and value themselves and others, and
4. Acquire the skills needed to make healthy decisions about their sexual health and
behaviour.
Certainly, there would be positive reinforcement for the efforts of local and
international organisations looking to stem the tide of HIV & AIDS pandemic. Some degree
of relief would equally be felt if reproductive health and HIV & AIDS curriculum is
incorporated into the Teacher Education programmes in Nigeria.
Rationale for Reproductive Health and HIV & AIDS
Young people need reproductive health education that model and teach positive self-
worth. They need information and assurance about what is happening to them. Even, as they
mature, some feel confused about what they are supposed to do in a variety of situations
making sense of evolving relationships with family and peers, experiencing new sexual
6
feelings, and trying to assess conflicting messages about who they are and what is expected
of them. The problem is compounded by the fact that young women particularly adolescents
are at the mercy of misinformation and pressure from peer groups, and from the failure of
parents and guardian to discuss sexual health because of cultural and religions reasons.
Oyakhire (2010b) observed that upper secondary school and lower tertiary school girls did
not understand their menstrual cycles, often mistaking ovulation for menstrual pain. The
author, stated further that the girls were unaware of emergency contraceptives and use
common family pills in the wrong doses and at the wrong periods. Some of the girls had
argued that HIV & AIDS is an adult problem. In addition, the author, discovered that older
women, sex workers (brothel and non brothel-based) had stronger ability to negotiate for
safer and wet sex, attended workshops on Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) including
HIV and were more knowledgeable about issues on reproductive health.
Unfortunately, many people still believe that teaching about sexuality would
encourage sexual experimentation though, several studies have been conducted to
determine whether sexuality education programmes actually increase young peoples sexual
involvement. Fortunately, NERCD (2001) conclusively showed that contrary to such beliefs,
there was no significant relationship between receiving formal sexuality education and
initiating sexual activity. Rather, sexuality education results in postponement or reduction in
the frequency of sexual activity and more effective use of contraception and adoption of safer
behaviour.
Instead of telling adolescents only about the health risks and potential negative
consequences associated with sex teachers need to provide young people with more
balanced messages. Adolescents certainly need to receive clear, protective messages about
sexual decision making, but they also need to hear affirming messages about healthy
sexuality. Reproductive health touches on many aspects of life, including biology; gender
roles, body image and inter-personal relationships; thoughts, beliefs, values, attitudes and
feelings; and sexual behaviours.
There is need to help young people develop a positive sense of their own sexuality by
creating opportunities for them to consider all aspects of human sexuality, to ask important
questions, and to understand that there are adults who supports them as they learn about this
part of themselves. Reproductive health is a broad-based and addressed all aspects of
sexuality such as safer sex, use of condom (male and female condom), early detection and
7
treatment of sexually transmitted infections, voluntary counseling and testing, emergency and
mandatory testing, and contraception as in cases of rape.
Federal Government Initiative in Nigeria
The concept of Sexuality Education (SE) was accepted as critical to helping young
people with the acquisition of adequate knowledge, skills and responsible attitudes in order to
prevent and reduce sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV & AIDS.
Consequently, at the 46th session of the National Council on Education (NCE) in March
1999, approval was given for the incorporation of Sexuality Education into the national
school curriculum.
In response to this new trend and based on the ever increasing wave of HIV & AIDS
cases in Nigeria, the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) in
collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Education and Action Health Incorporated
developed a National Sexuality Education Curriculum for upper primary school, junior
secondary school, senior secondary school and tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The draft
curriculum for each of the educational levels was forwarded to all the states in Nigeria, vetted
by experts in the relevant field of education under the auspices of the Ministry of Education.
The curriculum (NERDC, 2001) is structured in such a way that it provides a framework for
the acquisition of knowledge of human sexuality and family living from childhood to
adulthood. It also reflects a comprehensive approach to sexuality education from primary to
tertiary levels of education. The curriculum is organized around six themes. These are:
- Human development
- Personal skills
- Sexual health,
- Relationship,
- Sexual Behaviour
- Society and culture
Each theme covers knowledge, attitudes and the necessary skills that are available.
Unfortunately, the curriculum, good as it is, has not been implemented in the school
system in Nigeria. There is no doubt that healthy youths and other members of vulnerable
groups such as person living with HIV & AIDS (PLWAA) and persons secretly living with
8
HIV & AIDS will benefit immensely from the socially and scientifically constructed
curriculum, if implemented.
UNICEF Initiative in Nigeria
The UNICEF B-field (comprising of all the States Colleges of Education in South
West, Edo and Delta States, Nigeria) in collaboration with the College of Education, Ikere
Ekiti organised a workshop in Ado Ekiti at which participants drew a curriculum on HIV &
AIDS for students of Colleges of Education in B-field areas. This curriculum represents a
starting point for developing a comprehensive approach to Reproductive Health and HIV &
AIDS Education in Colleges of Education in Nigeria. It was developed through an inclusive,
representative and participatory process. The curriculum was designed to cover 3 semesters.
The course is assigned one credit unit per semester and should be made compulsory for all
students. The course is designed to be sequentially taught. Thus:
Year I: 1st Semester
- Historical Background of HIV & AIDS
- Adolescent reproductive health
- Strategies for improving self-esteem;
- Basic facts on HIV & AIDS
- HIV transmission
2nd Semester
- HIV & AIDS: fact and figures
- HIV prevention methods
- Role of youth in HIV prevention
- Youth as agents for Behaviour change
Year II: 1st Semester
- Dealing with AIDS impact on communities and family including harmful
traditional practices
- HIV Counselling and Testing
- Care and support for those living with/or affected by HIV & AIDS, orphans and
vulnerable children (including discriminations & stigmatization)
- The Faith Based perspective on HIV & AIDS
9
The curriculum was forwarded to the participating State Colleges of Education for
implementation. However, the course is taught and supervised by the General Studies Unit in
a few Colleges of Education in South-West, Nigeria.
It is not out of place to assert that teachers are a critical factor in qualitative education
delivery hence, teacher preparation and professionalisation must be pursued assiduously.
Based on this fact, the UNICEF B-field organised a five-day workshop on skills and
strategies for teaching reproductive health and HIV & AIDS in Colleges of Education in B-
field coverage. The training and mentoring is one way of providing the participants support
with a view to updating the skills of teachers and also a step forward towards educating the
teachers who will handle the teaching of HIV & AIDS curriculum in the Colleges of
Education.
Sexually transmitted infections and HIV & AIDS are said to be behavioural
infections, they can be controlled with behaviour change strategies (Achalu, 1993). Health
Education, as a means of behaviour change, has been proven effective in the control of STIs
and HIV & AIDS, hence, the role of health Educators can not be ignored in the effective
implementation of Reproductive Health and HIV & AIDS curriculum in Nigeria. The health
educators can influence positively the attitudes and behaviour of their students through
information and quality education.
Role of Health Educators in the Implementation of Reproductive Health and HIV &
AIDS Curriculum
Generally, the purpose of health education is help people make intelligent decisions
and take actions that will improve or promote health. The importance of health education as
a means of controlling sexually transmitted infections and HIV & AIDS is widely accepted,
since it is increasingly recognized that their prevention, transmission, diagnosis, and
treatment are influenced to a large extent by the behavioural and socio-cultural factors
involved (WHO, 1977). The focus of health education in HIV & AIDS control is to motivate
towards educational objectives related to sexual behaviour, promotion of sexual
discrimination, use of condom, avoidance of self-medication, recognition of symptoms and
reporting early for treatment.
Health educators may involve the use of information and education to influence
knowledge, attitudes and behaviour towards a healthier lifestyle. The method of health
10
education can be unilateral or bilateral (Achalu, 1993). The unilateral methods include the
use of film, television, slides, radio, tapes, written materials, lectures or seminars. The
bilateral techniques involve discussions, small group meetings, demonstrations with
questions and group discussions with public participation. The unilateral methods are highly
effective in making large sections of the population aware of the dangers or problems of HIV
& AIDS. Bilateral methods are used to get people change attitude and behaviour because it
encourages personal participation, and their ability to creates commitment favourable to
change, establishment of group standards and pressures that induce individuals to alter their
behaviours. It is important that health educators could combine the two methods in their
programme and to consider the needs of the students they teach.
The teacher could use the following approach during teaching-learning process.
- Group or small group discussion.
- Demonstration with questions and answers on HIV & AIDS.
- Dramatization or role play-revealing the consequences or having many suxual
partners.
- Moral talks on HIV & AIDS during morning assembly.
- Organizing a debate on any topic related to sexual behaviour among the youths.
- Organizing seminars, inviting guest speakers to talk on HIV & AIDS
Conclusion
Literature search has shown that the societal attitudes towards sex coupled with the
wide-spread of ignorance are the major factors contributing to the spread of HIV & AIDS in
Nigeria. Human behaviour is very complex and hard to change. STIs and HIV & AIDS are
said to be behavioural infections. They can be controlled with behaviour change strategies.
Immediate implementation of Reproduction Health and HIV & AIDS curriculum,
already constructed and vetted For Teacher Education, is one of the strategies that can
influence the attitudes and behaviour of the youths and adult population in Nigeria. Hence,
health educators could use available teaching methods to influence the attitudes and
behaviour of their students through information and education in an effort to minimize or
prevent the spread of HIV & AIDS and other STIs infections in Nigeria.
11
Recommendation
The following recommendations are made towards the implementation of
Reproductive Health and HIV & AIDS curriculum.
1) The curriculum on Reproductive health and HIV & AIDS already constructed and
vetted by experts should be incorporated into the Teacher Education Programmes in
all the tertiary institutions responsible for the training of teachers in Nigeria.
2) A Work Plan of Action on the implementation of HIV & AIDS curriculum should be
developed by the Federal Ministry of Education
3) Health educators should organize virile anti-HIV & AIDS clubs among the students in
their institutions.
References:
Achalu, E. I. (1993). AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. Ibadan, Wemilore Press
(Nig.) Ltd.
Adegboyega, J. A. (2005). The Role of health educators in the implementation of
reproductive health and HIV & AIDS curriculum in the Universal Basic Education
Programme. JOSMER, Vol. 1, (2), 220 229
Brannon, L. and Feist, J. (2007). Health Psychology: An introduction to Behaviour and
Health, USA, Thomson & Wadsworth, 6th ed.
Makinde, T. (1010). HIV & AIDS in Nigeria: fighting to win or lose, The Nation, May 2, 62.
National Policy on Education (2004). Teacher Education, 4th Ed. Federal Republic of
Nigeria.
National Educational Research Development Council (2001). National sexuality Education
Curriculum. Abuja, NERCD Publication.
Oyakhire, M. (2010a). HIV & AIDS cross cutting issues. The Nation, March 20, 45
Oyakhire, M, (2010b). HIV & AIDS: Matters arising. The Nation, April 3, 45
UNAIDS (2006). Report on the global Aids epidemic, Geneva: UNAIDS
World Health Organization (1977). Social and health aspects of sexually transmitted disease,
Principles, Control Measures, Geneva.
12
UDC:373.2(662.6)
FUNDING STRATEGIES AND SUSTENANCE OF EARLY
CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN NIGERIA: THE WAY
FORWARD
A. T. Alabi, PhD
N.Y.S. Ijaiya, PhD
Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria
Abstract
This paper examined the existing funding strategies of Early Childhood Education (ECE) in Nigeria with a view
to suggesting strategies for its better funding and sustenance. The paper recognised the commitment of the
Nigerian Governments and the support of the community, individuals and foreign sponsors in funding ECE
programmes. The paper however submitted that much more still needs to be done towards providing adequate
funds for quality teachers/caregivers, supply of appropriate facilities and stimulating learning materials as well
as supervision of ECCD programmes. Towards this end, increased government allocations, sustained
international support, financial allocation to ECE teacher training institutions, equity funding and cost-sharing
strategies were recommended.
Keywords: Early Childhood, Education, Funding Strategies, Sustenance
Introduction
Education is increasingly attracting more attention all over the world as the bedrock
of human capital development and knowledge economy and taking care of the childs
development right from birth is now recognized as the best option as a starter. Thus, the
nature and intensity of care, nutrition and stimulation a child receives during this period
determines to a large extent the level of physical, cognitive and psychosocial development a
child can attain (UNICEF Nigeria, Undated). The learning process starts from the parents at
home and then moves to the teachers in the school.
13
Early Childhood Education (ECE), also called Early Childhood Care and Education
(ECCE) in China and Integrated Early Childhood Development (IECD) in Nigeria, refers to
the education that children receive during the early stage of their childhood (REAP,2001).
Early Childhood Education could also be a major input into a childs formal education. The
importance of Early Childhood Education includes development of mental functions of
children in areas such as language, motor skills, psychosocial, cognitive and learning
(Bowman, Donovan and Burns, 2001). Furthermore, Early Childhood Education develops in
children school readiness, with positive economic and social impacts lasting well into
adulthood from higher education attainment and less chance of involvement in criminal
activities, to higher status employment and higher earnings (Schweinhart, 2007, Sparling,
Ramey and Ramey, 2007).
In the National Policy on Education, the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004), Early
Childhood Education is labelled as Pre-primary Education and is defined as the education
given in an educational institution to children aged three to five plus prior to their entering the
primary school. As stated in the policy document, the purpose of pre-primary education
includes, among others:
i. Providing a smooth transition from the home to the school;
ii. preparing the child for the primary level of education;
iii. providing adequate care and supervision for the children while their parents are at
work;
iv. inculcating in the child the spirit of enquiry and creativity through the exploration of
nature, and the local environment, playing with toys, artistic and musical
activities,etc.
v. teaching the rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes forms, etc. through play,
and
vi. inculcating social norms.
Appropriate levels of Government (State and Local) are required to establish and
enforce educational laws that will ensure that established pre-primary schools are well-run,
pre-primary teachers well qualified, and other appropriate academic infrastructure provided.
The vital roles played by early childhood education in the overall development of a
child are recognised all over the world. This is evident in the attention and committed efforts
on early child education in these countries (New Zealand, Gambia, Senegal, Mali, Zambia, )
Nigeria, also signed up to the Jomiten Declaration on Education for all (EFA) in 1990, to
provide comprehensive Early Childhood Education and Care for all pre-primary schoolers.
Early childhood Education, now included in the UBE programmes requiring every public
school to have a pre-primary linkage, had hitherto been an exclusive preserve of the private
14
sector. Though, Early Childhood Education is included in the National Policy in Education
(1981, 1998, and 2004), the Federal government of Nigeria showed more commitment with
the inauguration of the Early Childhood Education Policy in 2004.
To achieve these laudable objectives of Early Childhood Education requires provision
of basic resources such as qualified and competent teachers and care givers as well as
appropriate learning environment in terms of space, security/safety and materials for
playing/learning. Adequate provision of these resources requires adequate funds. This paper is
therefore focused on the existing funding strategies of early childhood education in Nigeria,
with a view to suggesting appropriate funding strategies for effectiveness of Early Childhood
Education.
Concept of Early Childhood Education
Early Childcare and Development has been variously defined (Uzodinma and Akinware,
2001):
i. the education provided for children 0-3 years in Day Care centres and for 3 years to
under 6 years in Nursery schools.
ii. a community-based, low-cost project for the holistic development of the child from 0-
6 years.
iii. a comprehensive approach to policies and programmes for children from birth to 8
years of age, their parents and caregivers with the purpose of protecting the childrens
rights to develop their full cognitive, emotional, social and physical potentials.
Early Childhood Development is also perceived as the foundation of human development,
economic growth, social change and transformation in Africa (Aidoo, 2008).
Literature reveals that there are three types of Early Childhood Education which are
either home-based or centre-based. These are:
i. Day care education
ii. Nursery school education and
iii. Kindergarten education
Day care education is given to children of 0-2 years while Nursery school education is
offered to children of ages 3-5 years. Kindergarten education is an integral part of Nursery
education and generally restricted to children aged 5 years. It is a preparatory class for formal
primary school education.
Early Childhood Education is flexible in structure with baby-friendly and learning
friendly environment. The infrastructure has specification and varieties with tender and
sensitive furniture. The establishment and management of Early Childhood Education centres
15
are facilitated and regulated by government rules and regulations, which ensure
standardization but very little uniformity.
In Nigeria today, with the incorporation of Early Childhood Education into the UBE
programme in 2004, every public primary school is to integrate Early Childhood Education
into its programme. This integration is backed up by government financing and supported by
the community, individuals and foreign sponsorship. For instance, three states in the
Federation namely Kwara, Kaduna and Kano were given special World Bank Grant in 2008-
2011 to set up model Early Childhood Education centres. In Kwara state, model Early
Childhood Education is run in public schools with support mainly from the national purse
through counterpart funding and international agencies such as the World Bank, UNICEF,
and ESSPIN (Education Sector Support Programme in Nigeria). .
Funding of Early Childhood Education
Funding is very crucial to achieving success in any public service. In a study
conducted by Alabi (2003) on Evaluation of Universal Basic Education Process on Primary
School Enrolment in Kwara state, Early Childhood Education was not implemented at all.
Among the reasons for zero percent implementation had to do with funding policies. In Early
Childhood Education, adequate funds need to be made available for provision of many
resources. These resources include: facilities and stimulating materials for teaching, training
and re-training of staff (teachers and caregivers) in appropriate institutions such as colleges of
education and universities), enrichment and sensitization of programmes through regular
workshops, monitoring, uniforms, feeding, immunisation, supervision and inspection, report
writing, publications, school meals and training manuals. As rightly observed by Ijaiya
(2001), with adequate resources, access to education can be increased while quality suffers
with poor funding.
In developed countries, the funding of pre-school education is usually given a prime
place in the nations budgets. America for instance estimated the cost of providing a quality
preschool education to be $70 billion a year with annual cost per child of about $8,700
(Ajayi, 2008). Likewise in Ireland, the total funding made available for childcare is 436.7
million Euros ($580 million). Other countries that realised the economic and social benefits
of pre-school education and invested greatly in it include Brazil, Zambia, Niger, South Africa
and Ghana. (Ramires, Paira and Almeida, 2009).
With permission granted for private efforts in the provision of pre-primary education
in Nigeria, the resultant Day Care centres and Nursery/primary schools are profit-oriented
and self-financed. Proprietors run the schools with finances from school fees and other levies
charged the parents. The fees could range from500 per month to 5,000 or above
especially in the urban metropolis like Lagos. The better the facilities, the higher the fees they
charge. For the neighbourhood type (Jele o simi in Yoruba) as well as Nursery schools in the
rural areas, fees are charged according to how interested parents can afford. The Jele o simi
group, for instance started with 10 per day per child (now upgraded to between 20 and
50 per day) in Ilorin metropolis. Many parents are poor and unable to pay even the minimal
16
fee of 20. Due to accruing meagre finances, the children are usually cared for by one or at
most two untrained caregivers who do it to earn a living. Children are kept in crowded
environment, chorusing alphabets to keep them busy between 8.am and 1.00pm or later in
other places until their parents come for them. So, in such an un-conducive environment,
little is learnt by the children. Same goes for the learning environment of rural Nursery
schools where facilities and quality of teachers are usually below standard. With possibly the
exemption of the few Nursery schools established by some universities, colleges of
education, companies and a few rich individuals, the quality of facilities and staff is generally
low (Ejieh, 2006). In terms of financing, therefore, parents and local communities manage
and run these centres with minimal financial resources and inadequate materials.
With the emergence of public Early Childhood Education integrated into public primary
schools, governments participation and ownership are expanding, courtesy of the UBE Act
(2004). Funding is mainly through FGN-UBE counterpart funds where both federal and state
governments supply funds to Basic Education. According to UBEC (2009), this is the first
time that Basic Education has a quantum of funds being pumped into it. Sources of financing
are both external and internal.
1. Internal Sources
a. UBE Intervention Fund from the Federal Government of Nigerias Consolidated
Revenue Fund. Table 1shows the FGN/ UBE Matching Grant between 2006 and 2010
Table 1
Budgetary Allocations from the FGN-UBE Matching Grant (2006-2010)
Year Releases Disbursement Unaccessed
2006 21,336,000,000 21,308,459,363 -
2007 24,710,000,000 24,041,404.787 668,295,213
2008 30,800,000,000 23,119,020,296 7,680,979,703
2009 19,651,500,000 10,776,863,151 8,874,636,849
2010 23,042,932,729 4,668,022,704 18,374,910,024
Total 119,54,04,32,729 83,913,770,301 35,598,821,788
Source: UBEC (2011) update on the Activities of UBEC
17
The UBE law stipulated that 5% of these grants are allocated to Early Childhood
Education and Development in all the 36 states and the FCT. However, the drawback here is
that many states have been found wanting in honouring the system of counterpart funding put
in place to boost UBE implementation. This development has drawn the displeasure of the
Federal Government and the Minister of Education in recent times. In fact, a recent meeting
of the Minister of Education with State Governors centred mainly on educating the latter on
the counterpart funding and the way States attitude is adversely affecting the implementation
of UBE, including ECCD.
b. Complementary funding from State and Local Governments
c. Funds or consolidated contributions in form of Federal guaranteed credits
d. Local individual/corporate, as well as international donor grants.
e. Contributions for privately owned ECD centres, Nurseries and Pre-Primary
Schools, by communities, NGOs and private individuals through personal savings
loans (UNESCO/ IBE, 2006).
2. External sources
a. World Bank providing grants for Early Childhood Education model centres and
training of teachers, caregivers and stimulating materials through school grant.
b. UNICEF and UNESCO in some local communities
c. Education Sector Support Programme in Nigeria (ESSPIN) under DFID
technical support. For example, involved in turn around of College of Education,
Oro in Kwara State for the training and production of Early Childhood Education
teachers as well as curriculum development for NCCE.
In spite of these varied sources of funding, much more still need to be done in terms
of quality of Early Childhood Education teachers and caregivers, supply of facilities and
learning materials to provide a conducive learning environment, monitoring/supervision of
ECCD programmes as well as production and distribution of appropriate manuals, materials
and publications.
To be able to generate adequate funds to turn around Early Childhood Education for
good, the following funding strategies are recommended:
Increased Government Allocation
As given a prime place in the developed nations budgets, ECCD needs to be
specially budgeted for and/or increase its percentage of UBE matching grant to at least 10%.
This is necessary in view of the recognised immediate and long-term benefits of Early
Childhood Education to the recipients such as improved cognitive abilities, social and motor
18
skills (Osakwe, 2009). Such increased funds should be focused on improving the quality of
all resources human and material- to provide a more conducive environment for the
achievement of Early Childhood Education objectives. There is thus the need to make
realistic budget for ECCD subsector. The Nigerian education budgets may need to be
substantially increased and or increased percentage accorded to preschool programmes. State
Governments also need to improve their attitude to counterpart funding system to make it
work for ECCD.
Sustained International Support
Various international organisations have contributed funds, materials and technical
support to get Early Childhood Education to its present level/status in Nigeria. Such
organisations include UNICEF, UNESCO, ESSPIN and World Bank. In order to sustain and
possibly increase such contributions, efforts need to be made by the various governments and
their agencies (UBEC, SUBEB etc) towards prudence and accountability in their use of such
supports. The donors should insist on at least two years of independent private monitoring
and fund it.
Financial Allocation to Early Childhood Education Teachers Training Institutions
One of the major oversights of the government in educational planning is the un-
preparedness of the right teachers for policy implementation. It has been the bane of
educational development (Ijaiya, 2004). The ECCD suffered the same fate throughout
Nigeria. Few educational institutions run Early Childhood Education as a discipline in
Nigeria. In Kwara state for instance, College of Education, Oro is the only institution which
started the programme in 2008 with the technical supports of ESSPIN. It is similar all over
Nigeria. The states had to resort to transfer of primary school teachers to ECCD classes as an
alternative even though most were not ECE professionals. Teachers hold the reign to the
success of any educational policy, more so for 0-5 years. Therefore, more funds need to be
directed to mount Early Childhood Education programmes in teacher education institutions.
The extra allocation would be needed to equip the relevant sections of the institution with
appropriate and adequate resources and materials to train Early Childhood Education teachers
and caregivers.
Equity Funding of Early Childhood Education Programmes
Equity funding is recommended to take care of the various groups needing ECCD
services as done in New Zealand. In that country, the groups include low socio-economic
communities, children with special needs and non-English speaking backgrounds, language
and culture other than English (NZ Education, 2011). In the case of Nigeria, groups to be
considered should include low socio-economic factors, special needs children, destitute
children, location (rural/urban) and proprietorship (private and public) of the centres.
Financial Focus on Establishment of Early Childhood Education Centres
For now, every public primary school should have a well-equipped section dedicated
to Early Childhood Education so that it can be brought to parents doorstep. With time,
19
purely Early Childhood Education centres should be established to create the unique
environment required for this level of education. This requires a lot of planning of which
funds- immediate and sustained, constitute a very crucial part. In addition, matching grants
and other grants should be given to communities to set up Early Childhood Education centres
which are run at reduced cost to parents.
Cost- Sharing among Stakeholders and Beneficiaries of Education.
Though it is good that the governments should shoulder a lot of responsibilities, the
reality on ground is that Nigeria is still a third world country. It cannot afford to carry all the
load of education and other competing sectors. There is therefore a need to share the cost of
education.
Universal Basic Education Law implies that education is free but free education
concept is a relative term. Education has never been free anywhere. So, if parents are feeding
their children already, there is the need for nutritional education on the quality of meals that
children need to grow and develop. Due to ignorance, many parents serve children meals that
are not beneficial to the body such as garri, eba and especially biscuits children take to school
that are laden with all sorts of additives and preservatives from the factory such as caffeine
and colouring. Instead, parents and children should be educated in the school, on television,
radio on the type of food needed by children. Nigeria is blessed with many fruits round the
year. Schools can prescribe the fruits that are in season e.g. oranges, banana, carrot, apple,
and garden egg for children to bring to school. On weekly or daily basis, teachers can tell
children the types of snacks to bring to school at low cost. It will go a long way to educate the
parents and children on the quality of food needed to grow and develop along the lines
expected by ECCD
Conclusion
The Federal Government of Nigeria has no doubt demonstrated more commitment to
Early Childhood Education and Development (ECCD). This is evident from the inauguration
of ECCD policy in 2004, backed up by government financing and supported by the
community, individuals and foreign sponsorship. However, much more still needs to be done
in terms of adequate funds for quality teachers/caregivers, supply of facilities and learning
materials as well as monitoring of ECCD programmes.
20
References:
Aidoo, A.K. (2008). Positioning ECD Nationally; Trends in selected African countries. In M.
Garcia, A. Pence and Evans, J.L. (Eds.). Africas future, Africas challenge: Early Childhood
Care and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, (pp. 29-49). Washington, DC: World Bank
Alabi, A.T. (2003). Evaluation of the impact of Universal Basic Education process on
primary school enrolment in Kwara state. Nigerian Journal of Educational Research and
Evaluation, 4,(1), 7-12.
Ajayi, H.O. (2008). Early childhood education in Nigeria: A reality or a mirage?
Contemporary issues in early childhood, 9, (4), 375-380, viewed 10 November, 2011,
<www.wwords.co.uk/pdf/validates.asp?j=cie&vol=9&issue+4&year+2008&article=11_Ajay
i_CIEC_9_4_web>
Bowman, B., M. Donovan and M. Burns.(Eds.) (2001). Eager to Learn: Educating Our
Preschoolers, Committee on Early Childhood Pedagogy, Commission on Behavioural and
Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council, National Academy Press,
Washington, DC.
Ejieh, M.U.C. (2006). Pre-primary education in Nigeria: Policy implementation and
problems. Elementary Education online, 5, (1), 56-64, viewed 5 November, 2011,
<http://ikogretim-online.org>
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004).National Policy on Education (4
th
ed). Lagos: NERDC
Press
Ijaiya, Y. (2001). From Quality Control to Quality Assessment: A panacea for Quality
Education in Nigeria Schools in N.A. Nwagu, E.T. Ehiaetalor, M.A. Ogunu & Mon Nwadiani
(Eds). Current Issues in Educational Management in Nigeria. A publication of the Nigerian
Association of Educational Administration and Planning.
New Zealand Ministry of Education (2011). Welcome to Early Childhood Education,
Leadership, Management and Administration, viewed 12 November, 2011,
<www.mined.govt.nz.NZEducation/EducationPolicies/EarlycHildhood.aspx>
Osakwe, R.N. (2009). The effects of early childhood development experience on the
academic performance of primary school children. Stud Home Com Sci., 3,(2), 143-147.
REAP (2011). Early Child Education, viewed 11 November, 2011,
<http://reap.standford.edu/docs/early_childhood_education>
Ramires, V.R., Paira, M.G.G. & Almeida, L. (2009). Early Childhood Care and Education:
Worldwide Challenges and Progresses, viewed 23 October, 2011,
<http://www.tc.edu/cice/issues/11.00/PDFs/11completeissue.pdf>
Schweinhart, L.J. (2007). Outcomes of the high/scope Perry preschool Study andMichigan
School Readiness Program in Early Child Development From Measurement to Action: A
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Priority for Growth and Equity, M.E. Young (Ed), International Bank for
Reconstruction/World Bank, Washington, DC.
Sparling, J., C.T. Ramey & S.L. Ramey (2007). The Abecedarian Experiencein Early Child
Development From Measurement to Action: A priority for Growth and Equity, Ed. M.E.
Young, International Bank for Reconstruction/World Bank, Washington, DC.
The UBEC Newsletter (2009). FGN-UBE Intervention.
UBEC (2004). 2004 Annual Report. Abuja: Universal Basic Education Commission.
UBEC (2011). Update on the activities of UBEC. A paper presented at the 57
th
meeting of the
National Council on Education (NCE) held in Sokoto, Sokoto State (21
st
-25
th
Feb).
UNESCO, IBE (2006). Nigeria Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) programmes. A
country profile prepared for EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2007, viewed 15 November,
2011, <www.unesdoc.unesco.org/image/0014/001472/14720ie.pdf>
UNICEF Nigeria (Undated). The Children- Early Childhood Care and Education, viewed 6
November, 2011, <www.unicef.org/nigeria/children_1931.html>
Uzodinma, E.C.C. & Akinware, M. (2001). Early childhood education: Indicators in the
structure and content of the educational system of Nigeria, viewed 9 November, 2011,
<www.childcareexchange.com/wf/history/presentation/pdf/presentation_2011_akinware.pdf>
22
UDC: 378.147.091.32-057.875(497.751)
POLITICAL REGIME TYPE, LIBERALIZATION AND
FISCAL DEFICITS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
EVIDENCE FROM NIGERIA
Elijah Udoh, PhD
Nsikak Joshua
.
Ekemini A. Etok
Department of Economics, University of Calabar, Calabar
Abstract:
Chronic and persistent incidence of public deficits has been one of the debated issues in the past four decades.
Many analysts have attempted to associate the poor fiscal outcome with military rule, thereby wrongly
exonerating the democratic regime of not accumulating deficits. This study examines the relationship between
government-type and fiscal deficits in Nigeria using time series data for the periods 1970-2010. The study
applied econometric technique of ordinary least square method (OLS) and found that government-type does
matter for fiscal operations in Nigeria. Specifically, the study found that democratic regimes in Nigeria do
accumulate fiscal deficits contrary to earlier expectation. In addition, the findings show that there was strong
inclination for fiscal deficits to decrease with financial liberalization, while liberalization of foreign trade leads
to the increase in fiscal deficits. It is recommended that government should sustain the financial sector reforms
in Nigeria, encourage productive spending on infrastructure for economic growth and development under a
democratic atmosphere. Appropriate mechanisms should be put in place for efficiency in public financial
management. The principle of value for money should be imbibed in execution of public project to ensure
accountability and transparency in the democratic government.
Keywords: Political regime, Liberalization, budget deficits, Nigeria
Introduction:
Chronic and persistent incidence of public deficits has been one of the debated issues
in the past four decades. The issue of deficit was initially considered a macroeconomic
phenomenon which occurs when ever public expenditure exceeds public revenue. Existing
23
economic theory predicts that deficits will disappear during the prosperous years of business
activities. However, in most Countries the deficits have persisted and even extend to several
decades with its attendant increase in public debt burden (Bayar and Smeets, 2009). The
servicing of this debt burden leads to more deficits and the process continues.
Other consequences of budget deficits include the deterioration of external reserves,
fall in the rate of economic activities, financial imbalances in the public sector, among others.
For instance, as output falls, tax revenue mobilized by the government will fall, and
appropriate fiscal response may imply tax reduction to stimulate aggregate effective demand,
as advocated by Keynesian economics. But this, however, will depend on whether the
Ricardian equivalence hypothesis holds (Barro, 1989). Again, this depends on the soundness
of the tax system and the ability of the government to roll out fiscal stimulus to counter such
conditions as done in the developed countries.
In Nigeria, the fiscal performance over the past four decades or so has not been so
impressive. Several years of deficits punctuated by few surpluses leave us with much to
desire. Empirical facts have shown that fiscal deficit in Nigeria in 1970 had stood at 455.1
million naira. But this has grown over the years to 810020.70 million naira in 2009 (CBN,
2009). One possible reason for the deficits during the 1970s could be traced to the
reconstruction efforts of the government after the civil war. Similarly, the fall in government
revenue as a result of falling oil prices in the international market led to the deficits recorded
in the early 1980s. Except in 1995 and 1996 when surpluses were recorded, the rest of the
fiscal years all recorded deficits.
The debate as to what determine public deficits has been a long standing issue. While
some debaters point to economic factors as possible determinants of fiscal deficits, others
consider political and institutional factors as possible factors causing deficits. Contrary to the
traditional belief of economic determinants of public deficits, the development of political
economics in the 1980s has shaded more light by looking at the determinants of budget
deficits from both economic and political perspectives. From the political angle, studies
(Alesina and Tabellini, 1990; Edwards and Tabellini, 1991; Skilling, 2001; Woo 2003 etc)
have found several political factor such as political instability; government fragmentation;
political institutions, etc. as possible cause of fiscal deficits. On the institutional ground,
factors like budgetary procedures and rules; bureaucratic efficiency; and democracies have
been identified as causal factors of fiscal deficits (De Haan and Sturn 1994; Von Hagen and
Harden, 1996; killing 2001). While on the social front, income inequality and ethnic
divisions have been identified as possible determinants of fiscal deficits.
24
Despite these studies, the controversy over the role of the structure or government
type in fiscal deficits accumulation remains unresolved. The objective of this paper
therefore is to examine the determinants of fiscal deficits in Nigeria by focusing on the
influence of the structure or type of government on the overall fiscal deficits. The rest of the
paper is organized as follows section 2 provides a literature review of related theoretical and
empirical studies. Section 3 presents Data sources and the methodology. Empirical Results
is presented in section 4, while section 5 is the conclusion.
1. Literature review:
The debates as to what determines the extents of fiscal deficits have been raging on
for some decades. The traditional debate focuses on economic factors as determinants of
fiscal deficits, while the modern debate considers both political as well as economic factors
as determinants of fiscal deficits. This literature unifies both opinions in reviewing relevant
literature on the determinants of fiscal deficits.
There are a large number of literatures on economic factors causing budget deficits.
One of such study is the study by Woo (2003). In his empirical work, inflation, Real Gross
Domestic Product, financial depth, and Population, have been found to exert a positive
influence on fiscal deficits in both developed and developing countries.
There are also many studies relating inflation to fiscal deficits. The literature in this
respect has failed to reach a consensus on the possible relationship between inflation and
budget deficits. On the proponent side, studies such as Dwyer (1982); Choudhary and pari
(1991); Darat (1985); Ahking and Miller (1985); Dogas (1992); Metin (1992); Cevdet et al,
(1996); Darat (2000); Ignacio Lozano (2008); Oladipo and Akinbobola (2011) among others
have found that budget deficits exerted a significant impact on inflation. Other studies
however, have found that deficits do not lead to inflation ( Dwyer 1982; Karras 1994;
Abizadeh and Yousefi 1998, Sahan, 2010; Marco and Andrew, 2010 among others).
Concerning the link between trade liberalization and budget deficit, most studies
agree that there exists significant influence of trade openness on budget deficits. For example,
studies such as Cameron 1978; Rodrik1998; Sanz and Velzquez, 2003;Combes and Saadi-
Sedik, 2006, among others have found a positive association between trade openness and the
size of the public sector, represented by fiscal deficits. One possible explanation from these
studies is that government expenditures provide social insurance against external risk. Thus
as trade openness increases external risk, citizens will demand more redistribution through
additional public expenditures. However, other findings have challenged this result,
25
suggesting that either the size of governments has not changed to mitigate the effects of
greater openness (Islam, 2004). Also, Molanaet
al. (2004) has that causality from trade openness to government size is not supported by data.
On the other hand, Iversen and Cusack (2000) have shown the absence of any relationship
between globalization and the level of employment and wages.
Furthermore a large number of literature also exist linking budget deficits to interest
rates. Once again, the literature in this regard has failed to agree on the relationship between
budget deficits and interest rate. For instance, Dwyer (1982); Hoelscher (1983); Kormendi
(1983); Dewarld (1983); Darat (1990); Findly (1990) and others have provided no significant
effects of government budget deficit on interest rates. In contrast, Feldsteen (1982); Tranzi
(1985); Holscher (1986); Wochitel and Young (1987); Zaud (1988); Allen (1990); Knot and
De Haan (1999); Vamvoukas (2000), among others, in their separate studies have found that
large government budget deficits have a significant effect on interest rates. The divergences
in results from these studies have been attributed to differences in choice of variables,
methodology used and sample period considered.
Apart from economic factors, a large volume of literature also explains the link
between budget deficits and political variables. Studies such as Woo (2003); Roubini and
Sachs (1989 a, b); Grilli et al (1991); Alesina et al (1997) have provided evidence of weak
government argument. For instance, Roubini and Sachs (1989 a, b), have found that the
persistence and size of budget deficits is greatest where there have been multi-party coalition
governments. However, this result has been challenged by Edin and Ohlsson (1991) in
favour of minority governments.
Concerning the relationship between political instability and budget deficits, the
literature is rather mixed in opinions. While studies such as Edwards and Tabellini (1991);
Alesina and Tabellini (1990); Pesson and svenson (1989); Pasten and Cover, (2010), have
found political instability, proxied by the frequency of government changes, a strong
determinant of government deficits, a separate study by Grilli et al (1990) has found no
evidence of political instability impact on budget deficits.
There are also various studies stressing the relationship between government
fragmentation and fiscal deficits. For instance, Roubini and Sachs (1989); Edwin and
Ohlsson (1994); Skilling (2001); Bradbury and Grain (2001); Kontopoulos and Perotti
(1999); Volkerink and De Haan (2001); among others have found government fragmentation
of various degrees as a major determinants of fiscal deficit. The degree of fragmentation in
these studies may be defined in terms of Coalition government (Skilling 2001), size of the
26
legislature (Bradbury and Cain, 2001), and number of spending ministries (Volkerink and De
Haan, 2001). However, Bayar and Smeets, (2009) has found that political fragmentation does
not play a significant role in government deficits.
Meanwhile several other studies: Von Hagen, 1992; De Haan and Sturn 1994; Von
Hagen and Harden, 1996; killing 2001, among others have indicated a strong link between
the degree of budgetary centralization and fiscal deficits. The strong link between the degree
of budgetary centralization can however be defined in terms of expenditure, deficits and
debts. There are also very influential studies that relate partisan effect to budget deficits.
Partisan models are based on ideological motivations which reflect the pattern of deficits,
depending on the orientation of the government in office. For example, Alesina and Roubini
(1997); Perotti and kontopoulos (2002); Vollcerink and De Haan (2001) and Mulas-
Granados (2003), have found no significantly higher deficits for left-wing governments as
compared to other governments. And within the opportunistic models, empirical studies (e.g.
Mink and De Haan, 2005; Bayar and Smeets,2009) have shown that higher deficits are
usually recorded in election year and shortly before, as a result of the government giving
bonuses to the electorate and trying to gain popularity before the elections. In an empirical
investigation, Mink and De Haan (2005) found that during election years, deficits tend to be
higher, whereas in the year preceding the election they are not. Andrikopoulos et al (2004),
on the contrary found that right-wing governments tend to be in favour of fiscal stabilization
during election times.
Theoretically, there are many theories formulated to explain government,
performance. This literature reviews the most important ones. The first is the Regime type
theory. This theory states that if government performance is measured in terms of economic
growth, regime-type does not seem to have much of an impact. These scholars generally
share doubt about modernization theorys claim that high growth is difficult under
democracy, but however, disagree about the causal relationship between economic growth
and democratization in poor countries (Przeworski, Akvarez and others, 2000; Frng 2003;
Bueno de Mesquite et al 2001; Mainwaring and Perezlian 2003). Other group of scholars
have also argued that if government performance is measured in term of social insurance or
other public goods, democracy clearly out-perform authoritarian regime, because they reduce
opportunity for rent seeking behavior (Lake and Baun, 2001; Boix 2008). This is especially
true among poor democracies which face severe pressure to provide public goods (Brown,
1999). On the contrary, another school has argued that if government performance is
27
measured in terms of human capital development, authoritarian regimes are often the ones to
make such investment (Glaeser et al, 2004).
The fiscal resources theory strive to provide a better causal explanation between
government revenue and the degree of performance. The recent literature finds little
correlation between regime type and government revenue. However, where this revenue is
derived from immobile capital, politicians usually face weaker accountability mechanism
against extracting rents (Boix, 2003). Such states, according to Bebkwi (1990) are referred to
as rentier states, where only a few people are engaged in production while a large number
share in the distribution of benefits.
There is also the theory of political coalition. This theory begins from first
proposition that all governments, irrespective of regime type, require political coalition in
order to govern. It states that authoritarian regimes must form coalitions as well as, choosing
from among elites, civil society organizations and sometimes military services. These
choices are an important ways in which authoritarian regimes vary among themselves
(Roeder, 1994; Barros, 2003; Remmer, 1989; Boix, 2003). A second proposition is that all
coalitions face a tradeoff between representation and efficiency and that coalition size
determines the balance between these two opposite ends of a continuum. Large coalitions
maybe more representative but this must accommodate greater preferences, especially if they
are over-size. A small coalition on the other hand may face fewer collective action problems.
This is an intuition developed by Olsons theory of group size and public goods (Olson.
1965).
From the foregoing, though it could be argued theoretically that the relationship
between regime type and fiscal deficits remains controversial. With the current global trend
towards democracy and all her paraphernalia, namely; openness to trade, financial
liberalization and free flow of foreign capital, an empirical test of the impact of democracy on
fiscal deficits becomes a pertinent pursuit for a developing country like Nigeria. This paper
is an attempt to fill this gap in the literature.
2. Methodology and data
2.1 The empirical model
Woo (2003) derives some important conclusions about variables which can explain
cross-country differences in public sector deficits. He categorizes them into two groups:
economic and structural determinants. Woos empirical evidence indicates that financial
28
depth, income inequality, assassinations, cabinet size and centralization of authority in
budgetary decisions are robust and significant determinants of fiscal deficits among countries.
In studying the determinants of fiscal deficits in Nigeria, we will adopt Woos model
with some modifications to suit the time series technique employed in this study. The basic
model for this study is specified as:
FISDEF = F (GDP, OPNESS, ILLYGDP, INFLA, DEMO)
Where:
FISDEF is the annual budget balance
GDP is annual gross domestic product
OPNESS is measure of trade openness
ILLYGDP is measure of financial depth
DEMO is measure of political regime type (a dummy variable which takes the value
of 1 for democratic regime and 0 for military).
INFLA is annual inflation rate.
Assuming a linear functional form, the econometric specification of the model is expressed
as:
T T T T T T
DEMO INFLA ILLYGDP OPNESS GDP FISDEF c | | | | | | + + + + + + =
5 4 3 2 1 0
.. (1)
Fiscal deficit is expected to be decreasing in the level of aggregate income, GDP.
However, it is expected that macroeconomic instability using inflation as a proxy will
increase fiscal deficits. With respect to financial depth, Woo (2003) found a negative
relationship between fiscal deficits and financial depth. The relationship between trade
openness and deficits is indeterminate. If the loss in revenue due to tariff reduction surpasses
the gain, openness may lead to fiscal deficit, but if the reverse is the case then fiscal deficit
will decrease with trade openness. Concerning the sign of the political regime type,
democracy is expected to decrease fiscal deficits.
To avoid spurious regressions, we first conduct a stationarity test using the Augmented
Dickey Fuller (ADF) test proposed by Dickey and Fuller (1979):
t
k
i
i i t t
y y c y c p + + + = A
_
=

1
1 1
) 1 (
..(2)
Another unit root test is the Phillips-Perron (PP) test proposed by Phillips and Perron (1988):
t t t
e y y + + =
1 0
o o
..(3)
29
The difference between these two approaches lies in their treatment of any nuisance serial
correlation. That is, the PP tends to be more robust to a wide range of serial correlations and
time-dependent heteroscedasticities. In these tests, the null hypothesis of non-stationarity
(presence of unit root) for ADF and PP are given by = 0 and = 1 respectively. Rejection
of the null implies stationarity of the series.
2.2 Data and sources
Data used for the estimation and analysis were obtained mainly from central Bank of
Nigeria Statistical Bulletin, 2009 and Annual Reports and Statement of Account for various
years. Time series data for the periods covering from 1970 to 2010 were used as the main
method of data collection. Time series data for this study were collected on annual basis.
3. Estimated results
Table 1 in the appendix presents trends in the federal fiscal operation in Nigeria from
1970 to 2010. It is evidence from the table that Nigerias Federal government ran budget
surplus in six out of 41years analyzed. Four years of surplus were recorded in the
early1970s. The four years of surpluses were a result 1971, 1973, 1974 and 1979. These
surpluses were as a result of oil boom of that period, which provided the government with
sufficient revenue to offset the earlier deficit of the 1970. Apart from this period, temporary
surpluses were also recorded between 1995 and 1996 fiscal year.
Empirical facts have shown that the overall fiscal balance in 1970 stood at 455.1
million naira, representing 8.7 percent share of the Gross Domestic Product. The deficit
recorded in early 1970s could be defended on the grounds that they were incurred as
government embarked upon the post war reconstruction. After a temporary break in 1979,
deficits resumed again in 1980 and continued up until 1994, when it reached a height of
107735.3 million naira, representing 15.4 percent share of the Gross Domestic Product. Once
again, temporary surpluses were recorded in 1995 and 1996 to the tune of 1000.0 million and
37049.4 million naira respectively. The remaining fiscal years after this all recorded deficits.
As at 2008, the fiscal deficit in Nigeria had stood at 47,378.50 million naira representing 0.2
percent share of the gross domestic product and increased sharply to 810,020.70 million naira
in 2009, constituting 3.28 percent of total output in Nigeria. And by 2010, the overall fiscal
deficits in Nigeria had stood at 1235.1 billion naira, representing 4.2 percent of the gross
domestic product (CBN, 2010).
From the analysis above, it is clearly seen that military regimes had fewer deficits
than their civilian counterparts in Nigeria. The reason for this is not farfetched, as military
30
rule tends to be similar to single party governments with greater cohesion and power to
enforce fiscal adjustment, since it does not require parliamentary procedures and bottlenecks
prevalent in democratic rule.
3.1 Unit roots tests
The unit roots test results in levels and first differences are presented in table 1 below.
The results show that the null hypothesis is rejected at level for most variables. This implies
that most of the series are integrated of order zero. Hence, the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS)
method can be used. The other variables that are not stationary can be differenced once and
used along with the stationary variables.
Table 1: Unit Root Tests
Variables ADF Tests PP test
Levels First Diff. Levels First Diff.
INFLA -4.0308 -5.8771 -3.3777 -6.2772
FISDEF -2.6240 -5.9338 -3.9609 -10.8609
GDP 2.5635 -3.4997 -3.9524 -13.7783
ILLYGDP -4.5606 -7.6268 -6.6773 -13.5861
OPNESS -4.4644 -7.7034 -6.6038 -13.6041
Notes: The critical ADF and PP values at 5% are -3.5348 and -3.5312, respectively
3.2 Estimated coefficients
Table 2 shows the results from estimating equation (1). Despite the low adjusted R
2
,
the F-statistics reveals that the model is significant. Further, we implement diagnostics tests,
namely, testing for serial correlation (Breusch-Godfrey LM), heterscedasticity (ARCH),
Ramsey RESET test and normality test (Jarque-Bera). These test results presented in table 3
show that our model is correctly specified.
Table 2: Estimated Coefficients
Variable Coefficient t-Statistic P-values.
Constant -5.676560 -3.251353 0.0027
D(LGDP) 0.208796 0.764132 0.4504
LOG(OPNESS) 4.200931 3.398550 0.0018
LOG(ILLYGDP) -3.087189 -2.431244 0.0208
INFLA -0.048761 -1.025968 0.3126
DEMO 1.927226 1.266589 0.2144
31
Table 3 : Diagnostics Tests
Test F-statistics Probability
Normality
Jarque-Bera 1.3414 0.5113
Serial Correlation
Breusch-Godfrey
LM Test 0.7650 0.4741
ARCH LM test 0.3323 0.7196
Heterscedasticity
White test (Cross
terms) 0.3088 0.9927
Specification Error:
Ramsey RESET test 0.9914 0.3828
According to the results, fiscal deficits in Nigeria during the period under review
(1970 to 2010) are significantly influenced by two factors: the degree of trade openness and
the financial depth. This suggests that the positive effect, in terms of increase export earnings
as a result of tariff reduction and exchange rate devaluation, is more than offset by the
negative effect on the government revenue as a result of loss of tariff revenues. It also implies
that the trade liberalization policy has not impacted positively on the revenues of the
government. Caution should therefore be exercised in the adoption of this policy. On the
other hand, financial intermediation and financial depth index has a negative sign and is also
significant. This conforms to the a priori expectation of an inverse relationship between
financial depth and fiscal deficits. Efficiency of the financial system can help in reduction of
fiscal deficits.
The coefficients associated with other variables were, however, not statistically
significant. Contrary to expectation the political regime variable DEMO has a positive sign
R-squared 0.323120
Adjusted R-squared 0.217358
S.E. of regression 4.153784
F-statistics 3.055153
Durbin-Watson stat 1.510462
32
though not significant. The implication of this result is that democratic governments are
associated with high fiscal deficits in Nigeria. Moreover, where there are no checks and
financial accountability mechanisms, democratic governments are prone to wasteful spending
in attempt to impress electorates and secure their votes for the next term in office.
Surprisingly, the level of fiscal deficit is increasing with aggregate income.
Economic growth is expected to increase the revenue of the country. However, increase
income is also associated with greater demand for infrastructure and other public services.
These extra demands for public services increase public expenditure and therefore fiscal
deficits.
4. Conclusion
This study examines the relationship between government-type and fiscal deficits
using time series data for the period 1970-2010. The study applied econometric technique of
ordinary least square method (OLS) and found that government-type does matter for fiscal
operations in Nigeria. In addition, the findings show that there was strong inclination for
fiscal deficits to decrease with financial liberalization, while liberalization of foreign trade
leads to the increase in fiscal deficits. It is recommended that government should sustain the
financial sector reforms in Nigeria, encourage productive spending on infrastructure for
economic growth and development under a democratic atmosphere. Appropriate
mechanisms should be put in place for efficiency in public financial management. The
principle of value for money should be imbibed in execution of public project to ensure
accountability and transparency in the democratic government.
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APPENDIX:
Table 1: SUMMARY OF FEDERAL FISCAL OPERATIONS IN NIGERIA, 1970-
2010.
Year Retained Revenues
(N millions)
Total
expenditure
(N millions)
Overall
Fiscal
Balance
(N million)
Fiscal Deficit as
% of GDP
1970 448.8 903.9 -455.1 -8.7
1971 1168.8 997.2 171.6 2.6
1972 1404.8 1463.6 -58.8 -0.8
1973 1695.3 1529.2 166.1 1.5
1974 4537.0 2740.6 1796.4 9.8
1975 5514.7 5942.6 -427.9 -2.0
1976 6765.9 7856.7 -1090.8 -4.0
1977 8042.4 8823.8 -782.1 -2.0
1978 5178.1 8000.9 -2821.9 -7.9
1979 8868.4 7406.7 1461.7 3.4
1980 12993.3 14968.5 -1975.2 -3.9
1981 7511.6 11413.7 -3902.1 -7.7
1982 5819.1 11923.2 -6104.1 -11.8
1983 6272.0 8636.5 -33364.5 -5.9
1984 7257.2 9927.5 -2669.4 -4.2
1985 10001.4 13041.1 -3039.7 -4.2
1986 7969.4 16223.7 -8254.3 -113
38
1987 15129.0 22018.7 -5889.7 -5.4
1988 15588.6 27749.5 -12160.9 -8.4
1989 25893.6 41028.3 -15134.7 -6.7
1990 38252.1 60288.2 -22116.1 -8.5
1991 30829.2 66584.4 -35755.2 -11.0
1992 53264.9 92797.4 -39532.5 -7.2
1993 83493.6 191228.9 -107734.3 -15.4
1994 90622.6 160893.2 -70290.6 -7.9
1995 249768.1 248768.2 -70270.6 -7.9
1996 325744.1 2888094.6 37048.4 1.6
1997 351262.3 35632.3 -5000.0 -0.2
1998 353724.1 487113.4 -133389.3 -4.7
1999 662585.3 947690.0 -285104.7 -8.4
2000 597282.1 701059.4 -103377.3 -2.9
2001 797000 1018000 -2210489 -3.1
2002 716800 1018200 -301401.6 -3.8
2003 1023200 1226000 -202723.7 -2.0
2004 1253600 1426200 -172601.1 -1.5
2005 1660700 1822100 -161406.3 -1.1
2006 1836600 1938000 -101397.5 -0.6
2007 2337000 2430900 -117200 (0.0)
2008 3,293,440.00 3,240,820.00 -101397.5 -0.2
2009 2646904.70 3456925.40 -810020.70 -3.28
2010 7135.8 8370.9 -1235.1 -4.2
SOURCE: Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin, 2009 and Central Bank
Annual Report and Statement of Accounts, 2010.
Note: Retained Revenue and Expenditure figures between 1970 and 2009 are in
million naira while figures for 2010 are in billion naira.
39
UDC: 331.5.024.52(667)
338.222:331.105.44(667)
338.222:351(667)
316.344.233(667)
SOCIAL PARTNERS AND POVERTY REDUCTION
STRATEGIES IN GHANA-CAN THIS BE A DEVELOPMENT
SUCCESS STORY?
Daniel Kwabena Twerefou, PhD
University of Ghana, Department of Economics
Abstract:
Ghana opted for the Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) initiative in 2000 and the
implementation of GPRS I and II. Today, it is one of the best-performing economies in sub-
Saharan Africa with striking progress on both growth and poverty. Research has also revealed
that contrary to perceptions that waged jobs are not being created, they have in fact been
expanding far faster than the labour force growth. In this work we examine social partners
involvement in GPRS I and II, which could be credited with contributing to these
employment outcomes. Our analysis indicate that, the experience of social partners
participation in GPRS I and II has had some positive effects in enriching the broader policy
environment with the extension of the participatory approach to other policy areas, raising the
self-awareness of social partners in respect of their technical capacities and providing the
opportunity for them to form partnerships to engage government. However, the story remains
one of only limited success since the main employment challenges facing Ghana - translating
its impressive economic performance into sustainable improvements in living standards by
creating decent and productive employment, and remedying deficiencies in both the demand
and the supply sides of the labour market is still eminent.
40
1.0 Introduction
In 1999, the preparation and implementation of Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRSs)
became a conditionality for the assertion to the enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
initiative introduced by the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other
Development Partners. Later PRSs were made to form the implementing framework for the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and aid harmonisation agenda at the national level
in about 70 low income countries around the world. The International Labour Organization
(ILO) since 2001 has supported the building of capacity of constituents to engage in the PRSs
process with the view to helping them drive the employment and decent work agenda as the
bridge between growth and sustainable poverty reduction.
Ten years after the introduction of the PRSs, it became imperative to undertake a
survey of social partners engagement in the process and to learn lessons from their
participation. In this regard this paper aims at assessing social partners participation in the
formulation and implementation of the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) with the
view to providing qualitative inputs on the quality of their participation.
The report relies extensively on desk research supplemented by interviews with social
partners and other key stakeholders. The selection of the stakeholders for the interviews was
based on their key involvement in the formulation and implementation of the PRSs. The
paper has six sections. Following this introduction is section 2, which provides an overview
of economic development in Ghana. Section 3 discusses social dialogue in Ghana, while
section 4 discusses participation of social partners in the formulation and implementation of
the GPRS. The last section concludes the paper.
2.0 Overview of Economic Growth, Poverty and Employment
The Ghanaian economy has undergone considerable changes since the inception of
Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) and later the Structural Adjustment Programme
(SAP) as the first in a series of strategies aimed at reversing the economic turmoil of the mid
1970s and early 1980s.
41
Figure 1: Annual Gross Domestic Product Growth Rate (%), 1975-2009
Source: Annual Reports of the Bank of Ghana and Quarterly Digest of Statistics of GSS, various issues
Macroeconomic performance of the country improved after the implementation of the
ERP/SAP largely supported by the IMF and World Bank. The national economy recorded an
annual average growth of 2.2 per cent between 1975 and 1982, average annual inflation rate
of about 64.9 per cent and balance of payments deficit of $6.8 million. As a result of these
programmes, growth in real Gross Domestic Product and Gross Domestic Product per capita
averaged about 4.8 and 1.9 per cent respectively from 1984 to 2004 although the real per
capita Gross Domestic Product of $420 in 2001 falls short of the $450 earned in 1960.
Despite the impressive economic performance, the impact of the programme on the
structural transformation of the economy has not been very strong in the areas of
unemployment and to some extent poverty due to the partial and fragmented nature of the
policies (Baah-Boateng,2004). For example, employment in absolute terms decreased from
84.8 percent in 1991/1992 to about 80.7 in 1997 and further to about 76.8 percent in
1998/1999. This to some extent confirms the existence of low quality jobs in the Ghanaian
economy in which majority of the people are working out of the necessity to subsist
regardless of the quality of work as evidenced in many developing countries. Also,
unemployment increased from about 4.7 percent in 1991/1992 to about 8.2 in 1998/1999
while poverty reduced from 51.9 percent to about 39.5 percent over the same period. This
can partially be attributed to the fact that Ghana still depends on a few primary commodities
for exports with value added in agriculture accounting for about 36 per cent of Gross
Domestic Product. There was a massive redeployment of labour in both the public and
private sectors as a result of streamlining government expenditure and closure of many
import-dependent private firms. Additionally, the countrys over-dependence on external
41
41
42
sources for development financing has led to an ever increasing external debt situation.
Furthermore, the adjustment focused on increasing production in agriculture and mining for
exports with little or no focus on value addition which has the potential to increase decent
productive and employment and consequently reduce poverty on a large scale. These have
seriously constrained efforts aimed at the development of new and better employment
opportunities, as well as at the optimum utilization of the Ghanaian labour force.
The inability to create employment opportunities to enhance the quality of
remunerative work restrains Ghanas limited capacity to translate a record of moderate
growth into sustainable improvements in living standards during the period of economic
reform (Heintz, 2004). The ERP and SAP were not able to adequately create employment and
reduce poverty. This led to the implementation of the Programme of Action to Mitigate the
Social Cost of Adjustment in 1987. The basic aim of the programme was to provide short-
term actions that could immediately address the problems of the poor and vulnerable groups
arising from the SAP.
Labour is abundant in Ghana. The adult population aged 15 years and above and the
economically active population, increased during the 1990s (table 1). Employment in the
1990s and the 2000s showed a decreasing trend
1
. In the 1970s and early 1980s, labour force
grew at a slower pace than the population growth. In the 1990s and early 2000s the situation
reversed. The increased labour force growth rate could be linked to the rising share of the
youth population in the 1990s. This means that the Ghanaian labour market has to be more
efficient in order to absorb the increase in the economically active population. Available data
indicate that so far the Ghanaian labour market has not been able to create enough jobs for all
those who are available to work. Employment growth between 1984 and 2000 was about 3.1
per cent per annum, lagging behind the labour force growth rate of 5.8 percent over the sale
period
The key supply issue for the Ghanaian Labour market is the quality of labour. Ghana,
like other sub Saharan African countries, has an education deficit and a relatively lower life
expectancy as compared to the rest of the world. One of the major causes of rising
unemployment has been identified as the mismatch between skill requirements of employers
and skills of prospective employees. In the 1990s the situation improved due to the
1
It must be noted that in Africa, many labour market terminologies such as employment, unemployment, labour force participation, etc. are
difficult to apply because over 70 per cent of the employed labour force are self-employed in the informal economy and the definitional/
measurement problems linked to the different formats of surveys which collects info on these variables.
43
educational reforms that began in the mid 1980s and the provision of almost free and
universal education, which has ensured an increased stock of educated labour.
One of the conditionalities placed by Development Partners for assertion to the
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative was the formulation and implementation of the
GPRS which re-orientated the whole issue of national development on poverty reduction
unlike previous policies that treated poverty in an isolated manner. After about a decade of
implementing the GPRSs, there has been significant achievement in employment generation
and poverty reduction. Information from the Ghana Statistical Services (GSS) indicates that
unemployment has declined from 10.4 per cent in 2000 to 7.5 per cent in 2003 and further to
5.8 per cent in 2006 while overall poverty incidence has generally reduced from 51.7 percent
in 1992 to about 39.5 percent in 1998 and further down to 28.5 in 2006. Even though this
achievement is significant there exist significant potential for the country to improve on
employment generation and poverty reduction.
Table 1: Labour Force Distribution
1991/92 1997 1998/99 2000 2003 2005/2006
Total population (millions) 14.9 17.1 17.7 18.8 --- 22.2
Adult population 15+ (millions) 7.91 --- 10.27 11.1 --- 13.32
Labour force/economically
active(million) (millions)
6.05 --- 8.21 8.29 --- 9.75
Total employment (millions) 5.77 --- 7.6 7.4 --- 9.16
Employment (%) 84.8 80.7 76.8 82.1 73.6 68.8
Underemployed (%) 10.5 12.5 15.7 18.9 7.3
Unemployment (%) 4.7 3.9 8.2 10.4 7.5 5.8
Inactive (%) 23.5 26.9 20.1 25.3 27.9 25.4
Participation rate 76.5 77.9 74.7
Poverty( headcount) (%) 51.9 39.5 28.5
Source: (GSS, 1995), (GSS, 1998a), (GSS, 1998b), (GSS, 2002), (GSS, 2003), (GSS,2008)
It should, also be noted that there has been improvement in several human
development indicators over this period. For instance, life expectancy at birth increased from
54.0 years in 1982 to 60 years in 2003. Similarly, on average, infant mortality rates fell from
88.4 per 1,000 live births to 64 per 1,000 live births over the same period. Nevertheless,
improvement in the social dimensions of development through human resource development,
the creation of more decent jobs and a broader distribution of the benefits from growth, could
have led to better results than those recorded.
44
3.0 State of Social Dialogue
Organized Labour in Ghana is made up of the Trades Union Congress (TUC), Ghana
Federation of Labour, Ghana National Association of Teachers, Civil Servants Association
and the Ghana Registered Nurses Association. Among these organizations the largest group
is the TUC. Being the umbrella organization for labour unions, it represents organized labour
in all dealings with government and employers associations on labour issues. The TUC of
Ghana was formed in 1945 with the registration and coming together of 14 national unions
under the Trades Union Ordinance of 1941. It is made up of 17 affiliated national unions and
has a secretariat which coordinates their activities. The primary objective of the TUC is to
improve the pecuniary and non-pecuniary employment conditions of its members.
Specifically, the TUC aims at unionizing all employees in Ghana under a united trade union
movement; secure social, political and economic justice; support efforts of affiliated unions
to improve wages, create better conditions of service at work places and ensure the
ratification and application of ILO and other international conventions with a view to
harmonizing world labour practices. Information from the Ghana Living Standard Survey 5
(GLSS 5) which is a nationally representative survey that solicits comprehensive information
on livelihoods of individuals in Ghana indicates that about 35.9 per cent of employers have
trade unions in their workplace. The TUC also estimate that its membership is between
400,000 and 450,000.
The TUC exerts strong pressure not only on the labour market, but also on the general
economic environment of the country. The TUC faces a number of challenges and
uncertainties. Technological advancement is helping employers to scale down employees in
some sectors such as mining while outsourcing, sub-contracting and the increased
informalization of employment pose a danger to the world of work. For example in the
mining sector the use of surfacing mining technologies has reduced employment in the sector.
Data on direct employment in the mining sector shows that employment in the sector
decreased from about 22,285 in 1995 to about 14,311 in 2002 but has since increased to about
20,000 in 2008. The increase from 2002 to 2008 is due to the opening up of new mines by
Newmont company. Moreover, unrestricted labour market reforms and the neo-liberal
political regime are causing a slight change in industrial relations in favour of employers,
especially foreign investors. This threatens to some extent the expression and exercise of
freedom of association and the right to organize and bargain collectively (Trade Union
Congress, 2004). Additionally, low wages and other unfavourable employment conditions,
45
increasing health and safety challenges, worsened pension benefits and weaker social security
systems are some of the challenges making employees worse off. Furthermore, issues on poor
working conditions, non-payment of living wages, wage disparities between junior and
management staff, increase in casual work and the loss of trade union membership pose a
serious threat to employment and income security.
The Ghana Employers Association (GEA) was established in 1959 to provide a
collective approach to matters relating to industrial relations, represent and promote the
interest of its members in their dealings with social partners and promote good industrial
relations in Ghana. It is the main employers association and has a track record of good
organization in the social partners system. There are other associations such as the
Association for Small-Scale Businesses and the Centre for Indigenous Business. However,
their activities and membership are quite limited. Under its constitution the GEA collects
from its 328 members statistical and other data as may be necessary for the analysis of wage
structure and employment conditions in Ghana and to bring to the attention of its members
Labour Acts, policies and regulations affecting them. The GEA also aims at promoting the
interest of its members within organizations vis--vis the government. It also represents
employers in international organizations such as the ILO and the International Organization
of Employers.
The Ministry of Manpower Development, Youth and Employment is the body
responsible for the formulation and implementation of Labour Acts, policies, regulations and
conventions on industrial relations, as well as for the monitoring and evaluation of such
policies and programmes. The Ministry is also in charge of the implementation of labour
market programmes in collaboration with other stakeholders. It convenes meetings of the
National Advisory Council on Labour and the National Tripartite Committee on salaries and
wages and advises the government on the decisions of these committees. The Ministry
undertakes its responsibilities with the help of four departments: the Labour Department, the
Department of Social Welfare, the Department of Cooperatives and the Factories Inspectorate
Department. Of these four, the Labour Department and the Department of Social Welfare are
the most important in terms of effectiveness and will be discussed in subsequent sections.
The other two departments are virtually inactive in the labour market due to resource
constraints. Although the Ministry plays a very important role in ensuring an effective labour
market, it is highly marginalized together with its departments and agencies. Problems
confronting the Ministry includeinadequate resource allocation, weak institutional capacity,
46
lack of appropriate basic equipment and the lack of requisite personnel. For example the total
expenditure allocation to the Ministry of Manpower Youth and Employment as a percentage
of the overall expenditure of Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) was around 0.57
in 2009.
There have been consistent improvements in industrial relations over the years, due to
the growing relevance of the role played by the government, employers and employees as
social partners. The government, employers associations and workers' unions are adequately
represented in the two main bodies in the labour market National Labour Commission and
the National Tripartite Committee - as required by law. The GEA and TUC are also
respectively represented in about thirteen and nineteen key national Bodies, Commissions,
Boards and Committees influencing the labour market. They have also effectively
participated in the formulation and implementation of labour market policies and
programmes.
Discussions with the GEA and TUC indicate that they played a significant role in the
formulation and implementation of the Labour Act. Specifically, issues of concern to the
associations such as the composition and function of the National Labour Commission,
sympathy strikes and lock out, casual and temporary employment, and unionization
processes, among others, were discussed thoroughly with the parliamentary committees
before their passage into law.
The GEA and TUC have also developed a bipartite relationship through quarterly
meetings to discuss issues of mutual interest and to have a forum for discussion and dialogue.
Prevention of the deadly Human Immune Deficiency/Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndromes pandemic is an area where the social partners have collaborated. All the social
partners have teamed up to organize workplace information, education, communication
policies and programmes with support from both donors and the government for the formal
and the informal sector. Social partners have also collaborated to organize programmes on
occupational safety and health at work and the environment. Academic courses and
sensitization seminars and workshops for labour market entrants have also been jointly run by
social partners.
Consultation, dialogue and negotiations between social partners have led to a
reasonable number of industrial actions. On average, there have been 34 industrial actions
annually from 2001 to 2004, most of which have been resolved amicably. The basic reasons
underlining industrial actions are low salaries and poor working conditions. Other reasons are
47
delays in the payment of allowances, breakdown in negotiations, solidarity strikes and non-
payment of salary arrears. A survey by Twerefouet. al (2007) indicates that on a scale of 1 to
5, where 1 is the least score and 5 the greatest, respondents were asked to assess the level of
coordination between social partners in the implementation of labour market programmes.
The average score was a little above the mean.
The impact of social partners, particularly the TUC on wage determination through
the National Tripartite Committee is quite strong in the formal sector. It is estimated that over
two-thirds of formal sector jobs are subject to Collective Bargaining Agreements while the
GLSS 5 indicates that about 42.7 per cent of employees have written contracts with
employers. The strong influence of TUC on wage determination through social dialogue may
have partly led to wage rigidities. This coupled with the inefficient labour market information
system and the inadequate educational and training facilities, account for the low
occupational mobility in Ghana. Also, the lack of alternative employment opportunities and
the high income insecurity in the informal economy, coerce many employees in the sector to
place a high premium on social dialogue as a way of resolving labour market problems. Quite
often employees are in a disadvantaged position because of their vulnerability, susceptibility
and their lack of voice and support in the negotiating process. No matter how badly the
negotiation goes, there is always a settlement and that to some extent, ensures industrial
harmony (Twerefou et. al, 2007).
Ghana is currently one of the best-performing economies in Africa. The last five years
show striking progress, on both growth and poverty, and Ghana appears as one of the star
performers in efforts to reach the MDGs on cutting poverty and boosting health.
2
In terms of
relative progress, Ghana outperformed all other countries around the world by reducing
hunger across its population by nearly three-quarters, from 34 per cent to 9 per cent, between
1990 and 2004. As earlier mentioned poverty was halved over the period from 1991 to 2005,
while economic growth accelerated to 6.2 per cent in 2006, after two decades of 4 per cent
growth.
While poverty levels have fallen dramatically, however, concern has increased over
both the extent and the quality of job creation. Research reveals that by far the most
important factor behind rising incomes and falling poverty in recent years is an increase in
wages (N. Nsowah-Nuamahet. al, 2010). Data show that earnings rose rapidly between 1998
2
Millennium Development Goals (MDG) report card: measuring progress across countries (London: Overseas Development Institute, Sep.
2010).
48
and 2005, by 64 per cent for men and by 55 per cent for women. There have also been major
changes in the pattern of job creation in this period, the most striking of which were the
expansion of employment in small firms (from 3.4 to 6.7 per cent of the workforce) and the
rise in farming employment (from 35.1 to 37.3 per cent of the workforce) . Contrary to the
perception that waged jobs are not being created, they have in fact been expanding far faster
than the labour force has been growing. The rest of this case study examines the social
partners involvement in GPRS I and II, which could be credited with contributing to these
employment outcomes.
4.0 Analysis of Social Partners Participation Over Time
As part of the conditionalities for the assertion to the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
initiative, the Government of Ghana put in place a policy document dubbed Ghana Poverty
Reduction Strategy I (GPRS I)(implemented from 2003-2005) and the Growth and Poverty
Reduction Strategy II (GPRS II) (implemented from 2006-2009). The documents formed the
blue print for Ghanas development, provide the framework for concessional assistance from
the World Bank and the IMF and outline the anti-poverty strategies for the medium term. The
GPRS II was built on broader and deeper consultation and stakeholder involvement achieved
by the GPRS I. Since 2008, the country has been formulating a third round Poverty
Reduction Strategy dubbed Medium Term National Development Policy Frameworkwhich is
to be implemented from 2010-2013. Though the preparation of the document started in 2008,
it has still not been completed largely as a result of delays in the reconstitution of members of
the Commission after the change in government. Our analysis will therefore focus primarily
on the participation of social partners in the formulation of the GPRS I and II.
In order to make the formulation of the PRSs participatory and integrative, the
National Development Planning Commission (NDPC), the statutory body responsible for
development planning constituted Cross-Sectoral Planning Groups (CSPG) made up of
representatives from both governmental and nongovernmental organizations. The formation
of the CSPGs was based on the relevant themes of the PRSs that have been identified by the
Commission. Each Ministry, Department and Agency (MDA) was asked to nominate
technically competent officers to the relevant CSPG which were charged with the
development of relevant themes and the content of the document. For nongovernmental
organizations, the Commission invited specific organizations to specific groups based on
their area of focus and expertise.
49
Among the five thematic areas identified in GPRS I, both the TUC and the GEA were
members of the human resource development CSPG. However, in GPRS II, which had just
three themes,
3
the TUC joined both the human resource development and the good
governance and civil responsibility CSPGs, while the GEA participated in only the human
resource development CSPG. In the Medium Term National Development Policy Framework
that is being formulated, the TUC is a member of four out of seven thematic groups.
4
The
GEA is a member of only two: those concerned with sustainable partnerships between
government and the private sector, and developing human resources for national
development. These developments suggest that the TUC has been gradually increasing its
participation over the years compared to the GEA.
The Commission to some extent also implemented an open door policy where
institutions could also contribute to discussions in any of the groups. The work of each CSPG
is facilitated by a Consultant supported by a Research Associate, a Co-ordinator selected
from the technical staff of the NDPC secretariat and a Chairperson selected from among
members of each CSPG. The NDPC based on its expertise and past experience, put together
the format for a matrix together with the CSPGs to guide the Groups in formulating their
policies and strategies. The CSPGs for each thematic area discussed the issues and policies
proposed with the aim of harmonizing them to ensure integration. Each CSPG formed a core-
working group, which collated and drafted reports on deliberations of that particular CSPG.
The procedure has virtually been the same in the preparation of all the three documents.The
number of meetings necessary to complete the assignment is determined by the members of
the groups at their maiden meetings.
4.1 Expectations and Reasons for Participation
Each CSPG group met about three times in both GPRS I and II. Discussions with
TUC and GEA indicated that they participated effectively in all the meetings organised for
the groups in which they were members. Their aim of participating in the formulation of both
GPRS I and II was to influence national policy in ways quite commensurate with the aims
and objectives of their establishment. Reasons for participation of the TUC stems from its
Human Development Policy that stresses that the Congress pledged its support for all
3
Private sector development; human resource development; and good governance and civic responsibility.
4
Sustainable partnerships between government and the private sector; developing human resources for national development; transparent
and accountable governance; and accelerated agriculture modernization and agro-based industrial development.The other three are:
improvement and sustenance of macroeconomic stability; expanded development of production infrastructure; and reducing poverty and
income inequalities.
50
initiatives and policies aimed at creating opportunities that enhance individual capabilities
and enable them to live satisfactory lives. Thus, it was the expectation of the TUC that the
economic and social policies of GPRS I and II will be designed to ensure that Ghanaians have
adequate incomes through decent employment, have access to knowledge through quality
education and training, participate fully in the decisions that affect their lives and that of
theircommunities and to ensure that the ultimate aim of policies is to enable every individual
to live a healthier, longer and satisfying life (Anthony Baah, 2004).
The GEA on the other hand had the same expectations but expressed in a different
form. Their expectation was to see private sector initiatives being fully integrated into the
policies and efforts to address issues of vulnerability and disability. The above views suggest
that protecting the interest of their members and the general populace was the main reason
that garners social partners to participate in the formulation of both GPRS I and II. Partners
realized that the key policy instrument that will guide the management of the economy is the
GPRS I and II and therefore committing themselves fully to the development of the document
was the only way to influence national policy on development as well as encouraging others
to do same.
For the TUC their expectations and reasons for participating in the GPRS I and II was
motivated by the advice and the technical support provided by the International
Confederation of Free Trade Unions through workshops and seminars which focused on
providing guidelines for its members to engage in the process with the view to ensuring that
international labour standards are given the requisite attention. The main avenues through
which social partners influenced the GPRS were meetings, seminars and workshops
organised for the CSPG. At CSPG meetings, social partners were able to put their views
forward and to some extent ensure that their views were taken into consideration.
4.2 Impact of GPRSs on Policy Formulation and Overall Policy Environment
Both the GPRS I and II has made a difference in government overall policy direction
because of the genuine consultation undertaken by government. However, the freedom to
seriously influence the document was to some extent constrained due partly to restrictions
that have been placed on macroeconomic conditions.The formulation of CSPGs from both
governmental and non-governmental institutions with diverse expertise and the provision of a
uniform and transparent platform for social partners to contribute provide evidence of
government preparedness to involve Ghanaians in national development. Discussions with
government officials and social partners indicate that both GPRS I and II made a difference
51
in terms of the overall government approach to development and that government has a
positive view of participatory policy formulation though the same cannot be said on the
implementation. According to them, development planning in the past, especially before 1992
was a preserve for government and its agencies. However, the situation is now improving
with the government paying some attention to public participation, though there is more
room for improvement
Chapter six of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana which deals with the Directive
Principles of State Policy mandates the government to involve citizens in development.
Various sections of the Local Government Act of 1993 reinforce this position. These
provisions make it necessary for government to involve citizens in development planning.
The basic justification for involving citizens in policy formulation, implementation and
monitoring as emphasized in many government documents is to inform the public of
governments policies, solicit their views on priorities and promote ownership by all
Ghanaian. As such, starting from 1992 some efforts have been made by various governments
to encourage public participation and consultation. For example, the Vision 2020 document
which was a long term development plan for Ghana with mediumterm role over components
benefited from some consultation of the public. In line with these provisions the participatory
process was quite key and to some extent intense in the formulation of GPRS I and II.
The CSPGs that met constantly to discuss strategies in both GPRS I and II involved
stakeholders from almost all the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) including social
partners. Information from the GPRS II indicates that there were about 26 reviews,
workshops and seminars organised to refine the document by organised or umbrella
organizations including social partners, and in many of these seminars, real reviews were
made on the document (NDPC, 2005). For example, initially the government proposed five
thematic areas for the GPRS II but after discussions with the CSPG it became necessary to
reduce the thematic area to three in order partly to focus on core issues. Participatory
approach to policy formulation was also enhanced because development partners made it a
conditionality for their support. This gave social partners some strength that enabled them to
fully participate in the process. In fact social partners were of the view that without the
backing of development partners consultation would not have been that intense in the
formulation of the GPRS I and II.
52
Social partners were of the view that the government looked at participation as a positive
approach to development. However, participation comes at a cost, such as the cost of
organising workshops in different parts of the country, the time needed to do that which
slows down the process and the quality of inputs that are obtained which requires much
energy to be synthesised and absorbed. Therefore it is possible that they will decide not to
engage in participation if the right incentive and checks are not available. Social partners
were not too sure that governments will undertake extensive public consultation on key
policy reviews if they have their will. Even though support from development partners has
made participation important, effective participation has been a challenge and whether they
influenced the process remains another question.
The formulation of both GPRS I and II made a difference in terms of overall policy
formulation on poverty reduction but the same cannot be said about implementation.
According to social partners, although poverty is multifaceted in that it has got various
dimensions such as income, health, education, political, environmental, etc., previous
policies (before 2000) on poverty reduction has focused on specific sectors and not
comprehensive in nature. However, the formulation and implementation of GPRS I and II
revolutionalised policy formulation and implementation on poverty reduction in that the
whole focus of government policy was on poverty reduction. Involvement of stakeholders
and the broader discussion of poverty enabled the government to understand the various
dimensions of poverty at both the national and local level and this helped strategise to tackle
poverty. Inspite of these successes in consultation, there exist some questions that need to be
addressed - How many consultations should be considered enough or optimal? What format
of consultation would be considered appropriate to maximize public input? How sufficiently
flexible are technocrats to accommodate certain degrees of change in content and direction?
How should social partners and the broader CSOs be involved in the implementation of
policies?
In summary, the GPRS has to some extent changed national planning but the change
can more be seen in participation in policy formulation than in policy implementation.
Constituents were of the view that the change has been due to the global demand for such
participatory process and to a lesser extent on the demand by citizens.
53
4.3 Main Actors Influencing the Process
Discussions with the social partners point to the fact that formulation of the GPRS
was directly a response of government, non-governmental organizations including social
partners and Development Partners but indirectly controlled by development partners
especially the World Bank and the IMF, followed by the Ministries, Departments, Agencies
(MDA) and nongovernmental organizations including social partners. Social partners were of
the view that in the formulation of GPRS I many Development partners, especially bilateral
donors were worried because they did not know its impact on their own defined programme
for Ghana. Some of the development partners believed that if they did not find a way of
getting their defined programmes for the country in the GPRS I then they would not have any
business being in Ghana since the document provided a medium term framework for all
government programmes. They therefore lobbied relevant MDAs for them to incorporate
their country defined programmes for Ghana. It has also been argued that development
partners influenced the GPRS 1 through the MDAs since they were having projects with them
and there was the need to complete those projects and programmes.
The situation somehow changed in the formulation and implementation of the GPRS
II for various reasons. First, probably the implementation of the GPRS I allayed the fears of
the development partners since they already knew that either their programmes were
developmental in nature and could not be neglected in the formulation of the GPRS II or they
already knew how to get everything in the strategy through the MDAs skilfully. Secondly, the
Paris Declaration on aid effectiveness and the implementation of the Multi-Donor Budget
Support programme encouraged development partners to reduce their impacts on the
formulation of GPRS II. Indeed the NDPC reported that in the formulation and
implementation of the GPRS II some development partners sometimes elected one
development partner to represent them in meetings, workshops and seminars, indicating their
reduced influence on the process.
Investment projects in both GPRS I and II were mainly financed by Development
Partners and needed to be prioritized due to the inadequacy of funds. Reports from social
partners suggest that there were situations where the choice for a project is made but will not
be funded by Development Partners because it does not satisfy the areas of focus. This
situation was well observed in the initial stages of the implementation of the GPRS I. The
situation improved with the implementation of the Multi-Donor Budget Support.
54
4.4 Impact of Social Partners on the GPRSs
Social partners made some efforts to organise themselves to influence the PRS. Both
the TUC and the GEA organised in-house seminars to discuss the GPRS with their members
and chose more senior persons to represent them in the CSPGs. An observation made by the
TUC is that though participation was thorough, it was difficult for ones view to be
incorporated since the technical committee which drafted the report of the thematic groups
considered more of the impact of some of the policies on the macroeconomic targets which
have been set by the World Bank and IMF.
Information gathered from social partners indicates that some particular achievements
have been made from their engagements in the GPRS I and II processes, particularly in the
area of national policy formulation and knowledge of national policy. The TUC for example
indicated that over the years their research activities have focused on wages with very little
on policy formulation. Participation in the GPRS I has prompted them on the need to upgrade
their research division and to undertake activities and research that will help them influence
national policies. They have therefore employed two professionals to complement their
research staff. Additionally, constituents do have a good idea of government policy since
they were involved in its formulation and a good knowledge of national poverty issues.
Social partners were quite sure that some of the proposals they made were taken into
consideration and that the NDPC was quite interested in soliciting public views in the
formulation of the document inspite of the problems that confronted Commission. To support
this assertion, constituents alluded to the fact that in the GPRS II, the Employment matrix in
the human resources development theme was virtually developed by them and was accepted
fully by the NDPC. However constituents did have some reservations. According to them the
implementation was virtually done without them and many of the targets for employment
indicators were missed or not monitored properly. They also alluded to the fact that the
government is not keen in collecting data on employment in order to effectively monitor
employment creation. The GEA also reported making significant input in the development of
vocational and technical education and they were all taken on board. In the area of
implementation of the vulnerability component of the GPRS II, constituents reported
following up the promulgation of the Disability Act and the subsequent establishment of the
Disability Board. One important lesson that the TUC learnt from their participation in GPRS
I was that influencing the policy as an individual organization was quite difficult. They
therefore made efforts to network with other CSOs to collectively influence the formulation
55
of GPRS II through the Growth and Poverty Forum. The TUC were of the view that the work
of the Forum really sent a positive signal to the NDPC though they are not able to access
vividly its impact.
4.5 Impact of GPRSs on Implementation of Decent Work Agenda
Discussions with social partners as well as a closer look at the documents indicate that
with the exception of fair wages, almost all the components of the decent work agenda -
social protection, social security, social dialogue, skills development and employment
generation, freedom of association and collective bargaining, youth employment, forced and
child labour, safety nets and better, safe and healthier working conditions were addressed in
GPRS I and deepened in GPRS II. This can be confirmed by the legalization and the
institutionalization of several policies that provides the framework for the management of the
labour market. The promulgation of the revised Labour Act of 2003 is to some extent an
outcome of deliberations from the GPRS I. Also, the promulgation of the Disability Act,
2006 and the subsequent formation of the Disability Board is a direct outcome of
deliberations on GPRS II. Furthermore, the Draft Employment Policy and the Draft Youth
Policy which addressed various components of the decent work agenda were all prepared in
course of implementing the GPRS II. Additionally, the institution of the pension reforms
which led to the establishment of the three tier pension system is also an outcome of the
GPRS II. One observation is that more would have been done in the area of mainstreaming,
especially employment in both the GPRS I and II if the document has emphasised on how
employment will be generated in the sectors and the targets to be achieved.
Indeed some have argued that the inability of the documents to touch on fair wages
was due to conditionalities imposed by the IMF in 2006 which prevented any increase in the
wage bill. In the implementation of the GPRS II, the Government of Ghana in 2006 decided
not to do business with the IMF. It has been argued that the government decided to do this
because of the unrealistic conditionalities imposed by the IMF. There exist a hypothesis that
many important social programmes such as the Livelihood Empowerment against Poverty
Programme, Fair Wages, National Youth Employment Programme, School Feeding
Programmes, provision of school uniforms for school children which have significant social
implications would not have been possible if the country had not decided to disengage with
IMF.
56
Though social partners participated in the formulation of the GPRS, the same cannot be said
on implementation. Constituents indicated that they were not well involved in the
implementation of the GPRS. Together with other stakeholders, the NDPC linked the
document to the budget and prioritised all the programmes. However, less attention was
given by politicians to the implementation of the document. Specifically, budgetary
allocations were made with very little regard to the prioritizations in the GPRS. Politicians
were more interested in allocating the resource to satisfy their short term political goals at the
expense of the medium term objectives specified in the GPRS.
One reason for this occurrence could be the relation between the Ministry of Finance
and Economic Planning responsible for budget allocation and the NDPC responsible for
planning. The NDPC is the planning wing of the government and comes directly under the
Office of the President while the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning allocates the
resources with little focus on the GPRS document prepared by the NDPC. This brings to
light the issues of the irrelevance of the GPRS. Of what use will a medium term plan- GPRS
be if the budgetary allocations in the short term plan- budget that is supposed to implement
the medium term plans are not consistent with the proposed allocations made in the medium
term plan. Perhaps, the major relevance of the GPRS is the education that it provided for
stakeholders on the different dimensions of poverty and public policy formulation.
Almost all the stakeholders interviewed were of the view that there is little political
commitment on the part of government to implement the GPRS and the poor implementation
could also be linked to the poor linkage between the NDPC and Ministry of Finance and
Economic Planning. Even though employment creation featured prominently in the
document, the lack of implementation and the poor monitoring of employment made it
difficult to analyse the employment impact of the GPRS. This issue brings to the fore the
relationship between political manifesto and national development plan. Should government
implement what is written in its manifesto or what has been nationally agreed upon? More
work should be done in these areas and on how social partners can effectively and
transparently participate in the implementation and at what level.
4.6 External and Internal Factors Constraining Participation
Though the government through the NDPC is quite interested in participation, there
existed some internal challenges which made participation by social partners difficult
especially in the formulation of GPRS I. The NDPC reported that social partners do not have
57
the requisite expertise to engage in policy formulation with MDA who have been in the
business of formulating, implementing and monitoring policies for many years. Social
partners also alluded to the fact that their capacity to formulate policies is quite limited.
Probing more on the issue, partners alluded to situations where consultants contracted to help
CSPGs formulate the policies did not agree with them on some issues largely attributable to
the depth of their knowledge in national policy formulation. This made it difficult for the
right interface and space to be provided for effective participation by social partners.
Social partners realised these deficiencies and made efforts to build their capacities
through workshops organised by International Confederation of Free Trade Unions and other
organizations. Furthermore, constituents also held the view that participation came at a cost
to them since they had to forgo other equally important meetings and activities directly
relevant to their Union.
With regards to external challenge, discussions with social partners suggest that the
capacity of the NDPC to organise participatory workshops meant genuinely to incorporate the
views of the public is quite limited. The Commission has over the year, not had the expertise
and skills to undertake participatory policy formulation, especially with the GPRS I which
was supposed to be formulated in a short period of time. Finding itself in an area where it is
not competent, the tendency was to listen to all the comments but doing very little to
incorporate them. Furthermore, social partners complained of the short deadlines given them
to prepare and make inputs into certain policy decisions. In addition, NDPC did not
sometimes make available documents to them in advance for them to deliberate on issues
before attending seminars and workshops. Social partners, especially the TUC also reported
that the opportunity cost of participation in the GPRS was high. According to the TUC the
internal consultations and the many meetings that they needed to attend cost them in terms of
time and resources and to some extent made it difficult for them to attend to other equally
important core activities of the Union.
Constituents, especially the TUC believed that external influence of Development
Partners constrained engagement. According to them Development Partners set targets on
macroeconomic and other important issues for government leaving, very little space for the
public participation. This intuitively meant that the social partners are not able to influence
conditionalities imposed by Development partners. There was serious reservation with the
way Development Partners released funds and its impact on implementation. According to
58
constituents, Development Partners released very little funds, sometimes late, but demand
conditionalities that are not possible to be attained. They stressed that Development Partners,
especially the IMF, focus on economics leaving other important social components of
development. For example the conditionality to maintain inflation at exceptionally low level
limits government spending and consequently job creation. These, according to them, were
serious external factors that constrained the formulation and implementation of the GPRS I
and II.
4.7 Participation in Priority Setting and Discussions on Key Macro Issues
Priority setting is one of the important components in policy formulation since
funding has always been a major constraint to the implementation of policies. Information
gathered from social partners indicates that they were involved in priority setting but not in
the drafting of the document. The drafting was done by technical committees but with inputs
from the CSPG, in which they were effective members. Additionally they were involved in
discussions on growth sectors and the allocation of resources between productive and social
sectors but not in discussions around concessionary loans, macroeconomic policies, budget
support, though other organizations such as Institute for Democratic Governance (IDEG),
were involved in these issues.
A notable observation by partners was that issues like macroeconomic stability and
loan agreements which have major impact on the formulation and implementation are
reserved for MDAs and development partners with very little public participation. Social
partners were excluded from consultation in Washington between the World Bank and
government that determined the macroeconomic policies to be implemented and the indicator
for measuring macro economic performance. Such criteria always neglected key
macroeconomic variables like employment on account that there is lack of data. Good as the
decision may be, it must be recognised that similar situations existed in the 1980s where there
was limited information on many macroeconomic variables like inflation, interest rates, etc.
However, because of the importance of these indicators structures were put in place to
document them.
Discussions with the Head of the Aid and Debt Management Division of the Ministry
of Finance and Economic Planning suggest that the management of aid has been the
prerogative of government alone with social partners playing very little role. Perhaps, it is
only in the implementation of the Multi Donor Budget Support that social partners have been
59
involved. This could be partially confirmed by the absence of any involvement of CSO in the
Harmonisation and Alignment in Ghana for Aid Effectiveness: A Common Approach for
Ghana and its Development Partners document which highlights the principle of Country
Ownership in the context of Ghana agreed on by the Government of Ghana and its
Development Partners on 25 February 2005. All the principles stated in the document have
virtually nothing to do with social partners involvement in aid harmonization
4.8 Social Partners Engagement in Monitoring and Evaluation
Mechanisms were also put in place to monitor and evaluate the implementation of
GPRS I and II with the view to learning from them and using it to update future strategies. A
comprehensive monitoring and implementation plan with indicators on all the various
dimensions of poverty was developed and three groups National Intra-Agency Poverty
Monitoring Group, GPRS Dissemination Committee and the Poverty and Social Impact
Assessments Technical and Advisory Committees were established to support the
implementation of the monitoring and implementation plan.
Though monitoring of GPRS I and II was quite participatory involving both public
and some private actors, participation of social partners appears not to be very strong.
Participation to some extent was limited to the formulation of the plan. At the implementation
stage they were limited to validating data most of which were not reliable. The monitoring
process was also flawed with implementation challenges such as technical capacity
constraints and the fragmented set of uncoordinated information at both the national and sub-
national level. A consistent challenge that saddled the implementation of the monitoring and
evaluation programme is data collection and the lack of proper feedback, inconsistency of
data from the regional and district levels, lack of incentives to motivate staff of MDAs and
the difficulty of institutionalizing the monitoring and evaluation process at the district levels
(NDPC, 2005).
The Annual Monitoring Progress Report which was supposed to be produced in the
first quarter always came very late. This made it impossible to incorporate lessons learnt and
correct mistakes arising. In fact social partners elaborated that monitoring of the process
especially its implementation was weak. One concern of social partners was the lack of
annual data on employment. Social partners, especially the TUC alluded to the fact that it is
not important for government to monitor employment creation and has therefore not invested
60
in collecting credible data on employment. Thus, macroeconomic policies and indicators did
not specifically focus on monitoring employment.
4.9 Mainstreaming Decent Work Agenda and the Formation of Partnerships
A detailed study of both the GPRS I and II as well as interview with social partners
indicates that key components of the Decent Work Agenda such as social protection, social
security, social dialogue, skills development and employment generation, freedom of
association and collective bargaining, youth employment, forced and child labour, safety nets
and better, safe and healthier working conditions were adequately addressed though not
properly mainstreamed. To some extent, most of these issues were treated as stand-a-lone
with little linkages with other policies. Constituents confirmed playing active roles in the
preparation of the policy matrix that raised these issues, provided policy responses and the
strategy to implement the policies as well as determining the implementing and collaborating
agency addressing these issues.
A notable observation from the discussions with the TUC, is that constituents realized
that networking with other organizations with a view to presenting a common front will
enable them to better influence the process. In this regard social partners participated
effectively in the Growth and Poverty Forum established by IDEG with the main objective of
effectively engaging in dialogue with the government on the GPRS II. The Group at its
meetings reviewed the GPRS I together with the Annual Progress Reports. This provided a
background for them to brainstorm on the GPRS II and make valuable contributions. The
TUC were of the view that networking with other institutions through the Growth and
Poverty Forum enabled them to better understand the issues in policy formulation and to
influence the GPRS II. At the tripartite and bipartite levels, social partners also undertook
several consultations on various occasions to address pertinent issues affecting them. The
problem is how to sustain and deepen the partnerships
5.0 Conclusions
In order to reverse the economic decline that confronted the country in the early part
of the 1980s, the government of Ghana with the help of the IMF and World Bank
implemented the ERP/SAP with the objective of putting the country back on a sound
economic track. The programme has indeed reversed the economic decline with growth in
real Gross Domestic Product averaging about 4.8 per cent from 1984 to 2004 although the
real per capita Gross Domestic Product of $420 in 2001 falls short of the $450 earned in
1960. In 2000 the government of Ghana assented to the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
61
initiative which required the formulation and implementation of poverty reduction strategies.
There has been some achievement in employment generation and poverty reduction since the
formulation and implementation of the GPRS. Unemployment has declined from 10.4 per
cent in 2000 to 7.5 per cent in 2003 and further to 5.8 per cent in 2006 while overall poverty
incidence has generally reduced from 51.7 percent in 1992 to about 39.5 percent in 1998 and
further down to 28.5 in 2006. Social dialogue has also improved through bilateral and
tripartite consultations and has made the labour environment relative stable. Inspite of the
successes made, available data indicate that the Ghanaian labour market has not been able to
create enough jobs for the active population. Employment growth between 1984 and 2000 is
about 3.1 percent per annum and lags behind the labour force growth of about 5.8 percent per
annum.
There was a serious effort by government to include mass participation in the
formulation of GPRS I but the lack of capacity by social partners and other non-governmental
organizations led to the involvement of think tanks and umbrella organizations in the
preparation of the GPRS II. Indeed, the formation of the Growth and Poverty Forum
facilitated by IDEG in which the TUC participated effectively provided a platform for the
Union to network and collectively discuss the GPRS II. There exists a hypothesis that
development partners influenced the GPRS 1 through the MDAs since they were having
projects with them and there was the need to complete those projects and programmes but
their influence was to some extent reduced in the formulation of the GPRS II.
One important challenge that confronts the country in the implementation of the both
GPRS I and II is how to ensure the effective monitoring and evaluation of progress.
Inconsistency of data from the regional and district levels, lack of incentives to motivate staff
of MDAs and the difficulty of institutionalizing the monitoring and evaluation process at the
district levels has made it difficult to effectively monitor the process and to learn lessons
(NDPC, 2005). Annual Progress Report usually comes very late, making it impossible to
incorporate lessons learnt and correct mistakes arising.A notable observation from the
discussions suggests that both GPRS I and II made a difference in terms of the overall
government approach to development. The government of Ghana now has a positive view of
participatory policy formulation though the same cannot be said on the implementation. This
has partly been made possible because of the conditionality from development partners who
made participatory process in the GPRS mandatory. In fact social partners were of the view
62
that without the backing of Development Partners consultation would not have been that
intense in the formulation of the GPRS.
Involvement of stakeholders and the broader discussion of poverty enabled the
government to understand the various dimensions of poverty at both the national and local
level and this helped strategise to tackle poverty. Inspite of these achievements, there exist
some questions that need to be addressed in order to make participatory processes more
relevant to the formulation and implementation of PRSs.
Though much was done to ensure that the decent work agenda is taken into
consideration by GPRS I and II, the same cannot be said about wages. The decent wage
component of the decent work agenda appears to have been assumed as an automatic
outcome of employment creation. There exists a perception that the documents did not touch
on fair wages because of conditionalities by IMF which prevented increases in the wage bill.
Furthermore, social partners effectively participated in discussions on growth sectors and the
allocation of resources between productive and social sectors but not in discussions around
concessionary loans, macroeconomic policies and budget support.
Constituents reported solely developing the Employment matrix in the human
resources development theme of the GPRS II though they were alienated from the
implementation. Additionally, some of the policies were legalised and institutionalised. For
example, the Labour and Disability Acts are to some extent a direct outcome of deliberations
from the GPRS I and II.
One important observation is that budgetary allocations were made with little regard
to the prioritizations, especially in the GPRS I. One possible explanation could be the
disjoined relation between the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning responsible for
budget allocation and the NDPC responsible for planning. It has been argued that politicians
were more interested in allocating resources to satisfy their short term political goals mainly
detailed in their manifestos. The quest by politicians to fulfil promises in their manifestos
makes it relevant to know the relationship between political manifesto and national
development plan. Should governments implement what is written in manifestos which have
not been discussed by Ghanaian or implement what has been nationally agreed upon by the
country? In the light of these developments, one can argue that the major relevance of the
GPRS is the education that it provided for stakeholders on the different dimensions of
poverty and the process of public policy formulation.
63
There exist some challenges that constrained participation. The lack of capacity of social
partners to effectively carry out a comprehensive, participatory consultation exercise with all
the requirements in terms of personnel, expertise and documentation that has been the
preserve of public servants and the lack of experience by the planning authority to engage in
participatory processes posed a challenge to participation. Inadequate time to prepare and
little advanced information on the subject also made it difficult for social partners to
participate effectively. These have prompted social partners especially the TUC on the need
to upgrade their research division and to undertake activities and research that will help them
influence national policies.
It must be emphasised that a good balance between government, development
partners and non governmental organizations in the formulation, implementation and
monitoring of development plans to benefit the country is achievable but not without special
efforts. Such a balance allows each stakeholder to play its role in an efficient manner and
ensure the creation of decent jobs for majority of Ghanaians. The multi-dimensional nature of
the problem means that the country requires multi-faceted measures integrating legal,
institutional and administrative changes, supported by all stakeholders. Such measures should
include but not limited to building the capacity of social partners to enable them effectively
participate in policy formulation, implementation and monitoring; defining the role of each
stakeholder in the policy formulation implementation and monitoring chain; defining and
providing guideline for participation; defining the level and nature of participation that will
be considered adequate; streamlining and investing in data collection, especially on
employment to make it easier to assess progress; deepening networks among social partners
to enable them have a common voice; undertaking researches that will help mainstream
labour market issues into all themes of the GPRS; defining and providing explicit guidelines
on how government can involve social partners in the implementation of policies; urging
Development Partners, especially the World Bank and the IMF to make employment a key
factor in macroeconomic stability; properly linking the work of the National development
Planning Commission with that of Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and
encouraging government to have the political will to implement nationally accepted policies
than political manifestos.
64
References:
Baah-Boateng, W. (2004). Employment Policies for Sustainable Development: The
Experience of Ghana, Apaper presented at a national workshop on Employment
Framework for Ghanas Poverty Reduction Strategy organized by Government of
Ghana/UNDP/ILO, May 7, 2004, Accra
Baah, A., ( 2004), In doubt but on board Ghanas unions and the PRSP in Trade
unionsand poverty reduction strategies,Labour Education 2004/1-2, No. 134-135,
International Labour Organization, Geneva
Heintz J., (2004).Elements of an Employment Framework for Poverty Reduction in
Ghana, A report of a joint ILO/UNDP Mission
Ghana Statistical Service, (1998a).Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire (CWIQ): Main
Report Survey (GLSS 4), Accra
Ghana Statistical Service, (1995).Ghana Living Standard Survey Report on the Third
Round (GLSS 3), Accra
Ghana Statistical Service, (1998b).Ghana Living Standard Survey Report on the Fourth
Ghana Statistical Service, (2002).2000 Population and Housing Census: Summary Report
of Final Results, Accra
Ghana Statistical Service (2003). Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire (CWIQ) Survey:
Data on Employment, Accra
Ghana Statistical Service, (2008).Ghana Living Standard Survey Report on the Fourth
Trade Union Congress, (2004):Meeting the Challenges of the Quadrennial 2004-2008,
Medium-Term Policies of the Ghana Trade Union Congress, published by the TUC in
2004.
Twerefou, D. K., OseiKwadwo E. and Turkson E. F. (2007). Labour Market flexibility
and Employment and Income Security for Ghana. Working Paper 1/2007, Employment
Policy Working Paper Series, International Labour Organization, 2007, Geneva,
Switzerland, ISBN 978 92-2 119608-2.
Nsowah-Nuamah, N., Teal, F and Awoonor-Williams, M., (2010). Jobs, skills and
incomes in Ghana: how was poverty halved?, Working paper no. 2010-01 (Oxford:
Centre for the Study of African Economies, Jan. 2010).
65
UDC:37.013.83(662.6)
ATTITUDE OF STUDENTS TO ADULT EDUCATION AS A
COURSE OF STUDY: A CASE STUDY OF THE EKITI STATE
UNIVERSITY, ADO EKITI
Adedokun Mary Olufunke, PhD
Faculty of education, Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria
Abstract:
The paper examined the attitudes of Students to Adult Education as a course of Study. The population consisted
of students from the Faculty of Arts and Education out of which 366 samples were chosen for the study. One
hypothesis was generated for the study which sought to examine the difference in attitude of students to adult
education at entry point and their attitude after exposure to adult education as a course of study. A self designed
questionnaire was used to elicit responses from the respondents (one at entry point and another after exposure to
adult education as a course of study. The mean scores and standard deviation of the responses were determined
and later subjected to t-test statistical tool. The findings reveal that because students were ignorant of what adult
education is all about, students are lethargic to it as a course of study. The study among others recommended
that adult education should be made a prerequisite course for students as adult education is a course for all time
personal as well as national development.
Keywords: attitude, lifelong, education, self-fulfillment
Introduction:
People differ in attitudes. The way each person sees a situation is the attitude that will
be displayed on the particular situation. This means attitude of people to things and situations
is based on a proper understanding of the situation. Hence, people may either display
negative or positive attitude to a particular thing or situation.
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individuals degree of like or
dislike for an item. Attitudes therefore are generally positive or negative views of a person,
66
place, thing or event and this is often referred to as the attitude object
(http://en.wilipedia.org/wiki/Attitude). Attitudes can therefore be said to be judgemental.
In another way, attitudes to Vadium Kotelnikor (2011) are the established ways of
responding to people and situations based on the beliefs, values and assumptions which one
holds. These attitudes become manifest in how one behaves towards a person or thing or even
a course of study as in adult education. The general attitudes of most students to adult
education are negative. This is based on the fact that they do not have a good knowledge of
what adult education is all about. The mere mention of the name adult education has made it
to be tagged education of the adult to most people student inclusive.
It should be borne in mind that no matter the level of formal education attained,
everyone needs adult education of one type or the other. Adult education is aimed at the
development of individuals mental equipment and communicative powers as well as their
technical and vocational capacities. Adult education offers education functions to broad
sectors of the society, and enables the socio-political and economic activities of any nation
(Osuji, 2006).
Adult education through its broad programmes is a means of integrating individuals
into the global events bringing about not only the attainment of self-fulfillment but national
development. The conscientization policy of Freire (Freire 1974) emphasizes the extent to
which adult education would enable adults to grapple with their existential problems.
Education which is a necessity for the survival of man is important for all and sundry
for through education; valuable knowledge and skills needed for individuals within the
society are acquired. This view is in line with the view of OConnor (1957) who sees the
educational system of any society as an elaborate social mechanism designed to bring about
in the persons submitted to it certain skills and attitudes that are adjudged to be useful and
desirable in the society. This is the ultimate aim of adult education. Adult education is that
education that will raise the consciousness in adult so that they are able to perceive their
existential realities and take action towards remedying the situations. Adult education,
therefore, is instruments which will help individuals within the society develop a coping skill
and therefore being able to grapple with the problems of existence and recreating the
situations through actions (Freire, 1992).
Adult education is therefore a lifelong education; one which nobody must miss as it is
that education that puts one in the mainstream of the global event. Adult education becomes
very important in the sense that it leads to systematic acquisition renewal, upgrading and
completion of knowledge, skills and attitudes made necessary by the constantly changing
67
conditions in which people live (Crophly, 1974). The emphasis of adult education is renewal
of knowledge in such a way as to be able to cope with any emerging problems.
There are so many sides to adult education which people are not aware of and this is
why, they feel adult education is all about the education of the adult members of the society;
had it been that people are aware of what adult education is all about, they would all have
positive attitude to it and students would always want to opt for it as a course of study. Adult
education in the widest sense is any form of learning adults engage in beyond traditional
schooling. For example, going for computer training, attending sewing institute, for the sake
of being a tailor or seamstress, attending various training programmes and conferences come
under the umbrella of adult education in its widest sense. Lifelong learning
http://adulteducation.about. com/od/whatisadult leaning/p/whatisadulteducation.htm 6-1-11
Quare Adama, the Director of UNESCO institute of lifelong learning states that only
through Adult Education can we address the real problems of society like power sharing,
wealth creation, gender and health issues. (http://adulteducation.about.
com/od/whatisadulteducation.htm 6-1-11).
There are many reasons why adult education is important and these reason may help
people change their attitudes to the study of adult education in our universities. Some of these
reasons are listed below.
1. An individual may want a certificate to back him up in his place of work because they
are involved in a profession which requires a professional certificate.
2. Some may engage in adult education classes for personal enrichment.
3. In a down economy, adult education plays a prominent role. Laid off workers may
seek job and so may need a retraining programme which will provide them with skills
that other employers may need in their respective industries. This type of education
which comes up under adult education may make them marketable to other
employers. (What is Adult Education in http://www.wisegeek.com/ what is adult
education.htm).
It should be noted that adult education does not only apply to traditional settings, the
concept is far more extensive than what people think and this is why there is a need for
change of attitude towards adult education as a course of study.
The practice of adult education is also often referred to as training and development.
A working adult may not have time to quit work and go back to school full time but they can
have education through evening school system which may be daily or on weekend basis. This
68
type of education which is referred to as second chance education is adult education (Adult
Education:http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Adult _education.
Going through what adult education is and its importance to self and the nation, it is
important for parents and guardians to encourage their children/wards not to shun adult
education as a course of study in universities. With exposure to what adult education is one
expects attitudes of students to change towards adult education as a course of study.
Statement of the Problem
It was discovered by the researcher that students shun the study of adult education, the
researcher therefore intended to examine what attitude students put up when they are
admitted to study adult education and what their attitudes are after being exposed to adult
education as a course of study.
Research Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between students attitude to adult education at
entry and after exposure to adult education.
Methodology
The study employed a descriptive survey style.
Population
The population consisted of all students in the University of Ado Ekiti.
Sample
The sample consisted of three hundred and sixty-six (366) students drawn from the
Faculty of Education and those who had interest in the course as an elective course from the
faculty of Arts at the University of Ado Ekiti.
Instrumentation
A self designed questionnaire titled Attitude of Students to Adult Education
(ASAE) was put to use to elicit responses from the subjects.
Validity
The drafted questionnaire was subjected to thorough scrutiny and suggestions by the
experts in the field of Test and Measurement in the University.
Reliability
The reliability was established by administering the questionnaire items at two weeks
internal on the students of adult and non adult education in the University of Ibadan with a
reliability coefficient of 0.78 which was deemed good for the study.
69
Data Analysis
The data collected was subjected to mean, standard deviation and t-test statistical tool
at 0.05 level of significance.
Result and Discussion
The result is as presented.
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between students attitude to adult
education at entry and after exposure to adult education as a course of study.
Table 1: Students Mean Attitude at Entry and after Entry
Research Hypothesis N Mean Std Deviation Std. Error
Meant
Attitude at entry
Attitude after entry
366
366
2.4563
3.9699
1.30626
.17097
.06828
.00894
Table 1 shows that students mean attitude at entry point is 2.4563 while students
mean attitude after entry is 3.9699, indicating a positive attitude to adult education after
exposure to the programme.
Table 2: T-test calculations on students attitude to adult education at entry point and
after entry
Levenes
test for
equality
variances
95% confidence
internal of the
difference
Obs.
Equal
variance
assumed
f Sig t df Sig.
(2taile
d)
Mean
Differe
nce
Std
Error
diff
Lower Uppe
r
2063.2
20
.00
0
-
21.98
1
730 .000 -
1.5136
6
.06886 -1.64885 -1.37
Equal
variance
not
assumed
-
21.98
1
377.5
02 .000
-
1.5136
6
.06886 -1.64906 -
1037
826
70
Table 2 shows t cal to be 21.981 which is greater than t-tab of 1.96 at 0.05 level of
significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between
students attitude to adult education at entry and after entry is rejected while one accepts the
alternative hypothesis that there is significant difference between students attitude to adult
education at entry and after entry.
Discussion
The study revealed that at the point of entry students have no regard for adult
education and this is because they have no exposure to what adult education is and so they do
not know its value to the young people. The young adults therefore opined that adult
education is only education for the adults. However, students should have an open heart to
the issue of adult education as universal access to education has been the target for Nigeria in
the last four decades.
To Aderinoye (2005) while stressing the efforts of the National Economic
Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) and the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs); he stated that the focus of MDGs is the eradication of poverty in the entire world.
This therefore means the provision of educational opportunities to all as stated in the
JOMTIEN Education for All Summit (2000). Education therefore is a major tool for
achieving harmonious society development and transformation.
Encouraging students to study adult education is therefore an important task that must
be done. The researcher in her rapport with some non-adult education students (but who had
to take one of adult education courses as an elective) asked for their views about adult
education before the commencement of the course. Their answer was that they did not know
the importance of adult education, but that with the explanation of the researcher on adult
education and its various branches, they took to liking the course. There was a change in their
attitudes to adult education before the end of the semester. This change is buttressed by
Oladiran (1988) that attitude change devotes a shift in an existing attitude of an individual
either from being positive to negative or vice versa. In this sense the change is from negative
to positive. And this encouraged their successful performance in the course during
examination. The study therefore corroborated the fact that attitudes of people to things-
places, issues and situations are based on the proper understanding of such issues, places and
situations.
71
Recommendations
Based on the findings in this study, the following recommendations are made;
There should be a proper orientation to students at the secondary level on their choice
of university course of study. School guidance counselors should perform their duties
effectively in putting students through their choice of courses. This will be based on their
wide exposure to courses offered in the university.
Parents and guardians should have an open mind to all courses of study; bearing in
mind that all courses/subjects are means to an end; they help build individuals in a bid to
develop self, their communities and the nation at large.
Lectures of adult education should display a sense of commitment to the teaching of
the course; making their teaching as practicable as possible so that students will be motivated
to study Adult Education.
The university authorities should create awareness about the importance of education
in this fast developing world and should make introductory course on adult education a
course of study for all students since it is through adult education with its myriad
programmes that solutions are sought to problems besetting nation.
Policy makers at the government level should emphasize the importance of adult
education and fund it well in such a way that adult education becomes an interesting subject
to everybody not only to those in the formal institutions but also those outside of it and
especially workers who hold high positions of authority.
72
References:
Aderinoye R. A. (2005). Literacy for Empowerment, Equity and Social Justice in The
African Continent, An Assessment of the Nigerian Situation in NNCAE; Journal of
Adult Education, Nov-Dec. 2005.
Adult Education: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_education - Accessed 6-1-11.
Attitude: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude - Assessed 19-01-11
Cropley, A.J. (1979). Introduction in Cropley A.J. (ed). Lifelong Education, A Stocktaking,
Hamburg, UNESCO.
Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the oppressed. London, Penguin Books.
Freire, P. (1974). Education for Critical Consciousness, London, Sheed and Ward.
Kotelnikor V. The power of Attitude, in http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/
CrossCutting/atttitude.html Assessed - 9-02-11.
Lifelong hearing: http://adulteducation.about.com/what is adult learning /p/ what is adult
education.htm - 6-1-11
OConnor, D.J. (1957): An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education: London, Routledge
and Kegan Paul.
Osuji, S.N. Education for Fullness: Role of Adult Education in the 21
st
Century in Journal of
Soc. Sci. 12(1) 49-54, 2006.
What is Adult Education in http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-adult-education.htm -
Accessed 6-1-11
73
UDC:364.63-027.553(72)
CONCERNING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN,
IS THERE A THRESHOLD FOR EMPOWERMENT? THE
CASES OF TWO AREAS IN MEXICO
Maribel Lozano-Cortes, PhD
Luis Cabrera-Castellanos, PhD
University of Quintana Roo, Mexico
Abstract:
A rural town (Morelos) and another urban (Cancun) in the state of Quintana Roo, Mxico, have been analyzed,
and paradoxically we discovered that women suffer higher degrees of violence by their partners in the
environment with a higher level of female empowerment, measured through different indicators. We came to the
conclusion that, in underdeveloped societies, there must be a threshold from which female empowerment
implies a decrease in domestic violence. However, as long as this threshold is not reached, women will pay a
price in terms of male violence against them, in the process of gaining more participation in society
Keywords: Empowerment, Gender Violence, Mexico
Introduction:
In Mexico, one third of women are victims of domestic violence. They suffer more
violence in their homes, on the part of their male partners, than in the streets. The state of
Quintana Roo shows one of the highest rates of reports of domestic violence (INEGI, 2003):
in Quintana Roo, 43% of women reported at least one violent incident. Seven out of ten
women are victims of violence on the part of their male partners (INEGI, 2003).
74
These figures show even more clearly the level of violence against women in the
state, where the proportion of female violent deaths shows an average of 9.2% between 2002
and 2005, the highest figure in the whole country, where the average was of 5.2% for the
same period (INEGI, 2006). Moreover, the First National Survey on Domestic Violence,
carried out by the Secretary of Health (SSA, 2003) in health centers and hospitals, showed
that Quintana Roo is the state with the highest levels of violence against women.
On the other hand, we saw that violence against women is unevenly distributed in
different geographical areas. Statistics shows that women suffer more violence in their homes
by their male partners than in the streets by unknown subjects, and that in urban areas women
suffer more domestic violence. According to the same ENDIREH (National Survey on
Domestic Violence) of 2006, 42.2% of women suffer violence by their partners in urban
areas, whereas 33.3% of women are ill-treated by their partners in rural areas. Using these
two bases, the rural and urbanized, we examined domestic violence against women in the
state of Quintana Roo, Benito Jurez (Cancun) and Jos Mara Morelos. They are the most
contrasting municipalities in terms of social and economic characteristics.
Even though Quintana Roo ranks fifth in Mexico as regards the Human Development
Index, serious regional imbalances exist within the same state, as is shown by the fact that
whereas Benito Jurez ranks first in human development in the state, Morelos municipality
occupies the last place. In 2008, the daily per capita income in Benito Jurez was 2.6 US
dollars, whereas in Morelos was 0.35 cents. These two municipalities show substantial
differences not only in the economic sector, but also in their social and cultural dynamics.
Benito Jurez, with more than 500.000 inhabitants, is a municipalityof migrant workers who
have moved to the north of the state looking for the social well-being brought by tourism.
Morelos, with 33.000 inhabitants, is mainly made up of Mayan natives who work as maize
growers, just as their ancestors did. The first group lives from tourism, and the second mainly
in the primary sector.
Undoubtedly, given the characteristics of both municipalities, women in Benito Jurez
play a greater role in the productive processes and have more social presence than in
Morelos. Whereas in the first area 10.25% of women over 18 have a technical or professional
education, in Morelos this percentage reaches only 2.6 % (INEGI, 2000).
As regards employment, a similar situation occurs: whereas in Benito Jurez 32% of workers
are women, in Morelos this percentage drops to 18%. On the basis of other researches on
75
gender in the Mayan culture, we can hypothetically suggest that in those communities in
Quintana Roo where traditional productive patterns related to maize-growing are the norm, as
in Morelos, family structures have undergone less violent changes. Mayan women keep on
playing their traditional roles, even though male alcoholism, poverty, the media influence,
and migration have had an impact on their lives.
The above mentioned elements are part and parcel of the idea of balance and
complementarity between genders (Rosado, 2006). Moreover, family relationships in the
south of Quintana Roo are still generally communitarian: most families live on the same plot
of land which belonged to the family elders. Each couple shares their Mayan room with their
children and there they sleep and keep their scarce belongings: they share the porch space,
their food and the kitchen space. Elders are respected, and the division of labor between the
sexes is rigid: women prepare the nixtamal (maize flour used for preparing tortillas), the
tortillas and other food, while men go the maize field and bring firewood.
The cases
According to established traditional roles, women are expected to take care of the
house and children, as well as to obey and respect their husbands. If a man feels that his wife
or partner/ mistress hasnt fulfilled her duties or has overstepped the mark (including for
instance, asking money for the household or highlighting the childrens needs), he can
respond in a violent way, so, most women in the Morelos municipality dont have strong
conflicts with their men,since they play their traditional roles in a society where relationships
are still communitarian. Fewer rights are given to these women than to those living in Benito
Jurez, since they respect the role imposed on them. The violence they suffer is more
symbolic, muffled and invisible; it is inherent in their behavior, it is a permanent feature and
tends to be seen as normal or natural (Bourdieu, 2000).
However, in the urban areas in the north of Quintana Roo, such as Cancun, women
started working in the tourist sector, mostly taking lower-paid jobs as compared to men. They
work as chambermaids or receptionists, and are overexploited, though a certain repositioning
has been observed. So, within an economy which tends to personalize social relationships,
women can find it possible to handle their resources independently and to rebel against male
violence. On the other hand, community and family control in daily life, respectful
relationships between generations, as well as gender complementarity have no place in these
tourist areas. These areas present a particularly violent scenario especially when legal or
76
judicial controlsinherent to a modern society seem to be absent. Moreover, the increase in
alcoholism and drug addiction also threatens peoples lives (Rosado, 2006).
Furthermore, migrant workers who leave situations of extreme poverty and arrive
with low levels of human capital are marginalized compared to settled urban dwellers. As
Anderson (1965) wrote, the city labor market is always saturated by unprepared rural job-
seekers who are forced to precariously earn a living during this migratory process (Anderson,
1965:25).
The social context in which women in Benito Jurez try to make their way is
contradictory and uneven since most people in the municipality are migrant or indigenous
workers, concentrated mainly in the tourist strip of the region. They move to the northern part
of Quintana Roo looking for the promise of a job allowing them to survive. 1 This migrant
population with traditional communitarian rural lifestyles tries to adapt and frequently clashes
with the lifestyle of a city geared to tourism.
As the migrant population grows, jobs are temporary, low-paid, hard to find and keep
for both men and women, and consequently, these workers dont show willingness to defend
their rights (Santana, 1997:108). Researches on social attitudes towards indigenous cultural
behaviors show that natives living in the cities perceive and suffer from considerable
discrimination against them, which decreases the value of their cultural rules (CIESAS,
2005).
This economic and social disparity brings with it a certain attitude of hostility towards
tourists but, on the contrary, when residents aspire to reach the status of the visitors, they start
to imitate both their language and their lifestyle (Santana, 1997:99). So, some local
inhabitants tend to behave as tourists, living in a transitory play-and-leisure situation.
The tourists easy-going behavior stems from their conditions of anonymity and lack
of any compromise with local society. In a reversal of roles, local people try to imitate the
excesses allowed for tourists. For them these imply social, individual and collective costs,
both for themselves and in their relationships amongstlocal inhabitants. The significant
participation of young and adult people and single youngsters without a family in the
migratory influx to Cancun and the Mayan Riviera contributes to the development of this
behavior (Jimnez and Sosa, 2006).
77
The consequences on the family structure become visible, since it changes from the
extended and nuclear 2 family, where its members live in the same place, to a family with
fewer children 3, where both parents work.
One must keep in mind that in the tourist sector, the working day is considerably
longer than the usual 8-hour day, and that the activities are geared to the market, due to the
dynamics of tourist activities. This affects living together within the family. Couples dont
see each other so much, because their working days are incompatible.
This especially affects children in Cancun where they are faced with the phenomenon
of loneliness, disorientation and lack of protection. Their parents abandon them in a
framework of poverty where each individual spends his energy trying to eke out a living and
because in middle-class neighborhoods both parents work, lacking time to take care of their
children.
In this framework, relationships among couples living under the same roof are
difficult: theres no face-to-face relationship, since there isnt enough time to be devoted to
the partner or the family. The absence of time and private space to relax brings about stress
and a sense of oppression in any human being. All the more so if one lives in a market
economy, where individualism and competition are rampant:thus greater frustration ensues.
Moreover, the laxness of the residents, as a consequence of the imitation of the tourists roles,
leads them to prefer spending their spare time dancing and drinking with friends than staying
with their families. Relationships within couples are temporary and living together is
preferred to marriage. 4 In most cases, these relationships are created to avoid loneliness and
to feel safe and protected in a big city like Cancun.
In this context, domestic violence against women is more frequent in Benito Jurez,
as men and women work in an impersonal and competitive environment, where traditional
families dont exist anymore. Traditional social roles have faded away and moral values have
declined. Furthermore, all this develops within the social and gender inequality which is a
feature of Mexico.
Women living with their male partners suffer from a conflict of roles, since, on top of
working in the tourist sector, they have to work at home and men keep on delegating most
household chores to women.5 In the fieldwork carried out in Benito Jurez in order to know
78
the extent of domestic violence against women, we discovered that working women suffer
more ill-treatment (49.50%) than those who stay at home (25.10%).
Moreover, if a woman doesnt work (even if most of them were working before living
together with their male partners), living in a cosmopolitan urban area and knowing other
ways of life causes in women rejection or criticism against male domination. This creates
problems with their male partners who require that they fulfill their traditional roles.
So, we see that those women who deviated from traditional patterns and engaged in
the workforcerun greater risks of being mistreated, and not those who live in a traditional
situation where roles are clearly set.
In our survey we found that most of these women in a traditional role dont have a job
- only 13.5% do whereas in Benito Jurez 49.5% of them work, and these working women
suffer more from domestic violence on the part of their partners. Moreover, the violence rate
is higher for those women who have finished junior high school (23.74%) in both
municipalities. Getting out of the house and achieving greater empowerment implied a high
cost for women, namely mistreatment by their male partners.
When we measure the process of the empowerment of women through human
development and inequalities between men and women, and taking into account indicators
such as life expectancy, literacy rate and pro capita GDP (allowing us to know womens
participation, their access to professional opportunities, decision-making and use of
resources), we find great differences between the two municipalities.
On the one hand, the municipality of Benito Jurez shows the highest Gender
Development Index (GDI) rate in Quintana Roo (0.8142), whereas Morelos shows the lowest
rate among all the municipalities of the state (0.6537). As a consequence, in terms of GDI,
Benito Jurez ranks 63
rd
among the 2.418 municipalities for which we have information
available, while Morelos occupies the 1.485
th
position. If we compare the situation of women
in the two municipalities in terms of literacy rates, level of studies, income and jobs, we find
that women in Benito Jurez fare much better than those in Morelos.
We also took into account another official index in Mexico, the Gender Social Power
Index (GSPI) which compares participation and social power between men and women
through measuring the percentage of men and women working as legislators, top-level and
executive officials. In this case we found results which are similar to those related to GDI: the
79
municipality of Benito Jurez shows the highest GSPI rate (0.6615), whereas Morelos has the
last but one rate in the state (0.5708) (UNDP, 2003). An example is the number of women
working in the Benito Jurez City Council: 21% of workers at directive, vice-directive,
coordination or alderman levels are women, while in Morelos this percentage is 14%.
Therefore, women in Benito Jurez show greater empowerment than those in
Morelos, but this has led to more troubles with their partners, within a social environment of
a city like Cancun, where the role structure has collapsed and new dynamics have taken its
place, implying different risks but offering more promisefor women.
Specific characteristics of violence against women
Violence involves the use of force. The objective is to exert power, to dominate and
intervene in other peoples lives. Another goal is to deprive the human being of something
essential for a person, such as physical, psychological or moral integrity, as well as rights and
freedoms. What is generally understood as violence means a physical or psychological
aggression. This is a visible, direct kind of violence. However, theres another violence
belonging to the cultural sector, linked to those symbolic aspects which are used to justify or
legitimize direct mistreatment: those arguments which make us perceive deeply violent
situations as normal ones. Actually, direct violence is justified by the cultural one.
It is difficult to acknowledge or to accept this culturally-justified violence. So much
sothat, in the fieldwork carried out in the municipalities of Benito Jurez and Morelos inorder
to discoverthe type and extent of domestic violence against women on the part of their
husbands, it was difficult for us to get answers to questions related to their having been
objects of violence, above all in the second municipality where traditional roles prevail: a
man beating his wife because she doesnt fulfill her obligations is still considered by some
women as something normal.
These roles have prevailed throughout mankinds history. They are part and parcel of
the reality of things and keep on reproducing themselves owing to the formal social control
by the state, the Church and the educational system. Laws, theories and doctrines can be
found which justify and legitimize violence and dominance of men against women.
80
The kind of violence we tried to detect through the questionnaires we distributed in
the abovementioned municipalities referred to any behavior within a personal relationship
provoking psychological, physical or sexual damage. This behavior includes:
- Psychological mistreatment: for instance through constant intimidation, denigration
and humiliations;
- Physical aggressions: for instance, slapping, hitting with fists, kicking;
- Forced sexual relations, or other forms of sexual harassment;
- Economic mistreatment: not giving her money for the household and forbidding her to
work;
- Different domineering behaviors: for instance, isolating a person from her family and
friends, watching her activities and limiting her access to information or assistance.
In both municipalities, the results showed emotional violence in the first place,
followed by the economic one, with sexual violence in the last place.
Actually, different kinds of mistreatment coexist within the same relationship. In
general, we found out that when a woman has endured psychological violence, shell be
suffering physical or sexual violence thereafter. Once the first episode of mistreatment
occurs, the likelihood of new such episodes is higher and higher, despite evidences of
repentance on the part of the aggressor. That is to say, once respect for the other person is
lost, the use of violence as a conduct-control strategy becomes more and more frequent. The
sufferings of a woman, far from increasing the aggressors awareness, make him more
irritable (Echebura, 1994).
Most women interviewed in the municipalities of Benito Jurez and Jos Mara
Morelos highlighted that they had been attacked not only verbally, but also physically, and
everything was accompanied by serious threats:
When he was telling me things, he said that I was really ugly and that he would marry my
mum and my sisters, and he wouldnt let me go and see them, not even talk to them. He said
that he would kill my family, would kidnap one of my little brothers, and threatened me with a
knife. He assaulted people with a knife or a gun, he stole, killed, prostituted and raped, he
didnt care.
81
When exerting violence, men are trying to control their female partners, make them
feel that they are alone and that nobody can help them since men are allowed to hit them, up
to a certain point.
In every case, psychological ill-treatment is always present. In different researches it
is frequently noted that for many women, mistreatment and psychological degradations turn
out to be even more intolerable than physical violence. Psychological ill-treatment carries
with it serious consequences for the health and the emotional well-being of women and takes
different forms: continuous degradations, such as sharp criticism and humiliations;
threatening stances and gestures; imposition of degrading conducts; intent to limit freedom,
such as control over friendships, restrictions on money and mobility and so on; destructive
conducts against economically or affectively valuable objects, or even against pets; and
lastly, blaming women for the violent behavior of men (Echebura, 1994).
Many women go as far as committing suicide. According to data from INEGI,
between 2002 and 2005 in the state of Quintana Roo, the number of suicides increased by
around 50%, from 64 to 91 people, who took their lives. Some institutions, such as the
Desarrollo Integral para la Familia (DIF) (Integral Development for the Family) in Benito
Jurez, consider the increase in domestic violence as one of the causes for this situation. The
field study revealed that 40.8 % of women in both municipalities declared that their male
partners scared them.
In its turn, its very complicated to measure sexual violence: few women dare report
it, and its still considered as a private matter. Sexual violence includes incest, sexual
violation, child sexual abuse, sexual trade, forced prostitution, violent pornography, and
harassment in the workplace or in public spaces. These types of violence against women do
not happen just in the lowest social classes; however, poverty, overcrowding and the needs of
low-income-level women seem to exacerbate them (Lara y Salgado, 1999:276). Women of
different ages are victims of sexual violence, but in young women the highest incidence is
reported.
During detailed interviews carried out in a shelter for mistreated women in Cancun
for immigrant, low-income women between 13 and 16, we found that most of them started
their sexual lives at 12 without using any contraceptive method, and thatthis brought
unwanted pregnancies and family rejections. Some of these mistreated women wereabout to
82
have their second child, at an age of 15. Forced sexual relations, with a total lack of
consideration, are reported as a common occurrence.
A serious and increasingly frequent kind of violence is characterized by several forms
of mistreatment, intimidations and threats, linked to possessive conducts and a progressively
dominant behavior on the part of the aggressor. Data coming from a wide range of countries
show that domestic violence is the cause of a significant number of murders of women. The
victims were assassinated by their husbands or fiances, often in a situation of constant ill-
treatment. The highest proportion of violent deaths of women is reported in the state of
Quintana Roo (10.6% of the total number of deaths of women, as against 3.5% in the Federal
District, the lowest figure in the country) (INEGI, 2003).
Even though we cannot indicate direct reasons leading men to act violently against
their female partners, there are certain circumstances or facts which, on certain occasions, can
unleash ill-treatment. For instance, poverty in itself doesnt necessarily lead to violence.
However, poverty gives rise to stress and frustration; it can initiate violent feelings if its
accompanied by unemployment (economic exclusion) and overcrowding, in recently created
urban neighborhoods.
The survey showed that in both municipalities, 19% of women suffering from
violence were between 35 and 39. That is to say that age, as well as poverty, is not a direct
cause of mistreatment, but we can infer that those women denouncing ill-treatment by their
male partners belong to that age group. Similarly, we found out that women with a higher
literacy rate have suffered more violence from their male partners, which can be explained by
the fact that these women rebel against traditional roles, generating troubles within the
couple, and also because they dare denounce violent acts.
Undoubtedly, alcohol and drug consumptionsare related to violence. So, women
living with alcoholics and drug-addicts run greater risks of being physically assaulted, and
violence can get to serious levels when the partner is drunk. In the Cancun tourist area
alcohol and drug consumptions have increased considerably, and the easy-going, tourist-like
behavior, especially if linked with overwhelming, non-motivating jobs can explain this
increase. Most women interviewedwho had suffered or were suffering mistreatment were
living with alcoholic male partners who tended to beat them more when they were drunk.
83
On the other hand, domestic mistreatment can emerge as an aggressive conduct,
internalized by the children as an imitative behavior which is passed on to future generations.
The fact that they repeatedly observe the violence exerted on women by their male partners
tends to recreate this behavior in the couples of the following generations. Hence they learn
that violence is an effective and accepted resource to cope with family frustrations. In their
turn, little girls come to know that they have to accept it and learn to live with it, at least up to
a certain level.
Different factors can lead women to tolerate a violent relationship. Prominent among
them are: fear of punishment; lack of economic alternatives; worries about children;
emotional dependence; lack of support by their own families and friends, and the hope for a
change in their male partners. There are many immigrant women in Cancun, and it is there
that they have met their partners. They form partnershipsdue to loneliness and even when
mistreatment is present, rejoining their families is shameful for them for they are afraid of
their familys rejection, and of being seen as losers.
Actually, women who endure violence dont usually discuss the problem because they
are afraid of and insecure about their male partners behavior, or because they are ashamed.
So, 45.25% of the women interviewed in both municipalities, who endured ill-treatment by
their husbands or partners, declared that they didnt turn to any institution in order to
denounce their mistreatment, above all because they had no faith in the judicial system.
Crime-related research shows that a low confidence in the system leads to fewer
reports of illegal actions (Carranza, 1997:27). Women think that reporting violent behaviors
against them doesnt solve the problem: on the contrary, it can make it worse.
We wouldnormally think that women in Benito Jurez suffer from lower levels of
violence by their male partners, as a consequence of their empowerment process. However,
we discoveredthat they endure a much more intense and visible violence than their
counterparts in Morelos. Women in Morelos are still dominated by male roles and suffer a
form of violence inherent to their roles. This kind of violence is seen as normal or natural,
is culturally justifiable and is basically exerted through communicative and symbolic
pathways. It is therefore, invisible even to women, since it is an element of a lifestyle, of a
way of being.
84
Conversely, those women in Benito Jurez who rebel against their traditional roles in
an imbalanced and entangled social context suffer a more visible and intense violence. They
live in communities where male dominance is rampant and are mistreated when they dare
challenge this power. Consequently, they run higher risks than the women in Jos Mara
Morelos, but gain more space for personal development.
So, as women in Benito Jurez reject their traditional roles and change their
perspectives, they run considerable risks, but have brought to the fore a traditionally private
problem, have reported it and are looking for other women to follow suit.
Conclusion:
In this paper we criticize the commonly accepted theory whereby women, through
higher levels of empowerment in society, endure less gender violence against them: the
results we obtained show an opposite trend.
We considered two very close towns with deep differences in the level of
empowerment of women. One of them showed higher women empowerment, which can be
considered in a broad sense as consisting of higher levels of participation in the decision-
making process in local government, higher literacy rates and greater presence in the job
market.
Taking into account both official statistics and the fieldwork we carried out in the two
towns, we can affirm that the results obtained indicate that women with a higher level of
empowerment suffer more domestic violence by their male partners.
This research leads us to conclude that higher levels of female empowerment imply a
cost for women, in terms of increased violence by their male partners.
However, we admit that empowerment for women leads to less domestic violence.
These two statements are valid but seem to imply a contradiction. Therefore, we
suggest the existence of a threshold, of a breaking point from which the situation changes. In
other words, in an underdeveloped society, women will reach greater empowerment but will
have to pay the price of greater male violence. Somewhere along thepathway of development
for a society, more empowerment will entail less violence against women. Measuring this
threshold is, therefore, a future challenge for researchers in gender violence.
85
Notes
Even if in Quintana Roo one out of three women migrate to look for a job, many more
do it for family reasons, unlike men. Most immigrants are married: however the percentage of
single migrant men is five points higher than that of migrant women (INEGI, 2000).
The municipality of Benito Jurez shows the lowest percentage of nuclear households
(71.8%) in Quintana Roo, even below the national average (73.7).
On the contrary, Jos Mara Morelos has the highest percentage of nuclear families in the
state (78%), which is above the national average.
In the urban municipality of Benito Jurez women have fewer children than those in
Jos Mara Morelos. For instance, between 1993 and 1997 the average yearly birth rate was
2.33% in Benito Jurez, whereas in the same period in Jos Mara Morelos the birth index
was 26.8%. In general, urban birth rates are lower than those in rural areas (Anderson, 1965:
183).
On the other hand, in the municipality of Jos Mara Morelos 56% of women
married in a church and in a civil ceremony, whereas in Benito Jurez only 34.3%, as shown
by the fieldwork.
On average, men devote 45.3 hours a week working away from their homes, whereas
women 37.5 hours a week. If we consider the average number of hours devoted to household
chores, we find the opposite situation: on average, men devote 10.6 hours and women 27.1
hours a week to these occupations. Another significant piece of information is that around
100% of womenmarried or living in common law participate in domestic activities;
conversely, men in the same situation show a participation rate of only 50.3%.
According to information collected by the Centro Integral de Atencin a la Mujer (CIAM)
Integral Center for Women in Cancun, and the Desarrollo Integral para la Familia (DIF-
CAVI) Family Integral Development Center taking care of women who have suffered
domestic violence, women who turned to these Centers after enduring mistreatment by their
male partners have an average literacy rate corresponding to junior high school.
86
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y Desarrollo, No.52, CEPAL:Santiago de Chile
Herreras Sayavedra y Eugenia Flores (1997) Ser mujer un riesgo para la salud?, Red de
Mujeres, Mxico.
Instituto Nacional de Estadstica Geografa e Informtica (INEGI) Censo General de
Poblacin y Vivienda 2000, en lnea, "http://www.inegi.gob.mx" www.inegi.gob.mx
(10/05/2006).
MeilLandwerlin (2004) Cambio familiar y maltrato conyugal hacia la mujer, Revista
Internacional de Sociologa No. 37, Madrid.
87
UDC: 338:336.77(662.6)"1973/2009"
CAREER ASPIRATIONS: AN INVESTIGATION OF SENIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS AWARENESS OF
CONTEMPORARY HIGH PROFILE CAREERS
Oluwatimilehin J. B., PhD
Owoyele JimohWale, PhD
(Corresponding author)
Department of Counselling Psychology, College of Applied Education and Vocational
Technology Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Nigeria
Abstract
Many students are fond of naming the seemingly common and popular careers such as medicine, engineering
and law as their future ambitions. The aim of this study is to determine the level of awareness of the relatively
new and contemporary careers which offer bounteous prospects in the modern globalised world by Nigerian
adolescents. It is a descriptive study in form of a survey in which questionnaires were used to collect data from a
randomly selected sample of senior secondary school students in Ogun State. Appropriate research questions
and null hypotheses were raised and tested at 0.05 level. Findings revealed that participants have low level of
awareness of contemporary careers. This trend was the same among male and female, rural and urban students.
Therefore, it was recommended that career education focusing on contemporary careers should be organized for
students from time to time in order to raise their level of career awareness and create ample career opportunities
for them in the modern globalised world
Keywords: career aspiration, contemporary careers, gender, rural/urban, Nigeria
Background to the Study
The imperative of careers in human life cannot be over emphasized. At a certain stage
in human development, the need to have a career becomes so apparent that individuals cannot
88
but begin to plan, explore, choose and begin to seek ways of how to develop on a chosen
profession or explore other opportunities that come ones way in order to have a fulfilling
career and live a life full of joy and satisfaction. A career is totality of time and effort devoted
to the pursuance of work in order to live a meaningful life. It includes all the periods spent
planning, acquiring education and training qualifying one for an occupation, the period of
entrance into, the effort made to ensure progression including acquisition of further training,
change of job and development all through a working life. Career is so important that it tends
to define human personality and determine the quality of life that individuals live. However,
life is dynamic and the reality of globalization stares us in the face. Gone are the days when
we talk of careers and the thought of notable professions such as medicine, law, engineering,
military, policing, business and piloting quickly comes to mind. These professions have
enjoyed great popularity as a result of the great potentials they had, to transform individuals
lives and change their social status and economic fortunes within a relatively short period of
time. Hence, when school pupils are asked to name their future ambitions, majority tend to
say medicine, engineering and the likes. Apart from the expansions that have happen to these
professions leading to the development of equally lucrative and vibrant professions as
offshoots of the popular professions, several new, high profile and lucrative professions
offering promises of fulfilling careers to the young ones have evolved across the globe.
Surprisingly however, majority of our school pupils still indicate the traditional professions
(medicine, law, engineering and so on) as their future ambitions. This suggests that they may
not be aware of the new professions springing up across the world and which offer equally
great career opportunities to the young ones. Hence, this study explores the level of
awareness level of contemporary high profile careers by Senior Secondary School students in
Ogun State, Nigeria.
Literature Review
Career awareness among Nigerian Students
Career awareness is important among students in order to realize the nations dreams
as an emerging economy. One of the major problems facing Nigerian Secondary School
students is the task of making an appropriate and realistic occupational choice (Anasi, 2010).
This then implies that it behooves on the Nigerian educationists and counselors to ensure that
proper steps and measures are taken in order for the students to make the right choices
occupationally. Choosing an appropriate career is one of the most difficult or serious
89
decisions which a students have to make especially in the face of newly emerging careers
(Denga, 2001). One of the most pressing problems confronting young people today involves
choosing an appropriate occupation, preparing for it, liking it, and keeping it (Ozohu-
Sulayman, 2006). Some variations in career preferences of male and female students owing
to socialization patterns and gender stereo-type have been observed and this trend is said to
pose some threat to students ability to maximize their potentials in the contemporary world
(Griffin &Hammis, 2003). Career choice and decision making in rural and urban centres
remains a worrisome problem among Nigerian male and female students across the country
as many students still rely on chance and luck elements when it comes to choosing a career
because many of them are not aware of new opportunities (Ofem&Ajayi, 2008). The decision
is further fueled by the fact that the emerging new jobs are continually being created in the
economy, such that the former traditional advice from parents and elders were often made in
most cases in complete ignorance of these new professions and their requirements. The
Federal Government of Nigeria (2001) stated that owing to the continuous emergence of new
career opportunities in the world, when students leave the Junior Secondary School to the
Senior Secondary level, such students need complete career counselling to enable them have
a smooth transition to a specialized field of work, which shall eventually lead them to a
desired occupational choice.
New career opportunities: Several new jobs and career opportunities keep on to emerge in
the fast changing world and some of the most prominent and highly promising ones are
considered in below;
Information Technology (IT)
The three primary census job classifications for Information Technology employees
are: (a) computer systems analysts and scientists, (b) computer programmers, and (c)
operations and systems researchers (Demirr, 2002). Computer engineers work with the
hardware and software aspects of systems design and development and often work in teams
that design new computing devices or computer related equipment. Software engineers
design and develop both packaged and systems software. While database administrators
work with database management systems software, reorganize and restructure data and are
responsible for maintaining the efficiency of databases and system security (Yushau, 2006;
Yildir&Tsong, 2001; Zakaria, 2006).
90
Internet Commerce
A Cisco Systems, Inc. study suggests nearly 2.5 million people made a living directly
from the Internet in 1999, which is up 36% from 1988 according to the report by the Center
for Research in Electronic Commerce (CREC) at the University of Texas at Austin (Yushau,
2006). The Internet commerce group, which included on-line retailing, business-to-business
and to consumer groups, grew by 26%, to 725,000 people. Further, according to the CREC
study, groups that sell digital content, such as music transmitted over the Web increased
revenues by more than one-third and gross margins were increased by 25%. The companies
that sell physical goods, such as books mailed by Amazon.com, increased by nearly 40% and
gross margins by almost 42% (Yi &Yujong, 2004). The following careers are also reported
by Anas, (2010); Elegbeleye and Griffin &Hammis (2003) and to be making great waves and
they offer great potentials to youth in the contemporary world;
Social worker
Social or community service is a much-talked-about career, attracting students from
all branches of study. Because it requires no specific eligibility criteria and is not a closed
door option, many join this profession, which is more of a passion than profession.
Environmentalist
The emergence of an empathic and concerned youth has made the profession of
environmentalist a viable option. The need to save the Earth from destruction has been felt
very strongly recently pushing up the need and demand for environmentalists. It is a
profession that requires people from all backgrounds be it doctors, engineers, scientists or
journalists. The field and scope is vast and it is one profession that can be pursued along with
another. The passion to safeguard our environment is the only eligibility criteria.
Restauranteur/ hotelier
Those with a love for food and a bent towards entrepreneurship with a difference can
consider becoming a restauranteur or hotelier. Broadly falling under the hospitality industry,
these groups of people want to serve, be known, and also reap substantial benefits. And the
emerging trend of eating out and vacationing provide significant incentive.
91
Science and Technology
The fastest emerging careers today relate to fields like forensic science, health care,
homeland security, case management, life care planning, geriatric care management, genetics,
and cyber security. These fields are now gaining popularity and proving to be the fastest
emerging new economy careers as compared to several years ago. Until recently, in the
United States, the automobile and related industries accounted for a major part of
employment opportunities. However, employment avenues in these fields have declined as a
result of increased automation.
Medical Prospects
Nursing informatics is an upcoming career that involves skills in nursing, computer
science and information technology. New medical imaging techniques have given rise to
radiological specialties and improvements in data management have led to geographic
information systems.
Statement of Problem
The reality of the contemporary time shows that not all school pupils can end up
becoming medical doctors, lawyers and engineers no matter how great they fantasize, but
there are equally high profile and lucrative professions which offer great hopes of fulfilling
careers to the young ones. However, the extent to which school pupils are aware of these
careers may determine their ability to explore such opportunities. Hence this study
investigates awareness level of contemporary high profile careers by senior secondary school
students in Ogun state, Nigeria. It also investigates gender and rural/urban differences in
career awareness of secondary school students.
Research Question
What is the level of awareness of contemporary high profile careers by secondary
school students in Ogun state, Nigeria?
92
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were postulated and tested at 0.05 level.
HO1: There is no significant difference between the expected and observed frequencies of
students level of awareness of contemporary high profile careers.
HO2: There is no significant difference between male and female students level of
awareness of contemporary high profile careers.
HO3: There is no significant difference between rural and urban students level of awareness
of contemporary high profile careers.
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study have some implications for career counseling in secondary
schools. Based on the findings of this study, it is essential that career counseling should focus
more on the creation of adequate awareness of contemporary high profile careers so that
students may have ample opportunities to explore and pursue careers that may be highly
rewarding in the contemporary world. Moreover, the findings of this study are expected to
stimulate further researches on the upsurge of new high profile careers with a view to
expanding the frontier of knowledge in that regard. It is hoped that the present study would
serve as useful reference resource to future researchers on the subject.
Methodology
This study made use of the descriptive research design involving a survey of students
level of awareness of contemporary high profile careers. None of the variables studied was
manipulated to cause a change in the other. Instead, an objective description of the
phenomenon as it currently exists using questionnaires as the research instrument. Students
currently attending public senior secondary schools in Ogun state, Nigeria constituted the
target population. A sample of 480 respondents (average age = 16.87years) was randomly
selected from ten secondary schools across the state using simple random sampling technique
in form of balloting.
Instrumentation
The instrument used for data collection was questionnaire developed by the
researchers and titled New Career Questionnaire (NCQ). It has two sections, one requesting
93
for demographic data such as name of school, town/village, gender, class and age while the
other contains a list of ten new careers and respondents are simply requested to rate their
level of awareness of the careers using a 4 Likert Scale Format. The content of the NCQ was
developed based on the available literature on new careers and this was done to ensure its
content and construct validity. Besides, the NCQ was trial tested twice in three weeks on a set
of ten senior secondary school students selected outside the study area before the real study.
Using Pearson correlation to correlate the two set of scores, a co-efficient of 0.91 was
observed as index of reliability.
Procedure
The researchers along with four research assistants visited the schools to administer
and retrieve the questionnaires. Necessary permissions were obtained from the school
authorities and respondents consents were freely given as none of them was forced to
participate in the study. On the average administration of the instruments lasted 20 minutes
(including the time spent on briefing and clarifications).
Results:
The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square and t-test.
The results are presented in summary tables. To answer the research question raised, simple
percentage analysis was used while the postulated null hypotheses were tested using t-test.
Table 1: Level of Awareness of Contemporary High Profile Careers by Students
Test Item: This career has a lot of prospect in the contemporary world;
S/N NEW CAREERS YES (% ) NO (%) Awareness
Level
1 Computer operator and programmers 278 (57.92) 202 (42.18) High
2 Computer operations and systems
researchers
59 (12.29) 421 (87.71) Low
3 Computer systems analysts and
scientists
61 (12.71) 419 (87.29) Low
94
4 Forensic science 82 (17.18) 398 (82.92) Low
5 Nursing informatics 173 (36.04) 307 (63.96) Low
6 Restauranteur 293 (61.04) 187 (38.96) High
7 Environmentalist 153 (31.87) 327 (68.13) Low
8 Artificial intelligence technician 433 (90.21) 47 (8.79) Low
9 Relocation counselor 132 (27.5) 348 (72.5) Low
10 Event manager 148 (30.83) 332 (69.17) Low
Table 1 showed that majority of the respondents have low awareness level regarding
the prospect of Computer operations and systems researchers, Computer systems analysts and
scientists, Forensic science, Nursing informatics, Restauranteur, Environmentalist, Artificial
intelligence technician, Relocation counselor and Event manager. In all these cases, the
percentage of those who indicated that they know the prospects of each of these careers is
less than 50% meaning that many of them have little or no awareness about the prospects of
such careers in contemporary world. However, the table showed that students level of
awareness of Computer operator and programmers, as well as Restauranteur was high.
Table 2: t-test of gender difference in students level of awareness of contemporary high
profile careers
Group N MEAN SD Df T P
Male 240 13.26 4.35 478 1.392 .710
Female 240 12.86 4.57
Table 2 revealed no significant difference in level of awareness of high profile careers by
male and female students (t = 1.392; p > .05). Therefore, the postulated null hypothesis is
retained. This means that students level of awareness of contemporary high profile careers is
95
not gender sensitive. Male and female students have the same level of awareness of
contemporary high profile careers.
Table 3: t-test of rural/urban difference in students level of awareness of contemporary
high profile careers
Group N MEAN SD Df T P
Students
in Rural
schools
264 12.57 4.27 478 1.597 .930
Students
in Urban
schools
216 13.41 4.38
Table 3 revealed no significant difference in level of awareness of high profile careers by
students in rural and urban schools (t = 1.597; p > .05). Therefore, the postulated null
hypothesis is retained. This means that students level of awareness of contemporary high
profile careers is not sensitive to school location. Students in rural and urban schools have the
same level of awareness of contemporary high profile careers.
Discussion of Findings
The results of this study showed that there is a low level of awareness ofcontemporary
high profile careers among senior secondary school students in Nigeria. The implication of
this is that students do not have adequate access to modern career education and counselling
services which could expose them to upcoming careers and expand their potentialities in the
contemporary world. This finding corroborates Ofem&Ajayi (2008) who observed that many
young ones are not aware of the current high profile careers. It also buttresses the notion that
in the globalised world new careers are emerging and only those who can see this trend and
seize the opportunities could excel in the modern world (Griffin &Hammis, 2003, Ozohu-
Sulayman, 2006).
The finding on the first null hypothesis which showed that students level of
awareness of contemporary high profile careers is not gender sensitive implies that both male
and female students are not aware that new career opportunities abound in the modern world.
They still hold tight to the commonly known careers and this may limit their opportunities in
96
the modern world. This finding lends credence to Denga (2001) who reported problem of
career indecision among Nigerian youth especially male and female students.
The finding on the second null hypothesis which showed that students level of
awareness of contemporary high profile careers is common to those in the rural and urban
areas. This finding is surprising because it was thought that those in the urban areas would
have greater awareness of contemporary high profile careers because they have greater access
to modern communication facilities such as DSTV and internet facilities where they could
have viewed some of these careers. However, the fact that this result showed that students in
rural and urban areas are not aware of contemporary high profile careers suggests that even
students in urban areas are to pleasure driven that they simply enjoy the pleasure in what they
view instead of learning from it. The present finding agrees with Denga (2001) and Anasi
(2010) who observed that Nigerian youth need carefully packaged career education.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, it is concluded that students need career education
and counselling services that would expose them to modern career opportunities. This
becomes more imperative considering the reality of the current high rate of unemployment
among Nigerian youth. Breaking new grounds may be all that is needed to reduce the
problem of unemployment. Therefore, schools should organize periodic career education and
strengthen their counselling services so that students can be exposed to the various emerging
and highly promising careers in the modern world.
97
References:
Anasi, S. (2010). Curbing Youth Restiveness in Nigeria:The Role of Information and
Libraries. Library Philosophy and Practice, ISSN 1522-0222. Retrieved on 24/07/2010
from www.google.com/careeransi.htm
Demir, C. (2002). Determining the level of job satisfaction of nurses working at Turkish
military forces hospitals.Downloaded on Oct. 21 from www.findarticle.com.
Denga, D. I. (2001). Guidance and counseling in schools and non-school setting (2
nd
Ed.).
Port Harcourt: Double Diamond Publications.
Elegbeleye, O.S. (2005). Recreational facilities in schools: A panacea for youths' restiveness.
Journal of Human Ecology 18 (2): 93-98.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2001).National Youth Policy. Available:
http://www.thepresidency.gov.za/docs/policy /national _ youth _ policy.pdf
Griffin, C. and Hammis, D. (2003) "Making Self Employment Work for People with
Disabilities," Baltimore: Paul Brookes Publishing Co.
Ofem, N.I., &Ajayi A.R. (2008). Effects of youth empowerment strategies on conflict
resolutions in the Niger Delta of Nigeria: Evidence from Cross River State. Journal of
Agriculture and Rural Development 6 (1,2): 139-146.
Ozohu-Suleiman, A. (2006). The Nigerian youth in contemporary political development:
Relevance, challenges, and role expectation. The Constitution: A Journal of Constitutional
Development 6 (4): 97-111.
Yi . Y &Yujong H. (2004). Predicting the use of web-based information systems: self
efficacy, 449 enjoyment, learning goal orientation as the technology Acceptance Model.
International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 59 (4), 431-449.
Yildir.I and Tsong.Y (2001).A Comparison of Computer Attitudinal Characteristics of
Elementary School Children and their Teachers in Turkey.A paper submitted to SIG
International Studies.
Yushau, B. (2006). Computer attitude, use, experience, software familiarity and perceived
pedagogical usefulness: The case of mathematics professors. EurasiaJournal of Mathematics,
Science and Technology Education, 2(3), 1 7.
Zakaria, Y. (2006). Youth, conflict, security, and development. Available:
http://www.realityofaid.org/roareport.php?table=roa2006&id=6
98
UDC:378.091.26(549.1)
APPLICATION OF KEITH MORROW`S FEATURES OF
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TESTING TO A TEST OF
COMMUNICATION SKILLS AT MBA LEVEL
Abdul Baseer, PhD candidate
Lecturer in applied linguistics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Sofia Dildar Alvi, MA
Lecturer in English, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Abstract
Si nce t he 1970s, an i nnovat i ve t heor y r egar di ng l anguage and l anguage use exer t ed a
not i ceabl e ef f ect on l anguage t eachi ng and l anguage t est i ng. Test i ng i s essent i al i n t he
l ear ni ng pr ocess and i s a cr uci al aspect of t eachi ng. But l anguage t est i ng has
t r adi t i onal l y been t aken t he f or m of t est i ng knowl edge about l anguage, usual l y t he
t est i ng of knowl edge of vocabul ar y and gr ammar . However , l anguage t est i ng i s much
mor e t han si mpl e t est i ng of vocabul ar y and gr ammar . So, communi cat i ve l anguage t est s
ar e desi gned t o measur e t he abi l i t y of t he t est ees t o use t ar get l anguage i n r eal l i f e
si t uat i ons. However , l anguage t est i ng i n Paki st an i n not based on Communi cat i ve
Language Test i ng appr oach. The pr esent r esear ch eval uat es a t est of Communi cat i on
ski l l s modul e t a ught at MBA ( Mast er of Busi ness Admi ni st r at i on) l evel ( Appendi x - A) .
Kei t h Mor r ow s ( 1979) Seven Feat ur es of Communi cat i on, based on Hol i st i c appr oach t o
l anguage t est i ng, has been used as cr i t er i on t o eval uat e t he appr opr i at eness of t he above
ment i oned t es t . A r evi sed t est of r eadi ng and speaki ng ski l l s i n t he l i ght of Mor r ow s
f eat ur es has been pr oposed i n t he end ( Appendi x- B) .
99
Keywords: Testing, communicative, language, holistic, reading, speaking, Morrow
Introduction
Communicative language testing is designed to provide the tester with information about
the testees ability to perform in the target language in the tasks contextually specified.
Appropriateness rather than the formation of grammatically correct sentences is emphasised
more in testing productive skills. In testing receptive skills, emphasis is placed on
understanding the communicative intent of the speaker or writer rather than on picking out
specific details. In communicative testing, both are combined so that the testee must
comprehend and respond in real life situations. Assessment is about several things at once
It is about reporting on students achievements and about teaching them better through
expressing to them more clearly the goals of our curricula. It is about measuring student
learning; it is about diagnosing misunderstandings in order to help students to learn more
effectively. It concerns the quality of the teaching as well as the quality of the learning
(Ramsden, 1992). Hence, assessment is central to the learning process and is a crucial aspect
of teaching. It is the most significant factor that influences student learning. This paper
focuses on the description of the present testing/ teaching situation regarding communicative
skills to the Masters level students in Pakistani universities. It describes and analyses a
Communication Skills test at MBA (first semester) level in the light of Morrows (1979)
Seven Features of Communication. It also explains, as Morrow proposes, that these features
are not measured in conventional language tests, thus a new test (of testing reading and
speaking skills) will be devised according to these seven features.
Background to the Teaching / Testing Situation
Most of the English language learning/ teaching mainly happens in the language
classroom. A language teacher usually teaches in an acquisition poor environment in
Pakistani context. In our English language classrooms teachers teach everything found in the
textbook including texts, tasks or exercises, texts for extensive reading, group assignments,
projects (especially teaching methodology at MBA level), which are best left to the individual
or in-groups learner efforts. As a result teachers are often obliged to equate a years
successful teaching with covering all the portions of the textbook. In current teaching/ testing
situation in Pakistan, although, the sufficient library support, newspapers, magazines and
other supplementary sources of authentic target language are available (this through different
100
sources of electronic and print media in English language), the teacher relies more and
exclusively on the textbook. Moreover, in the teaching/ testing environment where the
terminal examination becomes the main focus and the sole judge of teaching, mastery of the
contents of the course book often becomes the most important thing.
Nevertheless, every individual learner comes to learning with different personality traits
and varying economic/linguistic background, having different learning styles and strategies,
variety of aptitudes for acquisition and dissimilar motivation. All this makes heterogeneity
true of every class. Teachers being mostly incompetent while teaching in heterogeneous
classes face problems whose answers they readily have no access to.
In our teaching/ testing situation students of almost every faculty are provided with
English language learning material which is conventional in nature. On contact for inquiry
regarding the syllabus and objectives of MBA Communication Skills Module, the
concerned teachers responded that they rely mostly on the following teaching material:
Essentials of Business Communication (Guffey, 2004)
Communicating in Business and Professional Settings ( Hanna and Wilson, 1998)
Technical Communication: Principles and Practice (Raman and Sharma, 2004)
Business Communication (Chaturvedi and Chaturvedi, 2006)
The Writers Compass (McWhorter, 1995)
The concerned teachers had no block syllabus and weekly plan in hand. On inquiry they
disclosed that they teach parts of speech, English grammar, sentence basics, paragraph basics,
sentence & paragraph problems, business letters and memos, report writing, dialogue writing,
write up of CVs, nature and process of communication, nature of non-verbal communication,
the nature of negotiation, reading comprehension etc.
Based on the above mentioned account of the syllabus and objectives of teaching material
it is obvious that the teachers are following no communicative approach to English language
teaching/ testing. Students are being taught about language in isolated form not the language
in real life situations. They even do not know of four language skills and the importance to be
101
competent at all of them. Hence the objective is not to achieve the communicative
competence of the learners. Since the teachers are not concerned with developing four
language skills collectively for the purpose of real life communication, the tests they
construct do not measure students communicative competence keeping in view Morrows
seven features of a communicative test.
Objectives
Analyse and evaluate an existing English language test in Pakistani context under Morrows
(1979) features.
Develop a reading and speaking test under Morrows features of communication.
Relate reading and speaking skills of the learners to real life communication.
Marrows Seven Features of Communication
KeithMorrow (1979) is of the view that in conventional language tests, seven
features of communication are not measured, whereas use of such features in a test makes the
assessment of a language test authentic. He stresses that conventional language tests measure
the competence rather than performance of language users in real life situation. They test the
knowledge of the language, not the ability to use it. Morrows seven features are as follow:
Interaction based
According toMorrow a language test should be interaction based. He states that a
sender of a message establishes an involvement with his receiver while taking into account
the receivers requirements. Moreover, receivers expectations often affect both the content
and the medium of the message.
Unpredictability
Morrow states that a test should not be predictable because the candidates previous
knowledge about the test affects the real purpose of conducting a test. Thus, formulating,
processing and responding to unpredictable data/test are likely to be an extremely relevant
feature of language use.
102
Context
According to Morrow, the use of a language takes place in a context. The forms of
language vary according to the context. A language user must be able to handle the situation
appropriately according to role, attitude, age, interest, formality, level, and status of
participants. It means that a test should be appropriate and restricted according to the
situation.
Purpose
An apparent feature of communication is that every word is uttered for a function.
There is not even a single utterance made without a purpose. Thus a language user must be
able to recognize why a certain remark has been addressed to him, and he should be able to
encode appropriate utterances to achieve his own purposes.
Performance
Keith Morrow criticized the conventional testing techniques on the grounds that they
tested competence rather than performance, in other words, they tested knowledge of how the
language worked rather than an ability to use it in real life situations.Competence has been
the basis of the most language tests, but Morrow asserts that test of communicative ability
should be criterion based against the operational performance of a set of authentic language
tasks. In other words, it will set out to show whether or not the candidate can perform a set of
specified activities.
Authenticity
An important feature of a language test is authenticity. For measuring the learners
ability, giving a paragraph made simplified for basic reading shows us nothing about his
actual communicative ability, since a main feature of such ability is exactly the capacity to
come to terms with what is unknown. Hence input and prompts in language test should not be
simplified for the learner.
103
Behaviour based
According to Morrow, more emphasis needs to be placed in the communicative
context on the notion of behaviour as the success or failure of an interaction is judged by its
participants on the basis of its behavioural outcomes. A test of communication must take as
its starting point the measurement of what the candidate can actually achieve through
language.
Taking into account the seven features of Morrow's Communicative Model, the
selected test (Appendix-A) has been analyzed, and a new test (Appendix-B) has been
developed.
Description of the Test (Appendix-A)
Test Purpose
The purpose of the test administered to the students of MBA (first semester) (attached
as Appendix-A) seems to test nothing. It asks some questions about the nature of language,
not tests the ability to communicate appropriately in real life situation.
Test Description
Test consists of only the subjective type questions, which are five in number. It is a
four credit hours Communication Skills test constructed for the students of MBA (first
semester). Maximum marks of the question paper are 80. The rubrics of the test state that
students have to attempt all the questions, and all carry equal marks. All of the questions are
memory based, asking about the nature of the communication, not measuring students
communicative competence in English language in real life situation. No interactive and
communicative tasks have been chosen by the tester.
Testees' Level
MBA (first semester) students were given this test. The class consisted of 32
male/female students, aged around 20 years. More than half of the students were from rural
areas in the suburbs of Faisalabad, Pakistan. So a gap of English language competence
104
existed between the students from rural and urban areas. A communicative test is difficult to
administer, so, in such situation.
Analysis & Evaluation of the Test (Appendix-A)
The selected test is for the students of Masters in Business Administration (first semester)
in the Faculty of Management Sciences. The title of the course is Communication Skills,
credit hours of the course are four, maximum time allowed is 3 hours, and it has maximum 80
marks. Pass marks are 50%. Number of question is five. Candidate is required to attempt all
the questions, as all questions are compulsory. The aims and objectives of the test are not
specified regarding testing specific skill/s or testing overall communicative ability of the
candidates. Although it is a progress test, the questions of the test show that the tester is not
clear of the objective of the test: what ability and/ or language skill/s he wants to test.
Moreover, for a course of 04 credit hours maximum 80 marks seem insufficient, as
convention in testing supports 100 marks for a standard test.
The test under study consists of 5 subjective questions testing nothing regarding
language skill/s under Marrows features. The major points of the test are as follows:
Communication Process
Business Letter
Business Report
Speaking Skill
Dialogue Writing
In the first question of the test, students are asked to expl ai n communi cat i on
process. This kind of the questions are based on checking candidates knowledge and
memory about the nature and process of the communication rather than concentrating on
testing his/her ability to appropriately communicate in real/ authentic target language
environment. Further, it completely ignores Marrows features of Interactivity,
unpredictability, context specificity, purpose, performance, authenticity andelicitnessof
behaviour.
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The next question given in the test shows that the tester wants to test the knowledge
of the various styles of a Business letter, not the skill to write a business letter in the
appropriate style required for the specific communication context. Writing a business letter
has practical function in real communication, but this item fails to check such writing ability.
Focus is on memorized knowledge rather than the skill of writing business letters in various
situations changing from context to context. According to Morrows features letter writing
becomes an interaction based activity as well as unpredictable, yet this item ignores
Marrows all communicative features including interactivity and unpredictability.
Same critique applies to third question as it is synonymous to question 2 in nature. In
this question, testees have been asked about business report in the format of a definition
without realizing that a definition without practical work is useless in real communicative life
setting. This question does not fall in any category of Morrows features of communicative
language. Here this test fails to meet the principles of communicative language. Such type of
testing gives encouragement to rote learning.
The fourth question about speaking skills is asking the different ways of improving
speaking skill---- demanding a copy pencil expression rather than providing real situations to
elicit candidates speaking ability. Hence check the knowledge instead of the skill.
The fifth question of the test, dialogue writing, shows Morrows features of
unpredictability and interaction based but this question has no purpose relevant to the
communicative needs of the business administration students. Being not a context based
item, it seems completely out of place. Moreover, the topic of the question has no link
regarding practical life. It presents the function of a fake situation outside the real
communicative life in business world. Hence fails to meet Morrows feature of authenticity.
Since all the items of the test are constructed blindly of Morrows features of
unpredictability and authenticity, it seems that test mostly checks students memorized
knowledge of the taught syllabus. The danger is that it might encourage rote learning which
promotes the students from one semester to next semester but practically this type of test tests
no real communicative ability. A good communicative test requires testing language skills as
well as overall communicative ability.
106
The analysis of the test shows that Morrows seven features of communicative
language test are not fully applied in the conventional language test. So the given test, being a
conventional language test does not cover all the features of Morrows communicative test,
yet some of its parts are in agreement with Morrows features.
Now a new test will be devised which may cover all the features of Morrows model
of communicative language.
A Proposed Test of Reading and Speaking (Appendix-B)
The revised test (see Appendix-B) aims at accessing reading and speaking skills of the
testees. Since it has two sections of 100 marks (reading and speaking; 50 marks each), it does
not have the problem of insufficient marks weightage (80 marks, as with the paper attached to
Appendix-A) for a four credit hours module. Both sections have three questions each, and the
number of marks assigned to each question is mentioned against it.
Heaton is of the view that in a communicative test the material should be authentic,
like some newspaper article, instructions for using appliances, public notices, etc. (Heaton,
1991). In this proposed test of reading and speaking, question 1 is based on an instructional
manual provided with an iron, question 2 is based on an editorial of a magazine, and text of
question 3 is taken from a history book. Section on speaking skills has three parts (equal to
three questions) carrying different marks. Heaton proposes that a language test which aims to
find out what testees can do with language, contains purposeful, everyday communication
activities in it (1991).
Since the Communication Skills test, described and analyzed above, could not meet
the seven features of communicative testing proposed by Keith Morrow, and, moreover, it
was based on sheer unawareness of what language skills and/or language elements it intends
to test, a proposed test for testing reading and speaking skills for the students of MBA is
described and analysed here. Every effort has been taken to follow all the seven features
proposed by Morrow while developing this test. All the items reflect interactivity, purpose,
performance of the testees. Items are context oriented, unpredictable, based on authentic
material.
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Question 1 checks the reading skills of testees while providing them a task based on
matching the information. The rubrics simulate the real life context. Based on a real life
situation, the authentic manual of instructions (owners manual) has some instructive
passages for smooth and safe use of an iron, the manufacturers provide with every item they
sale. This piece of instructions is authentic material, reflects the real life context,
unpredictable to the testees expectations. It is purposeful, as understanding of such
instructions is necessary for the testees in real life. Also, the answers to the instructions check
the quality of performance of the testees in authentic situation, not their competence of the
language. It is also interactive passage as the use of second person pronoun you is
constantly developing an informal contact with testees, reducing the distance between the
manual instructor and the testees. Since after providing the right answers, the testees
behaviour regarding the use of that appliance will be improved, this question is behaviour
based, having a purpose as well.
Question 2 is based on the situation and context in which the testees are taking off
for London. The situation explained and the task demanded needs the answers in open- ended
form. But, since it is a reading comprehension test, the rubrics explain that no complete
sentences are required for answering the ten questions which precede the editorial. All these
questions are based on authentic (McLoughlin, 2000), unpredictable, contextual, interactive,
purposeful and behaviour based text. Authentic as it is a real editorial of a magazine,
Cosmopolitan. The selected piece of editorial is unpredictable for testees, as it is from the
editor of a women magazine. It is context based as reflects the real English language in real
life. A Pakistani learner of English language can find a context like this when going to
Europe. First question demands right understanding of the combined information provided by
the situation/ task and the title of the passage. The good reader has to infer the answer to this
question, since it is nowhere explicitly told that it is an editorial. This question requires a
holistic understanding of the text. Same is true of the second question. Third question checks
the understanding of testees ability to recognize the mood and voice of the text writer.
The answer to this and next two questions (4 and 5) require the overall imaginative
understanding of the text. Hence holistic in nature. Fourth question asks whether testees get
any hint of some expectations the editor had about his/her audience: whether he/she had some
correct guess of what the readers might be expecting before he/she wrote the editorial?
Hence this question checks how much testees can read through the lines about the nature and
extant of interaction between the readers and the editor. Sixth question also fulfils the
108
requirement mentioned in the previous question. Seventh question requires plain
understanding of the nature of article written by certain writer. Eighth question aims at a
communicative understanding of the testees in real life situation. It reflects interactivity, the
mood of the editor and his/her friendly tone. Answer to this question requires much of
holistically communicative understanding of testees. Ninth question demands, since it is an
advanced level communicative test, much of the argumentative understanding of the text,
involving the presentation of testees personal view and experience of the world. Last
question again is interactive in nature.
Question 3 is based on authentic text (Findley and Rothney, 2002) telling about the
process of decolonization in South Asia, hence is based on our context. The testees are
required to fill the information in the blanks of the flow chart. Since the information provided
in the text is step-by-step, a flow chart suits for the purpose of testing reading comprehension.
The passage is authentic text and unpredictable for the testees, reflecting our context, our
history.
Section two has three parts (50 marks). It tests testees speaking skills in real life
situation. This section fulfils all of Morrows features of communicative testing. Part I
(question 4) provides some possible questions to be asked to the testee during his/her
interview. Since it simulates real life communication, it is interactive, unpredictable for the
testee, all the questions are context based having the purpose to check oral ability. It is
performance in itself. The behaviour of the testee will, no doubt, get improved after this test.
All this equally applies to the other two parts of this section.
Conclusion
Language is not considered as accumulating knowledge about language but using
language in the real situation. It is evident from above discussion that communicative
language assessment is based on communicative competence where the language learner
should act appropriately according to the situation. In fact the activities of the communicative
language assessment are based on the real life situations which are of practical use to the
learner. Communicative testers include contexts and tasks based on authentic material,
reflecting real life. It is necessary that there may be maintained a balance among all the four
skills while assessing the language. Hence, use of language should be appropriate, both
receptive and productive in real situations.
109
References
Chaturvedi and Chutervedi (2006). Business Communication. Dorling Kindersley (India):
Pearson Education.
Findley and Rothley (2002). Twentieth Century World. Boston, New York:Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Guffy, M.E. (2004). Essentials of Business Communication. South-Western: Thmoson.
Hanna and Wilson (1998). Communicating in Business and Professional Settings. The
McGRAW- HILL Companies, Inc.
Heaton, J.B. (1991). Writing English Language Tests. UK: Longman.
McLoughlin, L. (2000). The Language of Magazines. London and New York: Routledge.
McWhorter, K.D. (1995) The Writers Compass. Boston, Toronto: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Morrow, K. (1979). Communicative Language Testing: Revolution or Evolution?. In
Brumfit, C.K. and Johnson, K. (eds). The Communicative Approach to Language
Teaching. Oxford University Press.
Raman and Sharma (2004). Technical Communication: Principles and Practice. Oxford
University Press.
Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London: Routledge.
Appendix- A (A Conventional Language Test)
MBA (1
s t
Semest er). Max. Marks: 80
Communi cat i on Ski l l s. Pass Marks: 40 Ti me
Al l owed: 3Hours Credi t hours: 04
Note: Al l questi ons are compul sory. Al l questi ons carry equal marks.
Q. 1. Defi ne and expl ai n communi cat i on process.
Q. 2. What are t he di fferent st yl es of a busi ness l et t er?
Q. 3. What i s a busi ness report ? Expl ai n t he qual i t i es of a good
Busi ness report .
Q. 4. Wri t e about di fferent ways of i mprovi ng t he speaki ng
ski l l .
110
Q. 5. Write a dialogue between two friends discussing the value of examination.
Appendix- B (A Proposed Test of Reading and Speaking)
Course Title: Communication Skills Time allowed: 3 hours
Class: M.B.A. 1
st
Semester Credit Hours: 04
Total Marks: 100 Pass Marks: 50
Note: The test has two sections; reading and speaking. Both sections carry 50 marks each.
All questions are compulsory.
Secti on 1 (Readi ng)
Question No.1
Situation: You bought a new iron and the manufacturing company has provided you the
following information/ instruction manual.
Task: The manual has 6 paragraphs (A-F). State which paragraph discusses each of the
points below. Write the appropriate letter (A-F) in front of the questions (1-5) on your answer
sheet. [10]
Your iron is designed to function using tap water. However, it will last longer if you use
distilled water.
Always unplug the iron before filling the reservoir.
Always empty the reservoir after use.
Your iron has two buttons which control the intensity of heat produced by the iron. You can,
therefore, adjust the temperature of the iron and the amount of steam being given off
depending upon the type of fabric being ironed.
Turn the steam control to the desired intensity.
Turn the thermostat control to the desired temperature.
Important: If your iron produces droplets of water instead of giving off steam, your
temperature control is set too low.
Spray button activates a jet of cold water which allows you to iron out any unintentional
creases. Press the button for one second.
111
Pressing button activates a super shot of steam which momentarily gives you an additional
40g of steam, when needed.
Important: Do not use this more than five successive times.
It is possible to use this iron in a vertical position so that you can remove creases from clothes
on coathangers or from curtains. Turning the thermostat control and the steam button to
maximum, hold the iron in the vertical position close to the fabric but without touching it.
Hold down the pressing button for a maximum of one second. The steam produced is not
always visible but is still able to remove creases.
Important: hold the iron at the sufficient distance from silk and wool to avoid all risk of
scotching. Do not attempt to remove creases from an item of clothingthat is being worn,
always use a coathanger.
In order that your iron does not become furred up, your iron has integrated an auto-clean
system and we advise you to use it very regularly (1-2 times per month)
Turn the steam control to the off position.
Fill the reservoir and turn the thermostat to the maximum.
As soon as the indicator light goes out, unplug the iron and, holding it over the sink, turn the
steam control to auto-clean. Any calcium deposits will be washed out by the steam. Continue
the procedure until the reservoir is empty.
Questions:
Turning the steam control to the off position.
Adjustment of the amount of steam, depending upon the type of fabric.
Super shot of steam giving additional steam.
System for washing out calcium deposits.
Button for unintentional creases.
Question No.2
Situation: During your flight to London, you come across a womens magazine
Cosmopolitan.
Task: Read from the editor of Cosmopolitan and answer the following questions.
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Note: Your answers need not be written in full sentences.
Who is speaking to whom?
What identity does the editor construct for herself?
Is she confident or hesitant what she says?
Are there any presuppositions about the reader which the editor already knows?
Is the text producer being friendly?
Pick out the conversational feature used by the editor.
What the Roland Whites article is all about?
What you understand by the word Cosmo written in the first line ?
What is the need to devote eight pages long article to the mysterious world of men?
What does she mean by We?
From the editor
We at Cosmo pride ourselves on bringing you the information and inspiration
you wont find in any other womens magazine, which is why 26 years after our
launch were still the best selling young womens magazine in Britain. And we
know from your letters you cant get enough of your unique insights into men;
not only what makes them tick, but all their deep-rooted idiosyncrasies. Thats
why, this month, weve devoted eight pages to the mysterious world of men. We
cajoled the best and the bravest male writers to divulge the kind of information
they would never spill to any other publication. And Im delighted to announce
their secrets make eye-opening, provoking reading. Instead of the usual mag-
stuff, like why men watch indecent movies (which, d-u-u-r-r-r, doesnt take a
genius to figure out), Ben Edison delves deeper and explains why your man
wants you to watch indecent movies with him. Rather than another article on
Why Men Fear Commitment, Phil Robinson divulges the secret psyche of the
single man. And if youre convinced what a man really wants for his birthday
involves lots of tongues, dont go anywhere near him until you have read Roland
Whites wonderful piece on page 92.
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Question No.3
Situation: Your father gave you a passage to read from Findley & Rothneys book
Twentieth Century World.
Task: The flow chart below outlines the stages of decolonization in South and East Asia.
Complete the flow chart. [20]
Weakened by two world wars and the -----------, challenged by ----------, and
economic development efforts, Western dominance collapsed.
Japan seized many European colonies: ------------- (New Vietnam, Cambodia, and
Laos), Burma, Malaya, ------------- (now Indonesia).
-------------- also controlled much territory: Taiwan, Korea ---------- and parts of
China.
The ------------- gained independence from the -------------- in 1946.
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The British in 1947 lost ------------, India, and --------------.
Decolonization in South and East Asia
Weakened by two world wars and the Depression, challenged by Asian
nationalism and economic development efforts, western dominance collapsed in
Asia in the 1940s and 1950s, except in outposts such as Britains Hong Kong.
Decolonization began during World War II. Japan seized many European
colonies ------French Indochina (now Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos), Burma,
Malaya, the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and other Pacific Islands ------ as
well as the US controlled Philippines. To this day, many Japanese regard
themselves as liberators of these countries ------- a view not widely shared in the
countries in question. Japan also had or took control of much territory ------
Taiwan, Korea, Manchuria, parts of China -------- that had not been under
European control. After 1947, former colonial powers attempts to regain control
of some countries, such as Indochina and the Dutch East Indies, proved short-
lived. The Philippines gained independence from the United States in 1946. In
1947 the British lost Burma, India and Pakistan (including East Pakistan, which
became independent as Bangladesh in 1971).
Section 2 (Speaking)
Part 1(Question No 4):
Introduction based interview (5 minutes) [10]
Introduce yourself.
To which family do you belong? Tell something about your parents and siblings?
What are your hobbies?
Who is your most favourite person in your family and why?
What are your eating habits? Any special food item, you do like the most?
Uninterrupted talk before the assessor. (5 minutes) [20]
Sample Topics
115
Describe the visit to any industrial set up that you have done in this semester.
Describe any character in a film you have recently seen.
Describe any birthday party that you have attended.
Describe any dream, you saw and still remember.
Lassi is better than coke.
Wedlock tames the man.
Two way discussion linked broadly to the Part 2 (5 minutes) [20]
Industrial Set up
Explain the value of industrial visits at M.B.A. Level.
What is the role of instructor / teacher during such visits?
Do the study visits help in overall training of an M.B.A. professional?
Character in a film
Why did you choose this specific character?
Would you like to be like this character?
Does this character influence you with its personality traits?
Birthday party
What has made this party memorable for you?
Are these types of functions prevalent in your family?
What have you missed in this party and which you do not want to miss in your own party of
such type?
Dream
Why do this specific dream you still remember?
What dreams usually you see during your bed time?
What feeling do you have on getting up or coming out of your dream?
Lassi vs. coke
What is your favourite drink?
What is more important for you, taste or food value?
How does the modern mans sense of fashion govern the selection of food items?
Wedlock
Is there any drawback of being married?
What is a bachelors dilemma in Pakistan?
Explain a Pakistani wedding.
116
UDC:351:005.6(496.5)
THE QUEST FOR QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN ALBANIAN
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THE CASE OF CAF METHOD
AT TIPA
Blerina Gjylameti, PhD candidate
Petrit Dollani, PhD
Faculty of Economics, University of Tirana, Albania
Abstract
National public administrations nowadays have to adopt to the social changes around the world. One of the main
objectives of EU Lisbon Strategy is to develop and improve operations focusing on citizens needs. Instead of a
unique standard, CoE recommends for public organizations a set of quality tools designed for self-estimation,
such as Common Assessment Framework (CAF). In the context of European integration of Albanian public
institutions, the first attempt to use CAF was employed in the case of Training Institute of Public
Administration, starting from 2008. TIPA joined thus the community of around 800 CAF users across Europe.
The paper describes and discusses the activities undertaken during the initial phase (Institutional Building
Capacity and HRM), as well as analyses the output and possible sustainability of the initiative.
Key words: public administration, quality management, CAF
1. Introduction
Social changes are taking place rapidly in the today world and public administrations
have no choice, but to properly adapt to them (Pollit, 2004). Lisbon Strategy in UE put
already a milestone in the direction of service delivery improvement toward citizens, through
client-driven operations and implementation of quality management methods. There are not
still unique standards in this field, but European Council recommends for public
organizations a set of quality tools designed for self-estimation, such as Common Assessment
Framework (CAF). In the context of European integration process, the first attempt to use
117
CAF in Albanian public institutions was employed in the case of Training Institute of Public
Administration, starting from 2008. TIPA joined thus the community of around 800 CAF
users across Europe (StaesdheThijs 2005).
CAF is a tool to assist public sector organisations across Europe in using quality
management techniques to improve performance. It provides a simple, easy-to-use
framework, suitable for self-assessments of public sector organisations. CAF model provides:
An assessment based on evidence;
Means to achieve consistency of direction and consensus on what needs to be done to
improve an organizations performance;
An assessment against a set of criteria, which has become widely accepted across Europe as
well as other countries;
Means of measuring progress over time through periodic CAF- based self-assessment;
Means to focus improvement activity where it is most needed;
Means to create commitment among employees by involving them in the improvement
process;
Opportunities to identify progress and outstanding levels of achievement;
Means to integrate various quality initiatives into normal business operations.
To summarize, self-assessment towards CAF model offers organizations an
opportunity to learn about themselves. Compared to a fully developed Total Quality
Management model, CAF is a 'light' model especially equipped for getting an initial
impression of the organizations performance. It is assumed that any organisation that intends
to go further will select one of the more detailed models (such as the Speyer or EFQM
models). CAF has the advantage of being compatible with these models and may therefore be
the first step in quality management.
118
The CAF uses a set of nine criteria, which allow analysing and evaluating all the
different activities and results of the organization. The Five Enablers criteria deal with what
the organisation does in order to achieve good results. They cover the organisations
leadership, its policy and strategy and how it manages human resources, its external
partnerships and internal resources as well as its working processes and processes for
organisational change and learning:
Leadership: how leaders and managers develop and facilitate the achievement of the mission
and vision of a public sector organisation; develop values required for long-term success and
implement these via appropriate actions and behaviours; and are personally involved in
ensuring that the organisations management system is developed and implemented.
Strategy and planning: how the organization implements its mission and vision via a clear
stakeholder-focused strategy, supported by relevant policies, plans, objectives, targets and
processes.
Human Resource Management (HRM): how the organisation manages, develops and releases
the knowledge and full potential of its people at individual, team-based and organisation wide
levels; and plans these activities in order to support its policy and strategy and the effective
operation of its people.
Partnerships and resources: how the organisation plans and manages its partnerships and
internal resources in order to support its policy and strategy and the effective operation of its
processes.
Processes and change management: how the organisation manages, improves and develops its
processes in order to innovate and support its policy and strategy and fully satisfy and
generate increasing value for its customers and other stakeholders.
The Four Results criteria concern the results your organisation actually achieves with regard
to customers/citizens, the people of the organisation, society at large and your key business or
activities. The CAF looks for results in 4 perspectives as following:
People results: The results the organisation is achieving in relation to the satisfaction of its
people.
Customer citizen-oriented results: what results the organisation is achieving in relation to the
satisfaction of its internal and external customers.
Society results: What the organisation is achieving in satisfying the needs and the
expectations of the local, national and international community at large (as appropriate). This
includes the perception of the organisations approach to quality of life, the environment and
the preservation of global resources, and the organisations own internal measures of
119
effectiveness. It will include its relations with authorities and bodies, which affect and
regulate its business.
Key performance results: what the organisation is achieving in relation to its mandate and
specified objectives and in satisfying the needs and expectations of everyone with a financial
interest or other stake in the organisation.
These nine criteria are each sub-divided into a number of sub-criteria that build
substance around the meaning of the criteria. The sub-criteria identify the main issues that
need to be considered when assessing an organisation. Using the CAF provides an
organisation with a powerful framework to initiate a process of continuous improvement.
The CAF provides means of measuring progress over time through periodic self-
assessment and a link between goals and supportive strategies and processes. It allows
focusing improvement activity where it is most needed.
The CAF is now used in the public sector in several EU Member States and Candidate
Countries, in particular at the local level and in a variety of government agencies. Responses
have shown that the CAF has been found to be a suitable tool for starting on the "journey to
continuous improvement".
2.Summary of the results of the analysis of current procedures in TIPA
a) Strengths of training needs assessment:
A significant work has been done regarding the civil servants training needs assessment in
TIPA. A comprehensive Training Needs Assessment Manual has been developed
5
,
recommendations regarding the amendments to the Civil Service Law drafted, and some
training in the client organizations carried out. The most important strength is that TIPA has
recognized and started to play more active role in the training needs identification process
b) Improvements with regard to training needs assessment:
Main Problem: the new TNA system is designed but not implemented yet. TIPA needs:
to intensively support the process of implementation of Training Needs Assessment Manual
and setting up new TNA system in the client organisations.
to strengthen and systematize the cooperation with client organizations (line ministries, state
agencies and local self-governments) with the aim to establish a regular cooperation
mechanism and identify training needs through that cooperation.
5
Developed by the project Encouraging the Reform of the Albanian Civil Service (European Union CARDS 2003 programme)
120
to strengthen the capacities of the HR departments in the field of training and professional
development.
-to use other training needs assessment approaches in addition to the TNA manual (until the
TNA manual is being implemented).
c) Strengths of training organisation and delivery:
TIPA has adopted and uses a complex set of procedures for training organization and delivery
composing of 38 methodological steps. In addition TIPA has also other procedures and
standard forms that regulate the management of training courses and the related roles of
people involved, resource used etc.
Thus, after training needs assessment, TIPA prepares a training action plan for 6 months,
which is helpful for TIPAs operation. In addition TIPA prepares specific ToR to each type of
Training course, selects the trainers, and monitors their performance. Training managers of
TIPA have sufficiently clear tasks and operational procedures.
TIPAs staff is also aware of some necessary improvements to be undertaken in certain
segments of procedures and methodologies for training organization and delivery. Several
workshops were organized for such a purpose.
d) Improvements with regard to training organisation and delivery:
Quality and process of preparation of ToR for training.ToR seems not to be considered as a
key instrument defining the most important aspects of the coming training events.
Trainers are usually identified independently of ToRwhich focuses mostly on a general
profile of the training and much less on the profile and quality of trainers. Importance of ToR
is especially related to new training courses.
Selection of trainers suffers due to weak competition and efforts to explore alternative
sources for trainers are limited. Sometimes the trainers are exclusively selected amongst the
employees of trainees organization (i.e. training on fiscal policies or procedures).
Interaction between the trainer and training manager is relatively good but improvements can
be adopted here to ensure that the trainer is preparing and going to deliver the expected
quality of training.
Training materials are limited to only two types i) a narrative material ii) a PowerPoint
presentation. The trainers do not use other types of training materials yet (i.e. games, etc.) and
in several cases the training materials provide low added value. Payment constraints are an
impeding factor in enriching the training materials.
TIPAs marketing efforts before the training amongst the potential participants are too little.
Contacts are mostly limited to the chief of HRM department of beneficiary. A more intensive
121
contact with participants in advance of the training course by the training manager and trainer
would have a double positive impact i) promote the participation ii) help the trainer to know
the profile and specific training needs of the participants in advance of training.
e) Evaluation of the training results:
The Institute regularly evaluates all training courses through asking participants to complete
the feedback questionnaires after the end of the training course. This evaluation provides the
Institute with information about the participants direct reaction to the training (Did the
participants like the course and what did they like? Was the course content realistic? Were
the training methods suitable and the trainers effective? Was the training environment
adequate? etc.)
Main Problem: reaction evaluation does not offer enough information in order to fully
evaluate the training outcomes. TIPA needs to further develop the training evaluation
procedures and when it comes to more important training programs (or training courses
covering a critical mass of participants from one particular organization or administrative
domain), to perform also evaluation of learning and evaluation of the training impact on
trainees performance
6
.
3. Enablers versus results
The overall scoring for Enablers of 66 shows that overall the performance of such
criteria is at mid level, or using CAF terminology, TIPAs Enablers PLAN, DO and CHECK.
Regarding the scoring for results criteria (54), the outcome of the exercise shows that TIPA is
having a slight improvement trend and is achieving a good part of established targets. This
self-evaluation of TIPAs staff converges with the project experts independent evaluation.
The difference between scoring of enablers and results is partly objective (due to the fact that
inputs are objectively not transformed 100% in results) but also it demonstrates the typical
problem of organizations, especially public organizations, that are more inclined on inputs
and less on results.
The highest scoring was provided to Strategy and Planning with 72; Processes
with 69, partnership & resources with 68 and leadership with 65 points out of 100. The
enabler criteria people with 57 seems showing relatively more problems compared to the
others and may be considered with higher relevance by TIPA. As a matter of fact, TIPA has
developed its three annual strategies, and is planning its activities on training every year
6
A simplified and shorter version of the Donald Kirkpatricks four levels model for measuring the effectiveness of training programs
(suggesting four levels for evaluation: I Reaction, II Learning, III Behaviour, and IV - Results and impact)
122
based on an advanced methodology of training Needs Assessment. TIPA also has a rich set of
procedures and methodologies related to management of resources (finance, information,
materials) and have a leadership that motivates and supports the staff and is able to manage
the Institute and its relations with the stakeholders and outside factors.
It is also interesting to analyse the sub-criteria that show in which sub-aspects TIPA
performs relatively well and in which not that well. For example, in case of criteria people,
while seems that there is a sound promotion of internal dialogue much more need to be done
in relation to human resource management. In overall, TIPA has still much to do to improve
the performance of its enablers that would also increase the overall scoring of self-evaluation.
Some improvements are under control of TIPA itself. On the other hand, as explained in
other parts of this report, some key factors are not under the control of TIPA and if not
modified accordingly, will hinder the progress of TIPA. The self-evaluation based on CAF
methodology has shown a surprising result a high scoring regarding criteria of people
results with 70 points out of 100 vs. 24 points regarding society results while the
customer results are in the middle with 55 points.
4. Conclutions
As a matter of fact (observed also by the project team), the staff of TIPA is motivated
and enjoys their work (with the exception of physical working conditions which are really
bad). Working for TIPA gives to them a lot of satisfaction. Regarding direct clients, the civil
servants, according to evaluation forms that TIPA collects regularly after each training
course, the level of satisfaction of trainees seems positive and improving. At the same time,
the self-assessment results stress clearly the importance to improve significantly the
evaluation procedures and the need to implement the system for the evaluation of impact of
TIPAs training provision. On the other hand, TIPAs image and reputation (general public,
media, and even public organizations) needs to be improved through better promotion of its
services among the stakeholders.
The results of the CAF indicate clearly to the areas where TIPA has to dedicate much
more attention to. TIPA needs to improve its HRM practices, address the customers needs
better, improve the training evaluation mechanisms as well as improve its public imago,
which in return would provide TIPA with benefits, such as stronger government support,
higher attractiveness for civil servants and other potential clients.
123
References:
CAF Brochure (2006), EIPA, Maastricht
CAF Works (2005), EIPA, Maastricht
EFQM (2008), Brussels
European Union CARDS (2003), Encouraging the Reform of the Albanian Civil Service,
Tirana
Interviews with TIPA excecutive staff
Pollit et al., (2004), Unbundled Government, A critical analyses of global trend to agencies,
quangos and contractualisation, London and New York, Routledge.
Staes and Thijs, (2005), Quality management on the European agenda, EIPA, Maastricht.
124
UDC:338.1(497.115)
339.727.22(497.115)
ECONOMIC CHALLENGES IN KOSOVO 2011
Sanie Doda
University "Aleksander Moisiu", Durres, Albania
Abstract
Through this study we will discover what kind of challenges the Kosovo economy faces in
the process of economic development. Relying on the scientific side we will suport our study
and explain that a country should be able to adapt to changes in the global economy. The
world economy is experiencing rapid changes, overall transformation, above all it is showing
rapid changes that have been have been qualitative and multi-dimensional. The ability to
develop, evaluate and implement these changes is essential for any country that wishes to
develop in these days. Trade policies, especially those promoting exports and finding new
markets, occupy the central place in the economic policies of a country.
Keyword: Economic development, Informal economy, The Foreign Investments.
Introduction
Deepening economic interdependence and strengthening globalization trends has
become even more intensive debate among researchers of the economy for the link between
trade openness, investment and economic growth. However, the idea that prevails among the
above variables is that there is a positive correlation and that economic openness, trade
liberalization ultimately associated with higher rates of economic growth, to increase
efficiency of use of diffrent factors, particularly for small countries. A trade is becoming a
key of the factor growth and development especially for countries in a modest stage of
development or subject to restructuring and transformation processes, as are countries in
transition. The role of trade is speacial key in the resource reallocation, becoming a basic
125
factor for increasing the efficiency of their use. However, if the trade wants to develop the
policies and programs should be effective.
Economic Development
Economic development is a broad term that generally refers to sustained efforts,
coordinated by policymakers and the community to promote the growth of living standards
and economic health in a particular area. Such efforts may include multiple areas, including
human capital development, critical infrastructure, regional competitiveness, environmental
sustainability, social inclusion, health, safety, and other initiatives. Economic development
differs from growth. Economic development is a political intervention on the welfare of
people in the economic and social development; economic growth is a phenomenon of
market productivity and GDP growth. Consequently, the economist AmartyaSen points out:
"Economic growth is one aspect of the process of economic development
7
".
In our days, the world has experienced significant changes, political, ideological and
economic. These changes have presented serious challenges to economic analysis and its
policy proposals. Historical Evidence and research indicate in a country because if a country
has an economic development then it will have also social development. Economic
development programs can strengthen and support the economy of the country. Each state has
faced political and economic development strategy that may have profound implications on
the future of the community. But each country must make strategic choices realistically
assessing the strengths and limitations of its jurisdiction.
The steps that policy cycle goes through
Policy Analysis and the identification of diffrent options.
After the issue is discussed at policy-making the step that follows is to evaluate the
possible options. Often there are different ways of treating the same problem and this makes
it necessary to discuss the possibility of their implementation. Here are included some
considerations on the choice of policy instruments and the methods of implementation. This
requires thinking of different processes of policy development and choices of diffrent
options. For example: in Albania we can distinguish two cases: First case is when we prepar a
strategic document as a national strategy of export promotion, those cases where a study was
7
Sen, A. (1983). Development: Which Way Now? Economic Journal, Vol. 93 Issue 372. p.745-762.
126
done in advance of the actual situation and possible options and the second one is the
construction of the working groups who have not done a detailed analysis of the situation.
The choice of policy instruments
One of the most fundamental decision-making has to do ultimately with the choice of
instruments that aime in achieving the objectives defined by the government. Is the word for
those who are called policy instruments? Careful choice of policy instruments is in fact an
integral part of policy analysis and implementation. Often policies are implemented through
combination of a number of instruments. It is important to explore different ways and advise
policy-makers on the merits and difficulties of different combinations. The choice of
instruments is often a combination of politics and the law. Often the law defines the
instrument because of the need to have an institution to implement the process.
Consultation
Consultation is an integral part of the public policy process and should be a normal
part of operations of government departments. He can not and should not be viewed as a
symbolic activity, expression or appearance of government in public. In fact the consultation
process is in itself large. It should be understood as (i) consultation within government, (ii)
consultation with scientific experts in the field, (iii) consultation with "affected" by the
intervention of the regulatory framework, such as the business community or customer. In
this context we receive a special importance of partnership relations and the spirit of
understanding the relationship that should be between the state and community
entrepreneurship and guaranteeing the independence of the parties participating in this
process.
Coordination
Shows the complexity that development process has and it also shows the adoption of
trade policies, among others has its source in high demand that is related to the coordination
of activity of actors who operate in this process and the way thejseperate there tasks between
them. The regulation of the interaction of institutions involved in the process of trade policy
is done on an ad-hoc basis.
127
Approval and implementation
In Albania, the Council of Ministers and the Parliament are the main decision-makers,
whose decisions have official effects by through difrent acts. Since the Council of Ministers
is responsible for developing and the coordination of government policy, his decision are
important to the policy cycle. After the approval by the government or Parliament, the
decisions referre to a implementing agencie.
Monitoring and evaluation
Policy is not static. Circumstances change every day, which entails an examination of
policies in order to ensure that they are in compliance with the new conditions. In addition to
this policy must be examined in order to ensure us that they are efficient. Assessment is the
moment of truth for all policies.
In the current system of trade policy there are institutions that simply missing. Lack of some
institutions of the system of trade policy should not be a forgotten. Predominance of budget
closely dimension on the development dimension seems to be some times the origin of the
problem. But the causes are of a nature more complex than that.
Exports, an important component of economic development
An important feature of the exports, but not the only one, is securing foreign sources
for funding Imports of goods and services. One other important feature is the possibility to
provide export now considered as a process, with all the links that make it possible, to
restructure the economy, for directing resources to use in efficient production, to increase the
competitiveness of the economy. Specific features of the Kosovo economy, as small
economies in transition give more importance to this second export function. Exports
increase the size of the economy by creating space for economy of scale. Extensively
involved in the export process, On the other hand, "creates" an opportunity for effective and
efficient process of redistribution of resources, also helping to reprovision technological
economy. Exports of goods in Kosovo have increased by about 70% in 2010, expected to
continue to trend growth even during the period 2012-2014. Exports of goods are related to
the movement of world prices of metals, this is because the majority of exports consist of
metals. Forecasts for the movement of world prices of metals and the demand for metals in
countries that Kosovo exports will have significant impact
8
.
8
"Kosovo: Natural resources key to the future, say experts".adnkronos.com. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
128
Also exports are important for the economy of a country because:
improve the trade balance
are the right way to be involved in international trade
stimulate the expansion of productive activities
create incentives to increase the level of income
income tax increase
encourage increased investment in production technology
stimulate innovation
impact on increasing productivity and improving the quality
help alleviate the unemployment
Therefore, any country can not neglect the importance of increasing exports.
Consequently there is urgent need to promote and develop it.
We should not forget that imports have been the base on which appeared and
developed a free private initiative. They have played a decisive role in the crisis period
through meeting the needs for consumption. Imports have been increasing and with them the
also the domestic production to goods which have been most requested by the customer,
emphasizing the role of imports as strange stone marker to track the application and in
investment decisions.
Steps that we need to take actions to promote exports
In order to utilize the potential of exporting companies require concrete support to
Kosovo escalated according to the field. It requires a development program, which consists of
2 sets of activities:
Programs aimed at Kosovo companies
These should include assistance for the improvement of agriculture and processing
methods. Such programs should be aimed at the introduction of new technologies. Measures
should be introduced to improve the management and trading, decision makers were
129
presented the Kosovo international quality standards, social and environmental. This can be
done through training measures, encouraging partnerships and exchange programs in the
framework of technical assistance.
Programs aimed at potential consumers of the EU
In many developed countries are promotional packages that help to attract investors.
Such measures may include limiting the tax availability of sites for construction of factories
or other measures that create advantages for investors. Two types of consumer-oriented
programs potentials are described briefly below:
Export promotion programs
These programs specifically intend to help Kosovo companies to establish new
contacts with potential foreign customers and attract potential new customers in foreign
countries, through their knowledge of existing products suitable for export and services
available.
Appropriate measures in this context include:
sales missions to exit the Kosovo entrepreneurs
presence at important trade fairs and exhibitions, directed especially for products or services
offered
invitation to potential clients to meet potential partners in Kosovo (incoming missions)
Programs of Foreign Direct Investment
Which have aims to attract new partners for joint ventures with companies to
withdraw Kosovo or direct foreign investment in Kosovo. There are important activities to
reduce normativizimit state and administration in the segment of cooperation with the outside
world. This exposure will enable the establishment of new partnerships with international
financial institutions, and will create the institutional preconditions for the identification of
new sources in financing economic development, especially the transition reforms.
Appropriate measures for their implementation are:
(i) "Direct marketing" in target countries
(ii) Informative events in the target countries,
130
(iii) Incoming missions to potential investors
Programs that aim Foreign Direct Investment in the way for joint ventures with
external partners, Kosovo companies, in which external partners contribute capital (eg in the
modernization of the company and production equipment), with knowledge and established
network of consumers, Kosovos partner while providing raw material, land for the company
and labor force. They mainly provide financial resources and knowledge for the Kosovo
companies. Greenfield investments create new jobs, through the installation of new
production lines.
Promotion and development of SMEs
Development of SMEs and their contribution to long-term economic stability depend
on their size and structure, which under conditions of well developed markets, allowing them
to be flexible and able to adapt to the conditions of fierce competition. Modern economies
operate as a complex network of companies in which a firm's competitive position depends in
part on the effectiveness of their suppliers. Therefore, the competitiveness of SMEs affects
the overall competitiveness of the economy in general. This criterion is of strategic
importance to the development process in Kosovo. Competition from foreign markets and
domestic markets will put pressure on the restructuring of the economy according to the
criteria of efficiency. Competition in the domestic market of Kosovo should be promoted
through regulation of natural monopolies, public property, and the phenomenon of
bankruptcy, financial and budgetary constraints. Another characteristic is the technological
backwardness which is a consequence of the termination of the investment cycle. Given high
transaction costs are one of the most important barriers to their development; their reduction
will encourage the expansion of SMEs and in particular will encourage micro enterprises
9
. In
this context, the development and performance, in the context of market opening is a real
challenge.
Strategic priorities for the development of this sector include:
Harmonization with sector strategies that have an impact on SME sector
Ensuring transparency of decisions, actions that affect the business environment
Ensuring fair competition and support for the integration of SMEs in the international market.
Developing information technology and entrepreneurship culture.
9
Atin Mua and Bajram Muca, International Business, p 41
131
Informality in the economy
The degree of informality is one of the main indicators of a country's economic
development. Assessment and monitoring of this indicator is also related to the performance
of basic state institutions, law enforcement level, the level of corruption, etc..
Excessive costs and government regulations as well as corruption in areas such as
business start-up, granting of business permits and land titles, according to scholars such as
Hernando de Soto (a renowned Peruvian development economist), have forced people to
remain informal
10
. Failure to collect taxes and contributions leads to a poorer state budget and
lack of investment in public services. A bill of social responsibility and a threat of any
government, and this is particularly evident at the level of pensions and salaries and public
services. But in fact the essence of measures for reducing the informal economy, of that kind
of informality that with the OECD study considers as "threatening" for purposes of
competition, the development and implementation of fiscal and social security. Policies
should aim at reducing the fiscal burden, which is the right path that leads to the
formalization of the economy. The goal to increase budget revenues to GDP must
increasingly rely on the effectiveness of the tax administration. Reducing the informal
economy in Kosovo will affect the creation of a better environment for business by helping
free market competition.
The economy of 'cash' is one of the most sensitive to the informal sector, which is not
channeled through the banking system. A phenomenon where only a small proportion of
transactions through the banking system also affects the efficiency of monetary policy. If the
money is not channeled in the banking system has a negative impact on economic growth,
particularly in promoting investment in production. Cash discourages the private sector,
reflecting the ineffective functioning of the credit system, which is the core of growth capital
and business expansion. The role of banking and financial institutions needs to be bigger and
more active in allocating income where their use would have more profits. Establishment of
an efficient payment system should be expanded further, to create concessional terms, to
offer more products in the market, which would increase business to banks.
10
De Soto H., Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West & Fails Everywhere Else, 2000
132
Politics in the fiscal and budget policies
Budgetary policy should be harmonized with fiscal policy, because only then create
equal preconditions for the realization of economic activity of economic entities. Budgetary
and fiscal policy mechanisms represent a very important part, since the pyramid to determine
the responsibilities and authorities in the governance of financial flows in the economy of
Kosovo, given the strategic needs and demands of the economy and the state population.
During the implementation of the Kosovo budget management, special attention should be
paid to eliminating inflationary influences such as deficit financing and the problem of
budget deficits. Tax administration relations with the business community itself are the focus
of this administration but also the constant demands of business. One of the main concerns
that has increased the importance of this relationship is the behavior of tax administration and
its relationship with the business. It should be noted that there is considerable progress in this
area through the consolidation of dialogue with the business of tax administration and its
involvement in joint structures. Besides creating the preconditions for sustainable economic
growth, Kosovo should be committed to increasing the efficiency of public spending and
continued growth in revenue. On the other hand it is important to establish mutual trust
between the tax administration and business to contribute in increased effectiveness of both
players that are so important. Efforts and contribution to this problem must be mutual to
guarantee the achievement of the target.
Education and unemployment
The education system in Kosovo shows presentation in a very poor fit for a country
that aspires to have a sustainable economic growth
11
. World Bank experts say that the
creation of a competitive economy, an economy that is growing and creating jobs oriented
toward the future, requires political action in many sectors, including education, especially
higher education. Research done by the World Bank in the early 90s; show that the
development of higher education is correlated with economic development. These
conclusions are reinforced by more recent studies to build knowledge societies. These studies
indicate that the ability of a society to produce, select, adapt, commercialize and use
knowledge is very important for sustainable economic growth and improving living
standards
12
. The goal is to analyze the causes, or to propose solutions to the gaps in
participation in university or post-graduate courses, but to point out the missed opportunities
11
Schuller, 2001, p. 20
12
Gradanin: Izazovi i mogucnosti. Izvetaj o humanom razvoju.Kosove 2004. Prishtin , 2004, p.1135
133
for individuals and for society. If all demographic groups have an education they will have it
easier to find a job and going to have a more successful life
13
. Society would function with
efficiency enjoying a variety of mutual benefits. we can say that higher education can provide
access to much better opportunities to find employment well paid. An important fact to
remember is that any money paid to a college or university to study higher education is the
only investment that will return in the future, becoming a very good investment and
sustainable.
The benefits of education:
Education reduces unemployment
High level of education brings higher profits for all
Income gap between high school graduates and university graduates has increased
significantly over the time, individual income high school education are less than the income
of highly educated individuals.
Higher levels of education are closely associated with high levels of civic participation,
including volunteering, voting, blood donation etc.
Educated individuals have more positive perceptions of personal health have the lowest rate
of smoking and a lower rate of incarceration.
Each university experience produces measurable benefits, and then we can say that
individuals with higher education possess a high level knowledge.
Informal economy is present in the commercial environment in Kosovo.
Exports have a great importance in the development of a country.
Economic development programs can strengthen and support the economy of the country.
13
Kvalitetno obrazovanie za sve, Izazovi obrazovanja u Srbiji (2004), Ministarstvo prosvete i sporta, Beograd, p.
101-102.
134
Education as the indicator of socio-economic has a fundamental role in the overall
impact of living in our country. Society in general has a high financial return on investment
of higher education.
Higher levels of education correspond to lower levels of unemployment and poverty,
so except that individuals contribute more to their income, but they do not need social
programs, generating reduced demand for public budgets.
Philosophy and economic policies should consider the cooperation between
government and markets as complementary to each other, making clear that markets are the
base of the economy and this somewhat limits the role of government.
Business climate in Kosovo need additional measures to promote exports and foreign
direct investments, which are necessary components for maintaining external balance and a
sustainable economic growth.
The state should support more strongly businesses that are oriented towards export.
The state must develop its capacity in economic analysis in order to maintain
macroeconomic and financial stability by promoting economic development.
Media should be accountable and be based on facts and reliable sources.
On review of trade policies should be more transparency, especially for sensitive sectors.
The image problem is an area where efforts will be in the future to ensure a rapid
change of the foreign investments in Kosovo.
The level of informal economy is also a direction that will aim to improve in the
future, provided for a fair competition in the market.
Creating an effective marketing system and product quality management, ensuring
that product standards and norms that markets require, the creation of database and
information exchange with foreign markets, the establishment of agencies and consultants for
professional business, are some recommended for assignment to the Kosovo market.
135
References:
Kristo,Ilia.International Business 2002,
Fischer and Rdiger Dorn Stenly Busch, Microeconomics translated by Hader and Sulo.
Muco,Marta
Harri, Ardian. "Theoretical and Empirical Aspects of Economic Integration and
Liberalization atrade"
Mua,Bajram. International Business,
Uvalic,Milica.In the Ballkans - Ablessing Disguise?
Gillis, Malcolm, Perkins, Dwight H., Roemer, Michael, and Donald R. Snodgrass. Economics
of Development. 4th ed., New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Sen, A. (1983). Development: Which Way Now? Economic Journal, Vol. 93 Issue 372.
Pp.745-762
Journal "Economy"
The newspaper "Business"
136
UDC:502.131.1(496.572)
332.146.2(496.572)
RAPPORTS BETWEEN COMPOSITIONAL PARTS OF
RURAL AREA IN GJIROKASTRA REGION AND ITS
PERSPECTIVES
Albina Sinani, PhD
14
Valbona Duri, PhD
15
Eqrem Cabej University, Gjirokastra, Albania
Abstract:
Concern about environment is linked with its role in existence of society. Some of the environmental features of
our region are: degraded terrains, mainly on the slopes, as the result of deforestations, over use of it for
agricultural and livestock purposes, degradation of urban environment especially overcrowded area, reduce of
green areas, un controlled interferences in infrastructure, degradation of esthetical elements of landscape etc. For
a sustainable economic, socio cultural and ecologic development should be paid importance to the assessment of
impact on environment of any kind of activity. The essence of a sustainable development in environment as a
unit of co functional elements, outside of which cannot be realised the development of our society.
Sustainable development is multifactor and requires the integration of socio economic interest of community,
protection of different ecosystems as a value and as an asset, promotion of alternative resources of development,
strengthening of people, organizations and other institutions awareness about environment. Providing of
environment sustainability of rural area in Gjirokastra region, is a duty that belong to the community,
institutions central and local organizations, with the main aim for a sustainable socio economic development.
Keywords: Iintegrated and sustainable rural development, map of registered assets, cadastral
area, environmental sustainability.
14
PhD. Albina Sinani, Faculty of Education and Social Sciences, Geography Department, Eqremabej University, Gjirokastra, Albania
15
PhD. Valbona Duri, Faculty of Education and Social Sciences, Geography Department, Eqremabej University, Gjirokastra, Albania
137
Introduction
The main factors that cause the misbalance between environment and human beings
are economic activities and demographic processes, when they are not done in accordance
with principles of ecological science. Conservation of the environment require behaviour and
economic activity according to the concept of sustainable development, that is the
theoretical basement of long term development of economy and society, because it have in
its foundation rational use of natural resources.
The concept of environment require active representation of communities that act in
the rural area, for the conservation and regeneration of the resources, well understanding and
well keeping of components, respecting of the economical social and environmental action
rules for an environmental sustainability.
Types and functions of the integral parts of rural area
Analyse of surface varieties and their use is based on the registering the assets, in
regional, district, communal and village levels.
Arable surfaces
Arable surface is prevailing in hilly lowland areas and it consists in surfaces of grain
plains, orchards, vineyards and olive groves. Grain plains surfaces, in Gjirokastra region
cover 25.5%, grain plains surfaces, in Gjirokastra district cover 23.2%: in Commune Lower
Dropull cover 66%, Upper Dropull 34.2%, Lunxhri 33.4%, Libohov Centre 31.7%. Grain
plains surfaces, in Permet district cover 29.7%: in Commune of Dshnica 35.2%, village of
arov 56.6%, Klcyr 49.6%, villages of Commune Petran: 40.6%-53.5%, Commune
Centre Piskov: 46%-62.7% and village of Goric (Suk): 45.7%. Grain plains surfaces, in
Tepelena district cover 26.5%: in Commune of Buz 43.6%, in villages of Selck 81.2%,
AnVjos 72.6% and Gllav 68.8%. Orchards in Gjirokastr district cover 3.4%, Prmet
3.3%, Tepelen 4.7% of general surface. Are distinguished villages ToskMartalloz (Luftinj),
Golemaj (Buz) Labov e Madhe and Hundkuq (Odrie), Nokov (Lunxhri), respectively
52.0%, 45.0%, 49.9%, 31.5% e 25.6% of orchards surfaces, in village Krin (Antigone
14.7%), villages Palokastr and Mashkullor (Cepo), respectively 16.7% and 13.6. In village
Likomil (Upper Dropull ) orchard cover 13.7%, in villages Dhoksat and Erind respectively
10.3% and 10.2%. Vineyards cover a considerable surface in villages Dhuvjan, Dervician,
Koshovic, Likomil, Kllz (11.5%), Nokov, Piskov (28.1%) and Bodar. Olive groves
138
cover a considerable surface in villages Likomil (11.5%), Drit (5.1%), Qesarat (13.0%),
Krahs (9.2%), Memaliaj Village (4.9%), Prparim (4.8%) and Zhulaj (4.7%).
Forest surfaces
Forests cover 31.4% of the region, 24.5% in Gjirokastra district (villages Sopik 92.8%,
Topov 91.2%, atistr 88.7%, Zhej 86.9%, Hllomo 81.5%, Shtpz 61.7%, Pepel 56.4%,
Picar 55.2% and Plesat 43.3%), 44.2% in Prmet district ( villages Lip 80%, Alipostivan
78%, BnjNovosel 76.8%, Leus 76.4%, Biovizhd 73.1%, Pagri 70.2% and Strmbec
61.8%) dhe 34.2% in Tepelen district (villages Rexhin 82.8%, Gusmar 81.8%, Bylysh
77.5%, Badr 72.6%, Lab Martalloz 70.7%, Ahmanikaj 68.7%, Koshtan 67.5% and Kurtjez
67.3%).
Parkland surfaces and other spaces for relax and entertainment
Sanitary relaxing, aesthetic functions, micro clime, increase the wetness and create
cool environments, natural panorama , with parklands and cultivated gardens, sportive areas
important for the protection of the land from the strong winds and erosion. Villages with a
population 500 have 5-6m/b, with a population up to1000 people have 8m/b and villages
with a population more than 1000 people have 9-10 m/b. During transition period the green
surface was reduced from 12 to 3 m/b. Parks were built in towns and villages with more than
1000 inhabitants (Picar, Bodrisht,Village of Klcyr). Protected areas cover 7.3% of the
forests (16.54% in Gjirokastr and 3.13% in Prmet).
Surfaces for ecotourism use
Surfaces for ecotourism use such are: forest pastures, parklands, torrents, lakes,
reservoirs, irrigation channels, channels for water sports and fishing have great values. For
pastures surfaces are distinguished villages of Picar, Zagorieetc, meanwhile for water
surfaces are distinguished villages of Palokastr, Prongji, Vrisera, Kakavie, Polian,
Stegopull, arshov, Zhep, Gjinkar, Petran, Salari etc.
Surfaces that are roads and irrigation channels have communes Lower and Upper Dropull.
139
Figure 1: The maps of cadastral zones of Gjirokastra region (PhD. A. Sinani)
Surfaces used as dwelling places for inhabitants are calculated to be round 16-18m.
Lands and squares cover a considerable surface in villages Vrisera, Erind, Dhuvjan,
Sofratik, Vanistr, Bularat, Leshic, Lulzim etc.
Surfaces for industrial objects are divided in potential and existing ones.
Potentially suitable for the industry and construction materials are sand lands in
commune Libohov Centre, gritty earth in communes of Krahs and Tepelen Centre,
meanwhile for the surface that cover industrial constructed objects are not possessed data.
Surfaces of fallow land and unproductive
140
Surfaces of fallow land and unproductive ones cover 5.1% of the surface in District of
Prmetit, mainly in villages Iljar, Katundisht, Kodrisht, Munushtir and Goric.
Figure 2: The map of reaches estate registration of Gjirokastra region (PhD. A. Sinani)
Impact of rural areas regulation of environmental quality
Rapport between environmental action and non action is continuously changeable to
reset natural sustainability, which is a responsibility of many actors. The avoidance of
conflicts with environment depends on intervention ways done by central and local
institutions, organizations, and NGO-s, businesses and communities. This requires a
systematic control on all activities that affect negatively on the environment, a more efficient
management of the resources that are at the depletion stage, recycling of all possible
materials. A great impact on the environment has the reducing of the green area, interruption
of natural biologic communication and as the result of fragmenting the green surfaces, wild
141
urbanization, water, air and earth pollution and throwing of unprocessed wastes in the
environment.
Administration of natural resources belongs to local authorities, which should
increase the abilities, knowledge and qualification for the use of a proper legal administration
of environment.
Deforestation, overgrazing, hunting and fishing without criteria, favouring earth
erosion and the damage of biodiversity, are given examples of miss management of natural
resources in Gjirokastra region.
Culture of environmental services is not yet formed for proper environmental services
in rural areas of the region, despite the fact that the need for them is very big especially for
the processing of urban wastes and used waters.
Awareness and environmental education of the community is a key factor for the
suitable administration of natural resources. Activities done in schools for this purpose are
very few in number. Environmental organizations still havent done anything to raise the
awareness of the community.
Environmental planning that tackles with illegal constructions and without necessary
infrastructure, collection and processing of wastes and sewages, abuses with agricultural land,
reduce of green surfaces etc; show that there is not a environmental planning in the rural area
of the region.
Reasons of environmental problems and degradations of rural environment are
deforestations to open new agricultural lands on the slope of the mountains (1945-1990),
economical activities and wild constructions without taking in consideration the impact on
the environment (during transition), the lack of integrated plan for the administration of
environment etc.
Poverty and natural environment affect directly to the quality of environment, because
the rural population, in order to survive, is using the resources till their depletions and
complete degradations.
The impact of population migrations in environment during the transition period has
increased the pressure on natural resources, agricultural lands, forests and pasture.
Uncontrolled displacements toward urban areas have brought the increase of illegal
constructions on agricultural areas and environment damages.
142
Environmental hot points in abandoned old industrial centres (mine of Memaliaj etc.)
create environmental problems with a high risk for the inhabitants health.
Air pollution factors in urban areas are very concerning. Private cars, most of them
old version burning petrol, cause very pollution of the environment with dust, soot, SO2, CO
and poisoned gases. Construction activities should be protective, preventive and processing
of the non polluted wastes for the environment.
Suggestions for environmental issues are: to develop environmental informative
network using statistical and computer methods; to plan in long terms how to use the physical
environment; to strengthen cooperation between ecological institutions and NGO-s with
economic institutions serving so to reducing of the pollution and the damages of the
environment; to improve the legislation for rational administration of the environment as an
obligation of economic subjects to reduce pollution through use of technology that case as
less as possible pollution, installing special equipments to process technological wastes and
do their recycling etc; to clean rural areas from the liquid or solid wastes, to create ecological
enterprises which in collaboration with Regional Environmental Agency, to take care for the
protection and well administration of environment; to forbid by law import of polluted goods
that cause pollution; through media and other means of propaganda, to aware the community
an economic subjects for more care and dedication for revitalizing of damaged natural
environments.
Main problems of rural environment
Degradations of plains
Problem of land degradation it has been a concern before 1990, so in 1964
16
, with a
guideline of Council of Ministers Nr. 9, date. 20.05.1964 On protection of slope agricultural
land from the erosion was created commissions for the protection of agricultural slope
lands from erosion with a slope of 5-25% and over 25%. In the land that have been under
erosion process were planted grains and other plants. After 1991, the land was damaged.
Erosion, poorness, desert process and bad administration were the main problems. The land
with the highest norm of erosion in Gjirokastra District is included in the area A in national
level, me 52 ton/ha/per year
17
. Families of the area cannot provide their living from the
agricultural land, because they possess in average only 0.6ha.
16
Official Journal, 5 June Nr. 4, 1964.
17
Common assessment for the place, SKZHES 2003 page. 41, Tirana 2004.
143
Obstructive factors for the development of the land market are: parcelling abandoning
of mountainous areas; lack of establishing; cleaning and deepening of irrigation channels; the
use of chemical products, damaging technologies; the destruction of river embankments,
damaging of mountainous dams and increase of illegal constructions. In Tepelena district
there are round 12450 m, in 74 cases of constructions, 56 dwelling houses and 18 other
objects affected by the use of inert, cutting without criteria of the forests, firing of the forests
and pastures that favour erosion and unsafe conditions.
Main sources of land pollution are:
Use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides quake the
sustainability of agro system, change the structure and damage the fertility of the land.
Quantities of expired chemical fertilizers (3700 kg in Gjirokastr District, 4150 kg in
Prmet and 5973 kg in Tepelen) are the pollution sources that should be eliminated.
Solid and liquid urban wastes (80 m/ day in Gjirokastr District, 20 m/day in Prmet
and 30 m/day in Tepelen), are thrown unprocessed being so the main source of land
pollution. In Gjirokastr they are collected in the bank of Drino River, in Prmet in village
Kutal and in Tepelene at Majkosh area (4990 m).
Hospital and industrial solid and liquid wastes and deposits of coal industry
(Memaliaj), food, cements etc.
Sewages and septic holes built in not suitable areas that dont fulfil any technical condition.
Exit of the river waters form the river banks, damages of embankments and
mountainous dams have brought gritting of agricultural lands (2.5 ha in Gjirokastr District, 3
ha in Prmet and 5 ha in Tepelen). From the activity of Drino river are damaged 45 km
embankments (from 65 km in total). In 1999, was a damaged protective embankment of
Karjan plain from the Nimica River and dam of water basin of village of AndonPoci. Rain
have caused the erosion of 19 ha agricultural land (8 ha Gjirokastr District, 3 ha in Prmet
and 8 ha in Tepelen). Regional Directorate of Agriculture and Food in the region are
becoming evident every year surfaces that are damaged from the use of banks of the river and
erosion. In Tepelen District, as the result of lack of river dams are damaged 14.3 ha
agriculture land meanwhile 157.6 ha. Based on the position and function the most degraded
lands are: lands used for pasture, that are not passed by agricultural vehicles and have no
owners; lands that use to be orchards; lands close to the dwelling places and main roads
used intensively and turned into construction areas. For the erosion of the land and damaging
144
of balances of ecosystem have affected: climacteric factors that favour erosion; damages of
forests and pastures, orchards and other masterpieces that help to establish the land; lack of
investments to preserve and protect the agricultural land; damage of levees, protective walls
and supportive elements; overgrazing, fires and infrastructural constructions (roads, irrigation
channels etc.).
Measures for protection of land are: agronomic (ploughing of the land and cultivation
according to line, deep ploughing 1 time/ 2-3 years); biologic (enriching of the land mainly
through organic chemical fertilisers, conservation of pastures); hydro technical (network of
irrigation channels, draining system supportive walls, terraces, dams, thresholds and fences);
organizing-economic (solution of the ownership problems, liberalisation of land market).
Certainly, positive techniques for an ecological agriculture consist in: changes in
planting structure of agricultural cultures (expanding of surfaces fodder plants); agricultural
circulations, organic fertilisers; ploughing up to 5-10cm and simple ploughing of the land; bio
ecologic checking of diseases and those factors that cause damages, use of bio pesticides:
selection of sustainable cultivars.
Land classification according to their slope and possibilities of uses:
Land with a slope up to 25% can be used without limitation; land with a slope 26-
45% can be used for agriculture with some limitations especially as orchards; land with a
slope up to 60% are less used for agricultural purposes: orchards , forests and pastures;
Classifications of slopes: <5%, low risk of erosion; 6-25%, medium risk of erosion; >25%,
high risk of erosion.
Agricultural land, damaged from the use of bank rivers in Permet District is 150 ha
(95 ha in communes like: Dshnic 25 ha, Piskov Centre 20 ha, Suk 20 ha, Frashr 15 ha
and Ballaban 10 ha), meanwhile in Tepelena District is 13.3 ha (commune Tepelen Centre 6
ha, Qesarat 3.5 haandKrahs 2.8 ha). Agricultural land damaged and in a risk of erosion in
Tepelene District is 157.6 ha commune Memaliaj Village 43.6 ha, Qesarat 43 ha, Tepelen
Centre 39 ha and Krahs 32 ha). Great importance it has establishing of superficial waters
and reducing of erosion in slope terrains of water basins. It is necessary construction of soil
dams, channels against erosions, group of trees, forests, orchards, irrigation channels,
draining systems etc. Are necessary : reforestation, construction of supportive walls, terracing
slope terrains, improving of irrigation technologies, cultivation and fertilizing of the land,
applying of severe sanctions for the land owners, competencies for the change of land
145
destinations ( from agricultural land in orchards vineyards and olive groves) should belong to
responsible institutions that deal with protection and land management, increase the number
of activities that preserve the environment(foresting, bee keeping, ecotourism), improving of
fertilising and irrigations technologies, minimizing the use of chemical fertilisers, improving
valley plants in new lands open recently to be used as pastures, providing control of water
basins cleaning them from sludge, cleaning of fallow land from the shrubs, planting them
with agricultural plants, foresting slope terrains, or turning them into orchards, in order dont
to fertilise them every year, with an active role of associations of land, water, forest users,
avoiding cutting of the trees and constructions in areas of a high risk of erosion, cleaning of
dams and torrent beds, avoidance and using of under earth galleries that are an important
source of sediments.
Problems that are connected with degradation of flora
Flora is damaged in a continuous way from human activities. Physical degradation
happened as result of: entropic erosion (deforestations and massive fires in Permet District),
replacing natural plants with cultivated plants, overgrazing, hunting, and fishing without
criteria); biotic erosion (damage of biodiversity and biotic resources and wild animals). Wood
covers 78% of total needs of rural families for warming and cooking during winter period and
53% during summer. Main problem is forest degradation, in Hllomo and Kardhiq from
collapses and slides of the ground. Main suggestions are: planting simple plants (herbaceous
flora), periodical cleaning of summer and winter pastures, measures against fires, increase of
water basin capacities for livestock.
Problems linked with the quality of the waters traditionally are showed during the use
of waters for irrigation, electricity power, industrial purposes, and tourism. Most of the
waters spring from underground sources that have hardness within the allowed norms
18
.
Majority of rural population is supplied with water through well outside their houses.
Supply with water in a non continuous way and the lack of disinfection elements increase the
risk of pollution. The supply with water of sanitary spaces, in public schools is very
problematic issue and a big risk for children health.
Any inhabitant of rural area has an average of 300 l/day. Round 38.78% of the
villages are supplied with drinkable water through local water supply systems, but none of
them is disinfected. Sanitary institutions take care for monitoring of water supply systems and
18
All natural sources of Lunxheria have a low level of water hardness parameters according to the technical 12 German grade (pH)
146
physical- chemical analyses have shown that everything is according to the allowed
consuming standards.
River system of Vjosa is in risk from the sewages that are joined to its waters
unprocessed, so it is very necessary to be built a factory for their processing, minimizing the
risk of being polluted by communal sewages.
Main sources of pollution are: human domestic wastes, fermented organic materials
from city wastes and food industry, concentration without a purpose of fertilisers and
pesticides, old technologies, amortized network of water pipes, random interventions in water
pipe system, non disinfection of the water in public water supply systems, joining of sewages
with the wells water, raising level of nitrates in natural sources of water, sanitary technical
conditions, high level of bacterial pollution (from 2 to 5 Escherichia Coli
19
)in 21% of rural
water supply systems.
Problems linked with quality of environment and rural panoramas are connected with
three important functions: social, ecologic, economic ones.
Degradation of physical and chemical processes have affected on the quality of
environment. Before 1990 were not composed effective policies, and it was an overcrowding
of mountainous areas, were implemented wrong practices to extend agricultural terrains,
were used harmful chemicals in agriculture, were used old technologies to fertilise the land,
were dropped dangerous chemical substances from the shoes factory and there was a lack of
ecological education in schools.
After1990, implementing of trade market put negative pressure on the environment,
were overused natural resources, the implementing of land reform affected negatively on
panorama, chaotic movements of population were accompanied with panorama problems,
dwelling places were abandoned, even land in mountainous areas was abandoned, fishing and
hunting without criteria destroyed important habitats, was increased number of vehicles, and
was raised the level of pollution from burning of rural and urban wastes and from guns of
1997, there were no places to collect and process dangerous wastes and often their collection
it was not planned, sewages and irrigation channels were amortised and there were no legal
and fiscal rules to construct new ones.
19
Bacterial found in water, to clean the water supply, in 200ml water should not be found more than 200 E. coli.
147
Current trends in the use of space and rural adjustment. The impact of
regulation of ruralspace and environmental quality
Relations Rural space - urban space and urban trends in rural spaces.
Demographic development of urban spaces have created the need for houses, roads, re
creative spaces and other necessary services, but at the same time have caused the decrease of
environmental quality, increased the conflicts for the use of the land, damaged the cultural
and traditional values, increased life cost, and damaged panorama values etc.
Urban trends in rural spaces and urban rural relations should be supported in
following issues: development of agro industry, improving of infrastructure, development of
construction sector, transport, education, culture and health system etc, numeric development
of rural centres, qualitative changes of rural dwelling places in functional aspect, improving
their urbanisation.
Perspective of rural adjusting in the conditions of integrated and sustainable rural
development.
Humanity has ability to do a sustainable development: to complete its requests
without compromising the possibilities of future generations to fulfil their needs
20
.
Sustainability of rural space of Gjirokastra region is found everywhere in many aspects of
economic, political, social and cultural life of our society.
This aim should answer to following principles: protection of bio diversity, and
prevention of erosion; rational use of water, organic substances in agro- ecosystems and
power saving issues.
Suggestions
Getting foreign and local investments, to protect, improve and use the natural assets is
a condition for a sustainable rural development, creation of healthy economic environment
and a good quality of the life. The interest of owners and users of the land is very high,
meanwhile this interest from units of local and central government is very low. The obstacle
is the lack of existence of certain offices for the management of the land in communes of the
region. The low interest for the agriculture has lead to the abandoning of the land without
cultivating anything on it. As result of this is damaged productivity of the land and its
biodiversity. Situation of underground waters and water supplies is very concerning, because
20
Bruntlandt, 1987.
148
it is damaged its quality from the chemical substances, used waters and urban wastes in rivers
and basins and have happened the disappearing of some sources during the summer period.
For a positive perspective, have more importance combination of integrated and sustainable
rural development with urban development, since the cities are active gravitational centres,
for it population, agribusinesses small non agricultural industries, markets for agricultural and
live stock products etc. A developed agriculture in ecological conditions is determinant to
reach the goals for a sustainable development and a very important factor to reach the
objectives of sustainability in general.
Conclusion
Absorbing investments to preserve and protect, improve and use rationally the natural
resources (of environment) is a condition for a sustainable rural development, creation of a
healthy economic environment and a better life quality.
Interest of land owners and land users to protect it is very high, meanwhile from the
municipality units and local government this interest is very low. An obstacle for this is the
lack of Land Management Office in communes of the region. For a positive perspective, it
has importance the combining of integral rural sustainable development with urban
development, because cities are the active centres of gravity for rural areas, for the population
and agro businesses, small industries, markets of agricultural products and live stock products
etc. A developed industry in ecological conditions is determinant to reach the goals for
sustainability in general. The decrease of interest for agriculture has let the agriculture land
abandoned turning them in fallow land damaging so the productivity of the land and
biodiversity. Situation of underground waters and water supply systems is very concerning
because it is damaged the quality (from chemicals, used waters and urban wastes etc.) in
rivers and water basins and there is also a depletion of sources during summer season.
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StudimeGjeografike 10, Tirana.
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Tirana.
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(FR). Albanie, une agriculture en transition, Universitas Mediterranensium Nationum
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Shtetror i Bujqsis, Tirana.
KUBATI, I. (1965): Land erosion from the waters and measures against this process.
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prmasabotrore, Kndvshtrimedhekomente, Tirana.
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and comments Tirana
MUSTA, B., MUSTA, F. (2001): Vleratdhetregu i toks, Tirana.
MUSTA, B., MUSTA, F. (2001): Values and land market, Tirana
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MUSTA, B., QATO, and M. (2003): How to register the assets, Tirana
PNUD. (2002-2005): Strategjia e zhvillimittqarkutGjirokastr, monografi, Toena, Tirana.
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150
UDC:373.3.014.2(662.6)
BASIC ISSUES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION
DELIVERY IN NIGERIA
Asodike, Juliana D., PhD
Ikpitibo, Clinton L
Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt , Rivers State, Nigeria
Abstract
Education is widely regarded as the route to economic prosperity, the key to scientific and technological
advancement, the means to combat unemployment, and the foundation of social equity. Based on this
fact, the Federal Government of Nigeria like other developing countries has at different times made
frantic efforts in increasing the number of children enrolled in primary schools though there are still
many more who are not enrolled and who do not complete the programme. This massive expansion has
been possible by the infusion of large sums of monetary allocation to primary education. Although the
functionality of this level of education is not doubted, in addition to the structural changes made to
improve the system, it has been saddled with problems ranging from issues of enrolment, funding,
infrastructure, teaching personnel and curriculum provisions. This paper discusses the functionality of
primary education and some of the structural changes made to meet the demands of the society.
Furthermore, it highlights the earlier identified issues as they affect primary education delivery in
Nigeria.
Keywords: Primary education, Nigeria
151
Introduction
Primary education is the foundation of formal education. It is an essential component
in the echelon of educational system of every nation. In order to qualify for other levels of
education one must first pass through primary schools, as such it is an institution upon which
all other levels of education and educational achievements are built. It prepares the mind and
trains the child for higher and tougher academic pursuits. It provides young learners with the
fundamentals of reading, writing, skill acquisition, information and attitudes necessary for
proper adjustment into the society. Unfortunately, though not all recipients of primary
education get to other levels.
Investment in primary or basic education is considered by the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) as a means to foster gender equality and sustained
economic growth and reduce poverty. As such in September 2000, eight goals known as
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) aimed at meeting the needs of the worlds poorest
people was reached (UNDP, 2005). The eight goals, which are to be met in partnership with
the worlds leading development institutions by the target date of 2015, are to:
Eradicate extreme hunger and poverty.
Achieve universal primary education.
Promote gender equality and empower women.
Reduce child mortality.
Improve maternal health.
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
Ensure environmental sustainability.
Develop a global partnership for development
The inclusion of universal primary education emphasizes the importance of primary
education in the development process of every nation.
There is no doubt that primary education is a panacea for solving problems such as
ignorance, illiteracy, religious violence, insecurity and political servitude. An educated
Nigerian is capable of making a more stable, peaceful, and prosperous country possible.
Plausibly, the Nigerian government has for long known the importance of primary education
to national development. The realization of this, among other facts, motivated different
governments at different points in a little more than half a century to make primary education
free and declare it universal and compulsory. However, the strength of primary education lies
essentially on what is usually termed basic education with the sole objectives of equipping
young people with the tools needed to investigate and inquire, to think, conclude and
152
understand events around them. Therefore, understanding some basic issues in primary
education delivery in Nigeria is essential and of great importance to stakeholders.
This paper extensively considers issues concerning primary education delivery in Nigeria. It
reflects on its functional importance, structural changes, enrolment, funding, infrastructure,
teaching personnel and curriculum issues. In sum, the aim of the paper is to expand the depth
of our understanding of the impact of these issues on primary education delivery in Nigeria.
Functionality of Primary Education
Fafunwa (1974, p.187) stated that the aims of primary education in all the states of the
federation were to help the child to:
Master the three Rs Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic, this is to develop permanent
Literacy.
Develop sound standards of individual conduct and behaviour.
Acquire some skills and appreciate the value of manual work.
The issues of primary education can be considered in terms of its broad based functions to the
society (FRN, 1986, p.11). An essential function of primary education is effective
communication skills that will enable the pupils to be relevant to the social and economic
development of the nation. This important function is aimed at providing a literate population
and to lay down the foundation for further education in terms of secondary and higher
education.
Similarly, in a world of competition, human beings are constantly in a struggle for
scarce resources at every available opportunity. Primary education plays a functional role by
laying the academic and moral foundation for creating better opportunities for young people;
ensuring that they have necessary reading and writing skills that they will need in the society.
Children learn the foundational skills in literacy and mathematics; they also receive
instruction in science, social studies, and art, music, physical education, and computer
education. These subjects are necessary in other for Nigerian children to be successful at the
secondary and higher levels of education.
Primary education is the Nigerian childs stepping-stone to pursue higher academic
and social goals. The academic block in Nigeria has a broad base at the primary stage and
tapers towards the top at the tertiary stages. Therefore, children that are able to undergo
primary education have a better probability of continuing up to secondary school and to
tertiary institution if they so desire. In doing so, the child can have an opportunity to find and
153
secure a better job than a child that fails to attain primary education. This highlights another
functional issue of primary education in Nigeria
The primary level of education has the largest enrolment, followed by the secondary
level and tertiary level. Primary education is a very vital component of Nigeria education
system sector that deserves handling with great care and caution. Any error in the provision,
distribution, and utilization of resources at this level of education may reverberate on other
levels and thus seriously jeopardizing the growth of the other arms that feed from it. In
addition, primary education sets the foundation for tackling more difficult academic task.
Illustratively, a child's educational career is like a building. The first six years (primary
education) form the foundation on which the whole building stands and each level thereafter
that is another addition. The strength and security of the building depends on how strong that
foundation is and its size is determined by the level of education attained. Conversely, if the
foundation is weak, it will not be able to support the elevating floors. Most teachers would
agree that students who have trouble in those first years of primary school have a hard time
with educational tasks at other levels of education.
In other to benefit from these functions of primary education, the Federal, State and
Local Governments must meet its obligations; the Nigerian government needs to adequately
address the issues of finance, enrolment, infrastructure and planning (Igidi, 2009). For this
reason there has to be a proper understanding of these identified issues for efficiency and
effectiveness of this level of education. Otherwise, the nine years of free and compulsory
education provided for in the Universal Basic Education Act could amount to nine years of
mere attendance and failure with no concrete achievements.
In view of this functional issue, Asodike (2008) stated that regardless of the failure of
the UPE, the Nigerian government still introduced the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
programme which was launched in Sokoto, on September 30
th
, 1999. The programme was
designed in such a way that learners were meant to acquire functional literacy,
communication skills and vocational education. UBE programme was structured to be
basically free and compulsory to all children between the ages of six to twelve and the
provision of free uniforms, books and free lunch. The UBE programme is monitored by
Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC). The law establishing UBEC stipulates a 9-
year formal schooling, adult literacy and non-formal education, skill acquisition programmes
and the education of the special group such as normads and migrants, girl child and women,
154
Almajiri, street children and disabled. Parents were required to avail the children within this
age group with the opportunity of free and compulsory education or face penalties.
Structural Changes
In order to meet the societal demands, primary education has witnessed some
structural changes. Tracing these changes, Asodike (2010) reports that the duration of
primary education during the period 1926-1930 was eight years and six years in 1930-1947.
In 1951 constitution, it was split into two- junior and senior, while in 1952, it was eight years
duration- four years of junior primary (Infant 1, & 11; Standard 1 &11) and four years of
senior prima ry ( standard 111 & 1V). With the attainment of independence in 1960, the
different Regional governments adopted various systems. While the Eastern region adopted
seven years, the Northern region also had seven but with four years of junior and three years
of senior primary. The Western region and the Federal capital territory were not left out in
these structural changes. The former adopted six years while the later had eight years of
primary education. In 1976, the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme was introduced
with six year of primary education. The Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme
introduced in 1999 maintained six years of primary education.
These steps are being pursued because of the vital function and importance primary
education plays in the development process of the nation. But it is essential to state that in
order to ensure that these plans and programmes succeed, there has to be an accurate
statistical data on the number of applicants and participant in primary education in the
country. Without a precise enrolment figure annually, it will be impossible to accurately
determine human and material requirements of the system and consequently planning will be
difficult.
Enrolment Issues
About 45% of the population are youths, many of whom are within the primary
school age group. This means that over 20 million Nigerian children are within the primary
school age. According to the FRN/UNDP (2003), in 1998 there were 41,814 primary schools
with an enrolment of 16,348,324 (13.75% of these were females) and 468,770 teachers
(26.45% of these were non-qualified teachers). In 2005, the enrolment figure was estimated
to be about 24,422,918, out of which 13,302,262 are males and 11,120,649 are females, with
the number of primary schools estimated at 87,941. The teacher/pupil ratio (TPR) at the level
was 1:38 while the completion rate was 64.1 percent and the transition rate was 39.1 percent
155
(to Junior Secondary Education). And based on the provisions of National Policy on
Education, this is the corresponding age group for primary education. The pattern of
enrolment from 1995 to 2004 into the various educational levels is indicated in percentages is
shown on table 1.
Table 1: Pattern of Enrolment Ratios in Public Primary, Secondary and Higher
Education
LEVEL/YEAR 1995 (%) 2000 (%) 2004 (%)
Primary Education 93.3 95.5 99.2
Secondary Education 32.0 24.2 34.6
Higher Education 4.3 6.6 10.2
Source: Survey of ICT and education in Africa.
Table 1 shows that primary education has as expected, consistently had the highest
level of enrolment over a period of nine years, from 1995 to 2004. In 1995 the enrolment
ratio was 93.3% and it increased to 99.2% in 2004. This shows that the population of entrants
into primary education has been on a steady rise. Secondary education only increased from
32% to 34.6% in nine years, while higher education increased from 4.3% to 10.2% within the
same period. This is a clear indication of the huge number of children that enrolled into
primary schools all over Nigeria annually. Also from the table 1 it is clear that the enrolment
ratio into primary education over a period of about a decade is far greater than secondary and
higher education levels combined.
Therefore, governments financial contribution to primary education in Nigeria should
be extensively considered, since it is the level with the highest enrolment ratio in the country.
There is also noticeable huge gender imbalance in terms of female enrolment which is far
lower than males. This gap in primary school enrolment is of course not just a matter of
access, but parents demand for education of their daughters is low reflecting both cultural
and religious norms as girls work in and around the home. Literate parents are more likely
than illiterate ones to enroll their daughters in schools. So States with the highest proportions
of illiterate adults are obviously those with the widest gender gaps. Overcoming the gender
gap will therefore require not only providing more school places for girls but also
overcoming many parents ignorance of gains that will accrue from enrolling their female
children.
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Funding Issues
Ebong (2006) indicated that financial resources are made of monetary inputs into a
system such as the education system. They act as a lubricant for the system (primary
education) and without these financial resources programmes cannot be properly planned and
policies implemented. Hitherto, without availability of funds and proper management to carry
out any work at the primary level any plans of transformation are bound to fail. Funding
issues in primary education plays a crucial role in determining the level of success,
development and change. It also helps to direct attention towards the achievement of set goals
at all levels of education. Adequate funding entails a timely supply of funds, qualified
teachers, administrators and infrastructural facilities to ensure success in any organization.
The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) states that education is an industry that attract
huge capital outlay. Primary education is a social service that requires adequate financial
provision from all tiers of Government for proper execution of educational programmes,
schemes and policies. After independence, a system of grants and aids were devised in the
financing of primary education, but this method of funding was flawed and bastardized with
problems. Therefore, in the early 1970s a method that considered enrolment option was
adopted in the funding of primary education in Nigeria, with the aim of improving the quality
of education. Unfortunately, it failed to specify the exact amount each tier of government was
required to allocate to primary education in the country thereby causing a huge problem in
terms of funding. Since each tier wasnt constitutionally required to allocate a fixed amount
to primary education they disbursed what they deemed adequate and affordable. Table 2
shows tiers of government funding to the various levels of education.
Table 2: Estimated allocation of education expenditure across levels of education by
each tier of government, 1998 (percentages).
TIER Total Primary (%) Secondary (%) Tertiary (%)
Federal 100 16.9 14.6 68.4
State 100 9 63.9 27.1
Local 100 100 0 0
Total 100 35.6 29 35.4
Source: Keith Hinchliffe (2002) Public expenditures on education Nigeria; issues, estimates
and some implications, Africa Region Human Development Working Paper.
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Table 2 shows the Federal Government allocation to the various educational levels. In
1998 was a total of 23.668 million naira out of which 68.4% was allocated to higher
education, while primary education received 16.9% and secondary education received 14.6%.
While the State Government allocated a total of 23.555 million naira, the highest proportion
of this 63.9% was allocated to secondary education, 27.2% was allocated to higher education
and 9% was allocated to primary education. Local Governments allocated a total of 16.627
million naira to just primary education in 1998. Thus in 1998, primary education level
received the second largest amount of money from the three tiers of government combined.
The federal expenditure on education seems to be below 10% of its overall
expenditures. For instance, between 1997 and 2002, the total share to education in federal
expenditure budget ranged between 9.8% and 7.5% with the trend showing a downward
plunge as shown on table 3 (World Bank, 2002). The current trend of investment within the
education sector is such that the tertiary level gets the largest share while the primary level
gets the least. This pattern is inversely related to number of institutions, enrolment and
teachers at the different educational levels. Table 3 presents the data on the pattern of funding
of the educational levels by the Federal government.
Table 3: Pattern of Federal Government funding of Education at all levels (1996
2002).
Education
Levels/Year
1996
%
1997
%
1998
%
1999
%
2000
%
2001
%
2002
%
Tertiary 79.9 78.9 68.4 69.1 75.8 68.1 76.9
Secondary 10.4 11.3 14.6 18.7 15.3 15.5 15.6
Primary 9.7 9.8 17 12.2 8.9 16.4 7.5
TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: World Bank (2003); Preparing for UBE.
From the table 3, it is obvious that primary education is significantly underfunded. In
fact, the funds allocated to this level has dropped from 16.4% in 2001 to 7.5% in 2002 (over
50% fall), while funds allocated to the tertiary level went up from 68.1% in 2001 to 76.9% in
2002. This shows that the funding issues of primary education is in two-folds; an absence of a
precise funding source and poor funds allocation to this level of education. These problems
make it impossible to improve on the standard of primary education in the country.
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Teaching Personnel Issues
Following the directives by the Federal Government that the minimum teaching
qualification shall be the National Certificate in Education (FRN, 2004), teachers have seized
the opportunities of part time programmes offered by National Teachers Institute (NTI), and
sandwich or long vacation programmes organized by different Faculties of Education in
tertiary institutions to improve on their academic qualifications. Improved qualification
notwithstanding teachers still operate under very pathetic conditions such as overcrowded
classrooms, wide variations in age and with little or no materials for teaching. Most worry of
course is the fact that some of these teachers are still ill equipped to cope with such situations.
Teachers need to be empowered with skills which will enable them identify their own
problems (administrative or pedagogical) and seek solutions to these problems (Chimombo,
2005).
Curriculum Issues
Education reforms all over the world is increasingly curriculum based, as mounting
pressures for education to meet the demands of the society tend to target and focus on content
of school curriculum (Moreno, 2006). The objectives of changes are to ensure all round
education for learners. The curriculum provisions are immense and profound for school
teaching and learning. At primary level ten subjects are taken. Two of these ten subjects-
agriculture and home economics are to be deferred to later years of primary schools.
Recently, there have been clamour for the inclusion of new subjects that target topical/global
issues such as environmental education, civics and moral education, and sexuality education
in the primary school curriculum.
Infrastructural Issues
Physical facilities play important role in teaching and learning especially at the
primary school age when the sense of imagination is still premature. The availability of
adequate school building, classrooms, chairs and other facilities are necessary to the
attainment of objectives of an educational system. However the increase in primary school
enrolment does not have corresponding increase in infrastructural development in the primary
schools. A common scene at the primary school environment is that of half completed or
dilapidated and overcrowded classrooms lacking basic equipment and facilities with
unsightly and unhygienic toilet. Table 4 shows the available facilities in primary schools in
Imo State as reported by Asiabaka and Mbakwem (2008, p.26).
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Table 4: Facilities Available in Primary Schools in Imo State
Facilities Number available
%
Facilities Number available
%
Computer None Electricity 3 (2.2%)
Libraries 2 (1.48%) Transportation None
Laboratory 1 (0.7%) Sanitation 135 (100%)
Music 7 (5.2%) Refuse disposal None
Fine arts 1 (0.7%) Toilet 2 (1.48%)
Communication e.g.
telephone None
First aid 118 (87.4%)
Science resource
centre
Uncoordinated Recreation-football 135 (100%)
Water 4 (2.96%)
Table 4 depicts the poor state of facilities in primary schools not only in Imo State as
shown. The situation is the same across the federation. Pupils and teachers need facilities
such as libraries, gender friendly environments and security for effective teaching and
learning to take place.
In a swift reaction, in January 2008, the present governor of Rivers State Governor
Chibuike Rotimi Amaechi declared an emergency on the education sector and began a radical
transformation of primary education in the State. The State government took over the
management and administration of an estimated 2,800 primary schools in the State from the
various Local Government Councils, including the payment of salaries estimated at N868
million. Also they embarked upon a thorough rebuilding of most of the primary schools in the
state and training/retraining of teachers and head-teachers. According to the State Governor,
if primary education failed under the Local Government, then there is something
foundationally wrong with that law because you cannot leave the foundation of a house in the
hands of a man who does not have money (CHATHAM HOUSE, London on February 26,
2009).
According to the state Commissioner for Education in the Rivers State, Dame Alice
Lawrence Nemi in an interview with the Sunday Trust Newspaper (November 14, 2009), the
Rivers State government has embarked upon the building of 750 model schools across the
State, with playgrounds, auditoriums, equipped library, computer laboratory with magnetic
screen computers, demonstration farm, and administrative office, dining hall, a sick bay with
160
a resident nurse, staff quarters and a dormitory. Presently, 400 of these primary schools have
been completed and 4 out of the 24 secondary schools being built have being completed also.
Each of these schools cost approximately 12 million naira and a total cost of 84 billion naira
or 560 million U.S dollars. The State government is investing so much in building these
primary schools in order to address the poor decay and dilapidated infrastructural facilities in
various primary schools in the State. The following pictures show some of the efforts of the
Rivers State government in the provision of physical facilities and quality learning
environment in primary schools in the state.
Based on the successes of the primary education in Rivers State, the UNICEF agreed to
1. Outside view of the Model Primary
School Rupkokwu.
2. Library view of the Model Primary
School Rupkokwu.
3. Classroom view of the Model Primary
School Rupkokwu.
4. Computer laboratory of the Model Primary
School Rupkokwu.
161
Provide technical assistance to the State government in its averred efforts to provide
quality education in the state. The areas of assistance are to include mechanisms that would
ensure that children in the rural communities of the state can access equal educational
opportunities with their counter-parts in the urban areas. This will help in meeting the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) four and five which included reduction of child
mortality and improvement of maternal health (Winkina, 2011).
Other Challenging Issues
According to Egwu (2009), some challenges facing primary education in Nigeria
include the huge disparity between expected school enrolment and the actual enrolment
figure. This leads to difficulties in accurately planning and allocating human, material and
financial resources adequately to the various primary schools in the country. Poor
management of information in terms of gathering accurate data, recording and retrieval of
data leads to conflicting statistics about the number of enrolled pupils and new applicants in
the system. This means that these vital information are not readily available when needed,
thereby creating a vacuum for policy makers, stakeholders and researchers to carry out their
functions efficiently.
Similarly, Omotayo, Iheberene and Maduewesi (2008), also indicated that poor
implementation strategy, management and lack of assurance as responsible factors that
contributed to the failure of the UBE to attain its goals since its inception more than 10 years
ago. Other predicaments include financial problems in terms of misappropriation and
embezzlement of funds, and financial crimes of all sorts being perpetuated by those in
authority. As a result, there is an absence of adequate financial resources to implement
programmes and policies that will promote this level of education. Also incompetence on the
part of some teachers and head-teachers leads to poor quality assurance, delivery and
supervision in the system. Other challenges include educational wastage inform of truancy,
high dropout rate, attrition, and repetition.
It is evident that these problems persist in most States of the Federation despite efforts
of the government at ameliorate some of these difficulties. However, Alaba (2010) makes the
following observations from a research conducted thus - primary schools in the Western part
of Nigeria have good conditions for teaching and learning, and there are spacious and
conducive classrooms for both teachers and students. Also the teaching standard was of good
quality, after the assessment of the lesson notes of teachers in selected primary schools. But
unfortunately, the results obtained from classroom test administered to the students revealed
162
that they were of poor quality and students performed badly. This was because of
inappropriate and inadequate test administered and high absenteeism. All these problems
prevent the primary education level from attaining the heights that it is required to attain.
Conclusion
This paper highlighted the functional issue of primary education which necessitated
its initial introduction in the late 1800s and its the driving force piloting progress and
development of primary education in Nigeria. The nature of its expansion and growth in
terms of structural changes and issues bothering on enrolment, funding, teaching personnel,
curriculum and infrastructural provisions over the past few decades were considered.
Unfortunately, the financial input from both the Federal and some State governments in
Nigeria, has failed to meet up with the demands of this level of education as indicated by its
increasing population of children that enroll annually and requirements stipulated by the
United Nations. It is evident that there are challenging issues plaguing primary education
delivery in Nigeria and these issues were considered with corresponding implications to the
primary education level. There is a need to address some of these difficulties in other to
move the nations primary education forward on a path to progress and development. Finally,
primary education is useful in raising the consciousness and the level of receptivity to
innovations and the general way of living of the people. On this basis, it will continue to do
the inevitable: producing the basis for the success of the other levels of education and
continuously keep aflame the over probing and inquisitive fire of the mind ignited at this
stage of education.
Recommendations
Jaiyeoba (2007) stated that there is a need for the government to provide more in
terms of library amenities, laboratory facilities, games materials and general funding. It is
also very essential that a better monitoring strategy be adopted for the money released to
primary education so as to guarantee suitable usage of such funds. It should be noted that a
well-planned primary education system, that is well funded may become ineffective through
embezzlement, corruption and poor statistical data on enrolment, number of schools and
available human and materials resources. Government should ensure that these problems are
addressed in order to protect the countrys cherished primary education system. If these
recommendations are followed judiciously, primary education will still have more in stock to
163
give to Nigerians in terms of national development as applicable in some other countries such
as United States, the U.K, Tanzania and Japan.
References:
Alaba, S. O. (2010). Improving the standard and quality of primary education in Nigeria: A
case study of Oyo and Osun States. International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in
Education (IJCDSE). 1 (3).
Asiabaka, I.P & Mbakwem, J. (2008). Assessment of facilities of government primary
schools in Imo State, Nigeria: some neglected areas. New York Science Journal, 1 (2), 22-29.
Asodike, J. D. (2008). Ascertaining the level of awareness and opinions of parents on the
Universal Basic Education: Step to effective implementation of the programme in Rivers
State, Nigeria. African Journal of Educational Research and Development (AJERD) 2, 100
Asodike, J. D. (2010). Eefective teacher utilization and teaching: strategies for the
improvement of academic performance of school pupils. In H.I. Dike & I.M. Aminigo (Eds.)
Teaching practice guidebook, pp 231-247, University of Port Harcourt: University of Port
Harcourt Press.
Amaechi, C. R. (2009), The Royal Institute of International Affairs popularly known as
Chatham House held a Roundtable Conference on the Niger Delta. One of the three Niger
Delta Governors invited to speak, spoke extempore at the forum.
Agyema, O. T. (2007). Survey of ICT and Education in Africa: Nigeria Country Report
Nigeria Retrieved from www.infodev.org.
Babalola, J.B. (1996). Proliferation of private primary school in Nigeria. In A.O. Ajayi and
J.A. Akinwumiju (Eds.), Personnel performance and capacity building. Department
of Educational Management, University of Ibadan.
Chimombo, J.P.G (2008). Issues in basic education in developing countries. An exploration
of policy options for improved delivery, CICE Hiroshima University. Journal of
International Cooperation in Education, 8 (1), 129-152/
Ebong, J.M (2006). Understanding economics of education. Port Harcourt: Eagle Lithograph
Press.
Egwu, S. O. (2009), Roadmap for Nigerian educational sector Abuja Federal Ministry of
Education. Federal Ministry of Education Abuja.
Fafunwa, A.B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Federal Government of Nigeria/United Nations Education Social Cultural
Organization/United Nation Development Program. (2003). A Decade of Basic Education
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Data in Nigeria
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1986). Supplement to official gazette extraordinary,
December, Part B, p. A873. FRN: Abuja, 72 (87)
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Abuja: NERDC Press
Hinchliffe, K. (2002). Public expenditures on education Nigeria; issues, estimates and some
Implications. Africa Region Human Development Working Paper.
Igbineweka, M (2007, 14 March)Importance of primary and secondary education. Retrieved
from http://www.friendcalib.org
Igidi, T. (2009, 14 November) Making sense out of primary education in Rivers state.
Sunday Trust Newspaper. Retrieved from http://sunday.dailytrust.com/
Jaiyeoba, A. O. (2009). Perceived impact of universal basic education on national
development In Nigeria. Retrieved from
https://ojcs.siue.edu/ojs/index.php/ijaaas/article/view/89/149
Moreno, J.M. (2006). The dynamics of curriculum design and development: in school
knowledge in a comparative and historical perspective. In A, Benavot, C. Braslavsky. (Eds.)
Changing curricula in primary and secondary education. pp 195-209. Hong Kong:
Comparative Education Research Centre.
Omotayo, D. Ihebereme, M. and Maduewesi, B. U. (2008), Management of Universal Basic
Education (UBE) scheme for qualitative education in Nigeria. High Beam Research.
Stock, R. (2009) Primary education Microsoft Encarta [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft
Corporation.
United Nations Development Programme (2005). Millennium Development Goals. New
York: UNDP.
Wikina, B. (2011, 05 July) UNICEF pledges technical assistance to RSG on education signs
Retrieved from http://www.riversstate.gov.ng/
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Human Development II, African Region.
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UDC:373.2.091(662.6)
TOWARDS EFFECTIVE EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
PLANT PLANNING
Asodike Juliana Dibugonwanyi, PhD
Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt , Rivers State, Nigeria
Abstract
Effective plant planning facilitates instruction and learning processes. Its contribution towards the
physical and mental well-being of the beneficiaries forms the basis of this paper. Specific structures
peculiar alone to some level of education should be effectively taken care of during planning process.
Therefore, issues such as determining specific building, structuring the physical environment and plan
maintenance among others are discussed.
Keywords: Early childhood education, plant planning
Introduction
Raising a child is one of the most complicated and important challenges for parents,
caregivers or teachers and policy makers. Its importance and complication are based on the
fact that childhood development takes place at a rate that exceeds any other from conception
to the initial tentative steps into a pre-nursery classroom. Research has proved that early
stages of life have the potential for being a rich and rewarding foundation that will support a
child all the way into adulthood. This calls for proper plant planning of the environment of
early childhood education.
166
In the current National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) early childhood also referred
to pre-primary education is defined as the education given in an educational institution to
children aged 2 to 5+ prior to their entering the primary school. It is therefore, the bedrock of
the educational system.
Plant planning in an educational set up such as school, means considering various
ways to put up the structured features to suit the instructional and learning processes. Each
level of education has its peculiarities which the plant planning must take into cognisance,
otherwise the plan is considered a failure if it does not meet those requirements. The school
plant is usually seen as the site, the building, equipment, and all facilities of a school. It can
further be described as the controlled environments, which in any form facilitate the
instruction and learning process while at the same time protecting the physical well being of
its occupants. The school plant planning in early childhood education should start and end
with the children. The buildings are to be designed with a specific reference to satisfying the
physical and emotional well-being of the children. In order to meet the physical needs of the
children, a safe structure, adequate sanitary facilities, balanced visual environment, and an
appropriate thermal and sufficient shelter space for work and play should be provided. It has
been observed that children learn better when facilities are adequate than in the absence of
such essential facilities. Caregivers/teachers in early childhood centres are more effective in
the face of enhanced and adequate facilities. Consequently, plant planning should consider
the caregivers/teachers as much as they do the children since both are complementary to each
other in achieving the goals for which plants are erected.
School Plant
Describing the term school plant, Olutola (1981: p 210) states:
It includes the site, the building and equipment. It embracespermanent and semi
permanent structures as well as items such as machines, laboratory equipment,
other physical, sports, and recreational facilities and equipment, blackboard
(chalkboard) and the cleaner tools.
Globally, school plant planning considers sitting, building, and provision of physical
equipment at any level of the school system. It should be noted that, similarities and
differences exist at the different levels of the educational system in terms of their feature. For
example, the principles guiding site location and the function of some specific plants like the
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classroom, size of hall, laboratories, and libraries are different in proportion to level of
school, size of school and population.
Plant Planning in Early Childhood Education
The Minimum Standard for Establishing Schools (MSES) (FRN, 2005: p 9-10) gives
a break down of the facilities that form the core school plants to be provided at inception of
early childhood/pre-primary schools in different environment in the country. Briefly, the
environment was classified as Rural (Grade 3), Semi-Urban, Rural (Grade I) and Urban
(Special Grade). These different environments definitely require different facilities to be
planned for and provided at inception and as the early childhood education centres continue
to exist. The dimensions of land and classroom, administrative block, basic health scheme,
toilet facilities, classroom furniture, instructional materials to be provided, site plan and
approved building plans. Also the certificate of occupancy and fencing, playground and
equipment, and utilities as stated in The Minimum Standard for Establishing Schools, (2005)
are to be strictly assured before approval of an early childhood education centre by the
appropriate authority is granted.
The Planning Process
Planning is the key to establishing a quality early childhood education. To fail to plan,
is to fail. Childcare providers and staff who have worked in early education overtime are
probably useful during planning for some inputs based on experience on the job.
Professionals (architects, designers, contractors) can incorporate their knowledge into the
planning process. Effective interaction should exist between the professionals who work with
children, and the professionals who design and build facilities that engender high quality
facilities (Children Investment Fund, 2001). The planning process involves some identified
stages. Some of which are the:
Site Selection and Acquisition
Site selection and acquisition is one of the most crucial stages of physical plant
planning. It has to do with acquiring the land through purchasing, paying compensation,
getting of the necessary legal documents that entitles one to the land and fencing or
demarcation (Agabi, 2004). It must be stressed that nothing is more important in a building
programme than the size and character of school grounds. Insufficient space interferes with
development or adequate school programme.
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The site of an early childhood education centre should be healthy and safe. It should
be free from excessive noise, smoke dust and congested traffic. It should have adequate space
for future expansion, drives, recreation, parkways, and beauty elements. Search and select a
good architect to do preliminary review of the zoning, parking, environmental, accessibility,
and use classification for the site. An architect should be selected based on experience in the
design and construction of childcare facilities. This could be sought from demonstrated
accomplishment from centres where previous designs have been carried out and of course
how well they function.
Fig. 1: Topography flat surface, improved terrain & good drainage facilities
Topography
The topography of an early childhood education centre should be flat with adequate
drainage facilities provided to prevent water log during rainy season. Swampy sites are also
not advisable. They breed earthworms and tapeworms, mosquitoes and tsetse flies within the
tropical areas. Apart from the fact that the site should afford a commanding location for
169
building, each part of the building should have correct orientation as to natural favour
ventilation.
Fig.2: Playground - Free from hazards
Freedom from Danger and Health Hazards
Safety hazards should constitute a necessary consideration in choosing site for early
childhood education. Early childhood education centres should not be sited close to noise
generating or vibrating location that can hamper effective instruction and learning conditions.
Those to be sited in urban areas should be far from and insulated from noise, and bustles from
motor parks, aircrafts, market, and causal work site. An ideal early childhood education
centre should be remote from industrial traffic, business distractions, and health hazards.
Quality Space
The rising demand for early childhood education points to the fact there will be future
expansion of facilities in the existing ones. It is important to realize the need for a good
reasonable space for a school plant from the start. Quality space support quality
programming. A well-designed quality space will enhance and support the childrens
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developmental progress and also enhance and support caregivers in implementing quality
programme.
Fig.3: Quality Space standard size
Determining Specific Building and Other Needs
Buildings in an early childhood environment should be constructed to the need of the
children, while taking into consideration functional features such as adequacy, efficiency, and
economy. The dimension of the classrooms should be such that both teachers and pupils will
have enough work and play space. Classrooms should be well ventilated; partitioning should
be made easily removable for adjustment, rearrangements of portable furniture, and learning
facilities and equipment.
Equipping and furnishing the building of an early childhood education should
consider the fact that its structure or pattern is flexible, its infrastructure is different from the
specification of formal classroom, the environment is baby friendly and the furniture used is
tender and sensitive (Uzodinma & Akinware, 2001).
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Sports facilities for all round development of the child regardless of abilities should
also be planned for. There should be adequate playground free from harmful objects and with
adequate play facilities. The availability of utilities such as running water to ensure centres
are kept tidy and pupils attended to when nature calls by virtue of their ages. Effective means
of communication for proper information disseminations to parents should be planned for.
Provision for a sick bay, first aid box, fire extinguishers, evacuation rules in events of
emergency or fire should all be incorporated in the planning process.
Fig. 4: Sick-bay roomy, furnished & well ventilated
Structuring the Physical Environment
It is one thing to identify these core plants and another to structure the environment to
facilitate harmony among the children and warm, positive relationships between the children
and the caregivers.
Structuring the environment in terms of managing space and materials is done to
promote the childrens all round development. The environment is therefore structured to
meet the needs of the children. These needs are identified as physiological, safety, social and
esteem needs (Maslow in Kostelnik, Whiren, Stein & Soderman, 1998). To the children
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physiological needs include a balanced diet, enough sleep, and appropriate room temperature.
Safety needs include freedom from physical danger and fear; social needs include the
childrens need for acceptance and a sense of belongings; while esteem needs include self-
respect, recognition, and status.
Structuring Space and materials
The physical environment in which children play and learn has much to do with their
mental and social development. It has been stressed earlier in this chapter that the location,
building, parking space and other factors such as lighting, ventilation, temperature control,
safety from environmental hazards, environmental noise and dimension of space should not
be taken for granted as they influence childrens development.
The classroom-To ensure proper supervision and avoid over crowding, the maximum
accepted adult-to-child ratios should be maintained. The recommended teacher-children ratio
is 1:20 while that of nursery assistant is 1:10-15 (MSES, FRN, 2005: p9-10) .
The walls- The wall surface should be covered with easily washed paints, cleanable
and fire-retardant. This is to enable children fingerprints left on the surfaces to be cleaned
easily. Light colours with bright accents are also preferable to safe guard the young eyes.
Lighting- Children need adequate lighting to perform detail task. However, lower lighting,
and brightly dispersed around the room are most conducive to children interaction when no
reference is made to written materials.
Equipment and Furnishings- Equipment and furnishings should be arranged
according to groups to regulate the use of materials. Generally, children play more
successfully in groups of two to four. It also promotes healthy competition. The number
estimated should match exactly the number of materials. This will reduce conflict and
struggle between children and establish conditions for high quality learning or play.
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Fig.1: Utilisation of Instructional materials manipulation of building blocks
Storing Materials- Materials should be stored where they are most frequently used, or
where it is first used and located in logical place. Children can go and get things themselves
to complete an assignment if they know where they are located. This is most important for
common items like paper, crayon, scissors, and the like. Children will find it difficult
selecting materials on crowded shelves. Sometimes it is unsafe. Materials should be displayed
on low open shelves accessible to the children.
Appropriate Size and Quantity of Equipment and Materials- Tables, chairs and desks
or other equipment add to the comfort and decrease the fatigue of children if they are
correctly sized. Seats should be tender and suitable for the age of the children. The number of
materials made available during play in an early childhood education should be related to the
number of children. Usually, the total number of play unit should be two-and a-half times the
number of children (Whiren in Kostelnik et al, 1998).
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Fig. 5: Organised material utilisation adequacy of materials
4. Plant Maintenance
A good plant planning should take into consideration maintenance of building and
equipment. To Olutola (1981), school plant maintenance refers to the keeping of the school
site, the building, and the equipment in as near the original state of utility as possible. School
plant provides one of the most attractive places in the community. In early childhood
education, the availability and maintenance of these plants is the major attraction by parents
and of course, they go a long way to determine fees charged (Obasi & Asodike, 2005). Apart
from providing these plants, it is also more important to continue to monitor the use of these
plants and ensure regular maintenance. Safety and security measure must also be built into
such procedure. The life of any plant is dependent on the level of maintenance given to it.
The objectives of maintenance of school plant include; prolonging the life span of
existing plant facilities and other materials, since unattended, deterioration and neglect could
lead to high outlay. Maintenance will help prevent the situation. The repair of broken down
facilities, such as seats and tables, fences and climbing equipments, rehabilitation and
renovation of buildings are essential services that must be provided for maintenance of
175
facilities necessary for early childhood education functioning. No one would like to send his
ward to a school where the hygiene and environment are not friendly. Kostelnik et al (1998)
stress that sturdiness, durability, artisanship, and construction materials all contribute to safe
products.
Abraham and Asodike (in press) rightly observed that it costs less in terms of money
and time to maintain safe healthy environment than to take care of the consequences resulting
from their absence. For example, it costs less to repair broken seat than to treat a fatal injury
on a child resulting from the neglect of such repair, the duo stressed. Maintenance is
necessary to ensure continued safety. It is also very important to examine materials provided
in an early childhood education for potential safety. There should be no room for
procrastination in carrying out the repair of dilapidated plant. Otherwise, the consequences
could be very grave.
Jewel in Agi (2005), considers that maintenance services could be obtained from two ways
namely:
Through contract: In this case, supervision and labour for the job...plant facilities
maintenance is provided by appointed contract firms.
Through Direct Control: here staff personnel of the institution are involved in direct
maintenance.
The job of plant planning manger in early childhood education does not end with the
construction and furnishing educational building or purchase and installation of educational
facilities. Much more important is to ensure the environmental safety of these centres where
children spend prolonged time away from parents, making it gender friendly as much as
possible.
Postscript
Adequate attention should be given to plant planning in all institutions involved in
early childhood. It is suggestive that the job of the plant managers should very much consider
the relative safety of these centres where our children are sent for safekeeping at this
formative period of their lives. Above all the culture of maintenance must be built in the
planning process especially in these centres where children are likely to put even dangerous
things into their mouths and eye while at play. Infections because of poor maintenance could
cost parents and centre enormously.
176
References:
Abraham, N. M., & Asodike J. D. (in press). Environmental safety in early childhood
education centres in Port Harcourt Municipality. African Journal of Community &
Development 3 (1), Imo State University.
Agabi, O. G. (2004). Managing educational facilities In Nnabuo, P. O. M., Okorie, N. C.,
Agabi, O. G. & Igwe, L. E. B. (eds). Fundamentals of Educational Management
Owerri: Versatile Publishers.
Agi, U. K. (2005). Determining resource management in an educational system In African
Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS)1&2, 77.
Childrens Investment Fund (2001-2007). Developing Child Care Facilities Retrieved
11/06/2007 http://www.cccif.org/quality-guide.htm
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2005). Minimum Standard for Establishing Schools Abuja:
Federal Ministry of Education
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos, NERDC Press
Kostelnik, M. J., Stein, L. C., Whiren, D., & Soderman, W. (1998). Guiding children
social development USA: Delmar, Thomson Learning Inc.
Obasi, F. N. & Asodike, J. D. (2005). Status of instructional and recreational materials in
private and public pre-primary schools in Rivers State In Nigerian Journal of Educational
Administration AndPlanning (NAEAP) 9 (2), 265.
Olutola, A. (1981). School plant planning and maintenance In Adesina, S. (ed). Introduction
to educational planning Ile-Ife: University of Ife (Obafemi
Awolowo University) Press Ltd.
Uzodinma, E. C. c. & Akinware, M. (2001). Early childhood education: Indicators in the
structure and content of the educational system of Nigeria. A Presentation at the World
Forum Held at Athens, Greece, April 27-30.
177
UDC:338:94(496.542)"1916/18"
339.1/.3:94(496.542)"1916/18"
THE REGION OF ELBASAN DURING THE OCCUPATION
BY AUSTRIA-HUNGARIAN ARMY (1916-1918)
Lira Gjevori, Msc.
Sokol Gjevori, Msc.
University of Elbasan, Albania
Abstract
The arrival of the Austro-Hungarian forces in Elbasan was not opposed by most of the patriots of the region, and
those who had emigrated abroad for various reasons. Patriots in the region of Elbasan benefited from the
concessions made by the Austrian authorities in the interest of national movement. The economic situation in
the region of Elbasan was still difficult. Besides the lack of grain, the biggest problem that existed at this time
was speculations by some people who benefited from this difficult situation to be enriched by increasing grain
prices. Poverty and economic collapse made it difficult living in this period, this condition had a negative impact
on social morality, the health of the population and increasing mortality among the poor population. Austro-
Hungarian authorities during this time took several actions to improve the situation but the misery was still
present and food prices were not lowered. Austro-Hungarian authorities established in Elbasan and in several
other cities military offices, which recruited Albanian soldiers, who were led by Austrian officers. Austro-
Hungarian authorities undertook action to disarm the local population by collecting all the weapons in the region
of Elbasan. During this time the Austro-Hungarians built a post office in the city of Elbasan, also raises an
Austrian trading agency in the city of Elbasan to promote trade in this region.
Keywords: Austro-Hungarian Army, Albanian patriots, region of Elbasan, national congress,
economic situation.
In January 1916, the Bulgarian and Austro-Hungarian troops, entered into Albanian
territory by occupying most of it. Also, the Elbasan region became part of the occupation.
During World War I, the first that invaded this region were the Bulgarian forces have arrived
from Macedonia, who settled in Elbasan on 29 January 1916. The first news on the approach
178
of the Bulgarian troops around the region of Elbasan, the local population received from
LefNosi, patriot of the city of Elbasan. After the Bulgarian forces in this region also came the
Austro-Hungarian forces. The Austrian-Hungarian located in Albania there were about 100
thousand soldiers.
21
Between representatives of the city of Elbasan, LefNosi, KasemSejdini,
Dr. FilipPapajani, EminMatraxhiut, and the other party Serafimoff Bulgarian captain,
company commander Lieutenant Kristoff was signed an agreement. The contents of this
agreement included cooperation and recognition of the Bulgarian influence in this region, of
course without prejudice to the national rights of Albanians. After signing the agreement, in
sign of gratitude, the administration of the Municipality of the city set the Bulgarian and
Albanian flags. At that time in the town of Elbasan, entered the national forces led by
AhmetZogollit.
22
He collaborated with AqifBiakiun, LefNosin and other patriots of this
region. In a bilateral agreement between the Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian, Bulgarian
forces were obliged to leave from the region of Elbasan and turn to the eastern part of the
country from where then put their full influence. The arrival of the Austro-Hungarian forces
in Elbasan was not opposed by most of the patriots of the region, and those who had
emigrated abroad for various reasons. In a proclamation titled "precious, brotherly loyalty" to
the Albanian people on January 28, 1916, by PrengBibdoda, Seid Pasha, FejziAlizoti,
LuigjGurakuqi, AqifElbasani, AhmetDakli, who interned in Cetinje Montenegro, indicated
that:
In recent years we shared with you the evils and sufferings, but we are starting to
give you an example to put you completely under the orders of the Austro-Hungarian
authorities, showing no doubt, but by honoring and expressing your gratitude towards Austro-
Hungarian army".
23
In these conditions AqifElbasan (Biakiu) and AhmetDakli in early1916 returned to
the city of Elbasan. AhmetDakli in February elected director of finance for the city of
Elbasan and then elected mayor of municipality. On February 14, 1916 national commander,
Ahmed Zogolli, along with IrfanBeyOhri sent a telegram of Elbasan prefecture where
announcing that:
21
Muin Cami, Lufta lirimtare antiimperialiste e popullit shqiptar n vitet 1918-1920, Tiran 1969, fq 29.
22
Muin Cami, Lufta lirimtare antiimperialiste e popullit shqiptar n vitet 1918-1920, Tiran 1969, fq 246
23
Lef Nosi, Instituti i Historis,Dokumente Historike 1912-1918, Tiran 2007, fq 243.
179
"The national flag at the Royal Palace in Durres was raised, for tomorrow will march in
Elbasan
24
Chairmanship of the rural area of Elbasan, consisting of: "XhaferrDardha, QemalBey,
HalimBey, EminHaxhiademi, RrapushDemeti, GrigorCilka, LefNosi, AhmetDakli,
NikollIvanaj, JasharBeyStarova, HajdarBlloshmi"
25
on 7 March 1916 took measures for
celebration, decoration and lighting of the city to organize a meeting of all people, including
the participation of school students. This arrangement was made to honor the anniversary of
Prince Wilhelm Wied, who honored the throne of Albania. Initially, the mayor of the city on
18 February1916, reports made to the provinces of the region in order to be made
preparations to celebrate 2 years of establishment on the throne of King Wied. Austro-
Hungarian authorities were not thought to hold this celebration with the idea that: Vienna
had long considered a closed issue Wilhelm Wied king".
26
Despite disagreement celebration
was held, was sang national songs, were thrown slogans: "Long live the king" and were held
different speeches with patriotic spirit. In organizing this celebration stands the figure of the
prefect of Elbasan, AqifElbasani and mayor of the municipality of that time
XhaferrHilmiDardha. The position of mayor of a municipality he would keep from February
to June of 1916. During this period, XhaferrDardha gave his contribution to the organization
of a congress of national importance. Many Albanian patriots encouraged by the difficult
circumstances that were created at this time, appeared the idea of organizing a national
meeting aimed at forming a government of Albania and the return of Prince Wied in Albania.
Albanian patriots thought that the Albanian Government will recover by trusting in the help
that would give the Austro-Hungarians. Albanian patriots, who believed more in assistance
that will give Austria-Hungary, were AqifElbasani, LefNosi, AhmetDakli, SalihCeka,
Dervish Hima etc.
27
The idea to organize a national congress was welcomed with great
enthusiasm in all Albanian regions, especially in the city of Elbasan. With the initiative of
AqifElbasani, Ahmed Zog and many other personalities not only the city of Elbasan as
QemalBeyElbasani, YmerStringa, ShefqetDaiu, Simon Shuteriqi, ThanasFloqi, LefNosi etc.,
it was taken up an initial commission, which decided:
The Commission will propose to the Minister of the Interior, AqifElbasani, to form
the government with ministers, who had not renounced the duties that had, after the departure
of Prince Wilhelm of Wied.
24
25
Arkivi Qendror Shteterore, Prefektura e Elbasanit. F. 271, D. 6, viti 1916, fq 16.
26
Kastriot Dervishi, Historia e shtetit shqiptar 1912-2005, Tiran 2006,fq 72
27
Kristaq Prifti,- Dervish Hima, 8 Nntori, 1987, fq 257
180
Nomination of new ministers in the cabinet slots and become their choice from the list
to be submitted by this commission consisting of the16 patriots.
Formulation of a national program.The content of his program would:
Expressing of gratitude of the Albanian nation for the Great Powers, which recognized the
right of Albanians to raise the national flag everywhere in Albania.
Will be presented to His Majesty, the King the nation's desire to quickly come to Albania.
Will discuss how to govern the country until the king returned to Albania.
28
Why the city of Elbasan was chosen to organize this congress?
We think that the main reasons were:
Elbasan, during this period constituted one of the most important centers of the
patriotic movement in the country.
The influence of one of the most important personalities in the political and economic
aspect, not only in Elbasan, but also in Albania, as AqifElbasani who was also one of the
organizers of this congress.
The idea to organize a national congress in Elbasan supported the Prince of Wied,
who addressed the Albanian nation through an appeal: "to establish an Albanian government
in Elbasan, led by, AqifElbasani
29
. Prince Wied although far Albania, not ever abdicate the
throne and there's never stopped working for Albania and Albanians, but waited the
possibility of returning to the throne of Albania. AqifElbasani, when he returned to Elbasan
from Cetinje,
30
where he was interned together with many Albanian patriots began its activity
for the establishment of the Albanian state administration. He was assisted in its activities by
many patriots. Also there was a committee elected by the people, which intended to collect
data on existing situation created after the departure of Serb forces. This committee was
forced to cooperate by Austro-Hungarians reported various problems of the time.
31
During1916, Albania was a difficult economic and political situation:
People are facing shortage of grain because the grain production of last year was low.
Serbian army passing through the country, robbed, burned, and used for its own needs most
of this production.
Sea routes were closed by the Great War and cannot ensure grain as food for the
population.
28
29
Gazeta Koha, Kor , 1916, 27 prill, artikulli Fati i Shqipris.
30
Akademia e Shkencave te Shqipris, Historia e Popullit Shqiptar- III -1912-1939,Tiran 2007, fq 86.
31
Arkivi Qendror Shteterore, Prefektura e Elbasanit. F. 271, D.41, viti 1916, fq 3.
181
This difficult situation, in March of 1916, would result in a later period a famine.
Elbasan villagers took urgent action to set up a committee, which was intended to organize a
general meeting. This committee was composed of: QemalBeu chairman and
RrapushDemeti, EminHaxhiademi, Ibrahim Miraku, XhaferrDardha, HysenDakli,
GrigorNosin, GrigorCilka, LefNosi members. The committee set up by villagers of the
zone of Peqin, decided that the three delegates sent to Europe to secure permission from the
Great Powers to bring grain from America to the port of Durres.
32
It also decided that the
travel expenses of three delegates, to be paid by the cities. These expenses amounted to three
hundred Napoleons gold coin. Specifically: the city of Elbasan 50 napoleons gold coin, the
city of Durres - 50 napoleons gold coin, the city of Berat - 50 napoleons gold coin, the city of
Tirana - 50 napoleons gold coin, the city of Lushnja 25 napoleons gold coin, the city of Fier
25 napoleons gold coin, the city of Peqin 25 napoleons gold coin, the city of Kavaja 25
napoleons gold coin.
33
The mission of this delegation will be a human and not political. As
representatives of the city of Elbasan, in the committee were elected GregorCilka, LefNosi,
and MithatFrasheri. At the general meeting held in Elbasan was reached several conclusions,
which do blame the government because: It should have taken immediate action to face this
country needs for food, and it was aware of the difficult situation which threatened the
Albanian people. Prefecture of Elbasan recommended to the government, to reduce the price
of grain and its sale was not as before, because people were not able to pay it. The Committee
also decided that the date of opening the proceedings of Congress of Elbasan will be
March18, 1916. So began preparations for the convocation of representatives of all Albanian
lands. In a telegram from the President of the Commission initiating the Congress,
AhmetZogolli, Elbasan on 3 March1916, announcing to all rural areas of the principalities of
Berat, Skrapar, Fier, Lushnje, Kavaje, Durres, Peqin, Tirane, Kruje, Shkoder, Diber, Mat,
etc., that: We have the honor to notify you that it was decided to meet here in this city on 5-
18 March a National Congress, to talk about affairs of Albania. Please send two delegates
who have with them the letter of representation.
34
Telegrams were sent to representatives of
the city of Mitrovica, Gjakova, Tetovo, etc. When the Austro Hungarians arrived in the
Albanian lands drafted a proclamation which stated that coming into Albania as "friends of
Albania"
35
. But they never helped the patriots in the region of Elbasan, and made all effort to
prevent them. These actions justified based on their opinion that the Albanians were not
32
33
34
Lef Nosi, Instituti i Historis,Dokumente Historike 1912-1918, Tiran 2007, fq 250-251.
35
Akademia e Shkencave te Shqipris, Historia e Popullit Shqiptar- III -1912-1939,Tiran 2007, fq 85.
182
capable to form the government. Concessions made by Austrian military authorities in the
prefecture of Elbasan were part of their propaganda to ensure the friendship of the Albanians,
as:
Promise to allow Albanians to raise the Albanian flag.
Austro-Hungarians would allow development of the cultural movement in Albania.
Also they will allow Albanians to organize a civil administration.
Patriots in the region of Elbasan benefited from the concessions made by the Austrian
authorities in the interest of national movement. Austro-Hungarian forces took repressive
measures of a political, economic, social and military, against the population. In the city of
Elbasan they took steps to prevent the meeting of the national congress. CzapekMajn
(commander of the Austro-Hungarian forces in Elbasan) in an appeal to the Municipality of
Elbasan stated that: measures will be taken by us to prevent any accumulation or collection of
assemblies on political or commercial purpose without the permission of this command. He
also claimed that no man would be allowed to go to Durres or in other cities without the
permission of the command of Elbasan.
36
Austro-Hungarian authorities arrested and interned
some of the initiators of the organization of this congress, also prevented the return of
PrinceWied in Albania. Most of the arrested patriots were imprisoned in the prison of
Elbasan, which at that time administered by HajredinDibra. In such circumstances
AqifElbasaniresigns from the position of chairman the commission for organizing the
congress, on 14 April 1916. In the letter that was sent Prefectures, as Minister of Internal
Affairs, AqifElbasani announced that: due to military operations, the Albanian government
will temporarily become the Royal Army of Austria-Hungary. From the minute I leave the
office. This way of government is temporary, and not due to be upset.
37
Before resigning
from the post of Minister of Interior Affairs, he communicated to the prefecture of Elbasan
officers that: continue to do your work with dedication and to accomplish tasks and
instructions will be provided from the Austro-Hungarian authorities.
38
Immediately following the resignation of Aqif Elbasani, Austro-Hungarians took the
policy of distribution of the Albanian administration, seriously affecting the interests of
Albanians to have an independent national state governed by the Albanians. Even after
leaving ministerial office, the influence of Aqif Elbasani was important not only in local level
but also nationally.
39
36
37
38
Arkivi Qendror Shtetror,Sheria e Elbasanit, F. 129, D. 59, viti 1916, fq 11.
39
Enciklopedi, N panteon drejt panteonit 2000, Elbasan viti 2000, fq,90.
183
The economic situation in the region of Elbasan was still difficult, in the absence of
grain in May-August 1916 Austro-Hungarians issued several decrees on the abolition of all
taxes have been imposed by Esad Toptani or local government.
40
Serious situation that still
exists in Elbasan Prefecture due to the intrigues and policies pursued by Esat Toptani and his
men, forced Aqif Elbasan at 22 June1916 to send a complaint letter to the military high
command of the Austro-Hungarian located in the city of Shkodra, which informed them
about:
The various intrigues Esat Toptani since the declaration of independence until
June1916.
Its collaboration with Serbia, Montenegro, France and Italy, to surrender the city of Shkodra.
Esat Toptani efforts to organize the meeting in the city of Kruja to self-proclaimed King of
Albania.
41
On August 3, 1916, the Royal Army Command issued an order No.751which read
that: All people, Albanian or foreign persons, who have been severely damaged by Esat
Toptani or his people should be addressing civil court, where their problems will be reviewed
and will be guaranteed the right to get the damage bonuses has had caused Esat Toptani. He
has to answer for all damages that he has done and his property to be seized.
42
Besides the lack of grain, the biggest problem that existed at this time was
speculations by some people who benefited from this difficult situation to be enriched by
increasing grain prices. Poverty and economic collapse made it difficult living in this period,
this condition had a negative impact on social morality, the health of the population and
increasing mortality among the poor population. Austro-Hungarian authorities during this
time took several actions to improve the situation but the misery was still present and food
prices were not lowered.
In Albania in 1916 there was no note about the country's population, and its
administrative organization. Austro-Hungarian authorities took measures to establish an
office for collecting data about population numbers and names of villages in the area that was
under its influence. Only after 1918 were published the first accurate data. In the region of
Elbasan, the Austro-Hungarian authorities launched a new administrative organization.
In the city of Elbasan, during 1916, these employees resulted in the administration offices.
43
40
Arkivi Qendror Shtetror, Prefektura e Elbasanit, F. 271, D. 57, viti 1916, fq 7.
41
Arkivi Qendror Shtetror, Prefektura e Elbasanit, F. 271, D.95, viti 1916, fq 10.
42
43
184
Sub/prefecture
of
Elbasan
The position Name/ Surname Monthly salary
Chairman Abdyl Ypi
(until August 1916)
400 korona
Dragoman (translator)
Secretary
Aleksandr Xhuvani
Zihni Bordi
200 korona
120 korona
Archivist Galip Bey 100 korona
Penman Ibrahim Zenelhoxha 70 korona
Demir Librazhdi 30 korona
Servant Alush Narazani 40 korona
Sharia Qadi Raif Efendi 200 korona
Penman Sulejman Mulla Jonus 100 korona
Primary court
President Abdyl Qerim elo
Tefik Delvina
300 korona
360 korona
Members Mehmet Emin Meto 280 korona
Josif Kostandin Mima 280 korona
Penman Beqir Gjirgjani 150 korona
Mustafa Zyma 150 korona
Servant Mustafa Kodra 60 korona
Office of finance Director Ymer Stringa 300 korona
Accountant Mehmet Stringa 150 korona
Demir Zenel Hoxha 150 korona
Servant Qazim Cenko 40 korona
Bank Director Mehmed Seri 100 korona
School Teachers
Ahmet Gashi 120 korona
Fejzulla Guranjaku 120 korona
Mustafa Curri 120 korona
Filip Leci 120 korona
Simon Shuteriqi 80 korona
Abedin aushi 90 korona
Xhaferr Dede 80 korona
Ibrahim Derani 80 korona
185
Servant Xhaferr Abdulla 40 korona
Austro-Hungarian authorities established in Elbasan and in several other cities
military offices, which recruited Albanian soldiers, who were led by Austrian officers.
Austro-Hungarian authorities often abused to the Albanian soldiers, who were made part of
the royal army. Mention the case of an officer from the city of Elbasan, Abas Hilmi, who in a
letter to all his countrymen reported that: Although I have faithfully served the Austrian
Kingdom, without being guilty of shooting condemn me because of the slanders by an
Austrian officer.
44
Abas Taushani, who served as the Albanian army officer involved in the
Austro-Hungarian army, was executed by firing squad by the Austro-Hungarian
command.
45
The cause for which he was executed was opposed to the looting of
archaeological objects from Austrian soldiers in Apollonia. Austro-Hungarian authorities
during the period from April 24 until November 4, 1916 undertook action to disarm the local
population by collecting all the weapons in the region of Elbasan. During this time the
Austro-Hungarians built a post office in the city of Elbasan, which was opened in October of
1916. This post office was used by them for military and commercial purposes. On
1November 1916 the post office provided services for the local population. Also raises an
Austrian trading agency in the city of Elbasan to promote trade in this region.
Despite efforts to develop trade and economy, the region of Elbasan continue to face
economic difficulties. Austro-Hungarian occupation of Elbasan region during the First World
War not only worsened the economic situation but also the political situation.
44
Lef Nosi, Instituti i Historis,Dokumente Historike 1912-1918, Tiran 2007, fq 256
45
Elbasani-Enciklopedi, Sejko,Elbasan 2003 fq.575
186
References:
Koka.V, Puto.A, Rama.F, Verli.M, Belegu.M, Lalaj.A, Meta.B, Shpuza.G, Vokrri.A,
Kosumi.H, Bajrami.H, Belegu M, Gjergji.A, Frasheri.K, Rushiti.L (2007) : Historia e
Popullit Shqiptar- III-(History of the Albanian people-III.)Academy of Sciences of Albania,
Tiran.
Bevapi.K, Thengjilli.P, Gjini.R, Varoshi.L, Dedej.S (2003):Elbasani-Enciklopedi, Bashkia
Elbasan.
Bevapi.K, Gjini.R, Koburja.R, Plangarica.T,(2000):N panteon drejt panteonit 2000,
Bashkia Elbasan.
Nosi.L,(2007),:DokumenteHistorike 1912-1918, Tiran 2007, Instituti i Historis.
Arkivi Qendror Shtetror (Central Archives of Albania), Prefektura e Elbasanit (Prefecture of
Elbasan), Fondi (directory) no.271, Dosja (Folder) no.6,8,36,41,57,95, viti (year) 1916.
Prifti.K, (1987)-Dervish Hima, Publishing Center 8 Nntori, 1987,
ami.M,(1969):Lufta lirimtare antiimperialiste e popullit shqiptar n vitet 1918-1920,
Tiran 1969.
Dervishi.K,(2006): Historia e shtetit shqiptar 1912-2005, Tiran 2006.
Gazeta (newspapers),(1916): Koha, Kor , 27.04.1916.
187
UDC:338.486.22:338.48-057.188(569.5)
DIMENSIONS OF THE QUALITY OF SERVICE IN THE
JORDANIAN TOURISM COMPANIES AND THEIR
RELATIONS TO CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
Omar (Mohamad Raouf) Hayajneh, MA
Departmen of administration and financial sciencesAlBalqa Applied University, Jordan, Aqaba
Mohammad Nayef Alsarayreh, PhD
Educational Science and Social DepartmentAlBalqa Applied University, Jordan, Karak
Mohammed Abdul Razzaq Abu Rumman, PhD
Al-Balqa Applied University, Salt, JordanFaculty of Planning and Management Business Administration
Department
Marwan M. Al-Nsour, PhD
Al-Balqa Applied University, Salt, JordanFaculty of Planning and ManagementBusiness Administration
Department
188
Abstract:
The present study aimed to reveal the reality of the dimensions of quality of service in the Jordanian tourism
companies and their relationship to customer satisfaction. Preliminary data have been collected from customers
through questionnaire has been designed for this purpose, after analyzing the data, the study found a positive
relationship between reliability, safety, credibility and tangibility and customers satisfaction among Jordanian
tourism companies. While there was no relationship between the responsiveness and eligibility and between
customer satisfaction in tourism companies
The study recommended that the tourism companies have to continue and concern of all the components of
service quality and to enhance it in order to get the satisfaction of employees. The Jordanian tourism companies
have to concern over the responsiveness and eligibility regard the respond to the customer needs, and the
administration of the company should take care of the customers complaints and queries. The employees
should shorten some of the actions in order to speed customer service. Signboards should be available at the
time of provision of services, and provide a sufficient number of staff who provides service to customers. The
companies should raise the efficiency of the staff, raise their deductive ability to perform their roles, provide
them with the knowledge to their work, to provide staff with adequate information about the service provided,
and the company should pay attention that the staff provides the services with highly skilled.
Key Words: Tourism companies, Quality Service, Relationship, Customer Satisfaction
Introduction:
Ability of any establishment to compete and survive depends on several things,
including the ability to respond and cope with changes in management and marketing
science. The needs and wishes of the customers are formulated in the light of economic social
and cultural realities. The relationship between the establishments ability to continue and
survive and its ability to provide services that suit with the changing and developing needs of
customers. Hence, it may be appropriate to the administration of any establishment to believe
that the ability of development leads to continue and continue to exist because the service is
made in the light of the needs and wishes of the customer. Therefore, the essential thing to
continue to exist is the ability of establishment to provide facilities to meet customers needs.
The quality of services provided by tourism companies has become very necessary. The
qualities of services become important when the needs, requirements and expectations of the
customer service increased and increase the ability of these companies to meet those needs,
requirements and expectations. From this point, the quality is no longer just a matching of
189
services to the standard technical specifications, but went beyond that and now includes the
wishes and requirements of customer services.( Dyop, M, and Ateyah, H. (2005)
Quality of service plays an important role in designing and marketing the service
since it is important for both service providers and customers. The organizations awareness
of the importance of service, the role and applying of the quality service in achieving
competitive improvement has increased. The topics and issues regard to the quality captured
the attention of a lot of businessmen, seminars and scientific conferences. Customers also
became more aware and interested in the quality, and thus many institutions concerned with
monitoring the quality of services in all respects have been appeared.( Khoja, T,. (2003)
1. Literature review
Altaleb (2010) investigates the role of quality of services provided by Islamic banks
in Jordan. Also it tries to know their competitive position in order to help the administrations
to start and raise the level of these services in this environment in order to increase market
share, which leads to maximize profitability, especially because the environment in which
they operate Jordan help them to achieve that. Large numbers of citizens do not want to deal
with the commercial banks. The study recommended these banks to take a series of actions to
improve the quality of their services in order to be a strong competitor to the other
commercial banks. They must work constantly to improve and vary the services to suit the
wishes and aspirations of their customers by understanding the trends and customer
expectations about the services offered by Islamic banks.
Rashoud (2008) conducts a study aimed to indicate the reality of the quality of
service in the Saudi banks from the perspective of customers, the study found that the Al
Rajhi Bank customers sample of Saudi banks generally satisfied with the quality of
services provided to them from all sides. The study recommended the Saudi banks to raise the
efficiency of the service quality dimensions because of its impact on customer satisfaction.
Abu Muammar (2005) conducted a study to identify the best measurement to
measure the quality of banking service offered by banks operating in the Gaza Strip and to
know the importance of various dimensions of services quality. It also aimed to test the
relationship between the quality of banking service and all of the satisfaction and intention to
purchase. The study found that the need to understand the customer expectations in order to
provide the best banking service and achieve their satisfaction as well as to measure the
190
quality of banking service and understanding of the customers is the main entrance to the
development and improve the quality of banking services provided to customers. Findings
showed a strong statistical significance correlation between customer satisfaction and quality
of banking service provided. In addition, the study concluded that customers continue to deal
with the banks and increase their loyalty depends largely on their assessment of the quality of
banking service provided to them.
Al-Alaaq & Mahmoud (2001) conducted a study aimed to identify the nature of the
relationship between service quality as perceived by the beneficiary, and its role in achieving
his/her satisfaction. Findings indicate that the process of defining and monitoring quality of
service vary greatly in the services sector compared to the commodity sector. Therefore,
marketing services strategies differ from marketing goods strategies. In addition, there is a
fundamental difference between service quality and satisfaction of the beneficiary. The
quality is the position created by the beneficiary through the evaluation of the service offer to
him/her. This position is often based on a series of previous experiences of assessment;
therefore, the quality is less dynamic compared to the satisfaction, while satisfaction is the
final result of the evaluation conducted by the beneficiary for the exchange of certain
services. Findings indicate also, a positive relationship between quality perception and
expectations of the beneficiary, if the perception of quality exceed expectations, the
beneficiary will be satisfied and happy with the service. If the service is less than expected,
the beneficiary will not be satisfied with the service.
Abu Musa (2000) conducted a study to identify the level of actual quality banking
services provided in each of the Housing Bank and the Jordan Islamic Bank. His study tries
to identify the level of customer satisfaction and the degree of their loyalty to their banks. It
also aimed to link the relationship between the quality of banking service provided and the
increasing profitability represented in a rate of return on investment. The findings indicate
that there are statistically significant differences between the customers assessment of
Housing Bank and customers assessment of the Jordan Islamic Bank to the quality of
banking service that actually provided. There are statistically significant relationship between
the quality of banking service actually provided in each of the Housing Bank and the Jordan
Islamic Bank and the customers satisfaction. In addition, findings indicate a statistically
significant relationship between satisfaction and loyalty of customers at the Housing Bank
and Jordan Islamic Bank.
191
Nelson & Hailin (2000) conducted a study aimed to assess the perceptions of service
quality in China's hotel industry from the point of view of both foreign tourists and hotel
managers. The sample included 90-hotel manager and 270 foreign tourists who visited China
and stayed in the cities of Shangha, Bijank & Kanzho. The study found that a perception of
foreign tourists to the quality of service provided in the hotel industry in China is less than
their expectations. The assessment of hotel managers to the quality of service provided is
higher than the actual service provided compared to the perceptions of foreign tourists for the
service already provided. The findings also concluded that the most important causes
contributing to the poor quality of service in the hotel industry in China are the gap of service
received (gap between the customers perception of the service provided and the awareness
of administration to the provided service). The gap of internal evaluation (the gap between
the perceptions of Administration to the expectations of customers and the perceptions of
administration to the provided services).
Frederick & Mukesh (2000)conducted a study aimed to verify the correctness,
validity and legitimacy of the measuring tool (Intservqual). The sample of the study consists
of 1000 of workers on the front and support lines in Singapore Airlines and airport
transportation Services Company in Singapore. The study found that perceptions and
expectations of internal customers and suppliers supporters play a key role in the organization
of the quality of received service.
Osama & Hamed (2000) conducted a study aimed to measure the quality of service
in the service industry in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; because of quality problems in the
organization service is the result of error in the compatibility between initial expectations and
the quality of received service. The sample of the study consists of 500 customers at the
Electronics Services Company in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The findings indicated the
need to manage and control each service intended to enhance the overall perception of the
quality of service. Findings also indicted that improving the quality of service is by
understanding customers' expectations. In addition, there are some differences in the factors
affecting the overall level of quality of service according to customers.
192
2. The Importance of the study
This study derives its importance from its interest in exploring the views of customers
about the services offered by the Jordanian tourism companies and their impressions of some
aspects of the services, which they can make judgments about them. As well as the
importance of this study stems from the customers evaluation process of the service they
receive.
This evaluation process provides new information for the administration of these
companies for the appropriateness of the public services, which provided to the customers.
Therefore, this information can be used as a basis for making appropriate decisions on the
provision of services, which make the company capable for, continue, development and
competition in light of the economic and administrative changes in the world now.
3. Problem of the Study
The problem of the study lies in the lack of clarity of the degree of reliability, safety,
credibility, responsiveness, eligibility and tangibility in the Jordanian tourism companies.
Therefore, the present research will answer the following questions:
Is there a statistically significant relation between the reliability and satisfaction of the
Jordanian tourism companies?
Is there a statistically significant relation between safety and satisfaction of the Jordanian
tourism companies?
Is there a statistically significant relationship between credibility and satisfaction of the
Is there a statistically significant relation between responsiveness and satisfaction of the
Is there a statistically significant relationship between eligibility and satisfaction of the
Is there a statistically significant relationship between tangibility and satisfaction of the
193
4. Objectives of the Study
This study aims to identify the extent of the dimensions of the quality of the services
provided by Jordanian tourism companies, which include the degree of reliability, safety,
credibility, responsiveness, eligibility and tangibility and to know their relationship to the
customers satisfaction.
5. Hypotheses of the Study
Based on the study aims and objectives, the following hypotheses can be formulated:
5.1 H0 1: There is a statistically significant relation between the reliability and satisfaction of
the Jordanian tourism companies.
5.2 H02: There is a statistically significant relation between safety and satisfaction of the
Jordanian tourism companies.
5.3 H03 There is a statistically significant relationship between credibility and satisfaction of
5.4 H04: There is a statistically significant relation between responsiveness and satisfaction
of the Jordanian tourism companies.
5.5 H05: There is a statistically significant relationship between eligibility and satisfaction of
5.6 H06: There is a statistically significant relationship between tangibility and satisfaction of
Reliability
Cronbach's (alpha) as a coefficient of reliability was used to measure the internal
consistency for all dimensions. Table (1) below indicates.
The value of alpha for the reliability dimension = 0.69
The value of alpha for safety dimension =0.73
The value of alpha for credibility dimension =0.91
194
The value of alpha for responsiveness dimension = 0.82
The value of alpha for eligibility dimension = 0.65
The value of alpha for tangibility dimension = 0.77
The value of alpha for satisfaction dimension =0.81
The value of alpha for all the variables =0.93
All of these values are higher than 0.60, which indicate the stability in the instrument of the
study.
Table (1): Cronbach Alpha Test Results:
Value of Alpha Dimension
0.69 Reliability
0.73 Safety
0.91 Credibility
0.82 Responsiveness
0.65 Eligibility
0.77 Tangibility
0.81 Satisfaction
0.93 Total
Description of Demographic and Personal Factors of the Respondents:
Table (2) below shows a description of the personal and functional factors of the
individual sample whom work in the bank.
Gender: 57.1% of the samples are male, and 42.9% are female.
Age: 40.0% of the samples age range between 26-30 years, and 28.6% were 31-40 years.
20.0% were under the age of 25 years, and 11.4% of the samples were 40 or more than 40
years.
Education Level: 57.1% of the samples are bachelor holders. 25.7% are diploma holders.
11.4% of high school holders and 5.7% of the samples are postgraduate.
195
Marital status: 65.7% of the samples are married and 34.3% are singles.
Monthly income: 51.4% of the samples monthly income range between 1000 to 2000
dollars. 22.9% of the samples income less than 1000$. 20.0% of the sample income range
between 2000$ to 4000$, 5.7% their incomes more than 4000$.
Table (2) below shows Frequencies and percentage of the respondents
Percentage Frequencies Variables
57.1
200
male Gender
42.9
150
Female
20.0
70
Less than 25
years
Age
40.0 140 From 26-30 years
28.6 100 From 31-40
11.4 40 + 40
11.4
40
High school Education
Level
25.7 90 Diploma
57.1 200 Bachelor
5.7 20 Postgraduate
34.3 120 Bachelor Marital status
65.7 230 Married
22.9
80
Less than 1000$ Monthly
income
51.4 180 1000-2000$
20.0 70 2000-4000$
5.7 20 More than 4000$
5.1 First Hypothesis
H0 1: There is a statistically significant relation between the reliability and
satisfaction of the Jordanian tourism companies.
196
To make sure that there is reliability; Table (3) below shows that all the statements
has more than 3.00 in their means. The level of significance was less than 0.05. Overall
means was of 4.05 and level of significance 0.00, which indicate that there is reliability.
Table (3): mean, standard deviation, t value and level of significance regard the reliability:
Level of
significance
t-Value Standard
Deviation
Mean Statement No.
0.00
26.1323 0.55 4.37
The company provides
services without errors.
1
0.00
22.1503 0.54 4.14
services without delay.
2
0.00
11.7603 0.78 3.87
The company is keen to
solve customers problems
regard to the services
provided to them easily
3
0.00
11.5303 0.83 3.92
services easily.
4
0.00
14.6233 0.69 3.96
services perfectly.
5
With regard, the satisfaction table (4) shows that all the statements have more than
3.00 in their means. The level of significance was less than 0.05. Overall means was of 3.75
and level of significance 0.00, which indicate that the customers satisfied of the Jordanian
tourism companies
Table (4): mean, standard deviation, t value and level of significance regard the
satisfaction:
Level of
significanc
t-
Value
Standard
Deviation
Mean Statement No.
197
To test the first hypothesis the table (5) shows that the value of the correlation
coefficient = 0.45. The level of significance was 0.00; therefore, the first hypothesis is
accepted, which indicate that there is a statistically significant relation between the reliability
and satisfaction of the Jordanian tourism companies.
Table (5): Results of Pearson's correlation test between
satisfaction and each of the quality dimensions.
Level of
significance
correlation Dimension
0.00 0.45 Reliability
e
0.00
6.69 1.04 3.69
I have a full satisfaction for the way to
provide a service.
6
0.00
9.17 0.88 3.79
I have a full satisfaction for the speed
of response to the complaints
7
0.00
7.56 1.09 3.81
I have a full satisfaction for skilled
staff in the provision of service.
8
0.00
8.41 0.92 3.76
I have a full satisfaction for the
treatment of employees.
9
0.00
7.22 0.99 3.70
I have a full satisfaction for the means
of communication used to
communicate with the company.
10
0.00
5.64 1.00 3.56
I have a full satisfaction for
equipment available in the company.
11
0.00
5.36 1.07 3.57
I have a full satisfaction on the
adequacy of fees provided for the
service.
12
0.00
13.24 0.84 4.09
I convince my friends to deal with the
company.
13
0.00 14.04 0.55 3.75 Total
198
0.01 0.35 Safety
0.00 0.38 Credibility
0.55 0.09 Responsiveness
0.11 0.18 Eligibility
0.00 0.40 Tangibility
5.2 Second hypothesis
H02: There is a statistically significant relation between safety and satisfaction of the
To make sure that there is safety; Table (6) below shows that all the statements has
more than 3.00 in their means. The level of significance was less than 0.05. Overall means
was of 3.93 and level of significance 0.00, which indicate that there is safety.
To test the second hypothesis the table (5) shows that the value of the correlation
coefficient = 0.35. The level of significance was 0.00; therefore, the second hypothesis is
accepted, which indicate that there is a statistically significant relation between safety and
Table (6): mean, standard deviation, t value and level of significance regard the safety:
Level of
significanc
e
t-
Value
Standard
Deviation
Mea
n
Statement No.
0.00
11.24 0.76 3.83
I feel comfortable in dealing with the
company.
14
0.00
15.74 0.69 4.06
the company provides a risk-free
services
15
0.00
9.19 0.76 3.67
The companys staff pays attention to 16
199
5.3 Third hypothesis
H03 There is a statistically significant relationship between credibility and satisfaction
of the Jordanian tourism companies.
To make sure that there is credibility; Table (7) below shows that all the statements
means was of 3.85 and level of significance 0.00, which indicate that there is credibility.
To test the third hypothesis the table (5) shows that the value of the correlation
coefficient = 0.38. The level of significance was 0.00; therefore, the third hypothesis is
accepted, which indicate that there is a statistically significant relation between credibility
credibility:
the procedures regard customers since
the request of service until it delivered.
0.00
12.68 0.82 4.01
The company deals with customer
information confidentially.
17
0.00
13.90 0.78 4.06
I feel that the company treats the
communications with customers to be
confidential
18
0.00
20.73 0.46 3.93
Total
Level of
significa
nce
t-
Valu
e
Standar
d
Deviatio
n
Mea
n
Statement No.
0.00 10.9
2 0.93 4.00
I feel credible by the company in the
implementation of services.
19
200
5.4 Forth hypothesis
H04: There is a statistically significant relation between responsiveness and
To make sure that there is responsiveness; Table (8) below shows that all the
statements has more than 3.00 in their means. The level of significance was less than 0.05.
Overall means was of 3.66 and level of significance 0.00, which indicate that there is
responsiveness.
To test the forth hypothesis the table (5) shows that the value of the correlation
coefficient = 0.09. That means it is very weak. The level of significance was 0.55; therefore,
the forth hypothesis is rejected, which indicate that there is no a statistically significant
relation between responsiveness and satisfaction of the Jordanian tourism companies.
credibility:
Level of
significanc
e
t-
Value
Standard
Deviation
Mean Statement No.
0.00
14.11 0.70 3.71
Companys staff responds to customer
needs regardless of the degree of their
24
0.00 10.1
5 0.80 3.75
The companys employees are the subject of
trust for customers.
20
0.00
9.20 0.96 3.87
The company is committed to the promises
towards the customers.
21
0.00
9.97 0.85 3.73
invoices issued by the company are accurate and
truthful
22
0.00
8.80 0.90 3.78
the value paid by the customer for the service is
not exaggerated
23
0.00 17.2
0 0.51 3.82
Total
201
concern.
0.00
12.42 0.65 3.52
The companys administration concerns
with customer complaints and inquiries.
25
0.00
13.90 0.73 3.75
The employees shortened some of the
actions in order to speed customer
service.
26
0.00
15.67 0.66 3.76
Signboards are available in the company
when providing services in order to
speed up the service.
27
0.00
12.59 0.75 3.67
The company has sufficient number of
staff who provides service to customers.
28
0.00 22.49 0.43 3.66 Total
5.5 Fifth hypothesis
H05: There is a statistically significant relationship between eligibility and
To make sure that there is eligibility; Table (9) below shows that all the statements
means was of 3.85 and level of significance 0.00, which indicate that there is eligibility.
To test the fifth hypothesis the table (5) shows that the value of the correlation
coefficient = 0.18. That means it is very weak. The level of significance was 0.00; therefore,
the fifth hypothesis is rejected, which indicate that there is no a statistically significant
relation between eligibility and satisfaction of the Jordanian tourism companies.
Table (9): mean, standard deviation, t value and level of significance regard the eligibility:
Level of
significance
t-
Value
Standard
Deviation
Mean Statement No.
0.00
12.03 0.84 3.99
The staff of the company has highly
skilled in providing services.
29
202
0.00
11.09 0.79 3.85
The staff of the company provides the
services with highly skilled.
30
0.00
9.64 0.86 3.81
Staff of the company has the capabilities
to carry out their roles.
31
0.00
11.11 0.79 3.86
Staff of the company has full knowledge
of the work, which enable them to carry
out their roles.
32
0.00
8.13 0.89 3.71
The company's staff has sufficient
information regard the service provided
33
0.00
15.93 0.55 3.85
Total
5.6 Sixth hypothesis
H06: There is a statistically significant relationship between tangibility and
To make sure that there is tangibility; Table (9) below shows that all the statements
means was of 3.67 and level of significance 0.00, which indicate that there is tangibility.
To test the sixth hypothesis the table (5) shows that the value of the correlation
coefficient = 0.40. The level of significance was 0.00; therefore, the sixth hypothesis is
accepted, which indicate that there is a statistically significant relation between tangibility
tangibility:
Level of
significance
t-
Value
Standard
Deviation
Mean Statement
No.
0.00
6.38 1.12 3.71
The staff companys appearance is
34
203
acceptable.
0.00
7.24 1.08 3.78
The company uses advanced and
appropriate equipment and
technological equipment.
35
0.00
6.94 0.91 3.61
Equipment and buildings have
beautiful distinctive appearance.
36
0.00
5.91 0.95 3.55
Waiting lounges are comfortable in
the company.
37
0.00
5.90 0.86 3.49
The company provides clean
hygienic facilities
38
0.00
5.95 1.00 3.59
The location of company is suitable
for the customers.
39
0.00
11.63 0.85 3.97
the company is concerned with
cleanliness, lighting and air
conditioning.
40
0.00
12.05 0.58 3.67
Total
6. Conclusion
There is a statistically significant relation between the reliability and satisfaction of the
There is a statistically significant relation between safety and satisfaction of the Jordanian
tourism companies.
There is a statistically significant relationship between credibility and satisfaction of the
There is no statistically significant relation between responsiveness and satisfaction of the
There is no statistically significant relationship between eligibility and satisfaction of the
204
There is a statistically significant relationship between tangibility and satisfaction of the
7. Recommendation
The tourism companies have to continue and concern of all the components of service
quality and to enhance it in order to get the satisfaction of employees.
The Jordanian tourism companies have to concern over the responsiveness to achieve
customer satisfaction. The staff of Tourist Company must respond to the customer needs, and
the administration of the company should take care of the customers complaints and queries.
The employees should shorten some of the actions in order to speed customer service.
Signboards should be available at the time of provision of services, and provide a sufficient
number of staff who provides service to customers.
The Jordanian tourism companies have to concern over the eligibility because the
study indicates that there is no relationship between eligibility and customer satisfaction. The
companies should raise the efficiency of the staff, raise their deductive ability to perform
their roles, provide them with the knowledge to their work, to provide staff with adequate
information about the service provided, and the company should pay attention that the staff
provides the services with highly skilled.
The companies that do not care about the quality of service they must take into account the
benefit they will get from the area to achieve the satisfaction of employees.
205
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207
UDC:2-673.5(620)
TOLEARATION OR RECOGNITION. TOWARDS A NEW
ACCOUNT OF RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN
CONTEMPORARY EGYPT
Samah Ahmed Farid, PhD
Faculty of Education, Ain Shams University, Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt
Abstract
If we portrait Egyptian socio-cultural context in the last few years, we can remarkably find out an avoidable
form of contradiction which attaches to daily religious aspects. Now we can see a wide distance of intolerance
currently exists in Egyptian's practical which reflect on their daily and formal; religious and cultural dialogues.
This case of intolerance dramatically led to various acts of violence and hatred between Muslim and Christian.
How can we understand the nature of that contradiction and how possibly can we raise it? Therefore the present
study suggests a new theoretical frame of reference aims to recognize the world as characterized by different
identities rather than different beliefs and values. This research through anthropological method seeks to
describe all forms of tolerance in Egyptian daily life, determining the all forms of relationships between
tolerance and other variables like religious pattern, educational status, gender and finally socio-economic class.
Keywords: Tolerantion, Contemporary Egypt
1-Introduction
Egypt is a Middle Eastern country and has Middle Eastern customs. It is marked by
the tolerance value all different periods, but this value was increased in some periods and
lowed in the other according to social, cultural variables which reflect both the peaceful
circumstances and depressive circumstances could be happened. This issue is clarified in a
rural area where Copt and Muslim frequently must interact but rarely are closed, socially
Relations between Copts and Muslims have sometimes been good, sometimes awkward. The
Copts do not differ from their Muslim neighbors ethnically or linguistically; all speak Arabic,
all are Egyptians. The difference is religious, and some Copts and Muslim give their children
neutral-sounding names.
208
According to recent statistic, Muslims are the major percent in Egyptian population
comparing to Christians. Therefore when we know the patterns and the features of tolerance,
we can then recognize whether Egyptian society is ready to be dynamic and creative society
or immanent and static society.
Yet until now Egyptians have remained capable of burying limiting sectarian conflict.
Incidents in Al-Kishh, for example, did not lead to confrontations in Cairo or Alexandria. Nor
did the recent clashes in Alexandria spread to other neighborhoods. Therefore, the relation
between Muslim and Christian is depending on strict background of tolerance which is no
longer considered as an option. The problem has reached to the public, previously the
exemplar of respectful, shared living.
1.1 The Dilemma of Tolerance: Historical Approach
The English words tolerate, toleration, and tolerance are derived from the Latin
terms tolerate and tolerant which imply enduring, suffering, bearing, and forbearance. It
is essential here to mention that the cultural freedom is depending on tolerance issue; As a
matter of fact the issue of tolerance has been highly studying by different disciplines such as
psychology, anthropology and sociology because of its importance. There is great deal of
recent studies devoted to the issue of tolerance (see Stephen Alfred, 2000& Fiala, Andrew,
2004). One cannot ignore the fact that toleration is directed by an agent toward something
perceived as negative (Fiala, 2004).
Tolerance, at minimum, means forbearance: the restraint against expressing or
enacting disapproval of another. It is not tolerance if you do not disapprove of the other
person or view. Philosopher Thomas Scanlon explains that tolerance involves an attitude
that is intermediate between wholehearted acceptance and unrestrained opposition.
Tolerance demands a kind of humility and self-critique to guard against acting on absolute
judgments; it also requires a commitment to create and preserve the conditions of peaceful
co-existence among people with clashing religious, culture, or political beliefs. Yet tolerance
seems so much better than its opposite. Intolerance, the dictionary tells us, entails the
unwillingness or refusal to tolerate or respect contrary opinions or beliefs, persons of
different races or backgrounds. To be intolerant is to be bigoted, which, in one of those
unhelpfully circular dictionary definitions, means being so obstinately attached to a creed,
opinion or practice as to be illiberal or intolerant.18 Intolerance is scolding and degrading; it
plants seeds for harassment and even violence. In this difficult first decade of a new century,
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intolerance of immigrants, headscarves, and political dissenters is palpable in politics, in the
media, and even in classrooms. (W. Paul,1997).
Theoretically this concept means that there is almost equivalence in having the power
elements which it existed with it a kind of social peace and tolerance as consider it the better
alternative to live together, so the coexistence value preferring the peace living between the
equal powers in the community and accept the other interests (Rainer Forest, pp 4-6).
The discussion about religious tolerance is long-winded andas always in the history
of ideasit is far from obvious where to start. For the modern world, however, Augustine
formulated a very important argument for religious tolerancethe impossibility to influence
belief by force: One can enter a church unwillingly, one can approach the altar unwillingly,
one can accept the sacrament unwillingly, but one cannot believe but willingly. With the
dawn of Humanism the discussion about tolerance gained new strength. The idea of a uniting
universal religion was developed that opened important doors to a dialogue between the
religions. The developing thoughts of social contract theory offer a differentiated picture.
Hobbes invested the ruler with the absolute power to determine the content of the religious
cult though the inner faith was left free ( Hobbes, 1651).
The historical discourse until the enlightenment has formulated many arguments for
religious tolerance. With some simplification there are eight central arguments for religious
tolerance prominent in the discussion that has constructive substance great enough to merit
closer scrutiny. It is analyzed as repressive tolerance in Critical Theory (Marcuse, 1785) this
argument is of course not convincing. This perception of the individual as a supreme value is
embodied in the concept of human dignity. Human dignity means that every human being is
an end in itself, that no other collective or cultural value surpasses the value of the individual
human being irrespective of her concrete propertiesnatural, like sex or skin color, or
acquired, like the level of education, income or scientific merit. In consequence, no human
being can be used as a mere means to reach the purposes of others. This is a central step in
the debate. In the battles of religious strife the vulnerable, hoping and suffering individual
human being becomes a decisive concern.
One of the important studies in that area is Marcus issues around tolerance which is
argued that there is no such thing as tolerance in the abstract. We tolerate this particular
something, but that each act of tolerance assumes the non-tolerance of not tolerating the thing
we tolerate. Thus in tolerance we choose the nature of our world. We make a necessary
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choice. Marcuse then asserts what he calls the progressive notion of tolerance and explains
that his argument will be to look at the question of tolerance which moves toward it. One
must, on Marcuses view, take a stand and he himself stands for tolerating a society which
leads to greater freedom and to then oppose a tolerance of things that thwart that goal.
(Robert Paul Wolff, 1969)
A central contribution to the modern debate was Lockes letter on toleration. Locke
legitimized public power in the framework of a social contract theory through the interest of
the citizens in peace and in an institutionalized organization of society this is, of course, an
important thought. The aim of the state and the spiritual order of salvation are separated, and
more radically, so than in the doctrines of Augustine or Luther because in these latter
accounts the order of the state kept its place in the overarching spiritual order of salvation.
Lockes more radical separation forms an important step in the history of reflection on
tolerance because religion ceases to be an issue to be regulated by public authorities.
Locke discusses at some length the paradox of tolerance that concerns the question of
its limits and how they can be justified without rendering the concept of tolerance
contradictory. In Lockes view tolerance was not justified in the case of Catholics as he
regarded them to be subjects of a different power, the Pope, and emphatically not in the case
of atheists because atheism makes morality impossible position shared by many thinkers
before and after Locke (LOCKE, 1689).
Also, Locke believes that there are two aspects of life in which the magistrate or
government should have no say whatsoever: morality and religion (Yolton, 1985) In terms of
his intolerance towards Atheists, Locke believes that the existence of the state depends
upon a contract, and the obligation of the contract, as of all moral law, depends upon the
divine will (Burnham, 2004).
Lockes philosophy planted the first seeds of the dream for religious tolerance. His
ideas profoundly influenced the course of modern history, not only in the West, but more
recently, throughout the world (Fiero, 2002, p 95). So, the tolerance concept requires
specific limitation of tolerance, on the other meaning we must to tolerate with an justification
way and with an acceptable way to other believers even if we can not accept these beliefs
(see Vetovec,Steven,1997& Rescher Qwen,1997).
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1.2 Toleration as recognition: Theoretical Approach
In recent study (2002) Anna Elisabette Galeotti presents a new understanding of
toleration and on that she believes , makes it a more serviceable ideal for contemporary
liberal societies, she is actually aware of differences between the past social and cultural
circumstances in which the traditional idea of toleration flourished and those which
characterize contemporary liberal democratic societies, but she believes that these changed
circumstances require us to revise, rather than to abandon the ideal of toleration. Old
toleration was concerned with moral disagreement, initially religious disagreement but
eventually disagreement of beliefs and value more generally. The beneficiaries of toleration
were people conceived as individuals and what was tolerated their beliefs and values-were
self chosen rather than ascriptive features of those individuals. Toleration was extended to
individuals by granting them rights to choose and by consigning matters such as religious
beliefs and practice to a realm of private choice (Galeotti, 2002).
Here new toleration must be directed at identities than beliefs and values. Identities
are necessarily group phenomena so that new toleration directed at groups rather than
individuals. The features of these groups that require toleration are inscriptive identities
unlike beliefs and values, are matters over which their bears have no choice. New toleration
must depart from the old model in forms as well as focus. Tolerating identities is not
primarily about expanding the range of liberties available to people. Rather it is about
according recognition and equal recognition to the groups who bear those identities. Its
primary concern is not to allow people to do something to which others might object but to
accord respect and standing to their identities so that there is no bar to their full inclusion in
society. Such recognition is necessarily public in character; it can not be secured by a strategy
of privatization. it also requires action rather than inaction and so has a positive character that
contrasts with the negative policy of non-interference that characterized old toleration. In
some cases recognition seems to work simply by way of acknowledgement, as thought the
proper status of the recognized is in no way a product of the process of recognition itself but
merely something discovered and acknowledged by recognizer. In other cases, recognition
has a more constitutive role, so that it is the process of recognition itself that bestows status:
recognition confers rather than merely notice value. And sometimes recognition seems to
hover uncertainly somewhere between these two poles of discovery and conferral
(Cf.Markell,2000).
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Thus, when we recognize a group in this sense, we do more than merely acknowledge
its presence and identity. We indicate our acceptance that, in some way, the group matters,
that it properly counts for something. Hence, other things being equal, it is better to be
recognized that to pass unrecognized. the idea here is that a society might be able both to
tolerate and to recognize a group because its approval and disapproval emanate from different
sources .Here we can try to make sense of toleration as recognition by separating the source
of disapproval from the source of approval, the state have to accord recognition to minorities
in spite of their being disapproved of or disliked by the majority. Just as the society tolerant
public arrangement ensure that all are free to live as they wish, even thought a majority may
disapprove of the use that minorities make of that freedom, so its arrangements should accord
recognition to minorities even though a majority may despise or disapprove of these
minorities. The majority dislike is not an acceptable reason for a liberal state withholding
recognition from minorities. For Galeotti, recognition is not reducible to a mere institutional
arrangement. It requires an attitude rather than merely an act. It consists in a societies
according status, respect, legitimacy to a group. It relates to the way in which the members of
a society regard a minority rather than merely to how its political and legal system provides
for that minority. It inheres not in a societys rules and institutions but in which those
symbolize. thus changes in public policy will accord recognition only if they symbolize a
positive regard that the wider society has for the minority., it is not possible for recognition to
be accord independently of the attitude of the majority(Galeotti, 2002).
Galeotti distinguished between two types of case A)cases in which the issue is
whether particular individuals or groups should be included within an existing status category
and so receive the recognition that goes with that inclusion (subject-recognition) and B) cases
in which the issue is which categories should receive recognition (identity-
recognition).however, in the first sort of case, the individuals who ask to be included within
an already recognized identity are unlike to be a non-descript set of disparate individuals who
have merely been overlooked. They are more likely to be a group distinguished by a common
identity whose exclusion is related to their identity. For example, the exclusion of women
from the franchise was an exclusion from full citizenship of subjects with those specific
identities, because they bore those identities .hence their enfranchisement amounted to the
inclusion of their identities within full citizenship. So does the distinction between
recognition subjects and recognizing identities stand up? The answer is that it does since,
when people with a given identity receive recognition by being included within a broader
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identity, the recognition as members of the more inclusive category. Thus, when women were
enfranchised for example, they were accord recognition not specifically as women but as
citizens and citizenship became a gender-independent identity (Galeotti, 2002).
A further reason why toleration sits uncomfortably alongside identity and differences
is of a rather different sort, the language of identity and differences is not politically innocent.
It is commonly part of an agenda that seeks to persuade us to see differences as mere
difference. The differences that people manifest have often been occasions for conflict,
oppression and unequal treatment. But f we can be persuaded to see these differences as mere
differences, we shall come to see the irrationality or unreasonableness of the hostility they
often encounter and the injustice of visiting disadvantages and discrimination upon people
simply because they are different. In other words, the vocabulary of identity and difference is
associated with an agenda of acceptance: rather than viewing difference negatively, we
should accept it and more positively, cherish and celebrate it. That is way toleration can seem
the wrong reason to differences of identity, the right strategy, is to remove the hostility rather
that to leave it respectfully in plea while trying to persuade the hostile to e tolerate. indeed
this strategy most obviously associated with recognition(Galeotti, 2002).
For Honneth, as for Galotti, people also need to be recognized in their particularity.
Social esteem needs to be directed at the particular qualities that characterize people in their
personal difference, to acquire an undistorted relation to self, human subjects always need a
form of social esteem that allows them to relate positively to their concrete traits and abilities.
Although this form of recognition is directed at difference rather than commonality, Honneth
accepts that it presupposes a common standard of appraisal or interclub reactively shared
value-horizon to provide the foundation for an overarching system of esteem. For any
particular society, that value-horizon will be embedded in its cultural self-understanding and
social worth of members of the society will be measured by the degree to which they
contribute to the realization of the societys goals. Honneth therefore that a society constitute
a community of value, whose members esteem one another for their different contributions
to their collectively shared goals. According to that, Honneth supposes that a modern
society is characterized by a shared value-pluralism that recognizes the goodness of many
different forms of life. That is the part of the struggle for recognition, but that struggle is not
struggle for toleration. It is a struggle for a new social consensus or solidarity that will accord
positive value and therefore recognition to the struggling groups. He frequently refers to
peoples different abilities and achievements and it is clear how these might be valued as
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contributing differently but positively to a collective good. But more ambitiously, he also
wants social esteem to be accorded to peoples different way of life and to their self-chosen
life goals. This might be achieved through a formal conception of ethical life which is lodged
midway between Kantian moral theory and communication ethics. It embraces the Kantian
idea of human beings but goes beyond that in aiming to secure the condition for self-
realization.
Charles Taylor also notices that, for the politics of recognition, it is not enough that
we recognize one another only under general descriptions such as person or citizen; we must
also recognize the unique identity of each individual or group. According that identity-
specific recognition entails recognizing the equal value of different ways of being. It is this
acknowledgement of equal value that a politics of identity-recognition requires. Like
Honneth, Taylor observes that this sort of recognition presupposes a shared horizon of value.
If equal recognition of difference is to be genuine, we have to share some standards of value
on which the identities concerned check out as equal. Without that, our assertion of the equal
value of different identities will be empty and a sham (Honneth,1995).
In the context of cultural difference, Taylor insists that the politics of recognition
demands that we all recognize the equal value of different cultures that we not only let them
survive but acknowledge their worth, but in Taylor opinion e lack shared cross-cultural
standards from which we can meaningfully assess different culture and in the absence of
those standard and their careful application to each culture. And then develop the fusion of
horizons that will enable us to engage in genuine and meaningful appraisal of different
cultures. And only if judged from those fused horizons, all cultures do indeed prove to be of
equal worth. Thus, as things stand, the politics of recognition must remain unsatisfied. So,
differences that demand toleration would seem to be differences that preclude unmediated
recognition (Taylor, 1994).
Finally, does toleration have a future? If it is does, that is not because it can easily
transferred from a world of beliefs to a world of identities. It is because different and
conflicting beliefs and values are still very much a part of our world and because beliefs and
values should treated as beliefs and values and not as mere markers of identity. If we re-
present beliefs and values as nothing more than markers of identity, we misrecognise both
them and their holders (Jones, 1999).
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So from this approach , this research adopts Galeotti concept with citizenship, through with
citizenship understood in its broadest sense , this study will include the attitudes towards
genuinely equal opportunities to participate fully in the life of a society rather than the mere
formal possession of legal and political rights. According to that the study will examine the
concept of recognition as understood for Christians to see if their emphasis tends to recognize
themselves as citizen or as Christians. Here the outcome can be achieved only by way of
significant measure of identity- recognition. Also this study will examine the majority
recognition for the differences of minorities and if they have the same value for those
minorities as putatively normal characteristics and practices, in the others word do the
majority account recognition differences as legitimate, viable, normal opinion and
alternatives of an open society.
A recent important study on religious tolerance develops a procedural concept of
tolerance that is inspired by, though not identical to, discourse ethics. In this account,
tolerance is based (as is ethics in general) on the right to reciprocal and universal justification.
A reciprocal justification of a norm is reached if nobody imposes duties on others that she is
not prepared to impose on herself. It is universally justified if all interests at stake are
considered. This principle is understood as primordial for reasonable persons. This right to
justification leads to tolerance and determines its limits. If something cannot be reciprocally
and universally justified, the limits of tolerance are reached, if it can, it has to be tolerated
(Rawls, 2001).
According to this revise in understanding toleration, this research will examine
whether we should revise our thinking on toleration in the way that Galeotti proposes, so, the
research defines religious tolerance in the field work as a discipline moves towards sharing
information, reaching comprehension, paying attention to the other and speaking frankly. It
shows that each pattern of which incites emotions and wounding speech. It expresses
uprightness in thought and ethics as people interact. It adheres to principles of justice and
honesty. It provides the opportunity to correct ideas and examine distorted images of one
another. Tolerance leads to trust and the establishment of relations of friendship in the
community.
1.3From religious tolerance to religious pluralism
Clearly, tolerance is not a panacea, a clear recipe for social cohesion, even if we
were sure what it is supposed to look like. Further, promoting among the majority a
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tolerance of minorities can be seen as creating a source of problems. As Parekh writes, By
not convincing the majority that minority cultures enrich it and are a valuable resource, and
that their preservation is in its interest, the liberal response encourages it to think that it is
bearing the moral burden of tolerance as an earnest of its generosity towards them, thereby
paving the way for an unhealthy and inherently contentious relationship between the two
(Parekh, 1990, 67).
Glen believes that diversity is a necessary part of human life and if we do not respect
the diversity and unlikely desire to unify all people under one religion we will be engaged in
an unlimited net of conflicts: Different beliefs, races, customs and traditions will continue to
cohabit in this village. Each individual is like a unique realm unto themselves; therefore the
desire for all humanity to be similar to one another is nothing more than wishing for the
impossible. For this reason, the peace of this (global) village lies in respecting all these
differences, considering these differences to be part of our nature and in ensuring that people
appreciate these differences. Otherwise, it is unavoidable that the world will devour itself in a
web of conflicts, disputes, fights, and the bloodiest of wars, thus preparing the way for its
own end.(Weller 2006).
Galtung distinguished between negative peace as the outcome of efforts to stop
physical or personal violence (direct violence), and positive peace as the goal of efforts to end
indirect structural and cultural violence (indirect violence) that threaten the economic, social
and cultural well-being and identity of individual human beings and groups Spence, 2001).
Religious pluralism and tolerance is one of the basic foundations of a civil society. It
is the belief that no religion, singularly, has a monopoly of the truth or of the life that leads to
salvation. Religious pluralism establishes the possibility of tolerance and co-existence of
followers of different religions and cultures (Hick 1993).
Given the historical and modern discourse, religious tolerance and its legal
manifestation, the subjective right to freedom of religion can be best justified by the
following considerations: First, by the specific insecurity of questions of faith. As no religion
has an epistemologically legitimate claim to the only religious truth, various faiths have a
duty to respect each others particular outlook. Second, religious tolerance and freedom of
religion can be justified by consciousness of human dignity. Religious liberty is not
guaranteed to promote certain creeds or to reap the positive consequences of religion as such
for society or the state. It is guaranteed because of the concern for the concrete individuals
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who believe and the categorical respect for their personalities, expressed among others and
most intimately in their faith. Given this argument from personal dignity, religious tolerance
isby the wayjustified as well, even if one assumescontrary to the view presented
herethat religious beliefs are particularly certain. Human dignity demands not only respect
for insights, but also respect for a persons errors.
Third, religious tolerance is buttressed by the perception of what is a common concern
to different religions, most importantly a moral vision of human life. The limitations are in
general best determined by the concern for the protection of human dignity which constitutes
the reason why religious tolerance is justified in the first place. If a religious practice violates
this right, the limitation of this practice is certainly justified. Other limits have to be derived
from familiar weighing and balancing exercises that determine the scope of freedom of
religion in comparison with potentially competing rights Mahlmann, 2003-2006).
Muslim scholars have different views on this subject. Among the three main
intellectual movements in Islamic world (Kurzman 1998:),fundamentalists reject religious
pluralism and tolerance, and consider it as an aspect of the ideological war of the western
world (Mesbah Yazdi 2002.14) but both traditionalists and modernists accept it, though
traditionalists generally do not emphasize and specify pluralism and prefer to accept solely
the religious tolerance.
Therefore, we bear here to religious tolerance which is not only restricted to process
where the tolerance takes place but it also states to a extraordinary sort of life for individuals
in respect to social context surrounded them whether it is direct context such as (family,
educational, professional) context or indirect context such as (social, cultural and political)
context related to society in which the individual lives and interacts. This paper is a serious
attempt to understand the interactive relationship between tolerant and intolerance individuals
and their sort of life. This can be achieved by examining the nature of both cultural and social
background where they belong and the sort of social and political challenges which encounter
them.
218
2. The vast majority of modem Egyptians adhere to one of two main faiths, Islam and
Christianity.
Historically, Egypt became Christian early in the history of Christian expansion. St.
Mark the Evangelist brought Christianity to Egypt in the first century AD during the reign of
the Roman emperor Nero in the first century. The word Copt, which in common usage refers
to Egyptian Christians, particularly Orthodox Christians, is a word borrowed by the Arabic
from the Coptic language. The Coptic people are the descendants of the ancient Egyptians.
The known history of the Copts or Egypt starts with King Mina or Menas the first King, who
united the northern and southern kingdoms of Egypt circa 3050 B.C. The ancient Egyptian
civilization under the rule of the Pharaohs lasted for approximately 3000 years. Many Copts
accepted the teachings of Christianity, possibly because the ancient Egyptian religions
believed in life after death. This is evidenced by their elaborate efforts to preserve the bodies
of the dead by embalming or mummification. The Coptic Orthodox Church's clergy is headed
by the Pope of Alexandria, Pope Shenouda III. The church, established in Alexandria is the
Coptic Orthodox Church which today is the largest Christian church in the Middle East.(see :
Theodore. Hall Patrick1999 & Gawdat Gabra 2002).
In 642, the Arab armies, under the leadership of 'Amr ibn al-'as, invaded Egypt,
bringing with them the Arabic language and Islam (Gilles Kepel, 1993). Islam believe in all
the Prophets and consider Islam confirm all believers in God members of the same
community of faith: Say: We believe in God and in what has been revealed to us and what
was revealed to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob and the Tribes and in (Books) given to
Moses, Jesus and the Prophets from their Lord; we make no distinction between one and
another among them and to God do we bow our will" (Quran, 3:83).After less than three
centuries the Christians no longer were a majority, most of Egypt's population having
converted to Islam. The word Copt, though, has remained in Arabic usage since the Arab
invasion, but came to refer to those Egyptians who did not convert to Islam. Islam sat easily
on Egypt because the new faith came to a country traditionally tolerant of diverse beliefs and
practices. Egypt became Arabic-speaking as a result of the Muslim conquest in the seventh
century. The Copts state that their lot improved once again in the early 19th century under the
rule of Muhammad Ali, who promoted tolerance. In 1855 C.E. even the Gezya tax was lifted.
Christians and Muslims together shared in the Egyptian revolution of 1919, ensuring their
role together in modern society. The Copts in the 19th and early 20th century worked
together with their Muslim compatriots to achieve independence and democracy in Egypt.
219
They participated in the revolt of 1919 against the British rule; several political Coptic
leaders participated in the short-lived democratic parliaments in the early to mid 20th century
(MAKARI, PETER, 2000)
Today, the Christian population in Egypt consists of members of the Coptic Orthodox
Church as well as members of the Coptic Catholic Church and the Middle East Council of
Churches and members of sixteen Protestant denominations. The Coptic Church has taken a
leading role in the ecumenical movement and sees itself as one of the founders of the World
Council of Churches in 1948. Christians account for probably around 10% of the population;
the majority of them are Orthodox Copts, but there are twelve other officially recognized
denominations (Edith L. Butcher 1975).
Egypt Now is the most populous Arab country, with about 80 million people. About
10 percent are Coptic Christians. The majority of who belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church.
Other Christian communities include Catholic, Protestant, and various Orthodox
denominations. There are many foreign religious groups, especially Roman Catholics and
Protestants, who have had a presence in the country for almost a century (Religious freedom
report, 2008). The most famous Area in Cairo which is distinguished with gathering a huge
number of Islamic people and a huge number of Christian people in SHUBRA Area, A Copt
who runs small shops in the Shubra neighborhood of Cairo.
3-Field work strategy
The present study applies Anthropological method as methodological framework.
Therefore, we used a case study method and interview guide as tools to collect data through
designing open questions to analyze their stories and tales. The familys samples have been
selected using intentional style according to some scientific indicators.
Firstly, although there are great deal of internal Varity and difference among Egyptian
families, there are common characteristics among familys groups who belong to middle
class and live in urban areas in Cairo city. The choice has been made to select the family who
belong to middle class and live in moderate areas in Cairo. The reason behind that selection
was to give an account of this group of people who has more awareness, comparing to other
groups in Egyptian society, regarding the nature of the present social and ideological
interaction since they are living in urban areas which are continuously related to local and
global changes.
220
Secondly, the middle class has drastically been influenced by the economic
reformation policies applied in the nineteenth of last century. These policies can be
mentioned here as (an increasing of prices, increasing of high taxes, reducing of
governmental expenses directed to social and medical services). Many studies have
concluded that these policies applied by government had bad impacts on middle class
families such as reducing its stander of life, failure of satisfying their basic demands. In
respect to that view, the present study seeks to study some families who are similarly and
belonging to the same middle class to recognize their ability toward new social and cultural
tolerance, therefore we had twenty cases study representing the different religion, culture,
social and economical circumstances and background of families.
4-The status of religion life in Shobra community
In most aspects of social life in Shobra, Egyptian Muslims and Christians are
indistinguishable. Everyday devotion is common among both, and many religious values are
shared at a general level. The attentive observer can note marks of distinction: "Islamic" dress
marks Muslim women; for most people, most of the time, the distinction is not relevant. But
every so often there are individuals on one side or the other who stress the difference and
claim or practice some form of discrimination. Such speech rarely leads to more violent
action. Nonetheless, the boundary is maintained and both groups discourage or prohibit
intermarriage and conversion. The presence of both Muslims and Christians has impeded the
drive to define Egypt as a Muslim country and thus at least indirectly has favored secularism.
Shobra is crowded. The built-up areas have very high population densities. People
have largely accommodated to this forced proximity, Shobra like Urban Egyptians usually
live in rented apartments. Individual houses are rare; the streets are themselves long and
narrow.People in Shobra may have positive attitudes with some situations that related to their
present reality. For example, Christians may express their unsatisfied feeling if they
encounter nasty and disappointed experiences either social or political which frustrate them
from effectively participation in social and political life. But these situations are not limited
to Christians only but also they expanded to Muslims as well. Therefore, the existence of
socio-culture life is based on its capacity to provide various different tools which allow
people to integrate and penetrate in the structure of society as mature individuals.
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4-1 Socialization and features of cultural tolerance:
We bear here to social tolerance which is not only restricted to process where the tolerance
takes place but it also states to a extraordinary sort of life for individuals in respect to social
context surrounded them whether it is direct context such as (family, educational,
professional) context or indirect context such as (social, cultural and political) context related
to society in which the individual lives and interacts. This paper is a serious attempt to
understand the interactive relationship between tolerant and intolerance individuals and their
sort of life. This can be achieved by examining the nature of both cultural and social
background where they belong and the sort of social and political challenges which encounter
them.
It has been revealed from interview that there are four characteristics are highly and
remarkable related in Family daily life and interactions. These characteristics are the
followings:-Absolute obedience where they have been practicing to obey.-Distribution of
social roles and domestic duties in respect to age differences and in respect to discrimination
of gender where male overcomes and controls female and elders overcomes and control
younger.-Using punishment, threat and all different forms of domestic violence as legitimate
ways to submission.-Finally, depending extremely on religious education as an acceptable
channel of family education.
Socialization in Shobra starts and lasts with obedience. In fact, when they have been
forced to obey, it is nothing more than a form of submission. The ultimate goal behind
absolute obedience is to practice children, teenagers and adults to integrate with society
where the process of tradition and culture transmission takes places in personal
consciousness. The notion of absolute obedience comes from the internal culture of Egyptian
family where the entire authority is given to father. In fact, the Egyptian father has a central
authority and power; he also has all kinds of responsibilities and all advantages. In addition,
Egyptian family is characterized as a hieratic where the father is the central point that
organizes all family members, so, the dominant relationship pattern within Egyptian family is
hierarchic relationship. In another sense it moves from one direction to another or from
upward to downward.
All family members have age differences and hence it follows they are not equal in
right and duties, so most of cases study have been socialized on the traditional approaches
and goals, and It has been indicated via interview that Muslim and Christian goals and plans
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from case 1 to 14 are typified as traditional goals which reflect their own views of present life
and the future. these goals are to be enclosed in some points such as having barren chance of
getting a job, achieving a least amount of economic security, having a family by getting
married, maintaining close relationships with super and unordinary individuals in society and
finally reaching satisfied level of self-happiness by spending money and traveling abroad. . In
fact these goals didnt care about the importance of tolerance with the others and have no
business to explore it. Simply because it was limited to the sphere of personal interests,
moreover, it ignored or avoided any kind of development that tries or at least evaluates views
they believe in and hold and behave respectively in the light of these views and beliefs.
It is essential here to refer to religious socialization in respect to its important to
Egyptian families' mainly middle class families. There are two types of religious
socialization; tolerant or liberal one which allows dealing with others peacefully and applying
his religious doctrines and beliefs in such acceptable ways that respect those who are
religiously indifferent with them. The other type of religious is intolerant one which is
described as extreme form of religious socialization. But although the importance and the
over concern of religious education in family, but it came too narrow on its concept and
application. A great deal of adults revealed that all aspects of religious educations and
conceptions are only related to obedience God commands, and in contrast, avoiding all forms
of freedom, it is also added they have good sense of what is religiously right and what is
religiously wrong, paradise and hell. In contrast avoid debate around how can we tolerate and
respect the other religious or how to function religious conceptions to reform the relationship
with others.
As a result, there is contradictions paradox issue, in such a way the unlimited
tolerance destroyed the tolerance as look said, so the discrimination has happened as a result
of "Taboo idea" mainly when the tolerance became absolute regime. (Burnham, 2004 PP11-
12)
4-2-culture life and its impacts on religious tolerance:
In this section, we assume that there are internal factors belong to cultural structure
itself which have both positive and negative impacts on the individual cycle life. It is also
very important to put into consideration both cultural and social challenges which are taken
as obstacles allowing them not to reach to the pattern of tolerance. Due to this assumption, it
has been indicated via interview that the middle class having some traits that reflect clearly
223
on their cultural baseline especially their own view about fanaticism, so the case study
concluded that fanaticism is a severity of thinking which excludes all other views especially
the other view, and violence the result of extremely fanaticism- a behavioral tendency
seeking to impose individual 's ideas on others by force, are still considered as a barrier for
achieving an acceptable form of social tolerance between them. Rather, they are phenomena
produced by a variety of circumstances and factors of general political, social, economic and
cultural nature in the social environment. Fanaticism and violence can manifest themselves in
a wide variety of guises and belief structures. Falling to grasp the real meaning of the above
mentioned understanding related to what is religious may led directly to fanaticism. It
abandons moderation in favor of forms of behavior which are unacceptable to genuine
religious and true religious values.
Also, In Egypt there is an enormous gap between the very wealthy and the very poor.
The culture also encourages deference of the weak, poor, or subaltern to the rich and
powerful, in terms of speech, posture, and acquiescence. The difference also is existed
between the adults and an elder, and between male and female. The differences among
individuals and families in Egypt can be represented by income level or source of income.
They can also be represented in choices of consumption style housing, transport, dress,
language, education, music and so on.
Also it has been concluded that a male is more tolerance than a female, the first
reason of that mandated to the overlap of male possessing the social relationship power
comparatively to female and regarding to having a good rank of freedom to make a
relationship with different individual in religion than female.
The interview indicated also that the elder and adults having a good feeling of
acceptable view to the others as follows: The adults is more tolerance from their parents ,
parents always having a sensitive felling towards the other, they hope for achieving the
Esteem and coexistence but they couldnt achieve the social tolerance as the study defined it
before , so many families in Shobra prefer living apart from the other and they have a faith
that the avoidance bears to reduce the fanaticism between them and then the more peaceful
tone will be dominated in the community.
It is explored that young people are always trying to make good relationship with the
other who is religiously different , the case (9) is a Muslim adult who managed to run a
224
business with his Christian neighbor, It is found that having business together helped both to
become close friends regardless having different religions.
The interview indicated also that the elder and adults have tendency of acceptable
view towards the others as follows: adults are more tolerant comparing to their parents.
Parents are always conservative towards others. They seek to achieve both esteem and
coexistence; however they are not able to achieve an acceptable level of social tolerance
according to definition we have presented earlier. It is found that great deal of families who
are living in the locality of Shobra prefer living apart from the others and they have a belief
that being away from others help both to avoid clashes and to reduce chances and
possibilities of fanaticism and violent actions. According to that behavior, the social peace
and reconciliation will be found in that locality.
According to the sub-cultural of Egyptian society as we have described it before, we
can sum up some manifestations about it. This culture tends to be more discriminative in
some cases and tends to be more lenitive in the other cases. The reason of that lies in the fact
that both traditions and customs principles are still governing their daily life and are playing
an authoritative role which is mainly evolving round them and reflecting their own views. It
can also be added that there are many accidents that happened in Egyptian society in the last
few years, as we reported former; the sub-cultural of Egyptian people is double culture. In
other words there are duality implied in Egyptian culture, it is characterized as discriminative
and tolerant cultural in the same time.
Although there were no serious clashes taking place, they could not clearly determine
the middle situation between counter-cultures indicated via case study which concluded that.
However they have a negative feeling from time to time and they could not successfully deal
with the other. As a result, they seem to be more tolerant in some situations, while they are
more intolerant in some other situations. In this context, we put forth and raise this statue of
coexistence to make this community as a middle area between the tolerance and intolerance.
The public condition in the community is completely suitable to begin our project in it
especially for adults who have different attitudes leading them to be more tolerant comparing
to their parents.
According to that, Williams calling about the tolerance "an impossible virtue" because
it is not only account as a hardly behavior but it also account as necessary part of living in
peaceful circumstances and deal associated notions of the subjectivity of value, of respect for
225
liberty of others, and -- a kind of combination of the preceding two notions -- of not
interfering with conduct or values of which one disapproves. (Williams, 1996PP5-9).
4-3-Tolerance in every day life at Shobra
Whether Muslim or Copt, the Egyptians are deeply religious and religious principles
govern their daily lives. Combined with religious belief is commitment to the extended
family. Each family member is responsible for the integrity of the family and for the behavior
of other members, creating a Tolerance environment with Muslim neighbor. Social
relationship between neighborhood is considered one of the most motivate factors that can
help to prevent any form of diversity that may take place over the community. In addition,
positive relationship can also emerge through mutual discussion, mutual recognition and
outdoing one in some social occasions that can remarkably enrich the social life there.
People in Shoubra are often attributed as friendly, generous in terms of hospitality in
terms of offering food to guests, having good feelings for the others. As a result, there was no
chance for serious clashes to be existed between Muslims and Christians in Shobra. However
there is a form of hidden clash or an immanent clash that can be explored psychologically.
This form of immanent clash related to achieve co-existence and avoid conflicts between
them. So, there are many families who could successfully achieve coexistence as represented
by cases (7, 8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, and 20). This statue is a common way that flourished
between them. Many Christian families have similar views regarding their ways of living and
accommodation in the community as being considered a minority. That is why they are afraid
from others, reducing their relationships with the others who are religiously different from
them. They said that they brought up in such way that let them feel they are minority and
strange individuals in their locality and hence in their country. However, they realized that
they are an inspirable part of the Egyptian society when they grew up. Muslim families
indicated that they have good felling and positive tendency towards their neighborhoods that
are religiously different. This web of relationships is clarified in some social occasions like
marriage or death which reflect a form of social cohesion between both Muslim and Christian
families.
226
4-4-The representations of tolerance in social and religious celebrations
Muslim and Christian families have long been celebrating the holidays together. The
social and religious occasions keeping people from picking fights with each other, from
isolating themselves, from getting into conflict situations and from alienating each other.
Many children and adults are still confused about religious customs originated
between Muslim and Christian holidays whether the Ramadan Festival, Christmas or St.
Nicholas Day. They simply love each others holidays, and they dont get fall down in long
dialogs about the cultural background of the various traditions, in example the case (18)
stated that "we have a very positive view of celebrating Christian holidays together and we
celebrate the rituals of Christian holidays with our children". Also, the Case (9) stated "we
didnt discuss the background of festivals, we be limited to change sweets and change
congratulation sentences". So the way in which people celebrate together today consider as
an important factor for more tolerance in the future.
Moreover, both Muslim and Christian families exchange their habits concerning the
festivals. Great deal of Muslim families, living in Shobra, is always decorating their homes in
December celebrating Christmas occasion. They always bring candle wreaths, evergreens and
getting a Christmas tree and they exchange the congratulation sentences with Christian
families. A Case "11" stated that "We dont celebrate Christmas by going to the church, we
waiting our Christians friends until they come back from the church to congratulate them ".
New Year eve is still also an occasion for both Muslim and Christian families for having fun
and spending some nice time together sharing hopes for New Year and giving kids toys and
presents. Muslim and Christian families are always buying toys representing "Saint Clause"
character and give them to young kids.
It should be noted here that both Christians and Muslims in Shobra were culturally
assimilated with the local traditions and social customs. Several Muslim' and Christian' feasts
are marked by special meals. The meals are very important in Egyptian life especially in
festivals , it consider one of the most important factor that gathers all the community
members, Christian and Muslim families always exchange their festivals meals. For instance,
you can simply get a friend from your neighborhood if you gave him a present or you feasted
him a meal in any of your festival, alternatively he will come back to you with another
present or feasted you in one of his festivals as well.
227
During the most important occasion of Muslim celebrations in Shobra as known
"Ramadan Festival", the Christian used to visit Muslim homes and participating in the
festivities by performing their traditional eating and all aspects of Ramadan folklore, with
singing songs, locally known as The prophet Mohammed Madaaeh ". Some of Christian
church made as locally known "MAUAED EL-RAHMAN" which aims to support the fasting
people by food especially the poor Muslim.
On the day of Eid-ul-Fitr, it is customary for Muslim and Christian families to
participant in eating a sweet breakfast, after a service at the mosque; when people returned to
their homes they bear to invite friends and relations to join them in eating meals and Gifts are
exchanged also.
Eid-ul-Adha the Festival of Sacrifice is clarified in the middle area in Cairo, we can
see this occasion in Shoubra which the beautiful participation between Muslim and Christian
individuals is appeared in the community, the houses and streets are decorated with bright
bunting and at night are brightly lit with electric lights. In the evening, worshippers assemble
in the mosques. Many Muslims spend the festivals in making a tours with their fiends from
Christian families.
Sham al-Nassim (Easter Monday) is mainly marked by a breakfast of salted fish,
spring onion, lettuce, and colored eggs, which is consumed outdoors in gardens and open
areas. This festival is celebrated nationwide in practically all regions and by all social classes.
It is the ancient Egyptian spring and harvest festival.
Christmas Day celebrates the birth of Jesus. A rich variety of songs and carols have
developed and it is traditional to depict the nativity in the manger through sets in churches
and homes and plays which re-enact the events of the story. Evergreens are also traditional as
symbols of unfailing life. Gift-giving, Christmas cards, and gathering with family members
and family neighbor are common customs.. Copts make special sweet biscuits for Christmas,
which is the same Kahk as the Muslims make for Eid El-Fitr "occasion.
These manifestations forcedly led to conclude that the atmosphere of festivals
between Muslim and Christian is described as a social coexistence status and a social peace
but still there is some lacks existed in the other features of social tolerance like the otherness
and the legitimacy of difference, they could form a good relationship in the calmness and
quietness circumstances but when any incident happened between individuals in any part of
228
Egypt not necessarily in Shobra. This can lead to state of intolerance that, with no time,
comes up on the surface and the relationship between them and reflectively became confused
even if this incident has not anything to do with the locality and the place they are living in.
Here we can cite the scholar of Christian origins, Ron Cameron: religion is a social
way of thinking about social identity and social relationship(Allen,1996)or, to make it
somewhat more complex ,we can draw on the work of such contemporary scholars as
Jonathan smith 1928, Bruce Linclon 1994, Burton Mack 1996,and Gary Lease 1994 and say
that religion are systems of social signification ,encoded within narrative of the epic past and
the anticipated future, coordinated within behavioral and institutional systems of cognitive
and social control , all of which characterizes human responses to the various incongruities
and disruptions that come with historical existence.
5-Religious tolerance and cultural cleavage at Shobra
Whether Muslim or Copt, the Egyptians are deeply religious and religious principles
govern their daily lives. Combined with religious belief is commitment to the extended
family. Each family member is responsible for the integrity of the family and for the behavior
of other members, creating a Tolerance environment with Muslim neighbor. Like in most
Muslim countries, in Egypt, religious education is mandatory. Religious education is
provided for Muslims and Christians separately. Egyptian individuals were disappointed
because of the fact that university and high institutes could not well prepare them to make
good ties with different culture and different religious. This understanding forcedly led them
to depend on their own thought by participating in some activities that gathering Muslim and
Christian in the same activity, this view was clarified when adults stated some examples
showing the features and patterns of these participation such as sporting or entering in new
commercial or economical projects like opening new shops and stores . on the other hant
there limitation of the role of scholars religion in public life , some evidence indicated that
scholars of religions generally have little contribution to make to public issue , they have
created sufficient conditions for their own political trends and culture silence in contemporary
public debates. And this challenge in the community was drown from many pervious studies
which assumed that scholar of religion find themselves all but speechless when it comes to
addressing issues of public concern and such scholars must inevitably remain silent when it
comes to matter of explanation and critical analysis. ( see Judith 1993,Martin 1998,and
Robert 1989).
229
Also, Both family culture and school culture are considered parts of the holistic
unified culture of society. They are used to reproduce submissive relationships between new
generations and structure of family based on hierarchic discipline of family which similarly
looks like social structure of both school and university that based on hierarchic authority as
well.
As a result, there was no chance for serious clashes to be existed between Muslims
and Christians in Shobra. However there is a form of hidden clash or an immanent clash that
can be explored psychologically. This form of immanent clash related to achieve co-existence
and avoid conflicts between them. So, there are many families who could successfully
achieve coexistence as represented by cases (7, 8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, and 20). This statue is
a common way that flourished between them. Many Christian families have similar views
regarding their ways of living and accommodation in the community as being considered a
minority. That is why they are afraid from others, reducing their relationships with the others
who are religiously different from them. They said that they brought up in such way that let
them feel they are minority and strange individuals in their locality and hence in their
country. However, they realized that they are an inspirable part of the Egyptian society when
they grew up. Muslim families indicated that they have good felling and positive tendency
towards their neighborhoods that are religiously different. This web of relationships is
clarified in some social occasions like marriage or death which reflect a form of social
cohesion between both Muslim and Christian families.
Rituals marking the different stages of life are also an important area of religious
practice, and one that is largely shared by Muslims and Christians. Egyptians celebrate a
naming ceremony normally one week after a baby's birth; this is a mixture of Islamic or
Coptic and "traditional" elements, and is basically a family celebration to incorporate the
newborn into the family.
230
Figure 1 the Dynamics of Social Tolerance at Shobra community
6-Beyond Tolerance: Towards a new view of socio-culture recognition
Because we live in an increasingly interdependent world, intercultural awareness and
effective cross cultural communication skills are critical for personal and professional
relationships. Understanding and appreciating intercultural differences ultimately promotes
clearer communication, breaks down barriers, builds trust, strengthens relationships, opens
horizons and yields tangible results. In this interactive session we will explore some key tools
and practices for working with people different in culture, language, religious, ideological
sphere.
To begin with, respect, acceptance, and tolerance all show themselves between a
subject and an object. The subject is usually a person, someone who pays it to, feels it about,
and shows it for something or someone. While one could also accumulate persons and look at
them on an inter-group or macro-system level, we will for the remainder of this paper solely
focus upon respect, acceptance and tolerance as shown by people for people. In fact the
religious (dialogue) has responsibility to maintain such a relation of tolerance and co-
existence in terms of the definition we stated in the present study. This dialogue ignores or
purposely neglects to notion of creation and enhancing society. Therefore, the research
assumption claims here, from these results that, tolerance must be reformed from being just a
230
sphere.
230
sphere.
231
value to be an approach or attitude which takes it from the circle of emotions and individuals'
modes to the social and rational manners.
Linking these sort of relational phenomena to a more general field of research, we
propose to refer to tolerance, acceptance and respect as attitudes because similar to the
definition of attitudes they can be looked upon as one-dimensional summary statements
(Thompson, Kray, & Lind, 1998, p. 362) usually with a psychological tendency that is
expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly &
Chaiken, 1993, p. 1).
Additionally, we propose that it is necessary to divide these attitudes further into those
that are reflections of a subjects decisions on concrete issues concerning the object and those
that are concerned with the decision process itself. Whereas we consider acceptance,
tolerance and one kind of respect (i.e., appraisal respect) as issue driven attitudes (for which
the object needs to fulfill certain conditions in order to be responded to favorably), we
propose that another specific type of respect (i.e., recognition respect) should be seen as an
attitude that is mainly concerned about the process, i.e., independent of an objects concrete
features (cf. Lalljee, Laham, &Tam, in press).
7-Strategies for Building Recognition and Religious Pluralism
Three strategies present themselves: dialogue, participatory activities and the fostering
of a national culture based on religious pluralism. Dialogue is a time-honored method that has
often been used in Indonesia. However, most of the inter-religious dialogue that has taken
place has been at the elite level among intellectual and religious leaders, or between
university students and activists at the regional level. This has been useful to an extent, but
many activists working on inter-faith or inter-communal relations are acknowledging that the
level of this dialogue needs to shift from the elite to the grassroots and that the content of the
dialogues must focus on the reconciliation process.
Youth groups, radical student groups, and fringe elements of society should be
pinpointed, courted, and drawn into the radius of the dialogue if change is to occur. The
strategies used to reach these groups and engage them in dialogue will be different from those
used amongst the elite and time needs to be spent on developing targeted strategies to reach
these groups.
232
It has been found time and time again when seeking to break down barriers, whether
of ethnicity, religion or class, that actual contact with members of the Other is one of the
most effective means of reducing stereotyping, false rumors and hostility. This commitment
can be fostered by creating a public discourse about this element of national culture and by
instilling a sense of pride in it. This can be done in the same way that any public discourse is
created: through the media, talk shows, essays and columns, study groups and so on. The
point is to create a public discussion about religious pluralism as an important part of national
identity. Religious pluralism, as one of the essential building blocks of a democracy, should
be a primary area of concern.
While Respect is certainly a multifaceted terminology (see Dillon, in this issue; Hill,
1998), the most prominent understanding of it is the one described in the Practical Philosophy
of Immanuel Kant as Acting (1988). The central principle of Kants ethic is the so called
Categorical Imperative. In one of its formulations it says: Act in such a way that you always
treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a
means, but always also as an end in itself. Please note that it says but always also
which indicates that this sort of respect does not have to be entirely free of instrumental
reasons if the object is also treated as an end in itself. Yet, what does this end in itself mean?
Looking upon the translation of the term, we find that respect derives from the Latin root
respicere translated as to look again or to look back at. In that sense, we may argue
that respecting somebody the Kantian way entails giving them a consideration above the
first glance. Darwall (1977) thus specifies this kind of respect as recognition respect and
states: To have recognition respect for persons is to give proper weight to the fact that they
are persons (p. 39). Simon (in press) stresses that it is about perceiving and responding to
someone else as an equal. It can thus be argued that it is this kind of respect that is meant
when people speak of mutual respect (cf. Dreikurs Ferguson & Page, 2003) as mutuality
implies certain equality.That respect is about being properly seen and considered is also
corroborated by justice researchers who argue that to feel respected is a central ingredient of
peoples fairness perceptions (Lind & Tyler, 1988; Tyler, Degoey, & Smith, 1996; Tyler &
Lind, 1992). On the other side, not being treated or recognized as equal is considered unjust
and disrespectful (Miller, 2001). Note however, that equal or fair treatment does not
necessarily entail a distributive justice (Schmidtz, 2006), i.e., that everybody in a group of
five is getting two dollars if ten dollars are to be split. Justice research has shown that people
rather consider something as equally fair when procedural justice concerns are met (Lind &
233
Tyler, 1988), i.e., that each of the five people has a chance to raise their opinion on how the
money should be divided (e.g., based upon performance or need). The sociologist Sennett
(2003) draws upon this aspect when explicating his view on respect in a world of
inequality. It becomes evident that it is not the outcome of a decision that is considered fair
or respectful but rather the how of the decision making process including that peoples
voice and dignity is considered in and after the process (cf. Margalit, 1998).
In that sense, a subject is respecting an object when an issue has to be settled between
the two and the subject decides to confront the object with arguments in a sincere way, i.e.,
recognizing the object as an autonomous equal (human being) with the same right to decide
on issues concerning his/her life. Part of being respectful thus entails that a subject cannot
determine the criteria by which to settle the issue alone. To pay proper heed to an object also
means to fully acknowledge its opinion on the criteria by which to decide upon the legitimacy
of an issue. Thus, if a subject disagrees with an object on the criteria, the subject cannot
overrule the object and at the same time claim that it behaves respectfully towards the object.
188 Niels van Quaquebeke, Daniel C. Henrich & Tilman Eckloff For our framework,
conclusively; we suggest that recognition respect is an attitude on the process rather than a
reflection of its results. Moreover, recognition respect is categorical. There is no such thing
as recognizing someone as an equal human being only to a certain degree. It is either full
recognition respect or its counterpart: disrespect.
From this point, this study attempts to set up or to enhance the importance of
determination the middle area of tolerance for people who belong to the middle class, the
middle area here is representing in legitimacy of different. The legitimacy of different not
only means the respect for the other cultural and religious forms but also refers to the notion
of esteem those forms even of they are different from the common forms in society.
234
Figure 2 the Middle Area between Tolerance and Intolerance
Legitimacy of difference depends on balanced dialogue between all concerned parties,
whether as individuals or groups. it must be raised above zealotry and there must be a
readiness to deal tolerantly with others, and accept opposing opinions. Tolerance must not be
viewed as a relationship in which one party is stronger than the other, but as a necessity of
civilized life. Therefore the question of what is the role of religious tolerance in public life
? Should instead be phrased what is the role of the scholar of religious discourse in public
life?
We shall attempt to dispel the ignorance and indifference that distorts our
understanding of the basics of the two holy religions and their ethical principles, traditions
and customs. We are trying to make such social tolerance available an possible by settling up
an unified or an integrated course for both Muslim and Christian pupils in the elementary
education to teach them how o work together and integrate together in social groups or
learning groups. This way of integration performed or suggested by education will help to
bring about new generation of children who are able to deal with the other who is religiously
different from him.
Conclusion
This study has indicated that there is signification difference in rank between the
patterns of social tolerance in respect to the influence of traditional power that basis on
heretic culture and male glorification and female degradation, and there are some challenges
that faces tolerance achievement between people in Egypt society especially inside the
middle class families as follows: The families members are suffered from deep-stated
traditions which be reduced their motivation for achieving the whole shapes of tolerance and
could be restricted them from developing the healthy relationship between Muslim and
234
life?
different from him.
Conclusion
234
life?
different from him.
Conclusion
235
Christian individual This paper urges religious scholars, people of culture and the
intelligentsia of both Islam and Christianity to seek out the common spiritual and
humanitarian values in the heritage of both religions and in the life-styles of their adherents.
We urge them to highlight the positive and bright examples of how people can live together,
stand in solidarity with each other, express mutual respect, and show each other affection.
236
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UDC:364-787.2-053.9(662.6)
INTERGENERATIONAL HOUSEHOLDS AND WELL-BEING
OF THE ELDERLY IN NIGERIA
Elias Olukorede Wahab, PhD
Oludasa Ololade Anike, PhD
Department of Sociology, Lagos State University, Nigeria
Abstract
Intergenerational household and Well-being of the Elderly has been identified as an important determinant in the
lives of older people in Ojo Local Government Area. Intergeneration refers to the comparison between
generations. This study aims at explaining and identifying the various ways by which the care given to the
Elderly in our society can be improved on.
The study employed the use of questionnaire method to achieve its aim and objectives. A total of 250
questionnaires were administered to various respondents within the study area. The study then adopted the use
of Chi- Square statistical method to test the strength of the relationship between the identified variables in the
hypotheses.
The study suggests that an improvement in Elderly care within each household will help improve the living
conditions of the Elderly in Ojo Local Government area of Lagos State.
Keywords: Elderly, Lagos, households
Introduction
Population is ageing in most countries of the world today. Going by the recent current
economic recession, the care of the elderly has been a course for serious attention being the
most vulnerable subset of the population (Ekpeyong, 1995). The implications of ageing are
more serious for developing countries where majority of the elderly do not have regular
earnings after retirement where there are problems of earning from assets in old age. In all
240
societies, intergenerational households are large and potentially have an important influence
on equality and economic growth. The development of each generation of elderly depends on
the resources that it receives from productive members of society for health, education and
sustenance (Lee, 1994). The well- being of the elderly on the other hand depends on the
social programs that provide health care, income and support e.tc by the family systems that
dominate in many developing countries. The importance of intergenerational households has
not gone unnoticed. During the last two decades, there have been important advances in
measuring, modelling, and assessing the implications of intergenerational households and
well-being of the elderly both at the micro and macro level (Bommier and Lee, 2004).
As population ageing increases in both developed and developing countries, issues
surrounding support and care of older persons are receiving more attention. The living
arrangements of the older population can have an influence on the demand for formal and
informal support systems. Living arrangements are influenced by a variety of factors
includind marital status, financial well-being, health status, and family size and structure, as
well as cultural traditions such as kinship patterns, the value placed on living independently
or with family members, the availability of social services and social support, and the
physical features of housing stock and local communities on the older generations. Changing
family structures also influence the need for formal support systems. There are several
alternative forms of family and generational structure that are shaped by changes in marital
status, fertility, mortality and migration. Much of the research has focused on the traditional
paths through the life course (e.g, marriage, bearing children and widowhood) and has not
considered the alternative pathways and their consequences on living arrangements and well-
being in later life.
In traditional societies, the family has been the most rural and conducive social
organization for the care and support of old aged persons. The care and support to old aged
persons was provided by family members especially the wife, sons, daughters, son-in-laws
and daughter-in-laws. This care giving was backed not simply by the emotional bonds of
relationship emerging out of blood relationship or marital relationship but by the force of
persuasive influence of traditional values, norms and behaviour which were not simply
practiced as a matter of routine but also defied ( Sijuwade, 1991). The care of the elders was
the moral imperative which was considered not only material bliss but also spiritual salvation
(Gore, 1992).
241
However, this traditional bond between the elders and the younger members of the
family is gradually becoming weak in Nigeria. The physical deterioriation due to
chronologically advancing age makes a person aged. In this process of becoming old, there
are both intrinsic as well as extrinsic changes in the individual. The intrinsic changes are
those which take place within the functioning of body organs. The basic deprivation
gradually crops up initially in the youth and adult age (Russell, 2003; Thurston, 2001). The
aged is, therefore, deprived of smartness, promptness, dynamism and confidence which were
basic personality features of youth and adulthood. Further, the optimistic outlook of the aged
gradually turns into pessimism. Extrinsic changes among the aged are the effects of
disorganized social institutions, values and norms arising out of surrounding social forces of
urbanization, industrialzation, modernization and globalization ( Ushasnee, 2004).
Hence, the disorganized society, family and personality produce deprivations to the
aged in the contemporary society. The greater longevity of the elderly demands care and
support for a longer period and also entails high cost of medical and health care. The rising
cost of living and shrinking income pattern often makes it difficult for the family to provide
adequate care and support (Neysmith and Edward, 1984; Kalache, 1990). It is important to
also note that the patterns of intergenerational support vary by culture and economic status,
both at the household and geo-political level. An exclusive literature of family support has
consistently found out that all societies engage in some level of intergenerational support.
The variation in what constitutes support can vary greatly, but in general, few societies allow
the open abandonment of the aged. Levels and types of supportare typically impacted by
social factors such as the density of co- resident which in turn is impacted by external factors
sauch as labour force migration ( Martin, 1990). Levels of support are also impacted by the
presence of lack of programs by thr government that relieve the immediate family of the
direct care and burden and financial cost of the elderly such as pensions, social security,
provident funds and other forms of portable wealth ( Mc Nally,2003).
In Nigeria, it is often assumed that the family will automatically take on the
responsibility of caring for the elderly, yet little is known about the contemporary condition
of the elderly within the safety net in practice. Currently, little is known about the link
between intergenerational households and the well-being of the elderly in Lagos metropolis.
As the elderly constitute an increasing proportion of Nigerias population, it is pertinent to
examine their needs and concerns which have direct impacts on their well-being and quality
of life. Hitherto, question on how to care for these growing numbers of elderly, their concerns
242
and need are yet to feature prominently in major policy debates. The following research
questions were probed into: Can improvement on the care given to the aged or elderly
increase their life expectancy?Who should be more responsible for the care of the aged or the
elderly?Is elderly abuse or abandonment more common among the old people in
intergenerational households in Lagos metropolis?What are the problems and challenges
faced by the aged or the elderly in the various households?
Hypothesis
(1) Relationship between intergenerational households and well-being of the elderly.
(2) There is no significant relationship between the income of the family and economic
stability of the elderly.
(3) There is no positive relationship between the levels of individualism in the family and
elderly care in Ojo Local Government Area.
Methods and Materials
Study population
The study population will include all the elderly within the intergenerational
household in Ojo Local Government Area ranging from 60 yrs and above. For this study, the
frail elderly, retired elderly, and working class elderly will be included.
Sample size and sampling procedure
The Ojo Local Government is made up of 5 wards namely: Ward A, Ward B, ward C,
Ward D and Ward E respectively. While wards A, B and C makes up the Upland areas, wards
D and E consist of the riverine areas. A total sample size of 250 will be drawn from the
selected wards in Ojo Local Government. But due to logistic problems, this study will
concentrate on the 3 wards in the Upland areas. Ward A cover areas such as Idi Orogbo,
Awori, college, Ojo central, Ojo Jetty side, Franklas, e.t.c. Ward B covers areas such as Ira,
Ilaje, Tedi, Muwo, Agric, Barracks, Post service, Mile 10 e.t.c. Ward C covers areas such as
Alaba, Mosafejo ilufe, Sabo, Ajangbadi, Jakande, Igbede New Site e.t.c. The sample size
will be drawn using multi stage sampling technique. The stratified random sampling
technique will be used to select the required sample in order to give every member of the
population an equal chance of being selected and to increase the variability and also to ensure
adequate representativeness. A proportionate sample will be drawn from each of the 3 wards
243
and in each of these 3 wards chosen; the elderly will be purposively sampled. Questionnaire
method will be administered to the selected elderly (250 of them). It will be further divided
into ratio 90:90:70 in order to get desired results. This is based on the fact that Wards A and
B have more streets as compared to Wards C.
Research instrument and data collection method
Structured questionnaire method will be adopted for the collection of data and other
relevant information for this study. The questionnaire will be structured into 4 (four) sections.
Section A will be based on obtaining information on their socio demographic profile. Section
B will be on their economic background and household composition. Section C will be based
on their wellbeing and old age security within the household. Section D will focus on their
suggestions and recommendations.
Methods and data analisys
The method of data analysis and presentation for this study will include chi square
technique. It is important to note that both statistical and research analysis are quite
interwoven such that one is the direct result of the other. However, frequency table will be
adopted to analyze the relevant response in the questionnaire while chi square will be adopted
to test the hypothesis of this study.
The computed chi square analysis will later be compared with the table of analysis to give a
rationale for the reason of the decision rule about the hypothesis.
Results:
Characteristics of respondents
Table 1 Summary of Socio-Demographic profile of Respondents
VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
SEX
Male
Female
Total
125
117
242
46.6
53.4
100
LAST BIRTHDAY
60-64 years 47 17.5
244
65-69 years
70-74 years
75-79 years
80 and Above
Total
64
76
33
22
242
23.9
28.4
12.3
8.2
100
MARITAL STATUS
Married
Divorced
Separated
Widowed/widower
Total
133
36
25
48
242
49.6
13.4
9.3
17.9
100
RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION
Islam
Christianity
African Traditional Religion
Others
Total
120
115
1
6
242
44.8
42.9
.4
2.2
100
ETHNIC AFFILIATION
Yoruba
Igbo
Hausa
Others
Total
154
47
37
4
242
57.5
17.5
13.8
1.5
100
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
SSCE/WASCE
HND/BSC
NCE/OND
OTHERS
Total
49
147
16
30
242
18.3
54.9
6.0
11.2
100
Source:researchers field survey, 2011
245
Interpretation
The above table 4.1.1 shows that more than half of the sample population are males
and almost one quarter of the remaining respondents are females. This implies the survey was
able to capture more male elderly than females.
The next cadre of measurement captured the age of respondents as at their last
birthdays, it was discovered that more than one-quarter of the respondents are between the
ages 70-74 which shows a little faction of the sample population are aged. Those within the
age brackets 65-69 and 60-64 years represent the most active population as regards the
elderly within Ojo Area but the survey captured only less than one tenth of the respondent.
This implies more of the respondents were the less strong and inactive population.
Only four categories of marital status were observed from the sample survey. These
are married, divorced, separated and widowed. It was discovered that almost more than half
of the respondents are married. Others ranked below one-tenth, to which 25 out of 242 were
separated as at the time of this survey. This shows more of the respondents are happily
married with their families.
From the Table above it could be inferred that almost half of the respondents each
were either Muslims or Christians which were more than three-quarter of the entire
respondents. The remaining formed a minority interest group that constituted less than one-
tenth of the respondents who worship traditional gods and lastly a minute fraction constituted
other kinds of religion not captured.
The table also revealed the ethnic affiliation of the respondents and it was observed
from the sample survey that more than half of the respondents belong to the Yoruba speaking
tribes, one-fifth are from the Igbo speaking ethnicity which ranked the second highest ethnic
group of respondents covered by the research survey. The least of the entire ethnic group
captured were the Hausa tribes, which is due to the fact that the research was carried out in
the western region.
Finally, the table above also shows the highest level of qualification of the sample
survey. The table shows that more than half of the sample population have either HND/B.Sc
certificate, which means more elders within Lagos have attended an institution of higher
learning. One-fifth of the respondents are holders of WAEC certificate which implies that a
little faction of the respondents had no opportunity to attend higher institutions.
246
Table 2: Economic Background and Household Composition of the Elderly
VARIABLE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
AGE OF RETIREMENT
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
NO RESPONSE
Total
88
21
2
2
129
242
32.8
7.8
.7
.7
48.1
100
NATURE OF RETIREMENT
MANDATORY RETIREMENT
ILL HEALTH RETIREMENT
RETRENCHMENT
OTHERS
N0 RESPONSE
Total
79
23
2
10
128
242
29.5
8.6
.7
3.7
47.8
100
DO YOU RECEIVE ANY GRATUITY/
PENSION?
Yes
No
Total
108
134
242
40.4
49.6
100
HOW OFTEN DO YOU RECEIVE YOUR
PENSION?
OFTEN
VERY OFTEN
RARELY
NO RESPONSE
Total
53
57
5
127
242
19.8
21.3
1.9
47.4
100
DO YOU HAVE ANY CHILD/ CHILDREN OF
YOUR OWN?
Yes
237
5
88.4
1.9
247
No
Total
242 100
ARE YOU LIVING WITH ANY MEMBER OF
YOUR FAMILY?
Yes
No
Total
174
68
242
64.9
25.4
100
IS THIS HOW YOUR OWN PARENTS ALSO
LIVED WITH THEIR OWN CHILDREN?
Yes
No
Total
144
98
242
53.7
36.6
100
ARE YOUR CHILDREN FULLY IN CHARGE
OF YOUR WELL-BEING WITHIN THE
HOUSEHOLD?
Yes
No
Total
110
132
242
50.7
49.3
100.0
ARE THERE ALSO ANY KIND OF SUPPORT
YOU RENDER WITHIN THE HOUSEHOLD?
Yes
No
Total
131
111
242
48.9
41.4
100.0
DO YOU PREFER INTERGENERATIONAL
HOUSEHOLD ARRANGEMENTS?
Yes
No
Total
108
134
242
40.0
60.0
100.
WHERE DO YOU PREFER STAYING MOST?
INTERGENERATIONAL HOUSEHOLD
PERSONAL HOUSE
EXTENDED FAMILY
WITH ADULT CHILDREN
92
123
15
12
34.3
45.9
5.6
4.5
248
Total 242 100.0
The table 2 above summarizes the age of retirement of the elderly within the Ojo Area
and it was observed that more than one-fifth of the respondents retire between ages 60-64.
This by implication represents the active elders within the state who still posses the will
power to earn income. On the other hand a larger number of respondents were undecided as
regards their age of retirements, may be due to fear of being assessed by their employers.
The table further revealed the nature of retirement the respondents have been subjected
to accept and it was disclosed in the afore presented table that more than one-quarter have
been subjected to mandatory retirements. This is a function of age limits. Less than one-tenth
said ill health retirement but this happens occasionally. A very small faction of the
respondents said retrenchment is prevalent which in normal sense is not termed as retirement
but lay off.
Approximately one-half of the respondents said they dont receive gratuity. This is
normal within the climate of this part of the world were policies on pension and gratuity are
not strictly adhered to because of corrupt practices. Two-fifth of the respondents said they
receive gratuity.
Table 2 also shows the rate at which the gratuities are paid. It is seen that less than
one-quarter of the respondents said they receive that gratuity very often and one-fifth said
they receive theirs very often. On the other hand only less than one-tenth said they rarely
receive their own gratuity.
The table also showed that three-quarter have children on their own while a minute
portion does not have children of their own. This is due to the fact that almost all the
respondents covered in the survey are either married or have been married before.Most of the
respondents said they stay with their family members which implies that the level of elderly
care will be high.
The response of one-half of the sample population as regards if their children are
responsible for the well being of the household was affirmative. Meaning their children are
responsible for the well being while less than one-half said they are not. Three-quarter of the
respondents are of the opinion that they dont support intergenerational household
249
arrangement, may be due to the nature of parental care experienced. On the other hand, two-
fifth of the respondents are not in support.
Finally, the table above shows that almost one-half of the respondents prefer personal
households to any other kind of household. This could be due to the poor level of care
received from members of the family. But one-fifth are of the opinion that intergenerational
household is preferable.
Table 3: Well Being and Old Age Security of the Elderly
VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
HOW IS YOUR HEALTH STATUS
GENERALLY?
EXCELLENT
GOOD
FAIR
POOR
VERY POOR
Total
60
139
37
2
4
242
22.4
51.9
13.8
.7
1.5
100.0
DO YOU HAVE ANY MAJOR HEALTH
PROBLEMS?
Yes
No
Total
59
183
242
22.0
68.3
100.0
ARE YOU SATISFIED WITH THE SUPPORT
YOU RECEIVE FROM THE HOUSEHOLD?
VERY SATISFIED
SATISFIED
NOT SATISFIED
Total
81
151
10
242
30.2
56.3
3.7
100.0
DO YOU RECEIVE OTHER FORMS OF
SUPPORT/CARE FROM INDIVIDUALS,
ORGANIZATIONS OR GOVERNMENT?
VERY ADEQUATE
ADEQUATE
58
123
61
21.6
45.9
22.8
250
FAIRLY ADEQUATE
Total
242 100.0
WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES OR
PROBLEMS YOU FACE IN THE HOUSEHOLD?
NONE
DISREGARD/LACK OF RESPECT
POVERTY
HEALTH ISSUES
LACK OF BASIC FACILITIES
Total
47
58
45
48
44
242
17.5
21.6
16.8
17.9
16.4
100.0
Interpretation of Findings
On the health status of the elderly in the area, more than one-half of the respondents
said they enjoy good health generally while more than one-quarter are in excellent conditions
as at the time of this research. This means a large population of elders within the area enjoy
good health. On the contrary, less than one-tenth of the respondents have either failing health
or bad conditions that require urgent medical expertise.
A very large number of respondents have not had any major health problems. This is a
sign that elderly ones are not prone to frequent and terminal health crisis and just a quarter of
the respondents have had major health crises.
The table further shows if the elderly are satisfied with the level of care received from
the household. It is obvious that the elderly are well taken care of within Ojo Local
Government Area as almost 100% of the respondents said they are well taken care of by their
household. Only a minute portion of the respondents said they are not well cared for.
As regards the adequacy of care been received from other individuals, organisations
and the government, it is seen from the table that more of the respondents are of the opinion
that those care facilities provided are adequate enough in meeting their needs.
One-quarter of the challenges faced by the elderly is more attributed to lack of respect
or disregard received from the younger populations which results to mental and emotional
distress. Less than one-tenth of the population are of the opinion that poverty and inability to
purchase the basic facilities to aid living constitute a challenge in meeting their needs. Other
251
problems faced by the elderly include health issues and lack of basic amenities but is was
also noted that over one-tenth of the population said they have no problems.
Table 4: Distribution showing Suggestions, Conclusions and Recommendations
VARIABLE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
WHO DO YOU THINK OUGHT TO GIVE THE
PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY TO LOOK AFTER
THE ELDERLY?
FAMILY/CHILDREN
GOVERNMENT
ELDERLY THEMSELVES
OTHERS
Total
140
62
18
22
242
52.2
23.1
6.7
8.2
100.0
ARE YOU AWARE OF ANY SPECIAL
FACILITIES WHICH PRIVATE
ORGANIZATIONS ARE PROVIDING FOR THE
ELDERLY?
Yes
NO
Total
144
98
242
53.7
46.3
100.0
The table 4.1.4 above revealed the opinions of respondents as regards who ought to be given
the primary responsibility to look after the elderly. It was observed that more than one-half of
the respondents are of the opinion that the family members or children should be responsible.
One-half of the respondents said the government should be responsible which in my opinion
should be in the area of prompt payment of pension arrears and less expensive medical
accessible facilities. Only a few of the respondents were a little bit sarcastic to have said the
elderly themselves.
Lastly, the table further showed that more than half of the respondents are aware of
special facilities been offered by private organisations to the elderly.
252
Results and Hypothesis Testing
Inferential statistics helps us infer from statistics that have been given in the
frequencies and description (all forming the descriptive statistics). It points out certain
meanings and important relationship which are hidden within the data. Hypothesis is simply a
conjectured statement about an unknown statistical parameter to which a test of inferential
analysis is carried out. The chi-square analysis was done using the statistical package for
social scientist (SPSS).
Hypothesis I
H
0
: There is no inverse relationship between intergenerational households and well-being of
the elderly.
H
1
: There is an inverse relationship between intergenerational households and well-being of
the elderly.
Table 4.1 Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
DO YOU PREFER
INTERGENERATION
AL HOUSEHOLD
ARRANGEMENTS? *
HOW IS YOUR
HEALTH STATUS
GENERALLY?
242 90.3% 26 9.7% 268 100.0%
253
DO YOU PREFER INTERGENERATIONAL HOUSEHOLD ARRANGEMENTS? * HOW IS
YOUR HEALTH STATUS GENERALLY? Crosstabulationn
Count
HOW IS YOUR HEALTH STATUS GENERALLY?
Total
EXCELLEN
T GOOD FAIR POOR
VERY
POOR
DO YOU PREFER
INTERGENERATION
AL HOUSEHOLD
ARRANGEMENTS?
YES 23 61 21 1 2 108
NO 37 78 16 1 2 134
Total 60 139 37 2 4 242
Table 4.2.2 Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 3.266
a
4 .514
Likelihood Ratio 3.260 4 .515
Linear-by-Linear
Association
2.383 1 .123
N of Valid Cases 242
a. 4 cells (40.0%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is .89.
254
Decision Rule
The chi-square calculated of 3.266 with 4 degree of freedom at 5% level of significance is
less than the decision criterion or the alpha level of 9.49, therefore the null hypothesis is
accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected. Hence, there is an inverse relationship
between intergenerational households and well-being of the elderly.
Hypothesis II
H
1
: There is no significant relationship between the income of the family and economic
H
0
: There is a significant relationship between the income of the family and economic
Table 4.2.3 Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
DO YOU RECEIVE
ANY GRATUITY/
PENSION? * ARE
YOU SATISFIED
WITH THE SUPPORT
YOU RECEIVE FROM
THE HOUSEHOLD?
242 90.3% 26 9.7% 268 100.0%
DO YOU RECEIVE ANY GRATUITY/ PENSION? * ARE YOU SATISFIED WITH
THE SUPPORT YOU RECEIVE FROM THE HOUSEHOLD? Crosstabulation
Count
ARE YOU SATISFIED WITH THE
SUPPORT YOU RECEIVE FROM THE
HOUSEHOLD? Total
255
VERY
SATISFIED SATISFIED
NOT
SATISFIED
DO YOU RECEIVE
ANY GRATUITY/
PENSION?
YES 32 75 1 108
NO 48 76 9 133
4.00 1 0 0 1
Total 81 151 10 242
Value Df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
a
4 .059
Linear-by-Linear
Association
.231 1 .631
4 cells (44.4%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is .04.
Decision Rule
The test statistics of 9.996 with 4 degree of freedom at 5% level of significance is
greater than the decision criterion of 9.49m therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and the
alternative hypothesis is accepted. Hence, there is a significant relationship between the
income of the family and economic stability of the elderly.
Hypothesis III
H
0
: There is no positive relationship between the levels of individualism in the family and
256
H
1
: There is positive relationship between the levels of individualism in the family and
Table 4.2.5 Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
ARE YOU LIVING WITH
ANY MEMBER OF
YOUR FAMILY? * DO
YOU RECEIVE OTHER
FORMS OF
SUPPORT/CARE FROM
INDIVIDUALS,
ORGANIZATIONS OR
GOVERNMENT?
242 90.3% 26 9.7% 268 100.0%
ARE YOU LIVING WITH ANY MEMBER OF YOUR FAMILY? * DO YOU
RECEIVE OTHER FORMS OF SUPPORT/CARE FROM INDIVIDUALS,
ORGANIZATIONS OR GOVERNMENT? Crosstabulation
Count
DO YOU RECEIVE OTHER FORMS OF
SUPPORT/CARE FROM INDIVIDUALS,
ORGANIZATIONS OR GOVERNMENT?
Total
VERY
ADEQUATE ADEQUATE
FAIRLY
ADEQUATE
ARE YOU LIVING
WITH ANY MEMBER
OF YOUR FAMILY?
YES 46 91 37 174
NO 12 32 24 68
Total 58 123 61 242
257
Value Df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
a
2 .059
Linear-by-Linear
Association
5.158 1 .023
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is 16.30.
Decision Rule
Decision Rule
The test statistics of 5.658 with 2 degrees of freedom at 5% level of significance is less
than the decision criterion of 5.99, therefore the null hypothesis is accepted and the
alternative hypothesis is rejected. Hence, there is no positive relationship between the levels
of individualism in the family and elderly care in Ojo Local Government Area.
4.3 Discussions of findings
This chapter has been to analyze all the data obtained from the field survey and
relevant test of hypotheses was carried out in order to answer the research questions and
achieve the research objectives. The results from the test carried out shows that there is an
inverse relationship between intergenerational households and well-being of the elderly. That
is, the well-being of the elderly is largely determined by the care and support received within
the household.
Also, the result from the test shows that there is a significant relationship between the
income of thee family and economic stability of the elderly. This also states that the more
viable ones income is, the more the care that would be given to the elderly.
258
Finally, it was revealed that there is no positive relationship between the levels of
individualism in the family and elderly care in Ojo Local Government. That is, the care
attributed to the elderly in the household does not depend solely on an individual or
individuals in the household but also other government, organizations, institutions are also to
cater for these senior citizens.
Conclusion
This study established the fact that there is no human society where the aged are not
present. The care for this group of people should be the major concern of the children and
family members of the aged, the government and the aged themselves during their active
years.
Our society must be transformed from act of seeing our aged or elderly as not a burden
but a gift that needs to be tapped from their wealth of experience about life. More attention
must be given to them to feel among when they are not dispersed off. The children and family
of the aged should show great concern to their old ones by taking good care of them
financially and materially.
Government must also rise up to their responsibilities by institutionalizing some schemes for
the benefits of the old. More policy making should not be encouraged but rather the
implementation of these schemes should be effected.
5.3. Recommendations
The following suggestions and recommendations are made based on the findings:
Firstly, people must not see the elderly people as a burden to the society but rather as a
custodian of customs and traditions, often critical to the survival of the group and must be
treated as such. The stereotypical perception about the ageing population must be corrected
so as to make life worthwhile for these members of the population, particularly having spent
the best part of their lives for the service of their society and community at large.
Secondly, on the part of the aged the idea that Government must do everything for us
syndrome should be discouraged. They should learn how to make provisions for themselves
during their active service years.
259
Thirdly on the part of Government, there must be with immediate effect review of all
the existing welfare policies for the aged in the country so as to make them beneficial to the
ageing population. Other areas of government need to focus include:
1.Government must make available to every elderly Nigerian adequate physical and mental
health care facility in both rural and urban centre.
2.There must be provision for adequate and decent accommodation for the elderly both in
urban and rural areas across the country.
3.The aged should be allowed to participate in the formulation and implementation of policy
that can address theirneeds and plights.
4.There should be income security for the elderly that is, empowering the elderly by giving
them special allowance most especially to those that do not have anybody to take care of
them within the localities.
5.Also more private organization should be encouraged to take part in the catering for the
elderly by providing the necessary facilities and incentives to make them work and gain
peoples acceptance.
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263
UDC:316.356.2:316.663
SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY OF CONTEMPORARY FAMILY
Baqir Sarukhani, PhD46
Faranak Seyyedi, PhD candidate 47
Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Family is dependent to social system, in many respects , but showing dependency, and degree of effectiveness
of family from society and social system is necessary . This paper has investigated family as social group
that our laws have not defined it clearly and its legal personality are not allowed. But in contemporary
society, state's influence was causing changes in privacy .In this paper, relying on literature of sociology
in relation family and government and put base on the Habermas theory , and relying on experience
to analyze effect rules on current situation in contemporary family. Using existing documents and
comments sociologists in this field was study guide. With studies done in different fields function,
family were identified: independent nature family in the past. But now family as a private sphere
with fading of roles and functions, with government entering into family privacy, it being dependent on
other Institutions, especially political institution and changed its nature, thus family defined by rules and
it is state family. Necessary maintenance and entity families privacy and its independence, creating a
public sphere in society, as the interface areas between the family and political institution. By creating
this area, and family with political institution and laws to coordinate action, families entity was
preserved.
Keywords : Family , function, privacy , public sphere , state family .
46
Full Professor in Department of Social Science and Research Branch ,Islamic Azad University ,Tehran , Iran .
47
PH.D candidate in Department of Social Science and Research Branch , Islamic Azad University ,Tehran , Iran .
264
Introduction
Fusion, and interaction between state and family in contemporary society, will be
more necessity of paying attention to institutional analysis and opinion about it. The
government's policy has penetrated in private life of individuals and huge range of facilities
its encompasses all aspects of family. Gradually, the government has involved all aspects of
daily life . Family will be surrounded from every direction in plans, which are represented
of same permanent contradiction of government actions. Family is dependent to social
system, in many respects ,but showing dependency, and degree of effectiveness of family
from society and political system, is not as the family encounter with state, which leads to
creation of critical hit, but this effects, with alignment leads to, better function of family.
Rosen Baum , believes that:
If the family is according to individual preferences, that can be experienced at least
freedom, comprehensive and being content. Fulfillment of individual aspirations is depending
on the social conditions which is considered that conditions determines the form of specific
of family . (Rosen Baum, 1367, 146)
The author believes that:
Family is center of emotion, sense, thus identifying head of families, according to the
law, it is contrary to the purpose and function of family and family leads into formal
organization with hierarchy of authority and power. Also if it is to be considered for family,
head .why should be head of man?
Why should not be selected on the basis of intellectual ability, physical, experience, skills,
merit, individual competencies?
The initial question:
Consider the most private decisions of us. For example: marriage.
We are claiming the right of free choice, but with regard to enormous social impact on
us choices, really, our choice, how can freely? Indeed, how far we are free in their decision
for marriage?
Whether is family decision-making center, in society, and is provided by state
institution?
If so, what changes would cause in family, and whether these changes can lead to family
breakdown?
265
In the past, the family was a natural group that law did not define it, but today is
defined by law, so is state family .Family occurs in a private space, but not very private,
which will be discussed, most of its functions. Most of problems and injuries that are
discussed in media and state laws and regulations and policies, to monitoring It . Family
issues, has been focus and it is thumbnail.
Public and private spheres
Balanced relationship between the public and private spheres, one of the important
things that should be considered. In other words, the extent of public sphere and private small
and vice versa, will create consequences for the individual and society. Therefore, should be
a balance of between these both field.In this article the author defines the public sphere
according to Habermas definitionand the government knows the meaning of governance
institution that placed at the head of the society and includes the institutions that create a
regulator of affairs. And the family knows the private sphere that field state has made
changes in it. On the other hand, there is a new definition from family based on the
perspective of the sociology of family and is creating a new kind of family, that it should be
studied and defined new norms for it. In this article , we trying to determine whether
intervention in this field will lead to weakening and disintegration of family or only cause
changes at it and we see a new kind of family?
The difference between natural law and state law
Natural law is with freedom, and without dominate of number over others, but state
law is without freedom, and with dominate of number over other people.
Definition of state Family
Sarukhani defines state family:
"State is entering into home; state of third hazaras is a omnipresent state. Its presence in
family is more and wider from everywhere. "(Labibi, 1388, 9)
Birth of state
In the past, the discovery of agriculture became mediator for state birth, although only
legitimate function of state which became entrusted by people, was to protect of life and
property.
266
Toffler knows beginning need to state, become subsistence economy, into agricultural
economy. He believes: complete state has every three tool of social control: wisdom, wealth,
violence potential. Stages before of these three , state is embryonic and incomplete.
Opinion author:
These three tools can be considered as follows:
Potential violence = laws
Wealth = opportunities
Wisdom = Preferences and valuation
Evidence from the ravages of family, from the viewpoint of Koenig
Koenig ravages of family knows though family functions has been transferred to
other institutions.
Today, job requirements, so that ever family are not able to provide job training to
children. Therefore, the job training have been granted to specific government institutions,
with trained personnel. On the other hand, smaller and economically without power of
family is an obstacle, in providing functions and provide protection of elderly and sick
members, that it is now granted to professional organizations.
Today, leisure of youth and family members has taken specific form. He
believes: that family is dependent in the daily feed intake, as well to public organizations,
such as those that are preparing foods for cooking. Even within the home repairs, is granted
to various organizations.
Thus, the activities within the family, has been reduced, which it mostly was focused
on production for domestic consumption. "(Azazy, 1386, 73-74)
Althusser's argument is that, all institutions of civil society is reproduce, in a sense,
the state. Althusser, so, can develop, scope, that reaches, to family. In fact, to cell of society,
and shows the family how to reproduce the state. "(ghani nejad and colleagues, 1377, 144)
Conclusion
Attention to realism, and emphasis on cultural and structural changes in family, is an
issue that has remained hidden from eyes experts of family areas and atmosphere of
political stroke. Unfortunately, it has led to intervention of state, in most institutions, and
267
especially family institution, which result is a crisis in family institution. Also, on the one
hand, modernists family, and On the other hand, intervention of institutions such as state in
the area of family, it has caused, many of experts declared, the decline and collapse of the
family.
SarukhanI argued that, those believe which family has been weakened or destroyed,
this group generally, do not look to family, in the framework of modern society, but they
make, own scale, based on patterns of traditional society and measure, with these criteria,
functions of, modern family institution. Today, in modern societies, and Like of modern ,
state is dominate on the family by law or create new patterns. The media, working every
day, in heart of home and create new values . New families is eaten even lunch and
breakfast outside of family, state and other organizations are responsible for many
functions. The author believes that : the government's actions must be undertaken in
coordination with needs of families, and should be, relations between state and family in
proper channels.
Considering that family has an important role in the development and strengthening of
balanced personality, but today this focus has been, administrator programs and, laws of
political - social and cultural.
So that, for example, changing the laws, such as, provide divorce, in the hands of
men, increased rates of divorce, And with change it and make Certification of lack of
compromise, reducing rates of divorce, but can be longer increasing trend .Or with the
divorce of agreement, increases its rate.
Also because , it is social factors being multiple, does not mean, human wholeness,
in the family, and human becomes multi-dimensional.
Prohibition are essential in any society, but more is needed, cautiously application.
For example: in cases where there are serious threats, both the government and families, have
agreement on it .Such as narcotics or rape or .... Even, These is a global agreement. However,
entering of state, in some cases, and generalization of this prohibition to other causes, it will
be more sensitive and more prominent, and in family occurs, a kind of resistance, instead of
cooperation. Prohibition are causing, creating a tension and the attraction, because actors are
always suspected, that something is prohibited, properties, and attributes is that, there is no,
in what is not forbidden. Therefore, the transfer of control to private sphere of family, is one
of the, main solutions. Every social system, should enhance their growth tools, with, to
maximize of capacity tolerability, and realization their freedom. For reaching to this, the
268
family should be, recognized as the private sphere and knew it. Being responsible, to mean
that these families, and all those who, believe, their identity, be able should have, too great
freedom, and they are respected, with their intelligence and rationality, which be able with his
creation and growth, and prevent from destruction of their identity. instead of prohibition,
they have right to choose, creating trust, and respect to the family, and the preservation of
their privacy, and having freedom.
References:
Amani, Mehdi (1380) general Demography of Iran, Tehran, published by samt.
Azazy, Shahla (1386) sociology of families, with emphasis on the role, structure and function
of family in contemporary, Tehran, publication of intellectuals, and women's studies.
Chyl, David (1388) families in today's world, translated by Mohammad Mehdi Labibi with
introduction of Baqir Sarukhany, Tehran, publication of thoughts.
Ghani nejad, Musa (1377), civil society and its relationship with religion, books of civil
society, and today Iran, Press, role & Negar, 141 -190.
Habermas, Jrgen (1380) The crisis of legitimacy: the theory of modern capitalist state,
translated by, Jahangir Moini, Tehran, New step publication.
Castells, Manuel (1385) Information Age: Economy, society and Culture (the emergence of
network society) translation of Ahad, AligoLian, A. Khakbaz, H. Chavoshyan, Volume I,
Fifth Edition, Tehran, press new plan.
Sarukhany , Baqir (1379). Introduction to Sociology of Family, Third Printing, Tehran,
Soroush Publications.
269
UDC: 338.439.4:316.344.2 (666.8)
DVELOPPEMENT ET CONSCIENCE SOCIALE EN CTE
d` IVOIRE: LES ENJEUX DU POUVOIR ALIMENTAIRE
Bouabre Gnoka Modeste, PhD
Enseignant-chercheur LInstitut des Sciences Anthropologiques du dveloppement (ISAD)
UFR des Sciences de lhommeet de la Socit Universit de Cocody (Abidjan) Rpublique de
Cte divoire.
Abstract:
Development problems in the Ivory Coast come up against the issue of social consciousness (Marx K. 1957) and
cultural correlated with that of the targeted food availability on the problem of power food (JP Bertrand, 1997).
In a posture of socio-anthropological development, accessibility food is put in connection with the method of
food production in the socio-economic life. Perceived lack of tangible and intangible obstacles in the game of
ownership and enjoyment biological, psychological, social and ritual food, food accessibility may have different
inclinations and specific. The power food (JP Bertrand, 1997) is one of those inclinations. The power induced
food relations of domination, of imperialism and homogenize see conflict in the game of production,
distribution, packaging, supply and food consumption. It promises to be a measure of original development. But
the power food can also be received as an indicator and vector development relevant?
Overall, we hold that subsistence farming, fishing and farming in the Ivory Coast are dominated, sometimes
archaic and very poorly mechanized (CNRA, 2003 cited in FAO, 2004). It still uses traditional tools and
techniques in the exploitation, cultural, pastoral and fisheries. It relies excessively, with machetes, the daba, to
slash and burn agriculture, the human force, rather than mechanical force (machine).
Food crops, livestock and fisheries are predominantly traditional, we cite as examples the rice sector (a very
small modern rice against a very strong upland rice providing 80% of rice production now) the fisheries sector
(a small fishing industry against a large continental scale fishing lagoon and sea providing 65% of national
production), the pastoral sector (a very low beef production areas in Guinea and Sudano-Guinean corresponding
to the south and center against a very strong production in the Sudan which is the northern part of ensuring 80%
of production). The traditional production and does not cover the national need in this area. Cte d'Ivoire, to fill
the remainder of its food needs, relies on imports. This maintains the Ivory Coast in a situation of dependency
and puts it under the power lines of international food supply and distribution of life.
270
However, the tradition can not be the only factor to blame in the matter. We must also open the analysis to other
horizons to include the existence of food policies and issues related to access to land.
Keywords: problems of development, social consciousness, Ivory Coast, food access, food
security, food self-sufficiency, food system, food production, food distribution, food
processing, food supply, food consumption, food crops, livestock, fisheries
Rsum:
La problmatique du dveloppement en Cte divoire bute sur la question de la conscience sociale (Marx K.
1957) et culturelle mise en corrlation avec celle de laccessibilit alimentaire cible sur le problme du pouvoir
alimentaire (Bertrand J.P., 1997). Dansune posture danalyse socio-anthropologique du dveloppement,
laccessibilitalimentaire se trouvemis en rapport avec le mode de production alimentairedans la vie socio-
conomique. Peruecommelabsenced'obstaclesmatrielsetimmatrielsdans le jeud'appropriation et de
jouissancebiologique, psychologique, sociale et cultuelle des vivres, laccessibilitalimentairepeutavoir des
inclinaisonsdiverses et spcifiques. Le pouvoiralimentaire (Bertrand J.P., 1997) estlune de cesinclinaisons. Le
pouvoiralimentaireinduit des rapports de domination, dhmognieetdimprialisme, voir de conflitsdans le jeu
de production, de distribution, de conditionnement, dapprovisionnement et de consommationalimentaire.
Ilsannoncecommeunemesureoriginale du dveloppement. Mais, le pouvoiralimentairepeut-
ilaussitrereucommeindicateuretvecteurpertinents du dveloppement?
De faon globale, nous retenons que lagriculture vivrire, la pche et llevage en Cte dIvoire sont
dominance, parfois archaques et trs faiblement mcanises (CNRA, 2003 cit par FAO, 2004). Lonutilise
encore aujourdhui des outilset techniques traditionnels en matiredexploitationculturale, pastorale et
halieutique. Lon recourt de faon excessive, la machette, la daba, la culture sur brlis, la force humaine,
plutt qu la force mcanique (machine).
Les productions vivrires, pastorales et halieutiques sont dominance traditionnelle ; comme exemples nous
citons le secteur rizicole (une trs faible riziculture moderne face une trs forte riziculture pluviale assurant
80% de la production rizicole actuelle) le secteur halieutique (une faible pche industrielle contre une forte
pche artisanale continentale lagunaire et maritime assurant 65% des productions nationales) le secteur pastoral
(une trs faible production bovine en zones guinenne et soudano-guinenne qui correspond la partie sud et
centre contre une trs forte production en zone soudanienne qui correspond la partie nord assurant 80% de la
production). La production traditionnelle ne permet pas ainsi de couvrir le besoin national en la matire. La Cte
dIvoire, pour combler le reste de sesbesoins en vivres, recourt limportation. Cette situation maintien la Cte
dIvoire dansune situation de dpendanceet la met sous le pouvoiralimentaire des
lignesinternationalesdapprovisionnement et de distribution de vivre.
271
Toutefois, la tradition ne saurait tre le seul facteur incriminer en la matire.
Ilfautaussiouvrirlanalyseversdautres horizons notammentverslexistence de politiquesalimentaires et vers les
questions affrentes laccs terre.
Mots-cls: problmatique de dveloppement, conscience sociale, Cte divoire, accessibilit
alimentaire, scurit alimentaire, autosuffisance alimentaire, systme alimentaire, de
production alimentaire, distribution alimentaire, conditionnement alimentaire,
approvisionnement alimentaire, consommation alimentaire, agriculture vivrire, levage,
pche
Introduction
La problmatique du dveloppement en Cte divoire pose le problme de
laccessibilit alimentaire articul avec celui de la conscience sociale (Karl Marx, 1859) et
culturelle. L'accessibilit alimentaire, que nous dfinissons comme une absence d'obstacles
matriels et immatriels dans le jeu d'appropriation et de jouissance biologique,
psychologique, sociale et cultuelle des vivres, se constitue en mesure pertinente des
indicateurs et vecteurs du dveloppement. Elle reste tributaire du mode de production
alimentaire dans la vie socio-conomique et surtout de la conscience sociale et culturelle dont
est lmanation. L'accessibilit alimentaire se rvle nous sous plusieurs formes et types
diffrents entre autre le pouvoir alimentaire. Celui-ci implique des rapports de domination,
dhmognie, dimprialisme voir de conflit, dans le jeu de production, de distribution, de
conditionnement, dapprovisionnement et de consommation alimentaire. En effet, dans
lappropriation et la jouissance alimentaire, les hommes, les communauts, les pays nouent
des rapports volontaires dtermins et ncessaires soit dgalit, de domination ou de
subordination. Ces rapports de production sont caractristiques du degr de dveloppement.
L'ensemble de ces rapports forme la structure socio-conomique de lappropriation et de
jouissance alimentaire reflet de la conscience sociale. Cette structure dans un prolongement
systmique, domine en gnral le dveloppement de la vie en socit et dtermine le pouvoir
alimentaire. Cela est plus explicite et observable, avec beaucoup de clart, dans les pays en
dveloppement comme la Cte dIvoire. On peut donc aisment entrevoir les enjeux du
pouvoir alimentaire en Cte dIvoire. Ne peut-on pas situer ces enjeux par rapport la
conscience sociale ivoirienne qui entretient une tension entre la tradition et la modernit,
entre la cohsion sociale et lantagonisme politique, entre le conservatisme culturel et
272
louverture vers le changement ? Le systme alimentaire ivoirien nest-il pas tiraill sous la
double influence de modes de production et de conditionnement alimentaire endognes et
traditionnels dune part, exogne, tantt moderne dautre part ? Un tel systme peut-il
suffisamment souvrir au dveloppement de sorte forger, consolider et accrotre le
pouvoir alimentaire de la cte dIvoire capable de saffranchir des lignes internationales
d'approvisionnement alimentaire ? Pour rpondre ces interrogations, nous referons dabord
aux travaux antrieurs, puis dfinirons nos objectifs ; ensuite, nous exposerons, nos
hypothses de recherche et notre mthodologie dapproche en vue du contrle de ces
hypothses avant de conclure notre tude.
Revue des travaux
Pour tre la hauteur d'une vritable tache critique, il faudrait ici pouvoir analyser
successivement, aprs avoir dcrit le cheminement propre dans les limites d'une totalit close,
les thmatiques qui se construisant partir de la problmatique du dveloppement en Cte
divoire en posant le problme de laccessibilit alimentaire travers le sujet du pouvoir
alimentaire articul avec celui de la conscience sociale et culturelle. Ainsi il sagit pour nous,
de passer en revue les travaux scientifiques qui enserrent dans les mailles d'une
argumentation serre de cette totalit thmatique.
Conscience sociale et culturelle
La Rpublique du Congo (2006) dans son rapport, aborde cinq principales
proccupations dont une porte sur le lien entre la gouvernance, le dveloppement
communautaire, la cohsion sociale et le dveloppement humain durable. Par cette tude, il
nous rvl que le dveloppement pouvait tre mis en relation avec la cohsion sociale, et que
la corrlation de lun et de lautre pouvait tre envisage. Do Mbonyinkebe Sebahire (2004),
Eugne NINDORERA(2004) labordent sous le rapport de lidentit. Or lexistence dune
cohsion sociale, de lidentit sociale ou nationale implique celle dune certaine conscience
sociale quvoque Karl Marx (1957) ou dune conscience collective certaine dont fait
mention Emile Durkheim (2004). Et la rfrence la conscience sociale ou la conscience
collective dans une socit traditionnelle, dans une communaut dominance traditionnelle
ou dans un pays plus moins li avec la tradition, pose le rapport la parent laquelle fait
allusion Claude Lvi-Strauss (2002), et met en perspective le terme dethnie qutudient
TERRAY Emmanuel (1969) et BONI Dian (1970) et reposent la question de la gense de la
Cte divoire en tant quentit socioculturelle aux coordonnes prcises, en tant quidentit
nationale marque par moment de crise, quexposent Anouma Ren-Pierre (2006), Amondji
273
Marcel (2004), Bruno Losch, Sandrine Mespl-Somps, Jean-Pierre Chauveau et Bernard
Contamin (2003).
A propos de la conscience sociale, Karl Marx (1957) disaient que Dans la
production sociale de leur existence, les hommes nouent des rapports dtermins, ncessaires,
indpendants de leur volont ; ces rapports de production correspondent un degr donn du
dveloppement de leurs forces productives matrielles. L'ensemble de ces rapports forme ; la
structure conomique de la socit, la fondation relle sur laquelle s'lve un difice juridique
et politique, et quoi rpondent des formes dtermines de la conscience sociale.
Emile Durkheim (2004) pour sa part, sagissant de la conscience collective, montre
que les socits traditionnelles sont caractrises par une solidarit mcanique reposant sur
l'absence de diffrenciation et de spcialisation de leurs membres, contrairement aux socits
industrielles caractrises par une solidarit organique reposant sur une diffrenciation et une
spcialisation de leurs membres.
En ce qui le concerne, Claude Lvi-Strauss (2002) construit son analyse partir de la
diversit des systmes de parent australiens, asiatiques, africains qui slabore dans le
mariage avec un certain type de parents. Ainsi pour Claude Lvi-Strauss, l'extraordinaire
varit des systmes de parent empiriques n'est intelligible qu'a condition de la rduire un
nombre limit de modles, composant ensemble un mta-systme (une structure) au sein
duquel chaque socit particulire retient, pour des raisons qui nous chappent, une forme
particulire. L'exogamie est la face positive de la prohibition de l'inceste. Elle implique la
ncessit de l'change des femmes, principe rgulateur des rgles de mariage et de parent.
L-dessus, Dan Sperber (1968), a mis des rserves d'un point de vue formel.
Parent, conscience collective, conscience sociale et pourquoi pas identit nationale ;
des concepts voisins qui butent sur la question de la problmatique du dveloppement en
Cte divoire. Comment aborde-t-on ce sujet ?
Problmatique du dveloppement
Le dveloppement, Any-Gbayere Sahou,(2006) le met en rapport avec la Politique
ducative ; Alain Lery et Patrice Vimard, (2001) ; AMIN SAMIR (1967) soutient la thse
d'une croissance conomique "sans dveloppement" ; Jean-Louis Rastoin (2006a, 2006b,
2011) explore, partir du concept de dveloppement durable, les pistes relatives la
faisabilit dune alternative au systme alimentaire agro-industriel. La Rpublique de Cte
274
d'Ivoire (1993) expose les raisons de llaboration du Plan Directeur du Dveloppement
Agricole 1992/2015.
Revenant AMIN SAMIR (1967), nous observons quil analyse les mcanismes du
"miracle" ivoirien de 1950-1965, et en particulier des "aspects les plus mconnus" d'une
croissance conomique "sans dveloppement", "engendre et entretenue de l'extrieur":
l'volution de la distribution sociale du revenu et les structures du financement.
Jean-Louis Rastoin (2006a, 2006b, 2011) sinterroge, dans un monde en voie de
domination par un systme alimentaire agro-industriel et agro-tertiaire, sur la faisabilit dun
modle alternatif. Il labore deux scnarios prospectifs dont lun tendanciel (le march plus la
science) et lautre de rupture (changement de modle) pour le systme mondial, aprs un tat
des lieux assortis des questions (dont le droit lalimentation et la souverainet alimentaire:
utopies) et recommandations (les politiques daccompagnement) aux auteurs et aux
politiques.
La Rpublique de Cte d'Ivoire (1993) explique la naissance de ce plan par de la
volont de doter le secteur agricole au sens large d'un instrument de politique pour cette
priode 1992/2015. Il sappui sur les orientations macro-conomiques et les choix politiques
dfinis dans le cadre du Plan de Stabilisation et de Relance de l'Economie labor en 1990
par le Gouvernement, lors des ngociations avec les Bailleurs de Fonds des Programmes
d'Ajustement du Secteur Agricole. On note bien que la corrlation entre dveloppement et
alimentation est bien naturelle, du moins si on se rfre aux travaux prcdents [Jean-Louis
Rastoin (2006a, 2006b, 2011) ;La Rpublique de Cte d'Ivoire (1993)]
Pouvoir alimentaire
Le pouvoir alimentaire sapprhende, comme le fait dutiliser la fourniture d'aliment
pour faire pression sur un partenaire ou un adversaire (Bertrand J.P., 1997). La question de
laccessibilit alimentaire dbattue par politiques et chercheur, est abord par ZOURE
Thophane (2010), sous langle du rgime juridique du commerce des produits agricoles dans
le droit de lOrganisation Mondiale du Commerce (l'OMC), Jean-Franois Wen, 2001,
travers le pouvoir de march dans lalimentation de dtail, Emmanuelle Cheyns, Nicolas
Bricas, (2003), dans loptique de la construction de la qualit des produits alimentaires,
Collomb Ph (1999) dans un pronostic pessimiste et alarmiste sur les perspectives de la
scurit alimentaire d'ici 2050 ; Crosset-Perrotin [1965 cit par Nguessan Y, (http:/
/www.fao.org/ DOCREP/ 005/ Y6159T/ y6159t05.htm)] par la formulation de
275
recommandations pour la riziculture irrigue en Cte divoire, Aw, D. et Gsten, R. [1975
cit par Nguessan (http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y6159T/y6159t05.htm)] en comparant
les diffrents systmes de riziculture en Cte d'Ivoire, AFFOU Y.S, (2000) portant son intrt
au sujet de la relve paysanne en Cte-d'Ivoire, Kouabl N., (2003 ;2005), par lexpos de la
situation agricole et alimentaire et les opportunits dchanges dans le Sahel et en Afrique de
lOuest.
A la suite des chercheurs prcdents, des structures nationales, sous-rgionales et
mondiales ont consacr des tudes sur les questions alimentaires en Cte dIvoire. Il sagit de
lAgence Nationale dappui et de Dveloppement (ANADER), lUnion Economique et
Montaire Ouest Africaine (UEMOA), lOrganisation des Nations Unies pour l'Alimentation
et l'Agriculture (FAO), le Programme des Nations de Unies pour le Dveloppement (PNUD).
LANADER (2009) pose partir des manifestations de colre des populations qui ont eu lieu
les 31 mars et 1er avril 2008, baptises par la presse occidentale dmeutes de la faim , le
problme de la scurit alimentaire des pays en dveloppement.
Pour lUEMOA (2002) les performances de l'conomie ivoirienne reposent en grande partie
sur le secteur agricole qui contribue environ au tiers du PIB et emploie plus de 60% de la
population active. La situation alimentaire se caractrise toutefois par des dficits importants
ncessitant des importations massives de denres alimentaires reprsentant plus de 20% des
importations totales en valeur (soit environ 350 millions de $EU par an).
La FAO/PAM (2004) expose une vue densemble qui reflte une crise de pauvret et
dinscurit alimentaire qui va saggravant. Le potentiel de changement en 2004 est norme,
de sorte quun suivi rgulier de laccs des populations aux intrants agricoles et aux marchs,
de mme celui de leur tat sanitaire et nutritionnel est crucial.
Le PAM (2006, 2007, 2009) dans le cadre de son intervention en Cte dIvoire, en
collaboration avec la FAO, a men une valuation approfondie de la scurit alimentaire des
mnages, afin de disposer de donnes rcentes sur les indicateurs-cls de la scurit
alimentaire et de dfinir un programme dassistance adapt aux besoins des populations en
inscurit alimentaire.
La revue des travaux portant sur les questions alimentaires, de dveloppement, de
conscience sociale et culturelle dans le monde et en Afrique en gnral, en Cte d'Ivoire en
particulier, ne parviennent pas, pris individuellement ou dans leur globalit, combler le vide
276
scientifique notamment heuristique et pistmologique mettant en rapport le triptyque
problmatique du dveloppement-conscience sociale-pouvoir alimentaire. Cest pourquoi il
apparat pertinent, bien plus, imprieux pour nous chercheurs de pays du sud o les
problmes de dveloppement ne paraisse pas aussi simple quon le croirait, dexplorer et
dexploiter cette totalit triptyque afin de saisir au mieux le caractre connexe de la question.
Nous serons donc amen fixer nos objectifs et formuler des hypothses ventuelles de
travail.
Objectifs
Nous dfinissons un objectif gnral clat en deux objectifs spcifiques.
Objectif gnral
Nous visons dvoiler les interconnexions triangulaires et circulaires entre le dveloppement,
la conscience sociale et culturelle, et le pouvoir alimentaire.
Objectifs spcifiques
Nous cherchons :
identifier les corrlations triangulaires entre dveloppement, conscience sociale et culturelle,
et pouvoir alimentaire.
En apprcier les incidences circulaires induites.
Hypothses
Comme hypothses nous formulons une hypothse conceptuelle et deux hypothses
oprationnelles.
Hypothse conceptuelle
Notre analyse est construite autour de lhypothse conceptuelle suivante : un systme
alimentaire dinfluence traditionnelle comme reflet dune conscience sociale (Karl Marx,
1859) et culturelle elle-mme forte tendance traditionnelle, ne peut aucunement se librer
du pouvoir alimentaires des lignes sous-rgionales et mondiales.
Cette hypothse conceptuelle sclate en deux hypothses oprationnelles.
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Hypothses oprationnelles :( H1 et H2)
La dpendance de la Cte dIvoire du pouvoir alimentaire (Bertrand J.P., 1997) des
lignes internationales dapprovisionnement (Christophe Nado Ottey, 1997) et daide
alimentaires sexplique par :
Son systme alimentaire [Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) 2011]
dominance traditionnel reflet dune conscience sociale (Karl Marx, 1957) et plus tourne vers
la tradition que vers une organisation moderne ; (Hypothse : H1).
une conscience sociale (Karl Marx, 1859) et culturelle dinfluence traditionnelle porte vers
des productions alimentaires moins de masse que de subsistance ; (Hypothse : H2).
Mthodologie
Lintitul du sujet de ltude Dveloppement et conscience sociale en Cte
dIvoire : les enjeux du pouvoir alimentaire circonscrit en partie le champ gographique de
recherche qui est ici la Cte dIvoire. Cependant notre enqute na pas entirement couvert
tout le pays, car lampleur de lanalyse nous a oblig prendre quelques exemples
significatif, cest--dire choisir certaines villes et certaines zones dexploitation rizicole,
pastorale, piscicole et de pche dont linfluence en matire de la dynamique alimentaire est
trs importante sur lvolution du reste du pays.
Prsentation du site de ltude
Notre tude s'est effectue en Cte d'Ivoire dans huit (8) localits dont Daloa,
Abidjan ainsi que dans certaines des localits proches (Grand-Bassam, Anyama et
Bingerville), Aboisso, Adiak, Ayam, et dans les zones dexploitation rizicoles, pastorales,
piscicoles et de pche qui leur sont rattaches(voir carte N1)
278
Carte N1 prsentant le site de ltude
Echantillonnage :
Jan Vansina (1965,) disait : nimporte qui nest pas capable de rendre tmoignage
de certain faits appartenant au pass. Le tmoin doit tre quelquun qui, du fait de son statut
peut avoir connaissance des faits recherches () le bon tmoin est lhomme ordinaire qui
possde un statut lui permettant de connatre les traditions . Lenqute a essentiellement
consist, partir dun chantillon accidentel [Paul Nda (2002) sans une base de sondage,
nous avons interrog les individus au fur et mesure quils se prsentaient nous)] par
effet boule de neige en entretiens de type semi-directif. Ainsi, au niveau des informations
sur les exploitations rizicoles, piscicoles, pastorales, de pche nous nous sommes adress aux
acteurs [riziculteurs, pcheurs (traditionnels et modernes), pisciculteurs, leveurs] eux-mmes
et aux acteurs qui sont impliques dans le systme alimentaire savoir les techniciens (de la
279
riziculture, de la pisciculture, de llevage et de la pche), les commerants des produits
alimentaires et les consommateurs des localits cibles.
Echantillon :
Tableau T1 : rpartition par qualit (catgorie socioprofessionnelles des enqute)
Mthode de collecte dinformation :
Prenant en compte les tudes quantitatives antrieures des structures nationales, sous-
rgionales et mondiales comme le ministre de l'agriculture et des ressources halieutiques,
lOffice de Commercialisation de Produits Vivriers [(OCPV Kouabl N., (2003 ;2005),]
Centre Nationale de Recherche Agronomique (CNRA) [cit par la FAO/PAM (2004)] et
l'Institut National de la Statistique (INS, 1996) de la Cte d'Ivoire, l'Organisation des Nations
Unies pour l'Alimentation et l'Agriculture (FAO, 2004), sur les questions alimentaires en
Cte d'Ivoire, nous avons recouru dans la collecte des informations la recherche
documentaire, l'observation directe et l'entretien semi directif.
Methode danalyse : gntique et systmique
Comme mthode danalyse nous distinguons la dmarche gntique de la dmarche
systmique.
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280
La dmarche gntique
La mthode gntique, cherche la gense des vnements, cest--dire les antcdents.
Comme lhistoire, la gntique rpond la question quand ? Mais ses rponses au pourquoi et
au comment ont un autre sens. Elles impliquent une histoire, mais ce nest pas lhistoire
succession. Cette mthode consiste en effet pour nous, observer les faits se rapportant au
dveloppement, la conscience sociale et culturelle, au pouvoir alimentaire, non pas
seulement en les dnombrant, mais en appliquant les principes de la critique historique ou de
la statistique ; systmatiser ces faits, cest--dire dmler sous des changements apparents
des identits fondamentales du dveloppement, de la conscience sociale et culturelle, du
pouvoir alimentaire.
La dmarche systmique
La systmique - du grec systema , ensemble organis - est une mthode
scientifique qui applique la thorie systmique comme moyen de comprendre un systme.
L. von Bertalanffy (2002) en dfinissant les systmes comme des ensembles d'lments en
interaction , suggrait implicitement le systmisme comme une approche globale, une
vision holistique. Ainsi le systmisme nous permet d'aborder des sujets complexes qui taient
rfractaires l'approche parcellaire. Le recours au systmisme nous a permis donc de mettre
en vidence les relations en tant quensembles organiss que tissent les questions de
dveloppement, de conscience sociale et culturelle, de pouvoir alimentaire.
Les deux dmarches prcdentes nous servions dans lanalyse, linterprtation et
discussion de rsultats ; en somme le contrle des hypothse formules.
Test dhypothses : (H1 et H2)
Nous allons par les analyses gntique et systmique examiner dabord si en Cte
divoire, la conscience sociale est dinfluence traditionnelle et ensuite voir si cette influence
traditionnelle stant aussi au systme alimentaire.
Une conscience sociale et culturelle dinfluences traditionnelle
Karl Marx (1859) disaient que Dans la production sociale de leur existence, les
hommes nouent des rapports dtermins, ncessaires, indpendants de leur volont ; ces
rapports de production correspondent un degr donn du dveloppement de leurs forces
productives matrielles. L'ensemble de ces rapports forme ; la structure conomique de la
socit, la fondation relle sur laquelle s'lve un difice juridique et politique, et quoi
rpondent des formes dtermines de la conscience sociale. Le mode de production de la vie
281
matrielle domine en gnral le dveloppement de la vie sociale, politique et intellectuelle.
Ce n'est pas la conscience des hommes qui dtermine leur existence, c'est au contraire leur
existence sociale qui dtermine leur conscience. A un certain degr de leur dveloppement,
les forces productives matrielles de la socit entrent en collision avec les rapports de
production existants, ou avec les rapports de proprit au sein desquels elles s'taient mues
jusqu'alors, et qui n'en sont que l'expression juridique. Hier encore formes de dveloppement
des forces productives, ces conditions se changent en de lourdes entraves. Alors commence
une re de rvolution sociale. Le changement dans les fondations conomiques s'accompagne
d'un bouleversement plus ou moins rapide dans tout cet norme difice. Quand on considre
ce bouleversement il faut toujours distinguer deux ordres de choses. Il y a le bouleversement
matriel des conditions de production conomique. On doit le constater dans l'esprit de
rigueur des sciences naturelles. Mais il y a aussi les formes juridiques, politiques, religieuses,
artistiques, philosophiques, bref les formes idologiques, dans lesquelles les hommes
prennent conscience de ce conflit et le poussent jusqu'au bout. Cette assertion marxienne
laisse entrevoir les rapports quil peut exister, dune part entre le mode de production et le
dveloppement, et dautre part entre le dveloppement et la conscience sociale.
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Mise en rapport des consciences sociales et culturelles face aux dveloppement
Entendu comme des rapports de domination et de subornation entre des acteurs
sociaux (des individus, des groupes sociaux ou classes sociales) dans lappropriation des
vivres, le pouvoir alimentaire implique des rapports aux modes de production et au
dveloppement. Cela dautant plus que le pouvoir alimentaire sobserve, en dfinitive,
comme le fait dutiliser la fourniture d'aliment pour faire pression sur un partenaire ou un
adversaire(Bertrand J.P., 1997). Le pouvoir alimentaire devient ainsi un concept qui permet
de nous frayer une perspective pertinente danalyse socio-anthropologique du dveloppement
mise en rapport avec la conscience sociale ou la conscience collective selon lexpression
dEmile Durkheim [Emile Durkheim (1893)]
Le concept de conscience collective, qui renvoie la conception dune socit
comparable un tre psychique [Emile Durkheim (1893)] existant en dehors des
individus et dot de sa propre conscience, sinscrit dans les proccupations du sociologue
283
mile Durkheim face aux transformations du lien social. Durkheim observe que la
conscience collective est lune des caractristiques des socits traditionnelles, o la
solidarit est de type mcanique , [Emile Durkheim (1893)] cest--dire que les pratiques,
les valeurs et les croyances y sont trs peu diffrencies comme dans le cas de lethnie.
La notion anthropologique, sociologique et mme dmographique d'ethnie dont les
racines remontent aux matrices familiales, lignagres, claniques ou tribales, est au cur de la
conscience sociale et culturelle en Cte dIvoire. Pour saisir le sens de ces diffrentes units,
il convient d'avoir constamment prsent l'esprit que dans une socit de type lignager
comme de type centralis monarchique, tout s'articule autour de la notion de descendance
[Claude Lvi-Strauss (1967)].
Chaque groupe compte en fait des entits qui lui ont t imposes par les impratifs
particuliers de son histoire; aussi, le canevas prsent ici, ne fournit-il qu'un cadre de
rfrence, la notion de descendance, de la parent. [Claude Lvi-Strauss (1967)].
Le cadre gographique et l'appartenance tel ou tel grand groupement ethnique permet
de dfinir (indpendamment de son contenu exact) nanmoins le niveau de rfrence
indispensable une analyse plus fine de l'organisation sociale traditionnelle ivoirienne dont
se trouve en grande en partie tributaire la Cte dIvoire moderne. Par-del l'uniformit de la
culture au sein des grands groupes nest pas toujours vrifie. Lon hsite souvent de parler
de conscience collective [Emile Durkheim (1893)] au singulier dans ce pays. En effet des
consciences sociales [Karl Marx (1859)] et culturelle particulires, spcifiques, htroclites,
dinfluence socioculturel, consciences tantt juxtaposes ou en interconnexion, tantt en
cohsion sociale ou antagonistes [Bruno Losch, Sandrine Mespl-Somps, Jean-Pierre
Chauveau et Bernard Contamin (2003)] souvent disparates ou diffuse, cheval entre la
tradition et la modernit, prises dans un jeu dialectique de dconstruction et de reconstruction
articulent lorganisation socio-conomique de la Cte divoire. Les formes que prennent les
agencements de la vie en socit, d'une rgion l'autre, d'un groupement ethnique l'autre,
ncessitent, en effet, une approche plus nuance et implique surtout une analyse pertinente
des indicateurs et des vecteurs de dveloppement comme le pouvoir alimentaire.
En outre, il est noter que les consciences sociales [Karl Marx (1859)] et culturelles
particulires, manation des groupes ethniques en Cte dIvoire, tardent, rsistent et refusent
parfois de fusionner en conscience homogne. Nous observons donc, en Cte dIvoire, avec
la clart de lvidence, lexistence de conscience sociale htrogne dinfluence traditionnelle
284
avec par endroit des points douverture vers la modernit et le changement, effritant,
miettant, parcellisant ainsi les possibilits inoues de constitution, de raffermissement et de
bonification du pouvoir socio-conomique en gnral et de ses expressions spcifiques
comme le pouvoir alimentaire. En effet, face aux potentialits indniables en matire de terre
cultivable, de ressources halieutiques et pastorales, les groupes ethniques peuplant la Cte
dIvoire impriment une dynamique de choix qui induit un ordre de prfrences alimentaires.
Ces matrices ethniques vont ds lors emprunter des parcours alimentaires diffrents mme
sils sentrecroisent par moment. En consquence, plutt quune adhsion populaire aux
filires traditionnelles de production vivrire (les crales, les tubercules, les racines, les
fruits et les marachers) il aura une adhsion slective, culturelle et rgionale. Comme
corollaire, la production alimentaire savre insuffisante pour lensemble de la population. La
Cte divoire devra, travers limportation, constamment demeurer sous linfluence de
pouvoirs alimentaires des lignes internationales dapprovisionnement et de distribution des
vivres.
Un systeme alimentaire dinfluence traditionnelle
La problmatique du dveloppement en Cte divoire articule le problme de
laccessibilit alimentaire port par le systme alimentaire. Il savre ncessaire den dfinir
les composantes pour en valuer les potentialits.
Nous observons que la Cte dIvoire est tributaire de son anthropologie comme
champ dexpression des matrices ethniques qui la composent. Il sagit de matrices ethniques
en tant quentits groupales organises dcomposables en tribus, clans, lignages et familles. Il
sagit aussi de matrices ethniques en tant que socles institutionnelles des traditions et des
cultures ivoiriennes structures en organisations sociales (mariages, ftes, funrailles) en
organisations conomiques (travail agricole, chasse, cueillette, artisanat) en organisations
politiques (dmocraties villageoises, monarchie, caste) en organisations religieuses
(animisme croyance centrale qui dispute lespace religieux avec le christianisme, lislam,
dautres religions africaines et trangres).
Il sagit enfin de matrices ethniques en tant que base angulaire des consciences
collectives (sentiment dunit ou de diffrence, tradition alimentaire ou vestimentaire,
rfrence en matire de justice, dquit, de travail, de productivit, de performance, de
russite, de grandeurs, de sant, de bien tre, de prosprit, de pouvoir, dautorit, de
responsabilit, de gestion, desthtique, dart) des reprsentations socioculturelles
285
(reprsentations des valeurs morales, conomiques, politiques et religieuses). Ces matrices
ethniques orientent les choix alimentaires et impriment le schma dexploitation agricole,
pastorale et halieutique. En effet, les habitudes alimentaires correspondent une logique de
choix li, dans un premier temps, des considrations culturelles et rgionales.
Les filires traditionnelles de production vivrire sont ventiles entre les crales (mil,
sorgho, mas), les tubercules et les racines (manioc, igname, patate douce), les fruits (banane,
mangue, papaye) et les divers (graine du palmier, noix de coco et condiments) ; et les
productions destines principalement l'exportation savoir la banane, lananas (FAO,
2004). Dans les rgions rurales du nord (savane) prdominent les repas base de mil, de
mas, de fonio, de sorgho et d'igname. Les plats sont souvent constitus d'une bouillie ou pte
(th) accompagne d'une sauce compose de lgumineuses (arachides, haricots) et de feuilles.
Le lait frais de vache et quelques fruits (papayes, citrons, mangues) sont aussi consomms en
zone de savane.
Au sud (fort) les fculents sont les aliments de base: igname, banane plantain, taro.
Dans le centre, l'igname et les bananes piles, sont mlanges au manioc sous forme de pte
trs paisse (foutou). Plus au sud, le manioc est parfois ferment (semoule de manioc ou
attiek). Les sauces d'accompagnement sont base d'huile de palme et de lgumes, avec de la
viande ou du poisson. Nous assistons une persistance des strotypes alimentaires.
Les Malink (nord) prfrent le mas dont la farine sert la prparation du th, une
sorte de bouillie trs paisse ou pte. On constate alors que ligname, le manioc et la banane
sont surtout utiliss dans la cuisine des Akan (centre, est, et sud) tandis quen plus du manioc
et de la banane plantain, les Krou (centre-ouest, sud-ouest, ouest) se nourrissent de beaucoup
de riz. La civilisation Krou par exemple est une civilisation de clairire. En effet les Krou
pratiquaient la culture itinrante sur brlis, le riz est la nourriture de base, socialement la plus
valorise; le manioc et le mas constituent des nourritures d'appoint. L'levage est peu
dvelopp, mais le boeuf, objet jadis d'importantes fonctions rituelles (mariage, funrailles),
tient toujours une place de choix dans le patrimoine lignager Krou. Si les populations ctires
s'adonnent traditionnellement la pche, la chasse (chasse collective au filet chez les Dida et
les Godi, chasse individuelle au fusil ailleurs, pigeage) continue tre pratique chez les
Krou de l'intrieur, dans une fort encore riche en gibiers.
Ces prfrences alimentaires vont guider le choix et la vocation dans les domaines
agricoles, de pche et dlevage de ces groupes ethniques faces aux potentialits immenses de
286
la Cte dIvoire en matire de terre cultivable, de ressources halieutiques et pastorales.
Chaque ethnie exerce dabord des activits agricoles, de pche et dlevage qui produisent ce
quelle consomme (activit socio-conomique de subsistance) aprs suivent, pour des raisons
conomiques, les autres activits agricoles, de pche et dlevage.
Selon une communication du Centre national de recherches agronomiques (CNRA) en
mars 2003 intitule Situation actuelle du secteur agricole et perspectives du
dveloppement , (cit par FAO, 2004) 86,9% des exploitations utilisent une main-duvre
familiale. Lagriculture est essentiellement manuelle; seulement 4,4% des exploitations
utilisent la traction animale, surtout dans le Nord. Moins de 1% des exploitations disposent
dun tracteur ou dun motoculteur; 8% possdent des pulvrisateurs. La mme source indique
une utilisation des fumures sur 18% des parcelles dont 14% reoivent de la fumure minrale.
Le CNRA estime que 40% des exploitations agricoles comportent un levage, gnralement
de type traditionnel.
De faon globale, nous retenons que lagriculture ivoirienne est dominance, parfois
archaque et trs faiblement mcanise. Lon utilise encore aujourdhui des outils et
techniques culturales rudimentaires. Lon recourt de faon excessive la machette, la daba,
la culture sur brlis, la force humaine, plutt qu la force mcanique (machine).
Lanalyse de lactivit de production laisse observer que le capital humain (les savoirs
et les comptences des acteurs en matire agricole, halieutique et pastorale) est domin par
les analphabtes ou les dscolariss du cycle primaire en gnrale et dans une moindre
mesure, par les dscolariss du premier du cycle secondaire. Cest donc un capital humain
trs faible niveau et peu qualifi, reparti en groupe. En effet, les cultures vivrires et
marachres ont deux types de main duvre. Nous notons premirement, une main duvre
dominance ivoirienne porte plus vers les cultures pluviales quirrigues des denres entrant
dans la confection de repas de type ivoirien (les marachers comme le piment, laubergine, le
gombo, larachide, loignon, lail et bien dautres denres entrant dans la confection des
sauces de type ivoirien dune part et dautre part les cultures vivrires comme le riz, le mas,
le mil, le sorgho, ligname, le manioc, le taro, la patate, la banane plantain et bien dautres
vivriers entrant dans la confection des plats de rsistance). Cette main duvre est mixte
(masculine et fminine) mais avec une forte prsence fminine pour les marachers et une
forte prsence masculine pour les autres vivriers.
287
Deuximement, une main duvre dominance allognes porte plus vers la culture
pluviale quirrigues des denres entrant dans la confection de repas de type ivoirien, des
cultures irrigues du riz et des denres entrant dans la confection de repas de type occidental
(carotte, choux, laitue, concombre, oignon, ail, persille, courgette, pastque); cest une main
doeuvre mixte (masculine et fminine) mais avec une forte prsence masculine pour les
vivriers tout comme pour les marachers. Ceci parce que les allognes sont des immigrants en
majorit clibataires dans leur dbut, et finissent par se marier en retournant, dans la plupart
des cas, chercher leurs compagnes dans leurs pays dorigine, lorsquils ont prospr dans le
mtier (dagriculteur ou de planteur).
Au plan dlevage, en Cte d'Ivoire, il ny avait pas de tradition pastorale avant
l'indpendance. Un levage national a d tre constitu en quelques dcennies. Pendant
longtemps l'levage a t laffaire des nomades Peul. Ils descendaient du Nord, jusqu'
Abidjan, pour vendre leurs btes. La contribution de llevage au Produit Intrieur Bruit
(PIB) agricole est denviron 4,5% et de seulement 2% au PIB total (UEMOA, 2000). Il ny
pas dadhsion durable et massive des nationaux la pratique de llevage. Lon y pratique
encore aujourdhui assez massivement llevage traditionnel ou llevage traditionnel
amlior.
La production nationale de bovins estim environs 1 500 000 ttes dont 80% en zone
soudanienne qui correspond la partie nord de la Cte dIvoire, et 15% en zones guinenne
et soudano-guinenne qui correspond la partie sud et centre de la Cte dIvoire ; et dovins
estims environs 2 500 000 ttes (UEMOA, 2000) ne couvrent pas les besoins du pays. Ce
dysfonctionnement de la filire viande, lait et produits laitiers, se traduit par des dficits en
ces denres avec pour corollaire, des dficiences alimentaires (malnutrition, sous-nutrition,
faim) au sein de la population. Les exemples de coco taill ou au Mali , [Signifient un
repas sans aucune protine animale (poisson ni viande)] d une page sur deux [Il sagit
dune sauce pour deux plats de rsistance (de riz, foutou etc.) partags par deux personnes au
lieu de deux sauces pour deux plats de rsistance vendus dans lieu de restauration.] sont assez
significatifs.
Au total, les productions vivrires, pastorales et halieutiques sont dominance
traditionnelle ; titre dexemple nous notons le secteur rizicole [une trs faible riziculture
moderne face une trs forte riziculture pluviale assurant 80% (Nguessan Y,
(http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y6159T/y6159t05.htm) de la production rizicole actuelle]
288
le secteur halieutique [une faible pche industrielle contre une forte pche artisanale
continentale lagunaire et maritime assurant 65% des productions nationale (UEMOA, 2000)]
le secteur pastoral (une trs faible production bovine en zones guinenne et soudano-
guinenne qui correspond la partie sud et centre contre une trs forte production en zone
soudanienne qui correspond la partie nord assurant 80% de la production).
La production traditionnelle faisant lusage excessif de la force humaine (exploitation
rudimentaire) plutt qu force de la machine (mcanisation), ne permet pas de couvrir le
besoin national en la matire. La Cte dIvoire, pour combler le reste de ses besoins
alimentaires, recourt limportation. Cette situation maintien la Cte dIvoire dans une
situation de dpendance alimentaire, la soumet aux pouvoirs alimentaires des lignes
internationales dapprovisionnement et de distribution de vivres.
Conclusion
Il ressort que la problmatique du dveloppement en Cte divoire articule la
conscience sociale [Karl Marx (1859)] et culturelle au problme de laccessibilit alimentaire
port par la question du pouvoir alimentaire (Bertrand J.P., 1997). La Cte dIvoire est, en
effet, tributaire de son anthropologie comme champ dexpression des matrices ethniques qui
la composent. Il sagit de matrices ethniques en tant quentits groupales organises
dcomposables en tribus, clans, lignages et familles. Il sagit aussi de matrices ethniques en
tant que socles institutionnelles des traditions et des cultures ivoiriennes structures en
organisations sociales, conomiques, politiques et religieuses. Il sagit enfin de matrices
ethniques en tant que base angulaire des consciences collectives et des reprsentations
socioculturelles. Ces matrices ethniques orientent les choix alimentaires et impriment le
schma dexploitation agricole, pastorale et halieutique. En tant quabsence d'obstacles
matriels et immatriels dans le jeu d'appropriation et de jouissance biologique,
psychologique, sociale et cultuelle des vivres, l'accessibilit alimentaire et sa posture
singulire quest le pouvoir alimentaire peuvent-ils tre reus comme des mesures originales
du dveloppement ?
Les habitudes alimentaires correspondent une logique de choix li, dans un premier
temps, des considrations culturelles et rgionales. Les habitudes alimentaire fcondent,
dans une certaine mesure, l'accessibilit alimentaire et par ricoch les bases du pouvoir
289
alimentaire. L'accessibilit alimentaire, tributaire du mode de production de la vie socio-
conomique et surtout de la conscience sociale et culturelle dont elle est lmanation,
sannonce comme indicateur et vecteur pertinents du dveloppement. De faon globale, nous
retenons que lagriculture, la pche et llevage en Cte dIvoire sont domins par des
mentalits composante multiples dinfluences traditionnelles et culturelles.
Les cycles du cercle trs peu ouvert du dveloppementpar le jeu du changement de
mentalit, affecte les modes de production, de conditionnement, de distribution,
dapprovisionnement et de consommation, en brisant par la mme occasion, les verrous et
citadelles de mentalits tournes vers la tradition, le conservatisme, limmobilisme, voir la
marche en arrire. Et si cela nest pas observ, cest alors la tradition qui lemporte sur la
modernit en dominant la conscience sociale et culturelle qui va investir toutes les
composantes de la ralit sociale et culturelles y compris le secteur alimentaire autre vecteur
du dveloppement.
Cependant, la tradition nest pas le seul facteur explicatif de cet de fait. Il faut aussi
ouvrir lanalyse vers dautres horizons, sagissant du pouvoir alimentaire, vers llaboration
des politiques alimentaires pertinentes articulant les problmes agraires et fonciers.
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UDC:334.722.012.64/.65:658.14(662.6)
TEST OF ACCEPTABILITY OF PROFIT AND LOSS
SHARING FINANCING ARRANGEMENTS BY SMALL
SCALE BUSINESSES IN AND AROUND KANO CITY IN
NORTHERN NIGERIA
Suleiman Muhammad Hussaini, PhD
Department of Business Administration, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria-Nigeria
Hussaini Usman Malami, PhD
Department of Economics, Faculty of Social Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University
Sokoto-Nigeria
Abstract
The persistent lack of or inadequate financing that has bedeviled small scale businesses hampered
growth of the sector, hence adversely affects the Nigerian economy. The period of existence and
expertise in financial intermediation of conventional interest based banks notwithstanding. They
are reluctant in advancing loans to SSBs because of inherent risk in doing so. The objective of this
paper is to test whether SSBs in Kano and its environs in Northern part of Nigeria would be
prepared to access funds through an alternative profit and loss sharing financing arrangements.
Both primary and secondary sources of data were used. Questionnaires were administered,
responses were analysed, and logit regression analysis was utilized to test the acceptability of the
PLS financing method. The findings of the study revealed a desire for an alternative PLS financing
method
.
Keywords: Profit, Loss, Small scale businesses
294
Introduction
Finance is a necessary factor in all entrepreneurial endeavors. The centrality of
finance stem from the dependency of other factors unto it. Apart from the entrepreneurial
efforts of the promoter(s) of a business, all other factors require funds. Finance is a cogent
requirement not only for start up, but also for the incumbents. It enhances growth in small
and large scale businesses.
The need for finance as a precursor for growth and survival is more in the small scale
businesses (SSBs). The reason for this is manifold: the ownership structure of SSBs is a
limiting factor to the quantum of capital required by SSBs. Also the legal requirement for the
formation of SSBs and restrictions in listing on the Nigeria stock exchange affect their funds
availability. The financing requirements of SSBs are usually beyond the capability of
owner(s) of the businesses. Therefore, recourse would have to be made to other source(s).
The available source(s) could be formal or informal. The cost of finance, ease of accessibility
and collaterals are some of the major considerations that SSBs have to contend with when
deciding where to seek funds. Providers of funds, on their part are concerned more with the
safety of their funds, yield thereof and administrative cost of advancing and monitoring loans.
A financing need that is categorized as risky would attract higher than normal interest rate,
hence cost of advancing loans to SSBs would have to be higher because they are perceived as
highly risky.
High cost of funds has its adverse effects on SSBs. It inhibits growth of the sector and
by implication growth of the economy. High risk associated with SSBs lending has been the
reason for conventional banks reluctance in lending to the SSBs. On their part, SSBs laments
the devastating effects of high interest rate and the stringent conditions that are prerequisite to
interest based lending. Though other sources of finance are available, Binks and
Ennew(1996) assert that SSBS are the largest clientele of bank. Despite being the largest in
terms of number of customers, the actual lending that is channeled to them by the banks is
insignificant when compared with funds advanced to large scale business.
SSBs are wary of accessing funds from conventional interest based banks because of
the interest rate element (CBN, 2009). The solution to the financing problem might be an
alternative financing method that is devoid of interest. The objective of this study is to
determine whether SSBs would be prepared to access financing vide the profit and loss
sharing (PLS) financing arrangements. To achieve this objective, the paper is divided into
295
five sections with this section being the first. Section two reviews the concept of PLS as well
as empirical studies in the area. The third section presents the methodology adopted for the
study. Section four present results and analyses the data .The last section concludes the paper.
2- Review of Some Relevant Literature
The reincarnation of the SSBs that started in the early seventies, emanated from the
realization of its economic growth potentials. This phenomenon awakens research efforts in
the sector. Prior to this period, the issue of small firms is not a major focus in economics.
This lack of interest was buttressed by Acs (2004:8) when he asserts that the small firm has
for a long time remained a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma. The reason for
this neglect was because mass production were thought to be the only route to economic
growth and development, and therefore any shift of paradigm was perceived as inefficient.
However, redirection of attention from mass to customized production created a niche for the
SSBs.
Studies across the globe have identified the indispensability of finance to SSBs as
well its constraint to the sector (Beck and Demirgur-Kunt, 2006). The existence of
institutional intermediaries that specializes in providing financing at a price, banks could
have provided a succor for the financing problem of SSBs, but alas they are reluctant in
lending to SSBs because of the risky nature of SSBs lending (Owualah, 2004). The
asymmetric information risk of moral hazard and adverse selection inherent in SSBs
financing discourages banks from advancing loans to this sector. But being a vital component
of the banking public, banks must have to transact business with the SSBs.
There is no universally accepted definition of small-scale business, because the
classification of business into large or small scale is relative. Bandar and Presley (1992)
observe that the different socio-economic structures of each country are the reasons for non-
uniformity in definition of SSBs. Therefore, the definition adopted for this study is the Small
and Medium Enterprises Development Agency of Nigeria (SMEDAN) definition of SSB,
but devoid of the labour requirement. The reason for this is twofold. Firstly, SMEDAN is the
organ of the Nigerian government that is vested with activities of SSBs. Secondly , since the
emphasis of this study is on the financing aspect of SSBs , we belief that relaxing the labour
requirement of the SMEDANs definition will not significantly affect result of this work.
Hence, we define a SSB as an Enterprise whose assets is up to 0.5 million Naira, and not
296
more than 50 million Naira (3120 Dollars), excluding cost of land and employing not more
than one hundred people.
2.1 Profit and loss sharing (PLS) mode of financing
PLS is a contractual arrangement between two or more transacting parties, which
allows them to pool their resources together to invest in a project for the purpose of sharing
profit and loss (Usmani, 1999). The idea of PLS gain prominence with the advent of the
Islamic banking. Most Islamic economists contend that PLS is based on two major modes of
financing, namely; Musharaka and Mudarabah (Jalaluddin, 1999).
Musharaka simply means partnership. It is a kind of partnership between two or
more people, whereby each one of the contracting parties makes a certain contribution for the
generation of capital. All the contracting parties have full right in the management and
administration of the capital, but it is not necessary required of them to do so. Mudarabah on
the other hand, is a contract where one party provides capital and the other party goes into the
business by the provision of his expertise, who consequently turned out to be an entrepreneur.
The emphasis of these modes of financing is that reward sharing is related to risk-
sharing, risk sharing and not risk transfer. The main distinguishing features of PLS includes;
Return Sharing Method (RSM), which is agreed upon before commencement of the business.
Principal and return are not guaranteed in the event of loss, except where it is established that
the loss is as a result of negligence on the part of the active partner. Thus, it is based on trust
and does not necessarily require any collateral.
There are very few empirical studies that seek to determine whether or not, SSBs
would be willing to access funds through the PLS financing arrangements. Surprisingly,
majority of these are from Australia. Dar and Presley (2000) and Gait and Worthington
(2007) analysed the persistence of Murabaha (cost-plus) financing in most Islamic banks.
They posit the need for Islamic banks to enhance financing via PLS. Dar and Presley (2000)
identified ignorance and lack of adequate awareness as the major impediments to
acceptability of the PLS. In addition, the two studies posited that monitoring can reduce the
information asymmetry inherent in PLS, but that it will tend to reduce profit share of SSBs.
Jalaluddin (1999) study the attitudes towards the probability of using PLS financing by
Australian SSBs. He identified five independent variables that may entice SSBs to prefer the
PLS, but did not justify selection of these variables against others. The major finding of the
297
study was that about 60% of Australian SSBs were prepared to try the use of PLS financing
arrangement. The risk sharing between financier and financee, together with linkage of costs
of financing to profitability were the benefits the SSBs envisaged to be derived from this
financing mode. Management interference was the reason that was likely to prevent those
who are not prepared to try the PLS.
Bandar and Presley (1992) studied the behavior of small scale manufacturing
businesses in Saudi Arabia towards the Islamic modes of finance in general and PLS in
particular. Surprisingly, the study revealed that about 85% of the sampled SSBs rejected the
proposal for accessing funds through the PLS .The reason for the mass rejection was twofold;
the perception that PLS automatically warrants dilution of ownership of the business and,
since the bulk of Saudi Arabian banks are interest based, they are apprehensive that accessing
funds from them may indirectly mean dealing in interest. The former was however the main
reason for the rejection. They concluded that the PLS is not a reliable source of financing
SSBs, because of the ignorance of the workings of PLS, that was probably caused by the
lapse of time between when it was last truly practiced and the influence of the intrusion of
colonizers (Aliyu, 2000).
Al-Satti (1992) cited in Aliero (2002) fault Bandar and Presley (1992) on the ground
that since PLS shares risks, it should logically be the preference of SSBs in less developed
countries. The linkage of cost of finance to outcome of the business eliminates the obnoxious
effects of interest rate, pooling experience together enhance success of SSBs and that religion
would influence acceptance of PLS. Al-Saati assumes other factors to be constant. His
envision is a society that is enlightened and insulated from the influence of crusaders. Al-
Saati also observed the inadequacy of the statistical technique used to analyse the data, but he
did not suggest the appropriate statistical tool that could have been employed. Aliero (2002)
flawed Al-sattis assertions because it lack empirical prove. We concurred with Alieros
observation.
Aliero (2004) studied the possibility of using Rotating Savings and Credit
Associations (ROSCAS) to finance SSBs in the Northern Nigerian city of Sokoto. He opined
that Roscas can be an alternative interest free means of financing SSBs. Though Roscas is a
non interest mode of financing, but pooling SSBs together for the purpose of operating a
Roscas may be cumbersome and impracticable.
298
3- Methodology
Data for this study were obtained from both primary and secondary sources.
Questionnaires were administered on 350 sampled SSBS. The questionnaire was structured
using predominantly close-ended and five point Likert-type questions. Stratified random
sampling was used to generate the sample size of 350. The population of registered and
operational SSBs in Kano and its environs during the study period was 2029. Sample size of
350 was selected from the total number. The sample was determined using Yamanes (1968)
formula as expressed by Israel (1992) thus;
N = N
_________
1 + N(e)
2
Where,
n = Sample size
N = total population
e = Level of significance (95%)
The total number of small scale businesses obtained from Kano State Ministry of
Commerce and industry as at 2010, was two thousand and twenty- nine (2029), out of which,
commerce constituted 46%, service related 35%, manufacturing 17% and finally, processing
that stood at 2%.
The unequal numbers of the respective business lines made us represent each business line to
be sampled on the basis of its proportion in the total number of businesses. We thus,
determined the number of the SSBs to be sampled; viz;
r = X x 350
Number of registered businesses 1
Where;
r = number of businesses to be chosen from each line of business, and
x = total number of a particular business line, as appeared in the list
299
In this way, we got the following sample size for each line of business; commerce -
162, service related - 123, manufacturing - 60 and processing - 5.
Simple random sampling was afterward used to choose the small businesses to be
included in the sample. Three hundred and sixteen (316) questionnaires were returned, but
five were invalidated (illegible) and thus, cannot be used. Therefore, three hundred and
eleven (311) questionnaires were available for use, representing 88.85% response rate.
The logistic and probit regression were used to test the acceptability or otherwise of
the Profit and loss sharing financing arrangement. Jalaluddin (1999) used the Logit and Probit
to predict the preparedness of Australian SSBs to access finance vide the PLS. Logistic and
Probit regression are used when the dependent variable is a categorical variable and the
independent variables are metric variables (Anderson, 2007). The dependent variable usually
consists of two groups or classifications, for example, good or bad, accept or reject, male
versus female or high versus low. Other instances are where more than two groups are
involved, such as low, medium and high classifications.
For the purpose of this study respondents were asked to use a scale of 5 1 vides;
strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree to indicate their degree of
acceptance with the following statements;
Var 001: The PLS financing arrangement allows the sharing of risk between financier and
financee;
Var 002: PLS intervenes with the management of the business, hence may dilute ownership;
Var 003: In PLS, cost of financing is dependent on profit;
Var 004: In PLS, tangible collateral is not a necessary condition;
Var 005: PLS would motivate business expansion as the future risk associated with the
expansion could be shared with financiers.
These Statements were the features of the PLS, thus represented by the following variables:
Variables: r001= X
1
, Variables 002 = X
2
, variable 003 = X
3,
variable 004 = X
4,
and variable
005 = X
5.
The criterion variable was Y where, Y = 1, stands for businesses that were ready
to seek financing through the PLS arrangement, and Y = 0 for businesses that wont seek
300
financing through the PLS, otherwise Group N. The dependent variable is therefore, the two
groups of small businesses (Group Y and Group N), and the independent variables were the
variables outlined above.
4-Data analysis
We used the probit and logistic regression to test the acceptability or otherwise of the
PLS amongst SSBs, particularly in Kano and its environments.
4.1-Result of logit and probit analysis
Table below provides result of probit and logistic regressions.
Table 1: Attitudes of SSBs in Kano metropolis towards PLS financing
INDEPENDENT VALUE LOGIT PROBIT
Variables Constant 2.090
(4.9292)
1.9987
(4.9455)
Var001 The PLS financing arrangement allows the sharing of
risk between financier and financee,
-0.656
(4.6197) *
-0.675
(4.6321)
*
Var002 PLS intervenes with the management of the business,
hence may dilute ownership
-0.246
(-2.2162)
*
-0.254
(-2.223)
*
Var003 In PLS, cost of financing is dependant on profit -0.255
(2.1567) *
-02157
(2.1641)
*
Var004 In PLS, Tangible collateral not a necessary condition, 0.372
(2.755) *
0.375
(2.776) *
Var005 PLS would motivate business expansion as the future
risk associated with the expansion could be shared with
0.073 0.056
301
financiers (0.6348) (0.612
Log of likelihood function -320.582 -174.633
R Square 0.193 0.198
% Correct Prediction 71.9 73.8
Logit and probit analysis Output, 2011
*significant at 0.05
The Criterion variable was the type of preference (x),
Where;
X = 1, if the business was prepared to apply PLS
X = 0, if the business was not prepared to apply PLS
The critical t - value is 1.96, hence Variables 1, 2, 3 and 4 are statistically significant.
The first, third and fourth variables are statistically significant and positive, while the second
variable is significant and negative. This suggests that the higher the degree of risk borne by a
financier, the more he shares in the profit, and the less intervention in management, the
higher the probability that SSBs will use the PLS as a financing option, the better. The second
variable suggests that SSBs would not mind intervention in management of their businesses
by fund provider(s), but less of it can make them prefer PLS. The fourth variable is
statistically significant and positive meaning that SSBs would accept PLS because of non
imposition of collateral as a necessary condition for accessing funds.
The R
2
for both the logit and probit indicates the goodness of fit. The Probit model
gives marginally better results than the logit (in terms of R
2
and t values).
Results for both probit and logit suggest that small businesses are indifferent as to
capacity of PLS to motivation expansion. This is probably due to the dearth of practical
experience on operation of PLS financing arrangement amongst Nigerians SSBs.
The response indicated in table (2) below shows preference of SSBs for PLS
financing mode. Larger percentage of the surveyed SSBs would prefer the PLS financing
arrangement.
302
Table 2: Desire for PLS
Preference
for PLS
Frequency % Awareness
of PLS
Frequency %
Yes 221 71.06 Yes 253 81.35
No 90 28.94 No 51 16.40
Total 311 100
Others
Total
7
311
02.25
100.0
Field Study: 17
th
Ocober, 2011
The high preference rate for the PLS by SSBs as shown in the table above is an
indication that it will be widely accepted by SSBs in Nigeria. Over 70% of the surveyed
SSBs expressed readiness to explore the PLS. The rate of awareness of the PLS also reflects
the eagerness to experiment it. Two hundred and twenty-one (221) SSBs or 71.6 % of the
surveyed SSBs know about PLS. Conventional banks are perpetually introducing new
financial products that are more of trading than interest based. The consistent introduction of
these new financial products tailored towards costplus financing and equity participation
has aroused the inquisitiveness of financees and also superiority of the PLS
5- Conclusion
The global recognition of the potential of SSBs in harnessing economic advancements
has heightened the need for assisting SSBs to grow and survive. The conventional interest
based banking method has to charge interest rate attached with other conditions, both of
which are inimical to success of SSBs. The solution to the peculiarity of SSBs financing
problem is an alternative financing arrangement devoid of interest payment.
Profit and loss sharing mode of financing alternative would be accepted by SSBs in
Nigeria because it allows for sharing of risk as against its total transfer to financee as
obtained in the conventional interest based financing mode. It also relates cost of funds to the
accrued profit, and not anticipated earnings, and it does not impose collateral as a necessary
condition for the provision of funds. The major snag to acceptability of PLS, according to
Nigerias SSBs is the potential to interfere in the management of the business of financee, as
allowed by PLS doctrine. This fear could be allayed by opting for a variant of the PLS that do
not allow interference in the management of the business of the financee. Based on the
303
findings of this study we identify some policy implication issues that require the attention of
government.
The resentment of the interest based financing modes and desire for the PLS is a good
development. It is an indication of the obsession of the banking public with the exploitative
interest based financing. The government should therefore respond to the yearning of the
teeming business community that indicated desire for this financing arrangement by ensuring
that efforts are intensified towards reorienting Nigerians on the need to imbibe honesty,
diligence and transparency in business dealings. This is because PLS can thrive only where
honesty and transparency are the dictum of business transactions. The larger society should
also be made to develop a mechanism through which dishonest business persons or
organizations are ostracized.
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307
APPENDIX- QUESTIONNAIRE
NAME OF ENTERPRISE
WORKING CAPITAL
Please indicate your agreement with the following statements;
Profit loss sharing (PLS) allows sharing of risk between entrepreneur and financier
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Undecided
d. Disagree
e. Strongly disagree
PLS interfere with management of the firm
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Undecided
d. Disagree
308
PLS links cost of borrowing to profitability
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Undecided
d. Disagree
PLS do not strictly impose collateral as a condition
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Undecided
d. Disagree
PLS would motivate business expansion as the future risk associated with the expansion
would be shared with financiers
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Undecided
d. Disagree
309
PLS would be preferred financing mode than the interest based mode
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Undecided
d. Disagree
PLS is a well known financing mode in Nigeria
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Undecided
d. Disagree
310
UDC:656.12-05:316.35]:303.6(540)"2010"
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF CYCLE RICKSHAW
PULLERS: A CASE STUDY
Jabir Hasan Khan, PhD
Tarique Hassan, PhD candidate
Shamshad, PhD candidate
Department of Geography Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh
Abstract
The present paper is an attempt to analyze the socio-economic characteristics of cycle rickshaw pullers and to
find out the causes of rickshaw pulling. The adverse effects of this profession on the health of the rickshaw
pullers, the problems faced by them and their remedial measures have been also taken into account. The study is
based on primary data collected through the field survey and direct questionnaire to the respondents in Aligarh
city. The survey was carried out during the months of February and March, 2010. The overall analysis of the
study reveals that the rickshaw pullers are one of the poorest sections of the society, living in abject poverty but
play a pivotal role in intra-city transportation system. Neither is their working environment regulated nor their
social security issues are addressed. They are also unaware about the governmental schemes launched for
poverty alleviation and their accessibility in basic amenities and infrastructural facilities is also very poor.
Keywords: Abject poverty, breadwinners, cycle rickshaw pullers, disadvantageous, intra-
city transport, vulnerability
311
Introduction:
The word rickshaw originates from the Japanese word jinrikisha, which literally
means human-powered vehicle (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1993). Rickshaws originally
developed in Japan in the late 1860s (Saito, T., 1979: 52), represented a clear technological
advancement on its major predecessor, the Sedan chair. It came into view in Shanghai in
1873 (Chen, 1955: 26 and Zheng, 1957: 17),and became the predominant mode of short-
distance individual mode of transport by the early 1900s (Peng, S.,1935: 201). These
rickshaws are called by different names in different countries such as becak in Indonesia,
cyclo in Phnom Penh of Cambodia and in Vietnam (Pacione, 2005: 584). In India, the term
rickshaw usually refers to a cycle rickshaw, appeared around 1870s, first in Shimla and then,
20 years later, in Kolkata (Dainik Jagran: 2009). Until the 1980s plying of rickshaws were
found mainly in the walled or old cities of the country, middle-class neighborhoods and in the
outlying colonies of cities. Now one can see them plying in virtually all elite colonies of big
cities of the country (Kishwar, 2009: 310).
Cycle rickshaws have been used as a means of transportation for social elite but, since
1880s, they play a pivotal role in the intra-city transport system, especially in the towns and
cities of the third world countries, where, the streets connecting the roads are very narrow on
which motor vehicles cannot be easily driven. Probably they are the only transport system to
provide point to point travel (Rajvanshi, 2002: 1).
Cycle rickshaw pullers are the most disadvantageous section of the people who are
engaged in transportation activities for getting their means of livelihood, because pulling of
rickshaw is a menial and hazardous occupation (Warren, 1985: 4). Despite the engagement of
the rickshaw pullers either in waiting for the passengers/commodities or in pulling the
rickshaws to carry the passengers and the commodities from one place to another from early
morning to late evening or in whole night and even, sometimes, round the clock, they are not
in position to earn the needed amount of money to fulfill their basic needs of life. Cycling on
an empty stomach is a common experience among them. The vulnerability of rickshaw
pullers further accentuated by the fact that the majority of those who ride rickshaws are not
owners as well as there is constant struggle and increased competition among the rickshaw
pullers.
According to the current estimates, there are currently 8 million rickshaw pullers in
India of whom 95 percent do not own their vehicle due to lack of funds (Poirier, 2009),
whose life is tough, the work is arduous and the living condition is shoddier. As miserable as
312
pulling a rickshaw may have been, it offered an income better than that available in the
villages (Strand, 1989: 29), because urban rickshaw pullers come from a very poor economic
background consistent with the characteristics of chronic poverty (Begum, S. & Binayak, S.,
2004: 2), thereby most of them migrate to cities from rural areas in search of employment for
getting better means of livelihood (Khan, 2010:112), but in reality their expectations are
rarely realized (Warren, 1985: 4). After arrival in cities, they subsist on very little as they try
and save money as much as they can to send back to their families in their villages and live a
miserable life where their extent of accessibility in housing, electricity, water and other
amenities is very poor.
These deprived and exploited sections are not explicitly recognized in policy
documents by the government and very little attention has been paid in humanizing the
livelihood of the rickshaw pullers. It is, therefore, necessary to collect relevant information to
study the socio-economic composition, causes, problems and the implications of such
occupation on the health and overall life of the rickshaw pullers, which could be brought
before the society and appropriate policies may be framed to solve their problems.
Aims and Objectives:
The present study aims to examine the socio-economic status, causes and the problems
of rickshaw pullers in Aligarh city. The specific objectives of the study are:
To study and analyze the socio-economic composition and structure of rickshaw
pullers in Aligarh city.
To find out the socio-economic causes of rickshaw pulling.
To examine the living condition by analyzing their accessibility in housing and other
infrastructural facilities.
To highlight the implications arises out of this profession on the health of rickshaw
pullers.
To identify socio-economic problems faced by rickshaw pullers and to suggest remedial
measures to overcome them.
Study Area:
Aligarh city as a whole has been chosen as study area for the present research work.
The city extending from 27 52 to 27 56 north latitude and 78 3 to 78 6 east longitudes,
lies in the western part of Uttar Pradesh and takes up a geographical area of about 36.10
square kilometers. It comprises of 60 wards, accommodates a residential population of 6,
313
69,087 of which 3, 56,725 are males and 3, 12,362 females (Annual Report 2004,
Lucknow). According to the 2001 Indian census, in the city 63.92 percent population
was literate. The literacy rate among males was 70.63 percent and among females it
was 56.23 percent. Muslimsconstitute nearly one-third of the totalpopulation of Aligarh
city. Since independence, Aligarh city has grown from a small town to an important centre
for industry and education. There are three factors, which have contributed to the
development of Aligarh city, i.e., the establishment of Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) in
1920, development of light industries and its demarcation as the district headquarters.
Moreover, in the last twodecades, a number of new schools and colleges have been also
established in the city. The city bus services are very limited and are available on only some
main roads, therefore, rickshaws are mostly used as an important means in the intra-city
transportation.
Source: Nagar Nigam Aligarh, 2010.Fig. 1
313
transportation.
313
transportation.
314
Data and Methodology:
The study is based on the primary data generated through field survey and direct
questionnaire to the respondents in Aligarh city. The survey was carried out during the
months of February and March, 2010. Firstly, a pilot survey was made to identify the main
areas of rickshaw pulling in the city. From the selected areas, 100 rickshaw pullers were
interviewed (see Table 1) for collection of information about their socio-economic
characteristics, causes of rickshaw pulling and problems faced by them etc. After the field
work was over, the data collected by using individual slips were scrutinized and were
processed in tabular forms according to the requirements of the various facets of the study.
Table 1
Distribution of Places of Interview and Number of Rickshaw Pullers Interviewed at
these Places in Aligarh City
Places of Interview No. of Rickshaw Pullers Interviewed
Railway Station 17
Centre Point 13
J.N. Medical College 12
Masoodabad Bus Stand 10
G.T. Road 08
Old Bus Stand 08
Rasal Ganj 08
Jamalpur 07
Ramghat Road 06
Dodhpur 05
Railway Road 06
Total 100
315
Source: Based on field survey, 2010.
Socio-Economic and Structural Analysis of Cycle Rickshaw Pullers:
Table 2 depicts the age structure of rickshaw pullers in Aligarh city. Rickshaw pulling is
an arduous nature of job which requires hard labour and physical strength in which age plays
a vital role. The highest proportion of rickshaw pullers, 45 percent has been recorded in 20-
30 age-group, it is only because they are young and energetic in this age-group. After 30
years of age the data given in the Table 2 shows the declining trend in the proportion of
rickshaw pullers in various age-groups. The proportion has been recorded 25 percent in 30-40
age-group, 14 percent in 41-50 age-group and only 6 percent above 50 years of age.
However, 10 percent of rickshaw pullers were teenagers (14-19 age-group).
On the basis of above analysis of the data given in Table 2, it may be inferred that the
community of cycle rickshaw pullers is dominated by the persons in young and productive
age-groups and have a very little share in the juvenile and senile age-groups. All rickshaw
pullers were males because no female was found to be engaged in the cycle rickshaw pulling.
Table 2
Age Structure of Rickshaw Pullers Population in Aligarh City
Age-groups Percent
14-19 10
20-30 45
31-40 25
41-50 14
More than 50 06
Total 100
Table 3 provides information about the marital status of rickshaw pullers. An examination
of Table 3 indicates that nearly three-fourth (71 percent) of the rickshaw pullers are married
whereas 23 percent are unmarried and remaining 6 percent are widowers. However, the most
316
of the married rickshaw pullers reported that they migrated alone from rural areas in the city
in search of jobs and their wives are still staying in rural areas.
Table 3
Marital Status of Rickshaw Pullers in Aligarh city
Status Percent
Married 71
Unmarried 23
Widower 06
Total 100
Table 4 presents distribution of educational status of rickshaw pullers in Aligarh city.
The analysis of Table 4 shows that, out of 100 rickshaw pullers, 68 percent are illiterate and
only 32 percent are literate. Out of 32 percent literates, 24 percent got education upto primary
level, 04 percent upto middle level, 03 percent upto secondary level and only 01 percent up to
graduation. According to 2001 Indian census, the general male illiteracy
Table 4
Educational Status of Rickshaw Pullers in Aligarh City
Educational status Percent
Illiterate 68
Primary 24
Middle 04
Secondary 03
Graduate 01
Total 100
317
Rate in India is 24.15 percent, but the high mass-illiteracy (68 percent) among
rickshaw pullers itself tells their pitiable story of mass-poverty, inaccessibility in the
educational facilities and various other types of basic amenities and facilities. Truly speaking,
due to their illiteracy and unskillness, the poverty stricken persons do not have any other
alternative to earn the means of livelihood but to get easily engaged themselves in rickshaw
pulling.
Table 5
Percent Distribution of Rickshaw Pullers by their Places of Birth in Aligarh City
State/Districts Percent
Within Aligarh 46
U.P.(excluding Aligarh) 31
Bihar 18
West Bengal 03
Madhya Pradesh 02
Total 100
The distribution of rickshaw pullers by places of their birth is given in Table 5. It can be
seen in the Table 5 that the majority of the rickshaw pullers (46 percent) has their place of
birth within the Aligarh district, and 31 percent migrated from other districts of Uttar Pradesh
to Aligarh city for rickshaw pulling. The migration of rickshaw pullers from the states
beyond Uttar Pradesh toAligarh city has been recorded 18 percent, 3 percent and 2 percent
from Bihar, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh respectively.
Table 6 provides data about the socio-economic causes which compelled the poor people
to engage themselves in rickshaw pulling. Unemployment, poverty, low income and small
size of land holdings are the major economic causes which forced to about 53.30 percent of
the rickshaw pullers to involve themselves in the rickshaw pulling, whereas among the social
318
factors, large family size, illiteracy, early marriage, family disintegration and migration
pushed to 23.02 percent of them to pull rickshaws. Moreover, unskillness, cash payment, debt
and uncertainty in production of crops, desire of work/self respect and death of parents
derived 23.68 percent of the rickshaw pullers towards the pulling of the rickshaws.
Table 6
Percentage Distribution of Socio-Economic Causes of Rickshaw Pulling in
Aligarh City
Causes Percent
Unemployment 22.45
Poverty 18.36
Unskilled 12.06
Low income 10.42
Large size of family 08.70
Illiteracy 07.75
Cash payment 05.72
Debt and uncertainty in production of crops 03.26
Early marriage 02.59
Family disintegration 02.48
Small size of land holding 02.07
Desire for Work /self respect 01.64
Migration 01.50
Orphanage 01.00
Total 100.00
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Table 7 presents the percentage distribution of average daily income earned by rickshaw
pullers in rickshaw pulling in Aligarh city. An analysis of data given in Table 7 shows that 36
percent rickshaw pullers earned rupees 100-150 per day, 23 percent gained between 50-100
rupees in a day and 14 percent could get less than rupees 50 in a day. Moreover, the average
daily income of 15 percent rickshaw pullers has been recorded between rupees 151-200 and
only 12 percent managed to earn more than rupees 201-250 in a day.
The percentage distribution of average daily working hours and average monthly working
days of the rickshaw pullers has been given in Table 8. The data given in
Table 7
Percentage Distribution of Average Daily Income of Rickshaw Pullers Earned by
them in Rickshaw pulling in Aligarh City
Daily Income (Rupees) Percent
Less than 50 14
50-100 23
101-150 36
151-200 15
201-250 12
Total 100
Table 8 reveals that 38 percent of rickshaw pullers do the arduous work of rickshaw
pulling for more than 10 hours in a day and 30 percent ply their rickshaws between 8 to 10
hours in a day. Moreover, the average daily working hours of 18 percent rickshaw pullers
have been reported between 5 to 7 hours and of 14 percent less than 5 hours. The further
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analysis of data provided in Table 8 shows that average monthly working days of 42 percent
rickshaw pullers are more than 25 days and 32 percent were found to be engaged in rickshaw
pulling between 20 to 25 days in a month. However, 8 percent rickshaw pullers reported to
pull the rickshaws on roads for less than 15 days in a month.
Table 8
Percentage Distribution of Average Daily Working Hours and Average
Monthly Working Days of Rickshaw Pullers in Aligarh City
1- Daily working hours Percent
Less than 5 14
5-7 18
8-10 30
More than 10 38
Total 100
2- Monthly working days Percent
Less than 15 08
15-20 18
20-25 32
More than 25 42
Total 100
Table 9 shows the percentage distribution of housing condition and the type of facilities
available in the dwellings of rickshaw pullers. Out of total sampled rickshaw pullers, 44
percent have their own houses and 42 percent stay in rented houses. Moreover
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Table 9
Percentage Distribution of Housing Condition and Type of Facilities
Available in the Dwellings of Rickshaw pullers in Aligarh City
1- Status of House Percent
a) Own 44
b) Rented 42
c) slum 09
d) footpath and other 05
Total 100
2- Type of Dwelling Percent
a) Pucca 32
b) Kachcha 34
c) Slums 20
d) Semi-pucca 14
Total 100
3- Facilities in the dwellings Percent
Means of drinking water
a) Public hand pumps 40
b) Private hand pumps 31
c) Public taps 12
d) Private taps 09
e) Others 08
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Total 100
4- Means of fuel Percent
a) Fuel wood 55.65
b) Cow dung 20.88
c) Leaves 06.08
d) Kerosene 06.08
e) LPG. 05.22
f) Electricity 04.35
g) Eat in hotels 01.74
Total 100.00
5- Types of latrine Percent
b) Field 48
a) Flush 43
c) Public toilets 09
Total 100
(9 percent) rickshaw pullers households are slum-dwellers and remaining (5 percent)
live in either garages or sleep at footpaths. The data regarding type of dwelling by
construction revealsthat more than one and half of the rickshaw puller households live in
kachcha or slum type of dwellings and 32 percent, staying generally in rented houses, have
pucca houses. The further analysis of data shows that the main sources of drinking water
among rickshaw pullers are the public hand pumps which constituteabout 40 percent of the
totalsampled rickshaw pullers households while 31 percent have their own hand pumps and
12 percent of use the public taps for drinking water, 4 percent have their own taps and
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remaining 8 percent, staying in the rented houses, have submersibles as a means of drinking
water.
The data collected pertaining to the means of fuel used for cooking show that the majority
of rickshaw puller households, around 55.65 percent use fuel wood for cooking, 20.88
percent reported using cow dung as a fuel, 6.08 percent cooked by burning the leaves of trees,
5.22 percent used small L.P.G. cylinders for cooking and 10.17 percent of them used
kerosene oil and electricity, while 1.74 percent do not cook at their homes but they eat
inhotels.
An examination of data on the type of latrine facility available to households makes it
clear that most of the rickshaw pullers do not have this facility within the premises of their
dwellings and about 48 percent of them go to fields for night soil, 43 percent have flush and
only 9 percent used public toilets on payments.
The percentage distribution of rickshaw puller households which possess durable goods
has been given in Table 10. The infrastructural facilities are important for better living, but
the rickshaw pullers who live in abject poverty, do not have accessibility in these facilities.
The analysis of data given in the Table 10 reveals thatthe highestproportion of
rickshawpullers (60 per cent) has wrist watches because they have to strictly follow the
schooltimings in carrying the school children. The next dominating itempossessed by
therickshaw pullers isradio (30 percent), followed by cooker 28 percent, mobile 20 percent,
television 18 percent, tape recorder13 percent and C.D. player 7 percent, while 20 percent of
themhave no durable goods.However, no one possesses the costly items like electric fan, air
and water coolers, fridge and scooter etc.
Table 10
Percentage Distribution of Rickshaw Puller Households which possess Durable Goods
in Aligarh City
Items Percent
Wrist watch 60
Radio 30
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Cooker 28
Cycle 21
Mobile 20
Television 18
Tape recorder 13
C.D. player 07
Others 02
No item 20
Table 11 presents the percentage distribution of practices of bad habits among rickshaw
pullers. The bad habits like drinking, drug addiction, gambling etc. deteriorate the social
values, dignity, and quality of life but, now, such evils have percolated upto to the lowest
stratum of the society, and, consequently, the socio-economic problems of poor have further
got multiplied and intensified. Out of total sampled rickshaw pullers, 47 percent are smokers,
43 percentgutka andtobacco users, 7 percent drunkers, 6 percent gamblers and 4 percent of
them have the addiction of drugs. However, 30 percent of them have no bad habits.
Table 11
Percentage Distribution of Practices of Bad Habits among Rickshaw Pullers in
Aligarh city
Bad habits Percent
Smoking 47
Gutka and Tobacco 43
Drinking 07
Gambling 06
325
Drugs 04
No bad habits 30
Table 12 depicts the percentage distribution of incidence of diseases among rickshaw
pullers. Health is an important indicator of levels of socio- economic development and
determines the quality of life. Most of the rickshaw pullers have been reported to be suffering
from various diseases due to their unhygienic living conditions, arduous nature of work, poor
nutrition and bad habits. An examination of data given in Table 12 shows
Table 12
Percentage Distribution of Incidence of Diseases among Rickshaw Pullers in
Aligarh City
Incidence of Diseases Percent
Cough and cold 30
Joint pain 27
Back pain 21
Chest pain 20
Asthma 10
Gastroenteritis 05
Tuberculosis 04
Stone in gall bladder 04
Diabetes 03
Blood pressure 02
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that 30 percent of the rickshaw pullers has cough and cold. The problem of joint, back, and
chest pains are very common among the rickshaw pullers, their proportion suffered by these
diseases have been recorded 27 percent, 21 percent, and 20 percent respectively. In addition,
10 percent of them have asthma, 9 percent tuberculosis and gastroenteritis and 9 percent
reported that they have the diseases like diabetes, blood pressure and stone in gall bladder.
The percentage distribution of types of problems faced by the rickshaw pullers has been
given in Table 13. The table depicts that lack of rickshaw stands in the city is the most
common problem faced by the rickshaw pullers. Out of total sampled rickshaw pullers, 28
percent reported about the problem of rickshaw stands because there is no rickshaw stand for
them in the whole city excluding one situated near the old bus stand without having the basic
facilities like drinking water and lavatory. The next major problem of rickshaw pullers is the
rude behavior of police and shopkeepers with them because 22 percent of them complained
that they have been either misbehaved/abused or beaten by traffic police/ shopkeepers or the
seats of their rickshaw were confiscated by them. Moreover, 18 percent rickshaw pullers
faced the problem like unsatisfactory fare and rude behaviors of passengers with them. While
13 percent had the problem of weakness and 7 percent reported about the inconvenience in
issuance of license & pass of the rickshaws. However, 25 percent of rickshaw pullers have no
problem in pulling their cycle rickshaws.
Table 13
Percentage Distribution of Types of Problems Faced by Rickshaw Pullers in
Aligarh City
Problems Percent
Lack of Rickshaw stands 28
Rude behaviors of Police and shopkeepers 22
Unsatisfactory fare 18
Weakness 13
Problem of License and pass 07
327
Poor condition of Roads 05
Vision problem 05
No problem 25
Conclusion and Suggestions
The overall analysis of the study reveals that the rickshaw pullers are one of the poorest
sections of the society, living in abject poverty but play a pivotal role in intra-city
transportation system. Neither is their working environment regulated nor their social security
issues are addressed. In rickshaw-pulling neither there is need to invest money nor to have
any special skill to drive it (Khan, 2010: 98). Unemployment, low and uncertain income,
debt, problem of housing, sanitation and health, lack of rickshaw stands, torture of police,
poor condition of roads, corruption in the issuance of rickshaws licenses, unsatisfactory fare
etc. are their major problems. Because of their miseries they generally indulge themselves in
bad habits like smoking, drinking, drug addiction, gambling, etc.
The major causes which compelled them to engage themselves in pulling rickshaws
are poverty, unemployment, large family size, family disintegration, illiteracy, desire of
work, debt, small size of land holdings etc. Majority of them suffer from cough and cold,
joint, back and chest pains, asthma, gastroenteritis and tuberculosis which lead to their
untimely deaths. They are also unaware about the governmental schemes launched for
poverty alleviation. Out of 100 rickshaw pullers interviewed, only 32 percent were literate.
They earn very low income, their average daily income ranges from rupees 100 to150. Their
housing conditions are very poor and most of them live in house made up of mud. They do
not have potable drinking water and their accessibility in infrastructural facilities is also very
poor.
Planners and governing authorities should recognize that rickshaws are non-polluting,
cheap and efficient mode of transportation which provides employment and self-sustenance
for thousands of people in Aligarh city. To save many of them from a dark desolate future
and to settle the tempestuous tides in their storm-wreaked lives, it is imperative to collaborate
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and mass-practice such solutions and find a right combination that take into account all
situations and vicissitudes (Jain, 2008).
Cycle rickshaws create traffic congestion on the roads of big cities (Replogle, 1991:
19), as a result many of the rickshaws are seized by the traffic police (Ahmed, 2005), which
has been creating the problem of unemployment (Ganguly, 1982: 1636). Therefore, it is
necessary that, separate tracks should be constructed for non-motorized vehicles and stop
seizing of cycle rickshaws. Moreover, corruption in the issuance of the licenses of cycle
rickshaws has further accentuated the problem of cycle rickshaw pullers because getting a
license is almost impossible for a poor person (Kishwar, 2006: 29). It can be checked by a
simple act of registration by any means and by the payment of a nominal fee to cover costs
for issue of a photo identification card or to replace the license quota system with on the spot
registration, as given in the prime minister's policy draft (Kishwar, 2001).
To economically empower the rickshaw pullers, declare all congested market areas
i.e., Amir Nishan, Centre Point, Dodhpur, Railway Road, Rasal Ganj, Phool Chauraha, etc.
No Entry Zones for motorized vehicles, because it can create more employment
opportunities to the rickshaw pullers and simultaneously reduce the traffic congestion and
environmental pollution in the city.
The rickshaw banks should be established in all the cities, in which the rickshaws are
still the main mode of transportation, to sanction the loans on easy installments to the
rickshaw pullers, so that, they can purchase their own rickshaws and also can get repaired
them without being dependent on money lenders. The rickshaw pulling is an arduous job and
cannot be continued forhours, so that being tired rickshaw pullers need rest, therefore, at least
one rickshaw stand with basic facilities like, drinking water and lavatory has to be
constructed near every main market, Aligarh Railway Junction, bus stands, etc.
Moreover, there should be the provision of dispensary, medical insurance at cheap
and easy premium and housing facilities for the families of rickshaw pullers, and special
drives have to be taken to improve the literacy level, with special emphasis on vocational
education for the children and other family members of the rickshaw pullers. However,
efficient extension services have to be provided that the rickshaw pullers and other
disadvantageous sections of the society may get benefited by the various governmental
poverty alleviation programmes.
329
Notwithstanding, it is the need of hour to frame such policies and programmes that the
widening gap between the haves and have nots and extending regional imbalances in the level
of development may be minimized. Surely, it will pave the way in solving the problems like
poverty, hunger, poor health and hygiene, illiteracy and ignorance, begging, swarming
number of rickshaw pullers in cities, heavy influx of rural migrants in urban areas, slum and
squatter settlements, houselessness, child labour, gender discrimination, injustice, drug
addiction and alcoholism, environmental pollution, etc. in the developing countries of the
world.
Endnotes
i. Cycle rickshaw are the three wheeled manually pulled vehicles, used for the intra-city
transport system for transporting people and commodities from one place to another.
ii. Makeshift Dhabas are the temporary restaurants along the roads where people take
meals under the open sky.
References:
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Aligarh Dainik Jagran: Rickshaw, June 12, 2009.
Begum, S. and Binayak, S.: Unsustainable Livelihoods, Health Shocks and Urban Chronic
Poverty: Rickshaw Pullers as a Case Study, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies,
CPRC Working Paper, Vol. 46, pp.1-26, 2004.
Chen, D.: Chunshen Jiuwen (Old Stories of Shanghai in Spring), Chenguang Yuekan She,
Taibei, p. 26, 1955.
Ganguly, S.: Calcuttas rickshaw-Pullers, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 17, No. 41,
p. 1636, 1982.
Jain, T.:Uplifting Rickshaw Pullers, 31 July. Available at:
http:/theviewspaper.net/uplifting-rickshaw-pullers (accessed 27 September 2010), 2008.
Khan, J. H. (2010): Socio-Economic and Structural Analysis of Internal Migration: A Micro
Level Study, Serials Publications, New Delhi, p. 98-112.
Kishwar, M. P.: Wheels of Misfortune, the License-quota-raid Raj and Rickshaw Pullers,
November. Available at: http://www.indiatogether.Org/manushi/rickshaw/ (accessed 28
October 2009), 2001.
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Kishwar, M. P.: Cycle Rickshaw: A Post Modern Vehicle-Challenging Governments
Warfare against Citizen Friendly, Eco-Friendly Rickshaws, Manushi, Vol.157, pp. 20-33,
2006.
Kishwar, M. P.: Urban Informal Sector: The Need for a Bottom-up Agenda of Economic
Reforms-Case Studies of Cycle Rickshaws and Street Vendors in Delhi, In India: Urban
Poverty Report, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 309-326, 2009.
Pacione, M.: Urban Geography: A Global Perspective, New York: Routledge, 2005.
Peng, S.: Sanhai No Jinrikisha Mondai (The Rickshaw Problem in Shanghai), Shina
Kenkyu, Vol. 37, pp.197-226, 1935.
Poirier, Y.: Rickshaw Bank in India: An Initiative for Alternative Employment, February,
Available at http://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/dph/fiche-dph 7718.html (accessed on 26 March,
2010), 2009.
Rajvanshi, A. K.: Electric and Improved Cycle Rickshaws as a Sustainable Transport
System for India, Current Science, Vol. 83, No. 6, pp. 1-6, 2002.
Replogle, M.: Non-Motorized Vehicles in Asia: Lessons for Sustainable Transport Planning
and Policy, Technical Report No.162, World Bank, Washington D.C, 1991.
Saito, T.: Jinrikisha (The Rickshaw), Sangyo Gijutsu Senta, Tokyo, Shenbao, Shanghai,
(1979).
Strand, D.: Rickshaw Beijing: City, People and Politics in the 1920, Berkeley: University
of California Press,1989.
The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Vol. 10, p. 58, 1993.
Warren, J.: The Singapore Rickshaw Pullers: The Social Organization of a Coolie
Occupation (1880-1940), Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 16, No, 1, pp. 1-15, 1985.
Wright, T.: Shanghai Imperialists versus Rickshaw Racketeers: The Defeat of the 1934
Rickshaw Reforms, Modern China, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 76-111, 1991.
Zheng, Y.: Shaghai Jiuhua (Old Tales of Shanghai), Shanghai Wenhua Chubanshe,
Shanghai, Vol.2, p. 17, 1957.
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UDC:323.22:63-05(662.6)
NO RETREAT NO SURRENDER CONFLICT FOR SURVIVAL
BETWEEN FULANI PASTORALISTS AND FARMERS IN
NORTHERN NIGERIA
Isah Mohammed Abbass, PhD
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Abstract:
Our herd is our life because to every nomad life is worthless without his cattle. What do you expect
from us when our source of existence is threatened? The encroachment of grazing fields and routes by farmers
is a call to war (HameSaidu, a Pastoralist, Wuse, 2009-IRIN, 2009).
The continuing Fulani Pastoralists militancy for the survival of their cattle makes fierce struggle and
violent conflicts with farmers inevitable. As Farmers continuously encroach into the grazing routes, they leave
the Fulani with no alternative to neither retreat nor surrender. The traditional practices that focus on the close
integration between raising of livestock and enhanced farming have posed serious dialectics in the dynamic
relationships between pastoralists and farmers in Northern Nigeria. Northern Nigeria is a plural society with the
potential for conflict. However, the conflicts between Fulani pastoralists and farmers in Northern Nigeria are
essentially economic in nature, irrespective of the religious, cultural and political colourations that might be
diluted to advance certain objectives.
Migrant pastoralists in Nigeria are made up of many ethnic groups and the largest being the Fulbe or
Fulani; constituting over 90%. The Fulani are well integrated amongst the sedentary Hausa farmers, who
emigrated into Northern Nigeria from the Senegambia Valley several centuries ago (Adebayo, 1995). The
availability of ecological, economic, environmental as well as social factors explain the need for posture, market
proximity and the reciprocal social relationship with the host community. A combination of these factors
increases the potential for conflicts in northern Nigeria (Blench, 1994, Tolnab, 2001, Fabusoro, 2006).
Keywords: Pastoralists, Farmers, Northern Nigeria
The Setting and Framework of Conflict in Pastoralism and Sedentarism
Conflict is largely a phenomenon of plural societies. In Nigeria, conflict has become
a very widespread occurrence; manifesting in all spheres of human endeavors. A study of
332
major sources of conflicts between the Fulani pastoralists and farmers shows that land related
issues, especially over grazing fields, account for the highest percentage of the conflicts. In
other words, struggles over the control of economically viable lands cause more tensions and
violent conflicts among communities. As Pastoralists and cultivators have coexisted for a
long time, the complexities over the land-use system have dramatically changed and thus
become the dependent variables in conflicts between herdsmen and farmers.
The Fulani indisputably represent a significant component of the Nigerian economy.
They constitute the major breeders of cattle, the main source of meat, the most available and
cheap source of animal proteins consumed by Nigerians. The Fulani own over 90% of the
nations livestock population which accounts for one-third of agricultural GDP and 3.2% of
the nations GDP (Eniola, 2010:3). Furthermore, the contribution of the Fulani to the local
food chain and national food security cannot be overstressed. The Fulani, with their
dominance in the Sahel region, are the best known and most numerous of all the pastoral
groups in Nigeria. The traditional and unique Fulani encampment (ruga) consisting of
temporary structures made of stalks, closely knit family members and livestock is the natural
habitat of the orthodox Fulbe settlement.
The expansion of Fulbe pastoralism into Nigeria is unknown. It is suggested that
Fulbe began to settle on the plains of Bauchi Emirate transcending onto the grassland of the
Jos Plateau (Morrison, 1982, cited in Blench, 2010:4). Conflicts between pastoralists and
farmers have existed since the beginnings of agriculture and increased or decreased in
intensity and frequency depending on economic, environmental and other factors. For
example, increases in the herd sizes, due to improved conditions of the cattle, compelled the
pastoralists to seek for more pastures beyond their limited range. Climate change has
constituted a great threat by putting great pressures on the land and thus provoking conflicts
between them. However, improvements in human health and population have enhanced a
much greater pressure on land. Since the 1980s therefore, there has been a marked expansion
of cultivation of the fadama (reverine and valley-bottom) areas. This means that both the
farmers and pastoralists have engaged in fierce struggles for access to such valuable lands
which, more often than not, result in increased conflicts and violence.
Important features of the current harmony and disharmony in Pastoralism and
sedentarism, reflect enhanced sedentarisation and increased Pastoralism leading to constant
conflict with agrarian societies (Blench, 2010:1). Interdependent relationships between
Fulani and farmers, based on exchange of products, can be sustained if the pressure on
resources is neutralized and mutual terms agreed. Hence, the higher the degree of pressure
333
on vital resources, the greater the degree of conflicts. The degree of harmony and conflict
between Fulani and farmers provokes a certain degree of perceptions, particularly in the
patterns of the conflicts and corporation, leading to the inevitability of the breakdown of law
and order (Blench, 1984).
The complexity of pastoral resource management hinges on the unstable claims and
counter claims on pasture, water and other resources. This complexity is also based on
certain principles of flexibility and reciprocity. Land is the major resource base of the
pastoralists but is not an individually fixed asset with specific use and accessibility (Sandford
and Habtu, 2000, Thebaud and Batterbury, 2001, Nori, etal 2005). Since the pastoral Fulani
wander ceaselessly with a herd of cattle and constantly explore new terrains in harsh and
treacherous environment, they naturally surrender to nature with primary objective of
securing the security of their animals. The security of pastoral livelihood depends on the
condition of their herd and grazing ecosystem which symbiotically relies on the availability
of razing pasture, watering holes and other ecological, socio-economic and safety conditions.
Issues bordering on local community security, safety and development are paramount
in the enhancement of governance and increase or decrease in agitation for control of
resources as well as encroachment of the rights of others. All these have implications for
survival and struggles between or amongst communities. Again, local resistance to state
policies is central in resource-use through strengthening of community capacity to manage
resources and deal with conflicts. Hence, security is a framework for intervention and
conflicts. Since insecurity gives ways to conspiracy, conflicts are inevitable. The object of
security is to primarily advance the well-being and possessions of the persons involved; while
the survival of the state is secondary. In other words, when the character and nature of the
state do not seem to protect the security of the citizens, their freedom and choices completely
shift away from the state to individuals or groups as the foci of security.
When the state pays a lip service to the security of the means of livelihood of its
citizens, like cattle and farmlands; and there is no sufficient guarantee for safety, fear and
suspicions amongst them emerge. The citizens exercise no restraints in individually or
collectively protecting the security and safety of their resources and lives. Since safety and
security have become scarce commodities, only those that can afford them protect them with
all the means available, at the detriment of others irrespective of the risks involved. As the
state cannot regulate the mutual coexistence of its citizens in the harmonious sharing of the
competed resources, the parties may have to resolve to struggle among themselves with no
retreat, nor surrender and for the survival of the fittest.
334
The goal of human development is to evolve and foster understanding, mutual
respects and the principle of give and take, among others. This is to enhance security and
safety for all in order to directly participate and be inclusively involved to make life better,
dynamic and respond to changing circumstances. This should be deliberately designed to
avoid, mitigate or neutralize conflicts with the objective of accommodating and sustaining
collective interest for security and safety. Aspects of consensus building and mutual
respects in promoting peace, security and safety makes communities to strategically organize,
control and manage its resources efficiently without resorting to conflicts. This involves
proactive mobilization to foster social cohesion and responsibility for collective action on any
issue that threatens the security and safety of the community. Since the root causes of
conflicts are traceable to and manifested on ethnic and religious differences, the political
economy of the state constitutes the architect in these incidences. The failure of the state, for
example to resolve the settler/ indigene identity and the inherent struggles over resources
can be adduced to have brought dangerous dimensions of economic and political elements in
the Fulani pastoralists and farmers conflicts (Fiki and Lee, B. 2004: 24-48).
Northern Nigeria: A Background
The area known as Northern Nigeria serves as the melting pot of the modern
Nigerian Federation. Northern Nigeria therefore serves as the nexus of considerable social,
economic, political and cultural struggles. The strategic importance of Northern Nigeria in
commerce, trade, religious activities and thoughts has spanned a long period of time. These
activities enhanced great contacts with ancient empires and kingdoms in African,
Mediterranean and throughout the Islamic World. As a geographical region of Nigeria,
Northern Nigeria is much more vast and arid and of course less densely populated than the
south. The people of Northern Nigeria are largely Muslims and many of them are Hausa or
transformed into Hausa. Apart from Muslims, there are other religious or cultural groups.
Northern Nigeria became a British colony in 1900 under the Northern protectorate. Both the
Northern and Southern protectorates were amalgamated in 1914 to form the Nigerian
Federation The modern Northern Nigeria is currently composed of 19 states with Abuja; the
Federal Capital Territory.
Agriculture is the main stay of the Northern Nigerian economy, even though there are
other mineral resources. The sustainability of agriculture in Northern Nigerian economy
requires a strategic balance in the ecological and socio-economic activities as well as political
considerations. In Northern Nigeria, rainfall occurs seasonally with a pronounced dry season.
335
The seasonal rainfall and prolonged dry season bring about dynamics in the ecosystem and
sour relationships resulting in a sharp division between the sedentary farmers and the
nomadic pastoralists.
Northern Nigeria is a plural society composed of large ethnic groups with the
immigration of several new ones. In addition, Northern Nigeria is also made up of Islamic
culture that mingles with a variety of traditional and other cultures (Akinwumi, etal, and
207:117-212). These varieties of cultures create potentials areas of conflicts with every
group projecting its interests in resources allocation, resource management, and resource
control as well as claim rights over different resources. The plurality of the society is
therefore related with recurring conflicts in the region ethnic, religious, economic, political
among others. The implications of the conflicts have brought about high degrees of loss of
human, animal and material resources.
Conflict for Survival: Security over Farmland and Cattle
The types of conflicts for survival between the Fulani pastoralists and farmers in
Northern Nigeria vary in form and intensity from one community to another. Social and
economic factors continue to provoke violent conflicts among the Fulani pastoralists and
farmers. The intensity and variations of the conflicts largely depend on the nature and type of
the user groups where the pastoralists graze. These conflicts have constituted serious threats
to the means of survival and livelihoods of both the farmers and pastoralists and what both
groups are tenaciously protecting and projecting. The conflicts, through provocative claims
over access rights to farmland and cattle routes (labi), have become ubiquitous and seem to
have defied solutions.
In order to develop an effective, efficient and acceptable system for managing these
conflicts, there is the need to appreciate and identify the cultural issues associated with the
vulnerable groups (Otite& Albert (eds) 1999:1-30). In addition, there is the need to
comprehend how the farmers and Fulani on the one hand and the community and the state on
the other have viewed such conflicting issues and the strategies put in place to ameliorate or
even resolve them. Until the sources of such conflicts are clearly identified, understood,
managed and resolved, such incidences will continue to show their ugly heads at the slightest
provocation.
Various cases of conflicts in Northern Nigeria involving the Fulani pastoralists and
farmers consist of significant variables in economic, social, political and ecological
parameters. These conflicts occur mostly in areas of stiff competition for grazing land and
336
farming but the degree of intensity differs from state to state depending on the ecological
location and the communities involved. Even though droughts and climate change in
Northern Nigerian have worsen the trends of Fulani pastoralist relationships with farmers, the
decrease in the annual rainfall and shortening of the wet season have added inputs to the
intensity and magnitude of Fulani exodus southwards. These movements and the search for
posture land have caused widespread conflicts and destruction of human and animal lives as
well as farmlands with adverse implications for the political economy.
The exacerbation of vulnerability and conflicts in Northern Nigeria between Fulani
pastoralists and farmers is not only caused by climate change but a combination of factors.
For example, with the expansion of population, the rate of food production would naturally
increase and to meet that increasing demand, it is natural for the farmers to encroach into
marginal lands that had been the traditional pasture routes for the cattle. This has therefore
heightened struggle between livestock and agricultural production which, more often than
not, result in the escalation of conflicts (Nyong, 2010:37). Hence, as population grows, more
land is being cultivated and less is available for posture; forcing Fulani to migrate and tramp
on crops cultivated by farmers.
Bruijin and Dijk (1995) and Nori, etal,(2005) have assessed the sources of
vulnerability in fulbe pastoral system. It is shown that both the sources they control (animals)
and do not control (land, water, market, politics) have direct and significant impacts on their
livelihoods and the host communities. Table 1 exhibits the Fulbe perception on the sources
and degree of vulnerability in their system. First and foremost, the greatest threat to Fulani
livelihood is nothing other than the insecurity of the cattle due primarily to prior accessibility
to pasture land and water points. This is followed by cattle diseases as exhibited in Table 1.
Table 1: Perception on sources and level of vulnerability (insecurity)
Highly
vulnerable
Vulnerable Fairly
vulnerable
Not
vulnerable
Sources of
Vulnerability/Insecurity
Poor access to land for grazing XXXXXX
Water inadequacy XXXXXX
Cattle diseases XXXXXX
Poor veterinary services XXXXXX
337
Government actions and inactions XXXXXX
Poor educational level XXXXXXX
Sociocultural problems XXXXXXX
Conflict with host XXXXXX
Source: Adapted from Fabusoro, E.2007 Key issues in Livelihoods Security.
Clashes between farmers and pastoralists in Northern Nigeria are ubiquitous and on
the increase. These clashes generally centre on access to and competition for grazing land
and water. As pasture land shrinks, sequel to taking over of such lands by farmers, conflicts
become inevitable. It is difficult, if not impossible, for the Fulani pastoralists to move and
graze without veering into crop fields. More than 60% of the reported cases of conflicts
occurred during the dry season. These conflicts, more often than not, are concentrated
around the resource-endowed locations like the fertile flood plains, river valleys and other
water points which involve the right to ownership and access.
According to 2009 official report of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water
Resources, Nigeria has officially demarcated 4125 grazing reserves or routes. Out of this
number, only one third is put in use, whereas 270 grazing reserves have been put into
cultivation. In order to curb farmers-pastoralists clashes, the federal government in
September 2009 carried out demarcation of a grazing route running through the central states
of Nasarawa, Benue and Plateau. Other grazing routes also marked out and demarcated were
started across Katsina and Bauchi States, spanning across Abuja. Further grazing routes were
also demarcated from Sokoto in the Northwest to Oyo State in the Southwest as well as
another 2,000km grazing route from Adamawa State in the Northeast to Calabar in the Niger
Delta (UN-IRIN,2009).
Bauchi and Gombe States are situated within the Northeast pastoral zone of Northern
Nigeria. These states are the focal points of reference in the National Fadama Development
Projects (NFDPs). Hence, various cases of conflicts emerged and because of the incessant
clashes between the farmers and pastoralists, it is necessary to examine the causes, dynamics
and consequences of such incidences as they affect the nature of the State in Nigerias
federation. Between 1996 and 2002, Bauchi and Gombe States respectively recorded 28 and
112 reported incidences. The recorded human losses for the two states during the same
period were 101 and 20 respectively. However, large animal losses and crop damage were
338
equally recorded in addition to other huge injuries inflicted on human, animal, plant and
others (Ajuwon, 2004).
The dimension of militancy in the conflicts is associated with the advent of the
aggressive Udawa and Bokoloji pastoralists which further led to the emergence and
introduction of guns and other sophisticated weapons in the conflicts as well as the use of
new communication devices, accompanied with banditry. In all these areas, non-adherence
to the grazing reserves for cattle, which have continuously been encroached by farmers, is the
primary cause of the conflicts. All these have produced adverse consequences in the
destruction of villages, settlements, crops, and irrigation facilities, human and animal lives.
In Bauchi, for example, areas mostly affected included Jamaare, Gamawa, Kuddu, Misau,
Zaki and Kirfe Local Government Areas, among others.
Within the Northwest and North central pastoral regions of Northern Nigeria, the
incidence of serious cases of conflicts for survival between pastoralists and farmers also led
to loss of lives and destruction of properties with the emergence of insecurity due to the
continuous desire for vengeance by the parties involved. In Jigawa State, the conflicts
between the Hausa farmers and Fulani rearers, is a phenomenon that continues to occur in
Miga, Kaugama, Birnin Kudu, Garki and Maigatari local government areas with loss of lives,
properties, cattle as well as various degrees of injuries. The use of guns and other weapons
have added a new dimension to the conflicts alongside the intrusion of camel pastoralists
from Niger Republic (Pyramid Trust, July 17, 2009).
In Nasarawa State, the perennial conflicts for survival between cattle herdsmen and peasant
farmers over the control and access to resources are increasing. For instance, the UdeniGida
village incidence of Nasarawa local government area turned bloody with more than 30 people
dead, with many houses, crops and other properties set ablaze (Daily Trust, December 21,
2009). The cause of the violence was due to the destruction of rice farmlands by cattle. The
use of guns and other weapons has become very rampant by the parties involved.
Sometimes, gunmen are constantly recruited and paid to launch attack on either of the divide.
This situation is common throughout Northern Nigeria and must be directly connected with
global warming and climate change which automatically put enormous pressures on land and
other resources.
These pressures have caused regular conflicts for survival in Gwagwada district of
Chikun local government area of Kaduna State. Due to climate change therefore, pasture
portions already allocated to herdsmen dried up which led to cattle invasion of farmland by
destroying crops and streams where the communities use as drinking water (Okpi, 2010:1-2) .
339
In the North Central Zone, the conflicts have assumed religious and ethnic dimensions. In
this zone, due to the nature of the conflicts, Fulani pastoralists were forced out of the areas or
prevented entry. These conflicts have degenerated into full scale wars with the Plateau state
governments involvement. In 2002, Pastoralists were driven out of Bassa local government
of Kogi State after bloody encounter with farmers. Between 1996 and 2002, 49 cases of
conflicts between farmers and pastoralists in Kogi State were reported (Ajuwon, 2004).
In Plateau State and indeed all over Northern Nigeria, pastoral fulbe are in peril,
sequel to the eruptions of the ethnic-religious conflicts. In 2009, hundreds of nomadic Fulani
pastoralists were expelled from Wase local government area. Apart from the conflict going
out of control, the malignant conflict for survival has also witnessed killing of livestock
through poisoning of the pasture land and water points especially in Heipag, BarikinLadi
local government area where over 70 cattle perished (Daily Trust, July 17,2010). It should be
stressed that since the 19
th
century, pastoral fulbe had been attached to the Plateau. Fulani
pastoralism in Jos area had thus been well entrenched but in recent times turned into
increasing pressure due to increasing and steep struggle between the fulbe and other
sedentary groups for control and ownership of land and other resources.
Hence, the transformation of the relationships between the crop cultivators and
pastoral fuble spontaneously changed from that of complementarily and trust to hostility,
violence and wars. These have been endemic all over Northern Nigeria. With religion,
politics and ethnicity becoming interwoven, the conflicts over scarce resources have become
more fierce and deadly. Hence, the contours of these resource-connected conflicts are more
often than not manipulated along religious, ethnic and sectional divide thus making them
more intricate, complex and difficult to resolve. The causes of these conflicts in these pastoral
corridors thus range from droughts and erratic patterns of rainfalls and the concentration of
farming and grazing to the fadamaareas particularly in Kebbi State.
The state projects on fadamaprogrammes (NFDP) have been viewed as a direct threat
to pastoralists for their dry season grazing. Upland grazing areas are in a poor state and
cannot support teaming livestock; leading to the shrinkage of land use sources for both
farmers and pastoralists. The movement of Fulani Pastoralists for pasture into various parts of
Northern Nigeria has been accompanied with attendant challenges and opportunities for both
the farmers and pastoralists. In addition, this movement has brought about tension, conflicts
and wars leading to further emergence of the state of insecurity, political instability and
socio-economic quagmire.
340
The state has continued to play prominent roles in the escalation of conflicts over
land on a number of factors. For example, the indigene and settler phenomena have not
been addressed and settled, the issues of unresolved grazing land and water spots for the
survival of farmers and pastoralists as well as other corresponding matters on socio-economic
relationships between the two warring groups (Tenuche, &Infatimesun, 2009:361). In the
entire North Central region, there are a number of factors that provoke the escalation of
conflicts. Land related conflicts account for about 50% of the entire conflicts in the region
whereas Fulani-farmers conflicts account for about 40% of the conflicts on land related
matters.
North east Pastoral corridors are also replete with conflicts of survival between
farmers and fulbe pastoralists. In 2009, hundreds of pastoral fulbe were expelled from
Demboa local government of Borno State. However, the invasion of Tipto, Kisa, Samne,
Bangi, Wurke and Gure communities in Lamurde local government area of Adamawa State
by cattle rearers with guns left unconfirmed number of dead and injured persons with over
2,000 rendered homeless due to the destruction of villages (New Nigerian, February 1, 2010).
The political economy of land use in Nigeria is inherently biased against pastoral fulbe
interest within the system of resource use.
Around the Mambila Plateau in Taraba State, there exists a century old conflicts
between the pastoralists and farmers. With Fulbe migration since colonial era into the thickly
grassy land on the Mambila Plateau, grazing for cattle can best be described as ideal. The
area is known to be a land of great diversity in human and other resources and therefore ideal
for its ecological characteristics: palatable grasses, adequate rainfall and less threat to animal
diseases. There were sporadic incidents of conflicts between the Mambila farmers and
pastoralists as far back as 1923 when fulbe allowed their cattle to trample crops (Migeod
1925: 164-6 cited in Blench, 2010:4). Certain constitutional and political changes in Nigeria
led to corresponding changes in the fulbe-farmers relationship in Mambila. Hence, the
obstruction of the Fulani annual movement to valleys in and around the areas led to the
outbreak of violence in the 1980s and 1990s culminating in the violent clash in 2002 with
burning down of Mambila villages among others (Blench,2010:4-5).
Implications of the Conflict on the Nigerian Federation
The eruption of violent conflicts between the Fulani pastoralists and farmers as
manifested, in many forms and dimensions have wide range of implications on the Nigerian
federation. However, the intensity, scope and frequency of such conflicts have shown the
341
fragility of unity of ethinic nationalities in Nigeria. The tenacity to maintain no retreat and
no surrender by all parties in the conflict indicates the porousity of Nigerian federation. The
conflict prone areas in fierce struggle and competition over the shared resources undermine
the relative peace, stability hitherto enjoyed; with threats to social order. The conflicts have
brought about fundamental problems of human security in the region particularly with regard
to humanitarian crises.
These challenges are due to policy implications of the political economy with the
formulated policies designed ostensibly to reduce and manage the conflicts, but ironically
turned to escalate them the more. This development has put the MDGs under serious threat
due to struggle for natural resources under contention. Conflicts in a federal structure can be
effectively and efficiently managed when there is a sound and clear policy to respect the
feelings of each group, with give and take devices. Mismanagement of these conflicts shows
that there is a weak institutional capacity in Nigerias federation to manage them right from
traditional to governmental institutions.
The essence of federalism is good governance, collective security and safety for the
constituent units. Since human security is paramount, the elimination of potential threats of
existence and fear of the deprivation as well as and enhancement of collective will must be
sufficiently guaranteed (Elaigwu&Akindele (eds), 1996:87-900). Conflicts in Nigeria since
the 1960s have fundamentally undermined the stability and development of the Nigerian
State and economy. The social, economic and political tensions created as a result of
numerous escalations of violent conflicts have raised fundamental national questions for the
survival of the Nigerian State. The failure of the state to manage and resolve such conflicts
has put a question mark on the suitability or relevance of the federal structure to the Nigerian
reality. The identity or resource and political based conflicts have become the recurring
dismal in the failure of the Nigerian federation.
The woeful failure of the Nigerian State in enhancing security to Nigerians is
breeding mistrust and lack of patriotism amongst Nigerians and leaders. This has cast dark
clouds over the survival of the federation. The harvest of conflicts, especially the stand-off
between Pastoralists and farmers, must have been cultivated and irrigated by the leaders and
followers in varying forms and magnitude. This has shown the low level of cohesion and
fragility amongst numerous ethnic nationalities sequel to the construction and constitution of
the Nigerian federal structure leading to the ubiquitness of instability of the failed Nigerian
State and federalism.
342
Recurring scramble for scarce ecosystem resources has degenerated into violent
conflicts in Northern Nigeria between fulbe pastoralists and farmers. These conflicts have
become more intense, widespread and destructive. Since most of the fulbe pastoralists do not
own or possess the rights to land, they therefore depend absolutely on open land to feed their
cattle, culminating in intense pressure on land and frequency of conflicts. Ecological, climate
change and of course government policies on agriculture, especially the all-year
fadamafarming, are threats to pastoralist access to pasture. However, additional farms
acquired and encroachments of traditional cattle routes have drastically reduced the grazing
space for the livestock to access pasture areas and water points. Furthermore, the use of
police and courts to resolve conflicts between fulbe pastoralists and farmers by government
has been ineffective. This has contributed to the frequency of the clashes especially since the
1980s sequel to the democratic dispensation, introduction of modern weapons in the conflict
and communication devices as well as the use of bandits in terrorists activities. All these
have exacerbated chronic insecurity that have encouraged the conflicting parties to take
responsibility for their own security and to defend themselves, which is a threat to the
sustainability of the federation.
The failure of the government to prevent the escalation of conflicts between Fulani
pastoralists and farmers in Northern Nigeria is traceable to the above issues, among others. It
is therefore recommended that for harmonious coexistence and security, government must
make policies that are designed to enhance the Fulani pastoralists by ensuring that they secure
rights to land use in order to reduce insecurity and ameliorate the spate of conflicts. This
will, among other things, bring about peaceful coexistence between the Fulani pastoralists
and host communities. This also enhances the security of the cattle, to access grazing space
or resources without pouncing on farmers crops.
For a sustainable peace to reign, there must be a deliberate design to enlighten and
mobilize the parties in conflict to understand the ecology and the resources available in the
localities. This opens a window for interdependence and complemetaries among groups in
the optimal use of the resources for collective benefit and equitable access. Thus, the place
and space must be exploited for common interest with effective regulation of activities,
behavior and conduct. This scenario can only come about if herders keep to agreed routes
and farmers avoid farming across them with stern government policy and strict compliance.
In addition, factors associated with the conflicts must be properly appreciated and
managed by appropriate institutions involved in the conflict resolutions. Hence, local
343
governance in the conflict must not be over looked. Traditional strategies may be combined
with the emerging ones. This relates on how communities create local structures and
networks for the purposes of engagement, participation, inclusiveness, mutual partnership
and transformation of the environment through equity in resource utilization. As safety and
security generate trust, mutual benefits are automatically derived. However, structures
created for and by communities generate networks and feedback by ensuring that people
relate to each other amicably for common use of resources and ensure a safety first principle
in cattle grazing movements and pasture as well as crop production. Understanding the
peculiarities and exploiting opportunities inherent in the Northern Nigeria can produce
greater prospects for effective, efficient and sustainable conflict resolution strategies in
enhancing the farmer-nomad relationship.
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UDC:519.86:620.92(54)
MULTIVARIATE GRANGER CAUSALITY BETWEEN
ECONOMIC GROWTH, ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION,
EXPORTS AND REMITTANCE FOR THE PANEL OF THREE
SAARC COUNTRIES
Md. Sharif Hossain, PhD
Associate Professor of Econometrics; Department of Economic Engineering, Faculty of
Economics, Kyushu University, Japan
Abstract
This paper empirically examines the dynamic causal relationship between economic growth, electricity
consumption, export values and remittance for the panel of three SAARC countries using the time series data for
the period 1976- 2009. Using four different panel unit root tests it is found that all the panel variables are
integrated of order 1. From the Johansen Fisher panel conintegration and Kao tests it is found that all the panel
variables are cointegrated. The panel Granger F test results support that there is only bidirectional short-run
causal relationship between economic growth and export values but there is no evidence of long-run causal
relationship. It is found that the long-run elasticity of economic growth with respect to electricity consumption
and remittance are higher than short run elasticity. This means that over time higher electricity consumption and
higher remittance from manpower supply in the panel of SAARC countries give rise to more economic growth.
Keywords: Panel unit root tests, Panel cointegration tests, Panel Granger causality tests,
Short-run and long-run elasticities
1. Introduction
Economic growth of the SAARC countries especially Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and
Sri-Lanka, is closely related to its energy consumption, export values, and remittance receipts
from manpower supply. However this does not necessarily imply a causal relationship
between them. The direction, strength and stability of the relationship between economic
growth, energy consumption, export values and remittance play a significant role in designing
348
different policies that are associated with economic growth and energy consumption. The
direction and policy implications for the causal relationship between economic growth,
electricity consumption, export values and workers remittance can be classified as follows. If
unidirectional causal relationship from electricity consumption, and export values to
economic growth is found, indicates that any restriction on the use of energy which
negatively affects the export values leads to a reduction of economic growth. Thus about this
negative effect on economic growth that caused by a policy of restriction of energy use in
order to slow down the rate of climate change grows by reducing GHGs, many SAARC
countries specially India as a rising country will be worried. On the other hand if
unidirectional causal relationship from economic growth to electricity consumption or from
economic growth to export values is found, any restriction on the use of electricity has very
little or no adverse impacts on economic growth. A bi-directional causal relationship implies
that both the variables are jointly determined and will affect at the same time. If no causal
relationship between these variables is found, the hypothesis of neutrality holds indicates that
any restriction on energy use will not work as a barrier for economic development of the
panel.
It is well known to us political crises are going on in Libya, Egypt, Tunisia and some
Middle East countries namely Syria, Iraq, Iran etc. Due to the political crises the workers
remittance receipt will be declined in different SAARC countries. If unidirectional causality
is found from remittance to economic growth in the panel of SAARC countries, indicates that
the political crises negatively affect the economic growth of SAARC countries. If
unidirectional causality is found from economic growth to remittance, economic growth will
not be negatively affected due to the political crisis. If bi-directional causal relationship
between economic growth and remittance is found implies that both the variables are jointly
determined and will affect at the same time due to the political crises. Now-a-days, energy
efficiency measures will play a vital role as energy savings as a result most of the rising
countries including India all over the world fear that such policy measure will harm their
economic development. Also a major part of the GDP of different SAARC countries
including Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan comes from the manpower supply in Middle East
and other countries. Thus the most import question arises whether the new energy policy and
policy for reducing the GHGs emissions and also political crises in Libya, Egypt, Tunisia,
and Middle East will strike the economic growth of SAARC countries. One of the best
known methods is to investigate the short-run and long-run causal relationships between
349
economic growth, energy consumption, export values and workers remittance for a panel of
SAARC countries using the time series data.
That is why in this paper the principal purpose is made to investigate the dynamic
causal relationships between economic growth, electricity consumption, export values and
workers remittance for a panel of three SAARC countries namely Bangladesh India and
Pakistan using the time series data from 1976 to 2009. Due to the data problem other SAARC
countries cannot be included for this empirical study. On the basis of the modern
econometrics techniques, the dynamic causal relationships between electricity consumption
and economic growth are examined. The organizational structure of the paper is as: Section 2
discusses the literature review; Section 3discusses data sources and descriptive statistics;
Section 4 provides econometric modeling framework with empirical analysis and finally
section 5 concludes with a summary of the main findings and policy implications.
2. Literature review
The causal relationships between two variables economic growth and energy
consumption are investigated widely in economic literature. The enormous amount of
empirical literatures to examine the causal relationship between economic growth and energy
consumption fall into four categories; (i) no causal relationship between economic growth
and energy consumption (ii) unidirectional causality from economic growth to energy
consumption, (iii) unidirectional causality from energy consumption to economic growth and
(iii) bidirectional causality between economic growth and energy consumption. In applied
econometrics most recent causality studies have tended to focus by using panel data and
employing panel cointegration and panel-base VAR and VEC models which provide more
powerful tests compared to a time series approach to investigate causal relationship between
two variables X and Y. The panel estimation can take heterogeneous country effect into
account in a single estimation by allowing for individuals specific variable. Moreover, the
model estimation allows greater degrees of freedom. As far it is known that a few panel
causality studies are conducted in the fields of economics, finance and energy. The direction
of causality between economic growth and energy/electricity consumption of different time
series and panel studies are summarized below in Table 1.
350
Table 1: Summary of literature review on causality between energy consumption and
economic growth
Previous Studies Countries Time
Period
Variables Methodology Results
Time Series and
Panel Studies
Yang (2000) Taiwan 1954-
1997
E, Y Hsiaos Granger (B) EY
Asafu & Adjaye
(2000)
Thailand 1971-
1995
E, Y, P Cointegration (M) EY
Aqueel & Butt
(2001)
Pakistan 1955-
1996
E, Y Hsiaos Granger (B) EY
Ghosh (2002) India 1950-
1997
E, Y Cointegration (B) YE
Soytas and Sari
(2003)
G-7 :
Argentina, Turkey
France, German,
Japan
Italy, South
Korea,
1960-
1995
E, Y Cointegration
Granger (B) EY
EY
YE
Morimoto
&Hope(2004)
Sri Lanka 1960-
1998
E, Y Granger (B) EY
Wolde-Rufael
(2004)
Shanghai 1952-
1999
E, Y Toda & Yamamotos
Granger (B)
EY
Jumbe (2004) Malawi 1970-
1999
E, Y Cointegration (B) EY
Altinay &
Karagol (2005)
Turkey 1950-
2000
E, Y Dolado-Lukepohls
Granger (B)
EY
Narayan &
Smyth (2005)
Australia 1966-
1999
E, Y, EM Cointegration (M) YE
Lee (2005) Panel of 1971- E, Y Panel Unit Root YE
351
18Countries
1
2002 (LLC, IPS, Hadri)
Panel cointegration
FMOLS (Pedroni)
Panel Causality
(Granger (B), GMM)
Lee & Chang
(2007)
Taiwan 1954-
2003
Yoo (2005) South Korea 1970-
2002
Al-Iriani (2006) Panel of 6 GCC
countries
2
1971-
2002
E, Y Panel unit root (IPS),
Panel cointegration
(Pedroni),
Panel causality
Granger , GMM (B).
YE
Wolde-Rufael
(2006):
16 African
Countries:
Algeria ,Congo
RP, Kenya ,
Sudan
Benin , Congo
,Tunisia
Cameroon,
Ghana, Nigeria ,
Senegal, Zambia ,
Zimbabwe
Egypt , Gabon ,
Morocco
1971-
2001
E, Y Toda & Yamamotos
Granger (B) EY
EY
EY
EY
EY
EY
EY
EY
Yoo (2006) 4 Asian Countries
Indonesia,
Thailand
Malaysia,
Singapore
1971-
2002
E, Y Hsiaos Granger (B)
YE
EY
Chen et al. 10 Asian 1971- E, Y Cointegration,
352
(2007) countries:
China, Hong
Kong
Taiwan, Thailand
Indonesia
India, Malaysia
Philippines
Korea, Singapore
2001 Granger causality (B) EY
EY
EY
YE
YE
EY
Chontanawat et
al (2007)
Panel of 30
OECD
3
Panel of 78 non-
OECD
4
1971-
2003
E, Y Panel unit root (LLC,
IPS),
Panel cointegration,
FMOLS (Pedroni),
Panel causality
(Granger, EG). (B)
EY
EY
Chontanawat et
al (2007)
Panel of G7
Countries
5
Panel of 12
AsianDeveloping
Countries
6
1960-
2003
1971-
2003
E, Y Panel unit root (LLC,
IPS),
FMOLS (Pedroni),
Panel causality
(Granger, EG). (B)
YE
EY
Chen et al.
(2007)
Panel of 7 Asian
countries
7
1971-
2002
E, Y Cointegration,
Granger causality (B)
YE
Halicioglu
(2007)
Turkey 1968-
2005
E, Y Bounds testing
approach and Granger
causality(B)
EY
Joyeux and
Ripple (2007)
Panel of 7 East
Indian
Ocean Countries
8
1971-
2001
E, Y Panel Unit root and
cointegration (B)
ElecY
Lee & Chang
(2007)
Panel of 22 DCs
9
Panel of 18
LDCs
10
1965-
2002
1971-
2002
E, Y Panel causality
(Granger, GMM).(B)
EY
YE
Mehrara (2007) Panel of 11 Oil 1971- E, Y Panel unit root (LLC, YE
353
exporting
countries
11
2002 IPS),
FMOLS (Pedroni),
Panel causality
(Granger, EG). (B)
Narayan and
Singh (2007)
Fiji 1971-
2002
E, Y Bounds testing
approach to
cointegration (B)
EY
Squalli (2007) OPEC:
Algeria, Iraq,
Kuwait
Libya
Iran, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia
Indonesia,
Nigeria, UAE
1980-
2003
E, Y Bounds testing
approach, Toda
&Yamamotos
Granger (B)
YE
YE
YE
EY
EY
EY
Naranyan et al.
(2008)
G7 countries
USA
The rest
1970-
2002
1960-
2002
E, Y Structural vector
autoregressive
(SVAR), (B)
EY
EY
Huang et al.
(2008)
Panel of 19 low
income
Countries
12
Panel of 23 lower
middle income
countries
13
Panel of 15 upper
middle income
countries
14
Panel of 20 high
income
countries
15
1972-
2002
GMM-system
approach (B)
EY
YE
YE
YE
354
Narayan &
Smyth (2009)
Panel of 6 Middle
Eastern
Countries
16
1974-
2002
E, Y, EX Panel unit root
(Breitung),
FMOLS(Westerlund),
Panel causality
(Granger, EG). (M)
EY
Hossain (2011) Panel of 9 NIC
17
1971-
2007
E, Y,
CO2,
UR,
OPEN
Panel unit root (LLC,
IPS, MW, Choi)
Panel causality
(Granger, EG,
GMM). (M)
YE
Hossain & Saeki
(2011)
Panel of 6 South
Asian countries
18
1971-
2007
E, Y Panel unit root ( IPS,
MW, Choi)
Panel causality
(Granger, EG,
GMM). (B)
EY
Note: refers to no causality; refers to unidirectional causality; refers to bi-
directional causality; B denotes bivariate model, M denotes multivariate model.
1: This includes South Korea, Singapore, Hungary, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico,
Peru, Venezuela, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
Ghana and Kenya.
2: This panel includes Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab
Emirates (UAE).
3: This includes Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States.
4: This includes Albania, Algeria, Angola, Argentina, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Benin, Bolivia,
Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Chile,
Colombia, China, Congo, Congo Rep., Costa Rica, Cote dIvoire, Cuba, Cyprus,
355
Dominican rep., Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador,
Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Gibraltar, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Hong Kong, India,
Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jamaica, Jordan,
Kenya, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Malta, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar,
Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan,
Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Singapore,
Sri Lanka, Sudan, Taiwan, Tanzania,
Thailand, Togo, Trinidad Tobago, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, Venezuela,
Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
5: This refers to Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom and United States.
6: These countries are Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan,
China, Philippines, Sri-Lanka, Thailand and
Vietnam
7: This includes Hong Kong, Korea, Indonesia, India, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand.
8: This refers to India, Indonesia, Burma, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore.
9: This includes Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom, United States.
10: This includes Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Malaysia,
Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey and Venezuela.
11: This includes Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Oman Algeria,
Nigeria, Mexico, Venezuela and Ecuador.
12: Low income group means Congo rep., Nepal, Nigeria, Togo, Zambia, Ghana, Kenya,
Bangladesh, Benin, Zimbabwe, India,
Pakistan, Senegal, Haiti, Congo rep., Cameroon, Indonesia, Cote dIvoire and Nicaragua.
13: Lower middle income group means China, Sri Lanka, Honduras, Syria, Bolivia,
Philippines, Morocco, Ecuador, Egypt, Arab rep.,
Paraguay, Algeria, Guatemala, Thailand, El Salvador, Colombia, Peru, Tunisia,
Dominican rep., Jamaica, Turkey, South Africa and
Gabon.
14: Upper middle income group means Malaysia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela,
Hungary, Chile, Mexico, Trinidad and Tobago,
356
Uruguay, Oman, Argentina, Saudi Arabia, Malta and Korea rep.
15: High income group means Portugal, Greece, New Zealand, Spain, Israel, Australia, Italy,
Canada, Singapore, Ireland, France,
Belgium, Finland, Germany, Netherlands, UK, Austria, HK, China and Sweden.
16: This includes Iran, Israel, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia and Syria.
17: This includes Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, South Africa,
Thailand, and Turkey
18: This includes Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri-Lanka.
The existing literature reveals that due to the application of different econometric
methodologies and different sample sizes the empirical results are very mixed and even vary
for the same country and same panel and are not conclusive to present policy formulation that
can be applied over the countries. Thus this study tries to overcome the shortcoming literature
related with the linkage between electricity consumption and economic growth for the panel
of SAARC countries. Also this empirical study will be important to formulate policy
recommendation from the point of view of electricity consumption and economic growth,
export values and remittance for the panel of SAARC countries.
2. Data sources and descriptive statistics
Annual data for per capita real GDP (PGDP) ( constant 2000 USD), per capita
electricity consumption (EC) (kWh), export values of goods and services (EX) ( constant
2000 USD) and workers remittance receipt (RE) (in USD) are downloaded from the World
Banks Development Indicators. The data is for the period from 1976 to 2009. Due to the
data problem only three SAARC countries namely Bangladesh, India and Pakistan are
considered for the panel analysis. Some descriptive statistics of all variables for individuals
and also for panel are given below in Table (2)
Table 2: Descriptive statistics for individuals and also for panel
Descriptive
Statistics
PGDP EC EX RE
Bangladesh Min
Max
Mean
Std. Dev.
CV.
216.6887
482.6105
296.8801
76.6714
25.8257%
15.5288
214.4
71.3234
53.5847
75.1292%
768645026.3
15649927542.0
4793708947.2
4520743859.7
94.3058%
18761275.1
10510108316.0
1987328497.8
2493240816.4
125.4569%
357
India Min
Max
Mean
Std. Dev.
CV.
218.8990
766.3755
384.1765
154.2683
40.1556%
126.0977
778.7100
320.9439
153.0350
47.6828%
9044664320
302812652359
55594385824
71798335694
129.1467%
641780814.4
49179627878.0
10541613422.7
12981427922.8
123.1446%
Pakistan Min
Max
Mean
Std. Dev.
CV.
290.1789
656.8739
473.5847
107.4918
22.6975%
101.3298
479.6571
293.7112
119.4579
40.6719
1920244102.0
19099569944.0
8800785985.5
5316245965.9
60.4065
411736924.6
9960000000.0
2842223483.69
2202974790.20
77.5089%
Panel Min
Max
Mean
Std. Dev.
CV.
216.6887
766.3755
384.8804
136.8488
35.5562%
15.5288
778.7100
228.6595
160.8644
70.3511%
768645026
302812652359
23062960252
47300185190
205.0916%
18761275.1
49179627878.0
5123721801.4
8580325420.9
167.4627%
Min: indicates minimum value, Max: indicates maximum value, Std. Dev.: indicates standard
deviation, CV: indicates coefficient of variation
The reported mean per capita GDP in Table (2) is highest for Pakistan followed by
India and Bangladesh and the mean per capita GDP for the panel is greater than Bangladesh
and India but less than Pakistan. In respect of economic growth it is found that the volatility
is highest for India followed by Bangladesh and Pakistan indicates that Indian economy
among SAARC countries is growing at a faster rate. The coefficient of variation for the panel
variable economic growth is 35.5562% which indicates the existence of huge differential
among the SAARC countries. The range of per capita GDP for panel is 549.6868 USD
which indicates the significant differential among SAARC countries. The per capita mean
electricity consumption recorded is highest for India and followed by Pakistan and
Bangladesh. In respect of electricity consumption the low income countries are more volatile
than high income countries indicates that high income countries are consuming more
electricity consumption. The mean electricity consumption for this panel is 228.6595 kwh,
which is lower than India and Pakistan but higher than Bangladesh. The volatility for this
panel in respect of electricity consumption is 70.3511% which indicates the existence of huge
differences in respect of per capita electricity consumption among SAARC countries. It is
found that the export values of goods and services and workers remittance are higher for
358
high income and lower for low income SAARC countries. The volatility of export values of
goods and services is highest for India followed by Pakistan and Bangladesh and also the
volatility of remittance is highest for Bangladesh followed by India and Bangladesh which
indicate that the export values of high income countries higher than low income countries.
The volatility of export values and remittance for the panel indicate that the existence
of huge differential among high income and low income SAARC countries.Since the average
electricity consumption, export values and workers remittance of high income countries are
relatively higher among SAARC countries thus a general question arises in our mind whether
these variables cause economic growth for the panel of SAARC countries. Thus to give the
answer of the question, the principal purpose of this study is made to investigate empirically
the dynamic causality relationship between economic growth, electricity consumption, export
values of goods and services and workers remittance for the panel of three SAARC
countries based on the modern econometric techniques.
3. Empirical model
In order to find the relationship between economic growth, electricity consumption,
export values and remittance for the panel of three SAARC countries the following model is
proposed;
3i it 1i 2i
it 0 it it it
PGDP = A EC EX RE e
o c o o
(1)
The logarithmic transformation of equation (1) is given by;
it 0 1i it 2i it 3i it it
ln(PGDP ) = + ln(EC )+ ln(EX )+ ln(RE )+ o o o o c
(2)
where,
0 0
=ln(A ) o ,the subscript i represents ith country and t represents time period for each
country.
PGDP indicates per capital real GDP, EC indicates per capita electricity consumption, EX
indicates total export values of goods and services and RE indicates workers remittance.
Here
1 2 3
, , and o o o represents the long-run elasticities of economic growth with respect to
EC, EX, and RE respectively.
359
4. Econometric methodology
The empirical investigation of the dynamic causal relationship between economic
growth, electricity consumption, export values, and remittance using modern econometrics
techniques involves the following three steps. At the first step whether each panel variable
contains a unit root is examined. If the variables contain a unit root, the second step is to test
whether there is a long run-cointegration relationship between the panel variables. If a long-
run relationship between the variables is found, the final step is to estimate panel vector error
correction model in order to infer the Granger causal relationship between the variables.
Finally using the GMM technique the long-run and short-run elasticities of economic growth
with respect to electricity consumption, export values and remittance are estimated for the
panel. In this paper the software RATS, EViews and STATA are used for empirical analyses.
4.1 Panel unit root tests
Since none of the panel unit root test is free from some statistical shortcomings in
terms of size and power properties, so it is better for us to perform several unit root tests to
infer an overwhelming evidence to determine the order of integration of the panel variables.
In this paper four panel unit root tests: Levin, Lin and Chu (LLC, 2002) , Im, Peasaran and
Shin (IPS, 2003), Maddala and Wu (MW, 1999), and Choi (2006) tests are applied.
The LLC test is based on the assumption that the persistence parameters
i
p are
common across cross-sections so that
i
= p p for all i, but this assumption is not true for
several variables. The second and third tests assume cross-sectional independence. This
assumption is likely to be violated for the income variable. It has been found by Banerjee,
Cockerill and Russell (2001) that these tests have poor size properties and have a tendency to
over-reject the null hypothesis of unit root if the assumption of cross-section independence is
not satisfied. Peasaran (2003) and Choi (2006) are derived other tests statistics to solve this
problem.
Levin, Lin and Chu (LLC, 2002) considered the following regression equation
i
p
it it-1 ij it-j it it
j=1
y = y + y +X + o o c ' A A
_
(3)
where,
it it i,t-1
y = y -y A , here the assumption is = -1 o p i.e.
i
= p p for all i, but allow the lag
order for the difference terms
i
p , to vary across cross-sections. Here the null hypothesis to be
360
tested is
0
H : 0 o = ; against the alternative hypothesis is that
1
H : < 0 o . The null hypothesis
indicates that there is a unit root while the alternative hypothesis indicates that there is no unit
root. To perform the test statistic at first they regress
it
y A and
it-1
y on the lag terms
it-j
y A (j =
1, 2,..,
i
p ) and the exogenous variables
it
X which are given by;
i
p
it ij it-j it it
j=1
y = y +X +u o ' A A
_
(4)
i
p
it-1 it-j it it
j=1
y = y +X +v
ij
| i ' A
_
(5)
The estimated equations are given by;
i
p
it ij it-j it
j=1
y = y +X o ' A A
_
(6)
i
p
it-1 it-j it
j=1

y = y +X
ij
| i ' A
_
(7)
Then they define
it
y A by taking
it
y A and removing the autocorrelations and deterministic
components using the first set of auxiliary estimates:
i
p
it it ij it-j it
j=1
y = y y -X o ' A A A
_
(8)
Analogously they also define
i
p
it-1 it-1 it-j it
j=1

y = y y -X
ij
| i ' A
_
(9)
The proxies are obtained by standardizing both
it
y A and
it-1
y dividing by the regression
standard error i.e.
it
it
i
y
y
s
A
A = ; and
it-1
it-1
i
y
y =
s
; where
i
s are estimated the standard errors
from estimating each ADF in equation (3) . Finally an estimate of the coefficient o may be
obtained from the pooled proxy equation
361
it it-1 it
y y o q A = +
(10)
LLC show that under the null hypothesis, a modified t-statistic for the resulting o is
asymptotically normally distributed which is given by;
-2 *
n * mT
*
mT
t (nT)S se( )
t = ~N(0, 1)
o
o
o o
o
(11)
where t
o
is the standard t-statistic for
0
H : = 0 o ,
2
o is the estimate variance of the error
term q, se( ) o is the standard error of o ,
n
S is the mean of the ratios of the long-run
standard deviation to the innovation standard deviation for each individual. Its estimate is
derived using kernel-based techniques
i
1
p
T = T- -1
n
i =
_
(12)
*
mT

and
*
mT
o

are the two adjusted factors for the mean and standard deviation.
Im, Pesaran and Shin (IPS, 2003) proposed the test statistic using the following
model;
i
p
it it-1 ij it-j it it
j=1
y = y + y +X +
i
o o c ' A A
_
(13)
where,
it it i,t-1
y = y -y A ,
it
y (i = 1, 2,..,n; t = 1, 2,..,T) is the series under
investigation for country i over period t,
i
p is the number of lags in the ADF regression and
the
it
c errors are assumed to be independently and normally distributed random variables for
all is and ts with zero mean and finite heterogeneous variance
2
i
o . Both
i
o and
i
p in
equation (13) are allowed to vary across countries. The null hypothesis to be tested is that
each series in the panel contains a unit root, i. e.
0 i
H : = 0 i o . Against the alternative
hypothesis that some of the individual series to have unit root but not all
i
1
i
0; for some i's
H :
0; for at least one i
o
o
=
<
362
There are two stages for constructing the t-bar statistic which is proposed by Im, Pesaran and
Shin (2003). At the first stage the average value of the individual ADF t-statistic for each of
the countries in the sample is calculated which is given by
i
n
nT iT i
i=1
1
t = t (p )
n
_
(14)
where
i
iT i
t (p ) is the calculated ADF test statistic for country i of the panel (i = 1, 2, ,n).
The second step is to calculate the standardized t-bar statistic which is given by;
nT
1
nT iT i
1
t
iT i
1
n t E( t (p ))
Z = ~ N(0, 1)
1
var( t (p ))
n
n
i
n
i
n
=
=
(
(

_
_
(15)
where n is the size of the panel, which indicates the no. of countries,
iT i
E(t (p )) and
iT i
var( t (p )) are provided by IPS for various values of T and p. However, Im, et al. (2003)
suggested that in the presence of cross-sectional dependence, the data can be adjusted by
demeaning and that the standardized demeaned t-bar statistic converges to the standard
normal in the limit.
Maddala and Wu (MW, 1999) proposed a Fisher-type test which combines the p-
values from unit root tests for each cross-section i. The test is non-parametric and has a chi-
square distribution with 2n degrees of freedom, where n is the number of countries in the
panel. The test statistic is given by;
n
2
e i 2n(d.f.)
i=1
=-2 log (p )~ i
_
(16)
where
i
p is the p-value from the ADF unit root tests for unit i. The Maddala and Wu (1999)
test has the advantage over the IPS (2003) test that it does not depend on different lag lengths
in the individual ADF regressions.
In addition Choi (2006) derived another test statistic which is given by;
n
-1
i
i=1
1
Z = (p ) ~ N(0, 1)
n
u
_
(17)
where,
-1
u is the inverse of the standard normal cumulative distribution function.
363
We know macroeconomic variables tend to exhibit a trend over time, thus it is more
appropriate to consider the regression equation with constant and trend terms at level form.
Thus for panel unit root tests, in the paper two cases are considered in level form. In case one
both constant and trend terms are included in the equation and in case two only constant term
is included in the equation. Since first differencing is likely to remove any deterministic
trends in the variable, regression should include only constant term. The ADF test results for
individuals and also the tests results for panel are given below in Table (3) and (4)
respectively.
Table 3: ADF unit root test results for the individuals
lnPGDP lnEC lnEX lnRE
Case 1: Model with constant and trend terms [ Level form]
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
1.18047
-0.83406
-2.09580
-3.16457
-1.23936
-0.75828
-1.81564
0.27128
-2.09923
-2.11814
-1.33020
-2.53095
Case 2: Model with only constant term [ Level form]
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
3.51189
3.24760
-2.33388
0.72764
0.77323
-2.93351
1.42222
3.81261
-1.94144
-0.59181
0.14687
-1.93318
Model with only constant term [ First differenced]
AlnPGDP AlnEC AlnEX
AlnRE
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
-2.95197*
-2.95804*
-2.59738
-5.65153**
-2.97630*
-0.73597
-3.34448*
-4.66677**
-3.75593**
-3.51876*
-3.57036*
-6.69558**
*: indicates significant at 5% level, **: indicates significant at 1% level
Table 4: LLC, IPS, MW and Choi panel unit root tests results
Case 1: Model with constant and trend terms [ Level form]
LLC
Test
Prob. IPS
Test
Prob. MW Test Prob. Choi
Test
Prob.
lnPGDP
lnEC
0.98638
0.82305
0.8380
0.7948
3.0526
0.5693
0.9989
0.7154
1.3755
6.8588
0.9673
0.3341
2.9836
0.6749
0.9986
0.7501
364
lnEX
lnRE
-0.0325
3.1616
0.4870
0.9992
1.1669
0.3565
0.8784
0.6393
2.1850
3.9803
0.9019
0.6793
1.2234
0.3573
0.8894
0.6396
Case 2: Model with only Constant Term [ Level form]
lnPGDP
lnEC
lnEX
lnRE
3.8851
-1.0822
1.8347
0.9750
0.9999
0.1396
0.9667
0.8352
6.1057
1.5095
3.7070
1.3850
1.0000
0.944
0.9999
0.9170
3.5669
7.9128
2.3457
2.6959
0.735
0.2446
0.8853
0.8459
5.0312
1.3924
3.3710
1.3825
1.000
0.9181
0.9996
0.9166
Model with only constant term [ First differenced form]
A
lnPGDP
AlnEC
AlnEX
AlnRE
-0.2487
-0.8648
-
2.9907*
-
2.0168*
0.4018
0.1926
0.0014
0.0219
-
1.6466*
-
2.8384*
-
4.5740*
-
5.9574*
0.0498
0.0023
0.0000
0.0000
12.0049**
24.7577*
31.7422*
43.1814*
0.0619
0.0004
0.0000
0.0000
-
1.7150*
-
2.4572*
-
4.3945*
-
5.2413*
0.0432
0.0070
0.0000
0.0000
*: indicates significant at 1% level, **: indicates significant at 5% level., ***:indicates
significant at 10% level
The ADF test results for individuals support that all the variables are integrated of
order 1 for Bangladesh and India but for Pakistan the variables economic growth and
electricity consumption are integrated of order two and the variables export values and
remittance are integrated of order 1. The panel unit root tests results support that all the panel
variables are integrated of order 1.
4.2 Panel cointegration
From the panel unit root tests results it is found that all the panel variables are
integrated of order (1). Therefore the cointegration analysis is conducted to examine whether
there is a long-run relationship among the variables using the Kao (1999) ADF type test and
Johansen Fisher panel cointegration test proposed by Maddala and Wu (1999).
The Kao (1999) ADF type test can be computed from the following regression equation
p
it it-1 it-j it
j=1
e = e + e +v
ij
p A
_
(18)
365
where
it
e s are the estimated residuals from the panel static regression equation;
it i it it
y = +x +u ; i = 1, 2,.........,n; t = 1, 2,....,T; | '
(19)
where : (m, 1) vector of the slope parameters |
i
: intercepts,
it
u : stationary disturbance
terms. Here
it
x is a (m, 1) integrated process of order 1 for all i, i.e.
it it it-1 it
x ~I(1) i, x = x +c ,
it it
{y , x } are independent across cross-sectional units and
, )
it it
= u ,
it
e c
'
' is a linear process. Then, the long-run covariance matrix of
it
{ } e is denoted
by O and is given by;
u u
ij 0
j=- u
= E( , ) =
i
c
c c
e e
O O | |
' O

O O
\
_
and
u
i0 i0
=E( ) =
u
u
c
c c
e e
X X | |
' X

X X
\
The null hypothesis of no cointegrationcan be written as
0
H : = 1 p
Against the alternative hypothesis is
1
H : < 1 p
With the null hypothesis of no cointegration, the Kao (1999) ADF test statistics can be
constructed as follows;
, )
0
0
2
2 2
0
2 0
6 / 2
ADF = ~ (0,1)
2
3 /10
2
v v
v
v
v v
v
t n
N
p
o o
o
o
o o
o
+
+
(20)
where,
2 -1
v u u

= -
c c
o X X X and
2 1
0v

u uc c
o

= O O O
The Johansen Fisher panel cointegration test is based on the aggregates of the p-
values of the individual Johansen maximum eigenvalues and trace statistic. If
i
p is the p-
value from an individual cointegration test for cross-section i, under the null hypothesis the
test statistic for the panel is given by;
n
2
i 2
1
-2 log(p ) ~
n
i

=
_
(21)
In the Johansen type panel cointegration tests results heavily depends on the number
of lags of the VAR system. The results are obtained here use one lag and are given below in
Table (4) for individuals and in Table (5) for panel.
366
Table 4: Results of the individuals cointegration tests
Hypothesis
:
No
cointegratio
n
Model 1 Model 2
Country Trace
Test
Prob. Max-
Eigen
Test
Prob. Trace
Test
Prob. Max-
Eigen
Test
Prob.
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
76.3021
*
53.5980
*
55.8481
*
0.000
0
0.001
3
0.000
7
31.7416
*
24.7300
*
29.5387
*
0.003
9
0.041
8
0.008
5
88.0784
*
75.6313
*
65.4300
*
0.000
0
0.000
2
0.003
5
34.4052*
35.7767*
29.5627*
0.0080
0.0051
0.0374
Hypothesis: At most one cointegration equation Hypothesis: At most one cointegration
equation
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
44.5605
*
28.8688
*
26.3094
0.000
0
0.012
3
0.027
3
24.9843
*
18.4258
*
20.0422
*
0.003
5
0.040
2
0.022
6
53.6732
*
39.8545
*
35.8673
*
0.000
2
0.014
6
0.042
2
27.1754*
18.4446
23.1833*
0.0009
6
0.1586
0.0376
Hypothesis: At most two cointegration equation Hypothesis: At most two cointegration
equation
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
19.5762
*
10.4422
6.2671
0.002
6
0.101
2
0.404
2
19.4758
*
9.3859
4.550
0.001
5
0.103
5
0.542
9
26.4978
*
21.4100
*
12.6839
0.006
0
0.034
6
0.389
6
20.2721*
14.8768*
*
10.5882
0.0096
0.0716
0.2838
Hypothesis: At most three cointegration equation Hypothesis: At most three
cointegration equation
367
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
0.1004
1.0552
1.7171
0.794
4
0.353
4
0.223
4
0.1004
1.0562
1.7171
0.794
4
0.353
4
0.223
4
6.2257
6.5332
2.0957
0.174
0
0.153
4
0.758
6
6.2257
6.5332
2.0957
0.1740
0.1534
0.7586
Model 1: No intercept or trend in cointegration equation and VAR, Model 2: Intercept (no
trend) incointegration equation no intercept in VAR
Table 5: Results of the Johansen based panel conintegration test
Model 1 Model 2
Number
of
Coint.
Eqn.
Trace
Test
Prob. Max-
Eigen
Value
Test
Prob. Trace
Test
Prob. Max-
Eigen
Value
Test
Prob.
None
At Most
1
At Most
2
At Most
3
55.22*
35.93*
18.31*
5.539
0.0000
0.0000
0.0055
0.4768
26.99*
25.31*
18.81*
5.539
0.0001
0.0003
0.0045
0.4768
53.17*
31.79*
18.33*
7.800
0.0000
0.0000
0.0045
0.2531
26.80*
19.53*
17.09*
7.800
0.0002
0.0034
0.0090
0.2531
Kao cointegration Test Statistic Probability
-2.9985* 0.0014
Model 1: No intercept or trend in cointegration equation and VAR, Model 2: Intercept (no
trend) incointegration equation no intercept in VAR
The results of the individual cointegration tests in Table (5) indicate that all the
variables are cointegrated for Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. The Kao and Johansen Fisher
panel cointegration tests results confirmed that there is a long-run cointegration relationship
among the panel variables.
368
4.3 Granger causality
The cointegration relationship indicates the existence of causal relationship but it does
not indicate the direction of causal relationship between variables. Therefore it is common to
test for detecting the causal relationship between variables using the Engle and Granger test
procedure. In the presence of cointegration relationship the application of Engle and Granger
(1987) causality test in the first differenced variables by means of a VAR will misleading the
results, therefore an inclusion of an additional variable to the VAR system such as the error
correction term (ECM) would help us to capture the long-run relationship. The augmented
form of the Granger causality test involving the ECM is formulated in a multivariate pth
order vector error correction (VEC) model given below;
it 11k 12 13 14 it-k 1
p
it 21 22 23 24 it-k 2
k=1 it 31 32 33 34 it-k 3
it 41 42 43 44 it-k 4
lnPGDP lnPGDP C
lnEC lnEC C
lnEX lnEX C
lnRE lnRE C
k k k
k k k k
k k k k
k k k k
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
A A ( ( ( (
( ( ( (
A A
( ( ( (
= +
( ( ( A A
( ( (
A A
( ( (

_
1it 1
2it 2
it-1
3it 3
4it 4
ECM
c i
c i
c i
c i
( (
( (
( (
+ +
( ( (
( ( (
( ( (

(22)
where i = 1, 2,..,n; t = p+1, p+2, p+3,.,T; .The Cs, 's | and 's i are the
parameters to be estimated. Astands for first difference,
it-1
ECM represents the one period
lagged error-term derived from the cointegration vector and the 's c are serially independent
with mean zero and finite covariance matrix. From the equation (22) given the use of a VEC
structure, all variables are treated as endogenous variables.
The F test is applied here to examine the direction of any causal relationship between
the variables. The electricity consumption does not Granger cause economic growth in the
short run, if and only if all the coefficients
12k
| s k are not significantly different from zero
in equation (22). Similarly the economic growth does not Granger cause electricity
consumption in the short run if and only if all the coefficients
21k
| s k are not significantly
different from zero in the equation (22). They are referred to as the short-run Granger
causality test. The coefficients on the ECM represent how fast deviations from the long-run
equilibrium are eliminated. Another channel of causality can be studied by testing the
significance of ECMs. This test is referred to as the long run causality test. The short-run and
long-run Granger causality tests results are reported below in Table (6) for individuals and in
Table (7) for panel
369
Table 6 Granger F-test results for individuals
Bangladesh
lnPGDP A lnEC A lnEX A lnRE A ECM
lnPGDP A 2.1162
(0.1454)
2.9579**
(0.0738)
2.6579**
(0.09867)
-0.14769
(0.8839)
lnEC A 0.3150
(0.7332)
0.8602
(0.4374)
0.7068
(0.5045)
0.55035
(0.5878)
lnEX A 0.0101
(0.990)
1.2326
(0.3117)
0.0567
(0.9451)
0.45856
(0.65126)
lnRE A 1.6185
(0.2219)
0.2219
(0.9953)
0.6300
(0.5423)
0.62609
(0.5380)
India
lnPGDP A 0.3221
(0.5752)
0.9240
(0.3452)
0.1371
(0.7142)
-0.47816
(0.6365)
lnEC A 0.0327
(0.8578)
0.6514
(0.4269)
0.8444
(0.3665)
-0.52912
(0.6012)
lnEX A 0.0230
(0.8805)
0.0560
(0.8148)
1.2844
(0.2674)
3.2366*
(0.0032)
lnRE A 1.7754
(0.1942)
2.3844
(0.1346)
2.3108
(0.1523)
2.5325
(0.1236)
0.83988
(0.4086)
Pakistan
lnPGDP A 0.7770
(0.3864)
0.6094
(0.4423)
0.0347
(0.8536)
-3.0826*
(0.0049)
lnEC A 3.3572**
(0.0788)
0.6506
(0.4275)
2.1974
(0.1507)
1.5330
(0.13783)
lnEX A 1.3419
(0.2576)
0.0932
(0.7627)
0.0044
(0.9474)
-0.08391
(0.9337)
lnRE A 0.0021
(0.9634)
2.2391
(0.1471)
0.0224
(0.8821)
0.16906
(0.8671)
*: indicates significant at 5% level and **: indicates significant at 10% level.
Table 7 Panel Granger F-test results
lnPGDP A lnEC A lnEX A lnRE A ECM
lnPGDP A 0.0189 3.2289** 2.1737 -0.72673
370
(0.8910) (0.0757) (0.1438) (0.4692)
lnEC A 0.0179
(0.8937)
0.89377
(0.1835)
1.4314
(0.2346)
-0.06127
(0.95127)
lnEX A 8.2109*
(0.0051)
0.0671
(0.7961)
0.8640
(0.3551)
-0.21695
0.82873
lnEX A 1.2043
(1.2043)
1.4655
(0.2292)
0.2701
(0.6045)
1.2183
(0.2262)
The reported values in parentheses are the p-values of the test. * : indicates significant at 5%
level, ** : indicates significant at 10% level
The findings in Table (6) indicate that there is only short-run causality running from
export values and remittance to economic growth in Bangladesh, only long-run causality
from economic growth to export values in India, only unidirectional short-run causality from
economic growth to electricity consumption in Pakistan. The findings in Table (7) indicate
that there is panel short-run bidirectional causality between economic growth and export
values but there is no evidence of long-run causal relationship.
4.4 Short-run and long-run elasticity
The short run elasticity can be obtained by estimating the following error correction model
it 1 it 2 it 3 it it-1 it
lnPGDP = lnEC + lnEX + lnRE + ECM o o o i c A A A A +
(23)
where
it
c is the random error terms,
1 2 3
, , , and o o o i are the parameters to be estimated. The
parameter i represents speed of adjustment for short-run to reach in the long-run
equilibrium.
The long-run elasticity can be obtained by estimating the following regression equation
i i i
i i i
k
it i 1 it 2 it 3 it ij it-j ij it-j ij it-j it
j=-k j=-p j=-p
lnPGDP = + lnEC + lnEX + lnRE lnEC lnEX + lnRE
p p
u | | | i o + A + A A +
_ _ _
(24)
The GMM is applied to estimate both equation which control the problem of endogeneity and
serial correlation of regressors. The estimated results are given below in Table (8)
Table 8 Individuals and panel short-run and long-run elasticities
Short-run elasticity [ lnPGDP A is the dependent variable]
lnEC A lnEX A lnRE A ECM
371
Coeff. t-Test Coeff. t-Test Coeff. t-Test Coeff. t-Test
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
0.0878
0.3032
0.4263
2.8575*
4.5646*
7.1861*
0.11647
0.14254
0.00824
3.3922*
4.0873*
0.29404
0.0027
0.0257
0.0028
0.1947
1.0300
0.00284
-
0.2641
-
0.2243
-
0.3169
-
3.1941*
-1.2019
-1.7204
Panel 0.1845 4.9564* 0.1049 5.7950* 0.01033 2.3843* -
0.0551
-
4.0048*
Long-run elasticity [ lnPGDP is the dependent variable]
lnEC lnEX lnRE
Coeff. t-Test Coeff. t-Test Coeff. t-Test
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
0.0493
0.00224
0.09205
1.3507
0.0304
1.655**
0.08677
0.07246
0.01348
2.5018*
1.3473
0.5361
0.16564
0.00919
0.01296
15.693*
0.4362
3.4739*
Panel 0.30020 6.4132* 0.09350 1.59817 0.09852 1.78017**
*: indicates significant at 5% level, **: indicates significant at 10% level.
From the estimated results in Table (8) it is found that the variable electricity
consumption has short-run positive significant impact on economic growth for Bangladesh,
India and Pakistan. The range of short-run elasticity is 0.4263 for India to 0.0878 for
Bangladesh. The variable export values have short-run significant positive impact on
economic growth for Bangladesh and India. The impacts of the variable remittance are not
statistically significant for Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. It is found that it takes about 3.79
years for Bangladesh, 4.46 years for India and 3.16 years for Pakistan to reach in the long-run
equilibrium and statistically significant only for Bangladesh.
For panel analysis, it is found that the short-run elasticities of economic growth with
respect to electricity consumption, export values and remittance are positively significant also
for panel estimation the ECM is statistically significant.
For long-run, it is found that the variables export values and remittance have
significant positive impacts on economic growth in Bangladesh, none of the variable has
significant impact one economic growth in the long-run for India, the variables electricity
consumption and remittance have significant positive impacts on economic growth for
Pakistan.
372
For panel estimation the variables electricity consumption and remittance have significant
positive impact on economic growth and the export values have positive impact in the long-
run but not significant. It is found that the long-run elasticity of economic growth with
respect electricity consumption and remittance are higher than short run elasticity. This
means that over time higher electricity consumption and remittance from manpower supply in
the panel of SAARC countries give rise to more economic growth.
5.Conclusions and policy implications
This paper attempts to empirically examine the short-run and long-run causal
relationship between economic growth, energy consumption, export values and workers
remittance receipt for the panel of three SAARC countries using the time series data for the
period 1971- 2009 on the basis of modern econometric techniques. Also this study attempts
to examine the new approach which is proposed by Narayan and Narayan (2010). Before
testing for any causal relationship among the variables within a VAR model structure at the
first stage panel unit root tests and at the second stage panel cointegration analysis are done.
Four different panel unit root tests, Levin, Lin and Chu (LLC, 2002), Im, Peasaran and Shin
(IPS, 2003), Maddala and Wu (1999), and Choi (2006) tests are applied. The tests results
support that all the panel variables are integrated of order one. The ADF test results support
that all the variables are integrated of order 1 for Bangladesh and India but the variable
economic growth and electricity consumption are integrated of order 2 for Pakistan.
The Kao and the Johansen Fisher panel cointegration tests results support that all the
panel variables are cointegrated. Also the individual cointegration tests results support that all
the variables are cointegrated for Bangladesh, India and Pakisatn.
From the individual Granger F-test results, only short-run causality running from
export values and remittance to economic growth at 10% level in Bangladesh, long-run
causality from economic growth to export values in India, and unidirectional short-run
causality from economic growth to electricity consumption in Pakistan. The panel Granger F-
test results support the bidirectional short-run causal relationship between economic growth
and export values but there is no evidence of long-run panel causal relationship among the
variables. This evidence indicates that there are inter-dependencies between exports and
economic growth in the panel of SAARC countries. The main reason for this, economic
growth causes expansion in the commercial and industrial sectors and vice versa.
It is found that the long-run elasticity of economic growth with respect to electricity
consumption (0.30020) and remittance (0.09852) are higher than short run elasticity of
373
(0.1845) and (0.01033). This means that over time higher electricity consumption and higher
remittance from man power supply in the panel of SAARC countries gives rise to more
economic growth. It is found that it takes about 3.79 years for Bangladesh, 4.46 years for
India and 3.16 years for Pakistan to reach in the long-run equilibrium position and
statistically significant only for Bangladesh. Thus it can be said that a policy to increase
investment in the electricity supply is likely to stimulate economic growth for SAARC
countries.
From the analytical results it can be concluded that due to any restriction on energy
use, the economic growth of SAARC countries will not be affected directly but due to
restriction on energy use, if the export values declined both the variables will be affected
simultaneously. From the analytical results it can be concluded that policies to increase
investment in commercial and industrial sectors to construct large, medium and small scale
factories to accelerate output should be implemented to keep pace with economic expansion
in SAARC countries.
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UDC:351:[005.32:331.101.3
THEORETICAL EVIDENCE ON THE EFFECT OF
MOTIVATION ON INDIVIDUAL AND PUBLIC
ORGANIZATION PERFORMANCE
Gentiana Kraja, PhD candidate
University Aleksander Moisiu, Durres, Albania
Abstract
Main goal of this paper is to make evidence on how motivation as one of the most important practices on human
resources has a great impact on individual performance of the public servant in one hand as a organizational
level factors and on the other hand as individual level factor and in this case is called public service motivation.
Lastly this paper through its a modest contribution tries to emphasize the importance that the public servant
performance has on public organization and the great importance that the performance of public organizations
has on representing the state face to public.
Although that is a growing evidence that high performance work practices affect organizational performance,
varying sample characteristics, research designs, practices examined, and organizational performance measures
used has led extant findings to vary dramatically, making the size of the overall effect difficult to estimate. So
first thing done in this paper is to give the evidence of and different approaches on organizational performance
and the presence, sometime directly sometime indirectly of the human resources as an important element of the
organizational performance equation. The aim of this paper is to give a overall information that testimonies that
there is a strong positive effect of human resources practices on the public organization performance, and also
that the individual level factors that influences the individual public servant performance are important in the
contribution they give on public organization performance.
Keywords: performance, public servant, public organization, motivation, public service
motivation
378
I.
During the 1990s, in what has become known as the new public sector, many
services in advanced economies, such as those of the U.K. and Scandinavia, have come under
pressure to become more efficient and effective, so as to reduce their demands on taxpayers,
while maintaining the volume and quality of services supplied to the public. To achieve this,
they have been subjected to the introduction of various private sector management
techniques and the frequent adoption of some form of neo-market system in which the
purchasers and providers of public services have been split and are frequently required to
contract with each other
48
.
Second a wide number of considerations on public organizational performance
includes actual output measured against planned output, this is one of the general simplest
definitions, but also is a comprehensive. Form organizations as from this definition dont
make exception also public organizations. Main intention that hides behind performance
definition is measuring it and after measuring, improving it. Measures that in fact are not
directly related to performance improvement as for example improvement of the public
communication to construct faith, in fact these are tools through which main goal is going to
be
49
.
One generic assessment framework that has been widely used in public sector services
is detailed in Figure 1 (Industry Commission, 1997; SCRCSSP, 1998). The approach is
largely based upon the premise that in order to analyze performance a suite of outcome
indicators should be considered collectively
50
. Second Richard et al overall performance is
divided into two components: (i) efficiency, which describes how well an organization uses
resources in producing services; that is, the relationship between the actual and optimal
combination of inputs used to produce a given bundle of outputs, and (ii) effectiveness, the
degree to which a system achieves its program and policy objectives. In turn, effectiveness
encompasses a number of different desired aspects of service linked to program outcome
objectives. These are: (i) appropriateness (matching service to client needs); (ii) accessibility
(aspects such as affordability, representation amongst priority groups and physical
48
Brignall, S and Modell S., 2000. An Institutional prespective on performance measurement and management in the new public sector,
Management Accounting Research.
49
Behn, D. R, Why measure performance? Different purposes require different measures. 2003. Public Adminsitrsation Review, vol 63, No
5.
50
Worthington, A. Dollery, B. Efficiency Measurment in the Local Public Sector Econometric and Mathematical Programming frontier
Techniques, Australian Economic Reciew
379
accessibility); and (iii) quality (the process of meeting required standards or incidence of
service failures)
51
.
The conception of performance
An important insight from institutional theory is that performance may be viewed
asinstitutionally defined, as institutional factors determine the interests being pursued
byorganizations
52
. More succinctly, Meyer and Zucker
53
argue that:
Generally, performance will be defined narrowly to the extent that (a) elites dominate an
organization, (b) a high degree of professionalization exists, and (c) the public organization
performs a technical function, outputs of which are measurable. Performance will be
construed much more broadly, by contrast, to the extent that (a) the norm of participative
democratic governance operates, sometimes in the formal structure or rules of an
organization, (b) the interests of multiple constituencies are given recognition, and (c) the
organizations function is non-technical and outputs elude measurement.
As mentioned before is seen as production with effectively and efficiency of public
goods and services, implying different resources as people, technology, capital and assets, as
shown in the figure 1 below
54
51
Richard et al. (2009): Measuring Organizational Performance: Towards Methodological Best Practice. Journal of Management
52
Scott, W. R., 1987. The adolescence of institutional theory, Administrative Science Quarterly, 32,493511.
53
Meyer, M. W. and Zucker, L. G., 1989. Permanently Failing Organizations, Newbury Park, Sage.Midwinter, A., 1994. Developing
performance indicators for local government: the Scottish
experience, Public Money and Management, 14 (2), 3743.
54
Worthington, A. Dollery, B. Efficiency Measurement in the Local Public Sector Econometric and Mathematical Programming frontier
Techniques, Australian Economic Review.
Performance
Efficiency
Resources
management
People
Technology
Capital
Effectiveness
Accessib
ility
Appropriateness
Quality
Outcomes
Table 1. Performance Evaluation (Worthington, Dollery, 2000)
380
As Ceni, A. mentioned when explains public organizational performance and main
elements of organizational capacity, lists there elements of internal and external environment
as sown in figure (2)
55
.
As you can understand from the picture I have tried to illustrate in the previous issues,
human resources are always expressed in the definition or through the elements of
organizational performance, the way it is measured or the way it is managed.
The desire of human resource practitioners to demonstrate the value of what they do
for the public organization has a long history. In 1954 Drucker highlighted that personnel
managers are worried about their inability to prove that they are making a contribution to the
enterprise
56
. In response to repeated criticisms that HR does not add value to organizations,
the past decade has produced numerous contributions which claim to reveal that HR practices
are positively related to performance
57
.
Evidence on human resources management effecting organizational performance
Much of the debate over the links between HR policy and organizational performance
has been based on the distinction between two perspectives typically referred to a best
55
Ceni, A. 2011. Managing Public Organizations.
56
Wright, P. M., Gardner, T. M., Moynihan, L. M., & Allen, M. R. (2004). The relationship between HR practices and firm performance:
Examining causal order. CARHS Working Paper Series, 06. Available at: <http://ilr.corneli.
edu/CAHRS>.
57
Huselid, M. A., & Becker, B. E. (1996). Methodological issues in cross-sectional and panel estimates of the HR-firm performance link.
Industrial Relations, 35, 400-422
Organizational
Capacity
Strategic Leadership
Human Resources
Financial Direction
Organizational
processes
Program direction
Infrastructure
Connections with the
organization
External environment
Administrative and
juridical
Social and cultural
Technology
Economic
Politic
Intermediary
Organizational
Motivation
History
Mission
Culture
Indicator measurement
Organizational
Performance
Effectiveness
Efficiency
Appropriateness
Financial position
Table 2. Elements of organizational capacity (A. Ceni, 2011)
381
practice and best fit. The best practice view
58
identifies a set of HR policies which, it is
argued, are associated with improved performance in all types of organization. The best fit
approach
59
argues that performance is maximized when the HR policies adopted are
consistent with the business strategy. Both of these approaches assume that the set of policies
adopted will have the same effect on all employees who work for the organization. Various
authors, for example Marchington and Grugulis
60
, have challenged this view pointing out that
organizations are complex with many different types of employees who may be managed
successfully through diverse sets of HR practices within a single organization.
A recurring issue in HRM is the idea that a certain bundle or combination of HR
policies, properly applied, is required for the achievement of high performance
61
. This
bundle, first identified by MacDuffie
62
has proved difficult to identify and different research
groups have different lists. What these approaches have in common is that they identify a
distinctive set of successful HR policies that can be applied successfully to all organizations
irrespective of their setting. Pfeffer
63
is perhaps the best known of these, developing initially
a list of 16 best practices which were subsequently narrowed down to 7 (1998). The seven
practices are: employment security, selective hiring, self-managed teams/team working, high
compensation contingent on organizational performance, extensive training, reduction of
status differentials and sharing information. This research has been extensively discussed,
with a variety of authors identifying methodological and theoretical problems
64
. For example,
even when an agreed list could be created there is the problem of whether an organization
needs all the policies on the list or just some, and the question of whether one policy is only
effective when linked to another. Reference is often made to deadly combinations where
one policy, say, individual performance related pay, clashes with another, like team work
65
.
Partly as a response to these kinds of criticisms, various authors drew attention to the
importance of analyzing the wider context within which organizations operated. This
perspective is derived from the contingency view, and it argues that the effectiveness of HR
58
Pfeffer, J., (1994/98) Competitive Advantage Through People, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
59
Schuler, R. and Jackson, S. (1987) Linking competitive strategies and human resource management practices, Academy of Management
Executive, 1 (3) 207-29.- Miles, R. and Snow, C. (1984) Designing strategic human resources systems, Organizational Dynamics,
Summer, 36-52.
60
Marchington, M. and Grugulis, I. (2000) Best practice human resource management: perfect opportunity or dangerous illusion?
International Journal of HumanResource Management, 11 (6) 1104-1124.
61
Wright, P. and Boswell, W. (2002) Desegregating HRM: A Review and Synthesis of Micro and Macro Human Resource Management
Research, Journal of Management, 28(3) 247-276.
62
MacDuffie, J.P. (1995) 'Human Resource bundles and manufacturing performance: organizational logic and flexible production systems
in the world auto industry.' Industrial and Labor Relations Review 48(2): 197-221.
63
Pfeffer, J., (1994/98) Competitive Advantage Through People, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
64
Purcell, J., Kinnie, N., Hutchinson, S. Rayton, B. and Swart, J. (2003) Understanding the People and Performance Link: Unlocking the
black box, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.
65
Delery, J. (1998) Issues of fit in strategic human resource management: implications for research, Human Resource Management
Review 8(3): 289-309.
382
practices depends on how closely the practices fit with the external and internal environment
of the organization. Organizational performance, it is argued, improves when HR policies
mutually reinforce the choice of business strategy. This is the concept of vertical integration
between the business strategy, the objectives of the firm, the HR policies and individual
objectives
66
and this concept helps to explain lack of diffusion across firms because the
appropriate practices will depend on the context.
What I have cited before emphasizes the importance of human resource, or public
servant on the public organization performance, but also the main process and elements that
helps in managing and effecting human or individual performance.
Rather than list the number of policies and determine whether there was a relationship
with profits or shareholders value
67
we were concerned to try to find which policies were
associated with higher levels of organization commitment and job satisfaction, this way
performance. In other words I looked for links between satisfaction with policies as
experienced by the employees and attitudinal outcomes. In this context the equation below is
likely to be useful
68
P = f (A, M, O)
(where P is performance, A is ability, M is motivation and O is opportunity. As Boxall and
Purcell
69
argue people perform well when:
- they are able to do so (they can do the job because they possess the necessary knowledge
and skills);
- they have the motivation to do so (they will do the job because they are adequately
incentivized); and
- their work environment provides the necessary support and avenues for expression (e.g.
functioning technology and the opportunity to be heard when problems occur).
Motivation is a force that drives people to do things. Employees are normally motivated to
achieve their needs, whatever they may include. Motivation is inside another person's head
and heart. It may be intrinsic or extrinsic. This is what we call motivation. Employees of a
company will be motivated if they associate certain incentives with an activity of work.
66
Fombrun, C., Tichy, N. and Devanna, M. (eds.) (1984) Strategic Human ResourceManagement. New York: Wiley.
67
Guest D., Michie, J., Conway, N. and Sheehan, M. (2003) Human Resource Management and Corporate Performance in the UK, British
Journal of Industrial Relations, 41(2): 291-314.
68
Kinnie, N et al, 2004. HR Policy and Performance: An Occupational Analysis
69
Boxall, P. and Purcell, J. (2003) Strategy and Human Resource Management. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
383
It has been seen that the employees in the public sector organizations are not
motivated as much as in the private sector. There are so many factors responsible for this
state of nature. In this research the focus is that what are the factors responsible for
motivation and its impacts on the organization goals.
70
Was proved that the motivation energizers, directs and sustains behavior. They also
identified four factor/variables namely individual characteristics, job characteristics, work
environment and the external environment. If motivation is to be affected, one or more of
these variables must be changed or affected. Evidence indicates that public managers
experience significantly lower levels of satisfaction and motivation than do their counterparts
in the business, the primary motivators for public sector employees are the interests that
attract them to public service.
71
Higher pay and package is less important for public service managers (Rainy 1982).
The observed behavior in the public organizations can be understood only if citizens and
policy makers are motivated by altruistic considerations. Most of the managers in the public
sector are motivated by productivity and service enhancement. It has been further proved by
John King et al, 1992, that lack of significance of variables such as organizational role and
context suggests that motivations are not determine purely or even primarily by
environmental factors. They are instead the result of more complex interactions among the
environment, experience and personality.
72
More evidence on the impact that motivation has on individual and organization
performance is the model of job performance of motivation
73
where the motivational process
is just in the middle of the model through individual inputs and job context. Form the same
source we find also a very interesting element which has a great impact to on motivation and
so on performance which is job satisfaction. This is an important finding because it supports
the believe that employee job satisfaction attitude managers should consider when attempting
to increase employees job performance. Researchers believe the relationship between
satisfaction and performance is understand due to incomplete measures of individual level
performance. Form results of meta-analysis of 7,939 organizational units appear that
managers can positively affect a variety of important organizational outcomes, including
performance, by increasing job satisfaction.
70
Khadim, J. Ramey, M. Qureshi. T. (2003) Motivaton in Public Sector
71
Perry,L.J. Porter. W, L. (1982) Factors Affecting the conext for Motivation in Public Organization. The Academy of Management R
72
73
Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) Organizational Behavior, McGrow Hill Company Inc.
384
Conclusions
As I can conclude at the end of this illustration of considerations, the human resource
performance is important to public organizational performance, and not only because public
servant is the face of the state to the eye of the public, but also because it effects the
effectiveness and the efficiency of the public organization and public goods and services.
Public organizations use different policies and practices to manage the public servant
performance but most of theoretical considerations show that seven of the big list of practices
are the most important and on which the public organization must have great attention, and
this practices are: employment security, selective hiring, self-managed teams/team working,
high compensation contingent on organizational performance, extensive training, reduction of
status differentials and sharing information.
The public servant tends to have a great performance when he has the Ability to do a
certain Job, when he is well motivated and if the opportunities are good. All these elements or
factor in private sector have more flexibility and elasticity, while in public sector the real
challenge of the human resources management is to manage well this elements, because
public organization dont offer the right elasticity to these elements, wage structure in public
organizations is well defined, and there is simple possibility to mange it case by case.
In public structures specially in human resources structures motivation should be
considered as a creative process, since public sector has a lack on managing different
instruments to motivate employees, specially when this sector is compared to private one.
Job satisfaction should be considered as a cause an as consequence of motivation, and of
individual and organizational performance.
385
References:
Behn, D. R, Why measure performance? Different purposes require different measures. 2003.
Public Adminsitrsation Review, vol 63, No 5.
Brignall, S and Modell S., 2000. An Institutional prespective on performance measurement
and management in the new public sector, Management Accounting Research.
Boxall, P. and Purcell, J. (2003) Strategy and Human Resource Management. Basingstoke:
Palgrave MacMillan.
Ceni, A. 2011. Managing Public Organizations.
Delery, J. (1998) Issues of fit in strategic human resource management: implications for
research, Human Resource Management Review 8(3): 289-309.
Fombrun, C., Tichy, N. and Devanna, M. (eds.) (1984) Strategic Human Resource
Management. New York: Wiley.
Guest D., Michie, J., Conway, N. and Sheehan, M. (2003) Human Resource Management
and Corporate Performance in the UK, British Journal of Industrial Relations, 41(2): 291-
314.
Huselid, M. A., & Becker, B. E. (1996). Methodological issues in cross-sectional and panel
estimates of the HR-firmperformance link. Industrial Relations, 35, 400-422
Kinnie, N et al, 2004. HR Policy and Performance: An Occupational Analysis
Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) Organizational Behavior, McGrow Hill Company Inc.
Meyer, M. W. and Zucker, L. G., 1989. Permanently Failing Organizations, Newbury Park,
Sage.Midwinter, A., 1994. Developing performance indicators for local government: the
Scottish experience, Public Money and Management, 14 (2), 3743.
Marchington, M. and Grugulis, I. (2000) Best practice human resource management: perfect
opportunity or dangerous illusion? International Journal of HumanResource Management,
11 (6) 1104-1124.
MacDuffie, J.P. (1995) 'Human Resource bundles and manufacturing performance:
organizational logic and flexible production systems in the world auto industry.' Industrial
and Labor Relations Review 48(2): 197-221.
Pfeffer, J., (1994/98) Competitive Advantage Through People, Boston, MA: Harvard
Business School Press.
Pfeffer, J., (1994/98) Competitive Advantage Through People, Boston, MA: Harvard
Business School Press.
386
Perry,L.J. Porter. W, L. (1982) Factors Affecting the conext for Motivation in Public
Organization. The Academy of Management Review.
Purcell, J., Kinnie, N., Hutchinson, S. Rayton, B. and Swart, J. (2003) Understanding the
People and Performance Link: Unlocking the black box, London: Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Development.
Richard et al. (2009): Measuring Organizational Performance: Towards Methodological Best
Practice. Journal of Management
Schuler, R. and Jackson, S. (1987) Linking competitive strategies and human resource
management practices, Academy of Management Executive, 1 (3) 207-29.- Miles, R. and
Snow, C. (1984) Designing strategic human resources systems,Organizational Dynamics,
Summer, 36-52.
Scott, W. R., 1987. The adolescence of institutional theory, Administrative Science Quarterly,
32,493511.
Worthington, A. Dollery, B. Efficiency Measurment in the Local Public Sector Econometric
and Mathematical Programming frontier Techniques, Australian Economic Reciew.
Worthington, A. Dollery, B. Efficiency Measurement in the Local Public Sector Econometric
and Mathematical Programming frontier Techniques, Australian Economic Review.
Wright, P. M., Gardner, T. M., Moynihan, L. M., & Allen, M. R. (2004). The relationship
between HR practices and firm performance: Examining causal order. CARHS Working
Paper Series, 06. Available at: <http://ilr.corneli.edu/CAHRS>.
Wright, P. and Boswell, W. (2002) Desegregating HRM: A Review and Synthesis of Micro
and Macro Human Resource Management Research, Journal of Management, 28(3) 247-
276.
387
UDC:334.722.012.64/.65:336.1(496.5)
338.1:[334.722.012.64/.65:336.1(496.5)
FISCAL PRESURE ON SME IN ALBANIA AND ITS IMPACT
ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Robert Celo, PhD candidate
Lorenc Kociu, Msc.
EqremCabej University of Gjirokastra, Albania
Abstract:
Starting a new business is everyones dream. It brings unlimited opportunities and challenges as well, especially
in transitional economies. Our country has undergone tremendous changes since the fall of centralized economic
system till now. The role of SME in economic development and shortening transitional period is great. SME
sector has evolved tremendously but many challenges lay ahead. In our paper we will give a presentation of the
role of SME in economic reality in Albania and the region, its trend and challenges. Today SME face many
challenges like decrease of demand from market destabilizations, poor infrastructure, poor access to credit,
fiscal policy pressure etc.We will emphasize the role of fiscal policy in SME development. The role of fiscal
policy should be considered more carefully in todays global market, in short of perspective development. We
believe that fiscal pressure has been a major reason of the set back in SME development. We will analyze
Albanian fiscal evolution and its impact in SME development.
Keywords: SME, fiscal policy, global market, sustained economic growth, fiscal evolution.
1. SME development, its characteristics and challenges
Since 90 Albanian governments have continuously undertaken structural reforms
including reform of land, price liberalization, reform of privatization, financial reform and so
on. During this time almost all SME are privatized and the rest is on the way of privatization
in accordance with the government strategy of privatization. We mention here the privatization
in the telecommunication sector, banking, energy etc. Through this process Albanian
388
economy has responded fairly well. From 1992, economic growth has been about 7%, inflation
rate has been under control between 2-4 %. Albania has good macroeconomic indicators with
satisfying growth rate of GDP. These activities made the private sector the major moving
economic force of countries development. Private sector makes of 80% of countrys GDP.
To further boost economic growth, recently Albania has undertaken several measures
toward European integration. Albania has signed the Small Business Act for Europe and is
working to fulfill its commitment in accordance with the European standards and practices. In
this context its fiscal policy, aimed at lowering tax burden for businesses which till 2006 has
been an obstacle to business growth and development. Later on we will talk about this in
details.
Its been a difficult road to establish the market infrastructure and institution due to
rapid changes in global economy, lack of relevant culture, and the existence of great informal
economy. Albanian government has built a strategy to fasten this process and help SME
development as a crucial factor in the sustainable economic growth of the country. The mission
of this strategy is to ensure sustained economic growth, high competition and productivity
through dynamic development of enterprises, investment incentives, and better use of human,
natural and financial resources.
2. SME and transition
Sustainable growth of SME is the cornerstone of Albanias economy. Improvement of
government policies in regards to both administrative and fiscal procedures, contributing in
both direct and indirect support of SME. The role of NGO as: Chamber of Commerce,
government bodies and employment offices must grow. They need to strengthen the SME
believe in them, participate (membership), and collaborate.
The fight on corruption and informal economy must intensify, by strengthening and
modernizing government institutions. All these steps will guarantee the SME development
trend and will bring the end of the economic transition area closer. SME development trend
play an important role in both market oriented economies and transitional economies growth.
As in other countries which passed from centralized economy to market oriented, Albanias
economic policy makers ignored the importance of SME development, focusing more on
privatization of states assets. Albanias weak institutions slowed down the SME development
and so the economic development during transition.
389
Albania is one of the transition countries, still struggling with the transition process
despite its major improvements done recently. The outcome is barriers to SME development
and less contribution of them in speeding up the transition process. In our work we will try to
explain SME development in Albania and the role of government agents and other NGO, but
we are aware of the difficulties especially in measuring the exact level of SME and its effect
on the economic development in Albania. According to OECD its practically impossible to
measure SME and entrepreneur development and its effect to economy since there are no
generally agreed indicators. Transition process is described as passing from centrally planned
towards market oriented system. This transformation consists on institutional change, change
of state and private sector role, change from bureaucratic coordination into open economy.
But, only developing a private sector is not enough to implement this transformation. In the
beginning of 1990 the idea that government should leave the economy and the market alone,
was dominative. By doing so private sector would soon raise and take over and the market
would adjust by itself (Smiths invisible hand). This proved not to be successful in Albania.
Later on, and precisely after 2000 it was understood that in order to have a successful
transformation and a strong, sustained SME development, macroeconomic reforms, stability,
and strengthened institutions were needed.
There exists barriers on SME development in market oriented economies, but in the
transitional economies this barriers are way higher and stiffer, making it very difficult for
new businesses to enter and grow within the market. If there are not taken proper actions,
these barriers would result in economic slowdown or worst up to stagnate the transition
process.
External Barriers to SME and entrepreneurship development in Albanias transition
economy consist in many factors such as policy instability, unsteady tax legislation,
inadequate accounting standards, and nontransparent implementation of laws and so on.
Lack of state support in forms of business infrastructure, supporting services characterizes
transition economy. Difficulties in financing have been and still are a major concern due to
undeveloped financial market system in Albania.
Inefficient banking system, high interest rates, strict collateral requirements make it
difficult for SME development in Albania. Despite the lowering figures, Corruption is a very
important negative aspect that deters SME and entrepreneurship development. These are
derivatives of imperfect legal framework and less effective law application.
390
Internal barriers are mostly related to lack of managerial skills and entrepreneurship
values. This is though normal to a country that comes from a centralized economy where the
SME and entrepreneurship did not exist. Listed in a table view, are the internal and external
barriers of SME.
Types of Barriers Types of Policies
External Barriers
Financial Framework
Incentive programs through different
programs in addition UNDP and Millennium
Challenge Fund
Legal Framework Improvement of Legislation
Tax reduction
Reducing number of licenses and the time
frame of acquiring them
State Support NRC, ease of registering a business
Increased transparency of actions
Fighting corruption
Internal Barriers
Entrepreneurs knowledge and managerial
skills
Consulting, support services of NGOs,
Strong and deep reforms undertaken during 2005-2010 generated unprecedented
economic growth, ranking Albania amongst the top list of developed countries. Reforms were
mostly directed towards strengthening public finances, improving business environment, and
upgrading infrastructures.
Government of Albania took drastic measures to introduce and implement simplifying
tax and customs code, tax administration and enforcement, reducing the registration of a
business from 38 days in 2007 in just 1 day, eliminating the frustrating process and
corruption.
According to the report of 2008 Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), among 180
worldwide nations surveyed, Albania 85th, 2009 ranked 105th, and 2010 ranked 87th.
391
3. The fiscal changes in Albania and the SMEs (Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises)
The SMEs in Albania are regulated by special law, which has occasionally been
subject of review and necessary changes to improve the environment in which SMEs operate
and creation of necessary facilities.
According to the law no. 8957, of 17.10.2002 For Small and Medium-Sized
Enterprises, amended, there is given the definition of what is called small enterprise and
medium enterprise. Small Enterprises are called those enterprises which employ fewer than
50 employees and have a business figure or annual total balance sheet less than 50 millions
lek. Medium Enterprises are called those enterprises which employ from 50 to 250
employees, have a business figure or annual total balance sheet by 50 millions to 250 millions
lek.
According to the above definitions in the group of SMEs enters a large number of
businesses, which are regulated under the category they belong. According to INSTAT
(Institute of Statistics) data at the end of 2010 were 100,687 enterprises registered and active
(Table 1). Only during 2010 were created 16,290 new enterprises, so despite the economic-
financial crisis that is happening, the number of businesses categorized in groups of SMEs
has been growing by 19% compared to 2009. If we calculate the average enterprises created
during 2006-2010 (12.040) and compare it with the average of the period 2001-2005 (7.334)
we have an 80% increase of the growth rate per year. This is a clear indicator of the success
of fiscal reforms taken after 2006, despite the economic crises that have accompanied the
world economy and its bad impact on our economy. About 91 % of enterprises have 1-4
employees. The SMEs sector in Albania provides about 64% of GDP (Gross Domestic
Product), and the employment of about 66% of employees in the private sector, creating
stability for the countrys economy.
392
Table 1: Active enterprises by year of creation and size, 2010
Year of creation Total
By number of employees
1-4 5-9 10- 49 50+
Total 100,687 91,566 4,778 3,500 843
2010 16,290 15,498 621 159 12
2009 12,158 11,501 416 190 51
2008 13,988 13,216 519 220 33
2007 8,636 7,795 412 385 44
2006 9,137 8,527 334 232 44
2005 40,478 35,029 2,476 2,314 659
The structural separation of SMEs presented by the following table, separating
businesses in (1) the group goods producers and (2) services producers (Table 2). In the
first group about 62 % of the enterprises operating in the industry, about 27% operate in the
field of construction and about 11% operate in the field of agriculture and fisheries (Graph
1).
While in the second group about 53% of enterprises operating in the area of trade,
18% operate in the area of hotels & restaurants, 12% operate in the area of transport &
communication and 17% operate in other areas of services (Graph 2).
393
Table 2: Active enterprises by economic activity and size, 2010
Economic Activity Total
By number of employees
1-4 5-9 10-49 50+
Altogether 100,687 91,566 4,778 3,500 843
Producers of goods 15,911 12,087 1,786 1,637 401
Agriculture & Fishing 1,702 1,591 57 43 11
Industry 9,964 8,051 878 752 283
Construction 4,245 2,445 851 842 107
Producers of services 84,776 79,479 2,992 1,863 442
Trade 44,709 42,699 1,307 629 74
Hotels, Coffee,
Restaurants 15,674 14,829 698 131 16
Transport &
Communication 10,361 9,931 222 166 42
Other Services 14,032 12,020 765 937 310
Graph 1.Producers of goods
11%
62%
27%
Agriculture & Fishing
Industry
Construction
394
Graph 2.Producers of services
The following chart shows the trend of creating new enterprises from 2008 to 2010,
divided in 3-month periods. The number of enterprises that take part in the group of the
SMEs has increased from year to year, as for the first time, it has been facilitated the
establishment of a business. Pursuant to Law no.9723, of 3.5.2007 On the National
Registration Center (NRC) business does not have to wait for a long period of time to be
recorded in the fiscal authorities and obtain a VAT number and many other bureaucracies,
but for a period of 1 day a business is recorded and can start its normal activity. Also, in the
offices of NRC can be performed actions regarding capital increase or reduction, withdrawal
of a partner, adding new partners, closure of business and many other actions. This service
has created a great business respiration, primarily because it reduces much time and the
multiple bureaucracies, and secondly reduces corruption significantly, especially with the tax
authorities.
As seen from the graph 3, in the first 3-month period of the year 2008 the graph totals
the highest point. During 2010 there is an increase of the number of new enterprises
comparing it with 2009, which is indicated by the chart below.
53%
18%
12%
17%
Trade
Hotels, Cof f e,
Restaurants
Transport &
Communication
Other Services
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Graph 3.New Enterprises according to 3-months periods
According to the Albanian fiscal legislation, businesses that take part in the group of
SMEs are categorized in:
(1) Businesses subject to local tax on small business and not subject to VAT with a business
figure up to 5 millionslek,
(2) Businesses subject to VAT and local tax on small business with a business figure from 5
millions to 8 millionslek,
(3) Businesses subject to income tax and VAT with a business figure over 8 millionslek.
So, it turns out that the group of SMEs includes a wide spectrum of business, and their
fiscal treatment varies depending on the category they belong to. Albanian governments have
had as a priority the development of SMEs and time after time this has been observed also in
the reduction of fiscal burdens on SMEs. Occasional fiscal changes have had a descending
trend of fiscal burden, facilitating businesses and reducing the informal economy and tax
evasion, concretely:
(1) Income Tax during the period 2005-2006 was reduced by 23% to 20% and by
2008 was reduced to 10%. This reduction of profit tax rate resulted in increased figure of
business, reduction of the informal economy because businesses were encouraged to declare
more due to lower tax burden.
(2) The simplified tax return, which means that businesses are subject to local tax on
small businesses, was reduced from 3% to 1.5% during the period 2005 to 2006. The tax rate
amounted to realize the economic turnover of small business is considered personal income
396
and estimated a 10% tax on the difference between revenues and expenses for the training
period. This change had a positive effect in the calculation of tax for small businesses, as they
were facilitated by high fiscal burden and subjectivity and to these businesses were given the
opportunity to identify their costs. Albanian SME needs to put to better use this low tax
system, using the increased profits to technological investments and competitive advantages.
Fasons sector for example: by lowering tax on profit and employers social contributions
will be more competitive in European and regional markets, being a tough competitor of
China, as well.
(3) Social insurance contribution paid by employer decreased from 29% to 20%
during the period 2005 to 2006, then to 9 %, and from 2008 onwards was reduced by 5%
to15% level. This significant reduction in the rate of social insurance that pays the employer,
created more facilities to the business because it reduced significantly the obligation that has
the employer to shed cash in the coffers of social insurance.
All these changes in the fiscal package, in general, had positive effects on SMEs by
creating more breathing at this time of crisis that are going through the economies of all
countries, including Albanias economy. So, the income tax rate was reduced for the medium
enterprises, was reduced the rate of contribution to social insurance, was decreased the excise
for domestic production (beer producers), while small enterprises were offered the possibility
of recognition of costs to calculate the taxable income, which was not allowed before the tax
changes above.
4. Conclusions
On this work it was concluded that the development of SMEs should be strongly
supported by easing fiscal policies. This is because the SMEs have a more active role in the
economy of the country and specifically about 64% of GDP provided by SMEs, about 91% of
employees are employed by SMEs.
Fiscal burdens such as Income tax, social insurance, Tax on Small businesses have
dropped, in order to facilitate the SME businesses. Specifically, profit tax is reduced by 23%
in 2005 to 10%, so a reduction of 13%. Social Insurance paid by the employer from 29% in
2005 decreased to 15%, a 14% decrease. The elimination of Simplified Profit Tax, which is
subject to small businesses, changed the method of calculation of Tax on Small Business,
397
which enabled small business to recognize expenses incurred during the fiscal period in
calculating the taxable profit, which was not allowed until 2007.
Promoting entrepreneurship culture through managerial improvement and trainings,
encouraging creative entrepreneurship, workforce training etc....
Development of the growing business, improvement of business climate, increase of
competition through innovation and technological development.
Improvement of SME financing, through increase of access to credit, increase of
government guarantee fund and its extension not only to exporting companies, increase of
funds of microcredit and the strengthening of micro financing institutions.
References:
Law no. 8957, of 17.10.2002 For Small and Medium Enterprises, amended.
Law no. 9723, of 3.5.2007 "On the National Registration Center"
Law no. 8438, of 28.12.1998 Income Tax, amended.
Decision of Ministers Council no. 1058, of 21.10.2009 To determine the minimum limit of
VAT.
Albanian Government Business Strategy and Investments 2007-2013
Joseph Alois Schumpeter The Theory of Economic Development, 1911
www.albinvest.gov.al
Transparency International 2011, http://www.enterprisesurveys.org
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