Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
for Iibrarians
copyright
for Iibrarians
LLe essenLIaI LandbooR
bo.kn.r orto. |c. |rto.rot .rJ Scc|oty
ul Hurvurd Un|vers|ly
Fiist publishcd in zoz by EIFL,
Stichting cIFL.nct, Giaadt van Roggcnwcg ,o, ,,,n Uticcht, Thc Ncthcilands
www.ci.nct
This couisc is liccnccd undci a Cicativc Commons Attiibution liccnsc.
Libiaiians and thc public at laigc aic cncouiagcd to usc, distiibutc,
tianslatc, modily, and build upon thcsc matciials, piovidcd that
thcy givc EIFL and thc Bcikman Ccntci appiopiiatc cicdit.
Dcsigncd and typcsct in on 6 Calluna and Myiiad Pio by illuminati, Giosmont
Covci dcsign by Lucy Moiton at illuminati
www.illuminatibooks.co.uk
Contents
Preface 1
Introduction q
Copyright theory q
Palrness (
welfare
Personhood 6
Culture ;
AdditionaI resources 8
Contributors
module : Copyright and the pubIic domain 1c
Learning objective 1c
Case study 1c
Lesson 1c
what ls copyrlght! :o
what ls the publlc domaln! ::
who makes copyrlght law! ::
what does copyrlght law cover! :z
who gets a copyrlght! :
what rlghts come wlth copyrlght! :
The llmlts of copyrlght :(
Copyrlght llcenses :
ack to the case study 1y
AdditionaI resources 1
Assignment and discussion questions 1)
Contributors 1)
module z 7he internationaI framework 18
Learning objective 18
Case study 18
Lesson 18
The ratlonale for the lnternatlonal system :8
|nternatlonal lnstruments :p
Perspectlves for developlng countrles zp
ack to the case study 1
AdditionaI resources 1
Assignment and discussion questions
Contributors
module 7he scope of copyright Iaw q
Learning objective q
Case study q
Lesson q
what does copyrlght law protect! (
what ls an author! 8
The relatlonshlp between copyrlght lnfrlngement and other
unauthorlzed actlvltles (:
Copyrlght duratlon (z
Lxtenslons of the scope of copyrlght protectlon (
ack to the case study qy
AdditionaI resources qy
Assignment and discussion questions q
Contributors q)
module ( Rights, exceptions, and Iimitations q8
Learning objective q8
Case study q8
Lesson q8
Lconomlc rlghts (8
Moral rlghts :
Nelghborlng and su| enet|s rlghts z
Pental and lendlng rlghts
Lxceptlons and llmltatlons (
Llbrary exceptlons 8
Compulsory llcenses 6:
ack to the case study 1
AdditionaI resources z
Assignment and discussion questions
Contributors
module Managing rights q
Learning objective q
Case study q
Lesson q
|ndlvldual management 6(
Collectlve management ;o
Technologlcal protectlon measures ;
Orphan works ;(
ack to the case study )y
AdditionaI resources )
Assignment and discussion questions ))
Contributors )8
module 6 Creative approaches and aIternatives )
Learning objective )
Case study )
Lesson )
Physlcal and dlgltal commons ;p
Pree software llcenses 8o
Creatlve commons 8:
The Open Access movement 8
ack to the case study 8
AdditionaI resources 8)
Assignment and discussion questions 8)
Contributors 88
module ; nforcement 8
Learning objective 8
Case study 8
Lesson 8
what lnfrlnges copyrlght! 8p
Procedures and penaltles pz
The complex responslbllltles of llbrarlans p6
ack to the case study
AdditionaI resources )
Assignment and discussion questions )
Contributors 8
module 8 7raditionaI knowIedge
Learning objective
Case study
Lesson
what ls tradltlonal knowledge! pp
How lndlvldual natlons deal wlth tradltlonal knowledge :oo
Peglonal codes governlng tradltlonal knowledge :o8
|nternatlonal legal lnstruments ::
Pollcy arguments :z:
ack to the case study 1z
AdditionaI resources 1z
Assignment and discussion questions 1z8
Contributors 1z8
module p Activism 1z
Learning objective 1z
Case studies 1z
The Swedlsh Plrate Party :zp
"Cllck wrap" llcenses and the Unlform Commerclal Code :z
Copyrlght law and folklore :6
AdditionaI resources 1q1
Contributors 1qz
CIossary 1q
Index 18z
COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Preface
Copyiight loi Libiaiians is a joint piojcct ol thc Bcikman Ccntci loi Intcinct
8 Socicty and EIFL (Elcctionic Inloimation loi Libiaiics), a nctwoik ol libiaiy
consoitia in ,o countiics in Aliica, Asia, and Euiopc. Thc goal ol thc piojcct
is to piovidc libiaiians in dcvcloping and tiansitional countiics with inloima-
tion conccining copyiight law. Moic spccilcally, it aspiics to inloim libiaiians
conccining:
- copyiight law in gcncial,
- thc aspccts ol copyiight law that most afcct libiaiics,
- how libiaiians in thc lutuic could most cfcctivcly paiticipatc in thc pioccsscs
by which copyiight law is intcipictcd and shapcd.
How to use thls course
Thc couisc matciials can bc uscd in thicc difcicnt ways. Fiist, thcy can piovidc
thc basis loi a scll-taught couisc. A libiaiian can icad thc modulcs in scqucncc
oi locus on thc modulcs that addicss issucs that intcicst him oi hci.
Sccond, thc couisc matciials can bc uscd in a tiaditional classioom-bascd couisc.
In such a sctting, thc instiuctoi will dctciminc thc pacc at which thc matciials aic
icad and will sclcct topics loi discussion. Thc instiuctoi may lnd thc assignmcnts
wc havc includcd in thc modulcs usclul but will likcly posc additional qucstions.
Finally, thc matciials can bc uscd in a distancc-lcaining couisc, in which an
instiuctoi guidcs thc inquiiy, but thc libiaiians taking thc couisc paiticipatc
icmotcly.
Tcims piintcd in boId grey typc can bc lound in thc Glossaiy.
This book is availablc in scvcial languagcs as an onlinc couisc at www.ci.
nct/copyiight-loi-libiaiians, which contains additional links and iclcicnccs loi
studcnts who wish to puisuc any topic in gicatci dcpth.
Levels
Not all uscis will havc thc timc oi intcicst to icad all ol thc matciials containcd
in this cuiiiculum. Rccognizing this, wc havc aiiangcd and maikcd thc matciials
in ways that should assist instiuctois and uscis in dcciding how dccply to cxploic
this subjcct. Spccilcally, thc matciials aic oiganizcd into lvc lcvcls:
p
.
o
|
.
c
o
. COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
- Lcvcl (appiopiiatc loi uscis who want a basic knowlcdgc ol how copyiight
law afccts thc woik ol libiaiians in dcvcloping and tiansitional countiics):
Rcad modulcs , ,-;. (In othci woids, skip thc Intioduction and modulcs z, 8,
and j.)
- Lcvcl z (appiopiiatc loi uscis who aic also intcicstcd in thc thcoiy undcilying
copyiight law and in thc intcinational dimcnsions ol copyiight law): Rcad thc
Intioduction and all ol thc modulcs.
- Lcvcl , (appiopiiatc loi usc in a onc-scmcstci undcigiaduatc couisc in this
subjcct oi loi uscis who wish to obtain an in-dcpth undcistanding ol thc
lcld and to scc how lcgislatuics and couits aic stiuggling to iclnc and apply
copyiight law): Rcad all ol thc modulcs and all ol thc documcnts maikcd with
icd links in thc onlinc couisc.
- Lcvcl (appiopiiatc loi usc in a giaduatc-lcvcl couisc in this subjcct): Rcad all
ol thc modulcs and all ol thc documcnts maikcd with icd and giccn links in
thc onlinc couisc.
- Lcvcl , (appiopiiatc loi a laculty mcmbci picpaiing to tcach this subjcct): Rcad
all ol thc modulcs and all ol thc documcnts maikcd with icd, giccn, and bluc
links in thc onlinc couisc.
Permlsslons
Thc couisc matciials picpaicd by thc piojcct aic liccnccd undci a Cicativc
Commons Attiibution liccnsc. Libiaiians and thc public at laigc aic cncouiagcd
to usc, distiibutc, tianslatc, modily, and build upon thcsc matciials, piovidcd
that thcy givc EIFL and thc Bcikman Ccntci appiopiiatc cicdit.
Dlsclalmer
This couisc docs not ofci lcgal advicc. It piovidcs gcncial inloimation conccin-
ing thc piinciplcs that undcilic thc copyiight systcm and indicatcs how vaiious
concictc pioblcms aic icsolvcd in most countiics. It cannot, howcvci, piovidc
icliablc guidancc conccining how a couit in a spccilc countiy would icspond
to a spccilc sct ol lacts. Thus, il you lnd youiscll coming closc to any ol thc
lcgal boundaiics dcsciibcd in thcsc matciials, you should consult a lawyci in
youi own juiisdiction.
Acknowledgment
This piojcct was madc possiblc with gcncious lunding liom thc Foid Foundation
and thc Opcn Socicty Foundations.
p
.
o
|
.
c
o
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Help us lmprove the course
Wc hopc to updatc and iclnc thcsc matciials pciiodically. To do so, wc nccd hclp
liom uscis. Plcasc lct us know il a piccc ol inloimation containcd in a modulc is
incoiicct oi out ol datc. Il you havc suggcstions conccining cithci thc contcnt ol
thc modulcs oi thc way in which thc contcnt is picscntcd, wc aic cagci to hcai
thcm. Finally, libiaiians aic stiongly cncouiagcd to lct us know how thc issucs
addicsscd in thc modulcs aic handlcd in thcii homc countiics, wc will tiy to
includc that inloimation in lutuic vcisions.
You can cmail us at c-lccdbackcybci.law.haivaid.cdu. Wc look loiwaid to
youi contiibutions.
Thc EIFL and Bcikman tcams
COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Introduction
Copyright theory
Bcloic plunging into thc dctails ol copyiight law, somc uscis may lnd it hclplul
to considci thc gcncial thcoiics that undcilic thc copyiight systcm. What is thc
puiposc ol copyiight? How you answci that qucstion may afcct not mcicly youi
ovciall attitudc towaid this cntiic body ol law, but also youi vicws conccining
how individual iulcs should bc intcipictcd oi modilcd.
Scholais havc dcvclopcd loui thcoiics ol copyiight law. Thcy aic not mutually
cxclusivc. Indccd, couits and lcgislatois licqucntly appcal simultancously to two
oi moic ol thc thcoiics. But thcy giow out ol difcicnt tiaditions in philosophy
and political thcoiy, and thcy havc difcicnt implications loi how thc law should
bc shapcd. So, at lcast loi analytical puiposcs, it is hclplul to kccp thcm scpaiatc.
Palrness
Thc hcait ol thc list thcoiy is thc piinciplc that thc cicatois ol litciatuic, ait, and
othci oiiginal woiks dcscivc cithci to contiol thcii cications oi to bc icwaidcd
loi thcii cfoits. In othci woids, cicatois havc moial cntitlcmcnts that thc law
should iccognizc and cnloicc. Put slightly difcicntly, to dcny lcgal piotcction to
cicatois would bc unlaii.
Thcic aic scvcial vaiiants ol this gcncial appioach. Thc most lully dcvclopcd
is thc so-callcd laboi-dcscit" thcoiy dciivcd liom thc wiitings ol thc Biitish
philosophci }ohn Lockc. In Chaptci , ol his Second Treatise oj Government, Lockc
aigucd that a pcison who labois upon a plot ol land that is owncd in common"
acquiics a natuial iight to that land - a iight that a govcinmcnt, oncc it is loimcd,
has a duty to scttlc" and icspcct.
Much ol thc loicc ol Lockc's aigumcnt dciivcs liom thc intuitivc appcal ol thc
stoiy upon which it is bascd. I comc upon a tiact ol wild, uncultivatcd land that no
onc pcison yct owns. I woik haid to icmovc thc stoncs, ticcs, oi piaiiic giass. I plow
thc land and plant sccds. I nuituic thc plants until thcy matuic. Finally, I haivcst
thc ciops and usc thcm to sustain myscll and my lamily. Suicly it would bc wiong
il an intcilopci, who has donc nothing to makc thc land pioductivc, could now
oust mc. Lockc ofcicd vaiious moic loimal aigumcnts - somc ol thcm gioundcd
in Chiistian thcology - to butticss this moial intuition, but thc stoiy itscll givcs
Lockc's thcoiy most ol its cnduiing powci.
|
r
t
.
c
J
J
c
t
|
c
r
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
An impoitant gioup ol scholais aiguc that Lockc's aigumcnt has cvcn gicatci
loicc whcn applicd to woiks ol thc intcllcct (litciatuic, ait, and so loith) than it
docs whcn applicd to land. Thc iaw matciial uscd to gcnciatc a novcl (papci and
a lcw pcncils) has littlc valuc, by lai thc most impoitant input to thc valuc ol
thc lnishcd novcl is thc novclist's intcllcctual laboi. Thc novclist's moial iight to
contiol thc novcl is thus cvcn stiongci than thc moial iight ol thc laimci to thc
land hc has cultivatcd. Moicovci, unlikc ciops, novcls do not iot. Thus, wc nccd
not woiiy that, by giving a piopcity iight to thc novclist, wc will causc socially
valuablc pioducts to go to wastc.
To bc suic, scholais who lnd Lockc's aigumcnt pcisuasivc cncountci somc
dimcultics whcn applying it to copyiight law. Foi cxamplc, cxactly what soits ol
intcllcctual laboi" givc iisc to moial cntitlcmcnts? }ust sitting in liont ol a dcsk
loi houis attcmpting to wiitc? Only highly cicativc" laboi? Docs thc lact that
a paiticulai novclist lovcs hci woik sticngthcn oi wcakcn hci moial iights? Is
it possiblc that, by awaiding an cxpansivc sct ol lcgal iights to onc novclist (loi
cxamplc, by loibidding othcis to wiitc novcls with closcly similai plots) wc may
icducc thc cicativc oppoitunitics availablc to othci potcntial novclists? Il so, docs
that impaii thc moial claims ol thc list novclist? Scholais havc wicstlcd with thcsc
and othci complications - and will likcly continuc to do so in thc lutuic. (As wc will
scc, thc laiincss thcoiy is not uniquc in this icgaid. All ol thc copyiight thcoiics
iun into dimcultics and complications.)
Anothci vaiiant ol thc laiincss appioach is somctimcs callcd cquity thcoiy." It is
lcss claboiatc but, accoiding to social psychologists, cnjoys cvcn bioadci appcal. Thc
coic ol cquity thcoiy is thc notion that cach contiibutoi to a collcctivc cntcipiisc
dcscivcs a shaic ol thc liuits ol that cntcipiisc piopoitionatc to thc magnitudc
ol his oi hci contiibution. This has impoitant implications loi copyiight law. Foi
cxamplc, it would suggcst that thc law should bc oiganizcd to cnsuic that cach ol
thc many pcoplc who hclp makc a movic - liom thc stais to thc kcy giips" - gct
a shaic ol thc piocccds piopoitionatc to his oi hci contiibution. As wc will scc, it
is not at all clcai that thc cuiicnt law has this cfcct.
welfare
Thc sccond ol thc loui aigumcnts giows out ol thc philosophic tiadition ol
utilitaiianism. Thc ccntial piinciplc ol that tiadition is that thc law should bc
oiganizcd to maximizc total human wcllaic. (Many ambiguitics luik in that simplc
statcmcnt, but wc will put thcm to onc sidc.) Thc way in which that piinciplc is
most oltcn applicd to copyiight law is as lollows.
Novcls and othci intcllcctual cications lall into a small but impoitant catcgoiy
ol pioducts that cconomists iclci to as public goods." Thc dclning chaiactciistics
ol public goods aic that thcy aic noniivalious" (mcaning that thcy can bc cnjoycd
|
r
t
.
c
J
J
c
t
|
c
r
6 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
by an unlimitcd numbci ol pcoplc) and noncxcludablc" (mcaning that oncc thcy
aic madc availablc to onc consumci, it is vciy dimcult to picvcnt othci consumcis
liom gaining acccss to thcm). Thcsc chaiactciistics makc public goods socially
valuablc, but thcy also cicatc a dangci: Potcntial pioduccis ol thcm will not pioducc
thcm bccausc thcy lcai that thcy will bc unablc to cain any moncy. Foi cxamplc,
a potcntial novclist may dccidc not to wiitc a novcl, bccausc shc anticipatcs that,
oncc thc list copy is sold, othci publishcis will makc millions ol additional
copics and scll thcm loi pcnnics, picvcnting thc novclist liom caining any moncy.
Conliontcd with this hazaid, thc novclist may dccidc to bccomc a bankci, and thc
woild will bc loicvci dcpiivcd ol thc bcnclts ol thc novcls shc might havc wiittcn.
To maximizc social wcllaic, thc govcinmcnt must somchow cicatc an inccntivc
loi thc novclist to wiitc novcls. Thcic aic many ways that thc govcinmcnt might
do so, but onc tcchniquc is to giant thc novclist cxclusivc iights to icpioducc and
scll hci novcls. Piotcctcd against compctition, shc can chaigc cnough moncy loi
hci books to cnablc hci to cain a living - and kccp wiiting. That, in biicl, is what
copyiight law docs.
Sccn liom this pcispcctivc, copyiight law has impoitant social bcnclts but also
has a social cost. Thc icason is that, by cmpowciing thc novclist to iaisc thc piicc
ol hci books wcll abovc thc low lcvcl that would havc bccn gcnciatcd thiough licc
compctition, copyiight law picvcnts icadcis who cannot afoid thc highci piicc
liom obtaining and icading thc novcl. Thc icsult is to icducc thc wcllaic ol thosc
consumcis and thus icducc, to somc cxtcnt, total social wcllaic. Thc implication
ol this insight is that copyiight piotcction should only bc cxtcndcd to typcs ol
intcllcctual pioducts that would not bc pioduccd in thc abscncc ol thc lnancial
inccntivcs that thc copyiight systcm piovidcs.
Il wc applicd this guidclinc conscicntiously, which typcs ol woiks would wc
includc? It's haid to say, bccausc cicatois' motivcs vaiy. But, ioughly spcaking, wc
should bc cspccially willing to cxtcnd copyiight piotcction to kinds ol pioducts
that aic costly to pioducc, casy to copy, and bcnclt many pcoplc othci than thc
immcdiatc consumcis. Movics and computci soltwaic might bc cxamplcs. By
contiast, wc should at lcast hcsitatc bcloic gianting copyiight piotcction to kinds ol
pioducts that aic incxpcnsivc to pioducc oi whosc cicatois aic cspccially scnsitivc
to nonmonctaiy inccntivcs (such as thc dcsiic loi lamc oi thc hopc ol bcing awaidcd
tcnuic in a univcisity) that do not dcpcnd on copyiight law.
Personhood
Thc thiid thcoiy is dciivcd liom thc wiitings ol Kant and Hcgcl. It is wcakci in
so-callcd common law" lcgal systcms (such as thc Unitcd Kingdom, thc Unitcd
Statcs, Canada, and Austialia) than it is in so-callcd civil law" lcgal systcms (lound
in thc countiics ol contincntal Euiopc and thc countiics ol Aliica and Latin
|
r
t
.
c
J
J
c
t
|
c
r
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Amciica whosc lcgal systcms wcic oiiginally pattcincd on thosc ol contincntal
Euiopc).
Thc ccntial idca ol this thcoiy is that intcllcctual pioducts aic manilcstations oi
cxtcnsions ol thc pcisonalitics ol thcii cicatois. A paintci oi novclist dclncs hciscll
in and thiough hci ait. Thc lcgal systcm, scnsitivc to this phcnomcnon, should
giant aitists thc powci to contiol uscs oi modilcations ol thcii cications. Why
cxactly? Eithci bccausc injuiics to thosc cications causc coiicsponding injuiics to
thc cicatois - which thc law should scck to picvcnt oi icdicss. Oi bccausc giving
cicatois this contiol is ncccssaiy to cstablish a gcncial social cnviionmcnt in which
aitists can cstablish and maintain thcii idcntitics.
This thcoiy piovidcs cspccially stiong suppoit loi thc aspccts ol copyiight law
known as moial iights." Wc will considci moial iights in dctail in Modulc . As you
will scc, moial iights includc a iight to bc givcn cicdit loi things you havc cicatcd
(and not to bc blamcd loi things you havc not cicatcd) and a iight to picvcnt thc
mutilation oi dcstiuction ol youi cications.
Culture
Thc louith ol thc thcoiics is as yct thc lcast inucntial but sccms to bc gaining
sticngth. Its kcy idcas aic that human natuic causcs pcoplc to ouiish moic
undci somc conditions than undci othcis, and that social and political institutions
should bc oiganizcd to lacilitatc that ouiishing.
What, moic spccilcally, aic thc conditions oi lunctionings" that cnablc pcoplc
to ouiish? Thc lists ofcicd by thc philosophcis and psychologists woiking in
this tiadition vaiy somcwhat, but thc lollowing would mcct with thc appioval ol
most:
- Lilc
- Hcalth
- Bodily intcgiity - piotcction against physical hazaids and against physical and
scxual assault
- Autonomy - in thc scnsc ol thc ability to choosc liccly onc's vocations and
avocations
- Compctcncc - thc ability to conliont and solvc pioblcms
- Engagcmcnt - activc involvcmcnt in piolcssional and lcisuic activity, as opposcd
to passivc consumption ol goods and sciviccs
- Scll-cxpicssion - thc ability to spcak onc's mind and cxpicss onc's cicativc
impulscs
- Rclationships - paiticipation in liccly choscn communitics
- Piivacy - acccss to zoncs ol intimacy in which iclationships can bc nuituicd
and idcntity dcvclopcd
|
r
t
.
c
J
J
c
t
|
c
r
8 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Piopcily shapcd, copyiight law can hclp lostci a cultuic that cnablcs most pcoplc
to livc livcs ol this soit. Foi cxamplc, it can hclp piomotc a iich aitistic tiadi-
tion, suppoit a stiong cducational systcm opcn to cvciyonc, cncouiagc pcoplc
to modily thc cultuial goods thcy consumc, and (last but not lcast) incicasc
acccss to knowlcdgc thiough a stiong and univcisally acccssiblc libiaiy systcm.
Pooily constiuctcd, copyiight law can impaii all ol thcsc valucs - cuib aitistic
innovation, liustiatc thc cfoits ol tcachcis to dcsign and dclivci pcdagogically
sound matciials, discouiagc usci modilcations ol cultuial goods, and makc thc
opciation ol libiaiics moic costly and dimcult. A gicat dcal thus dcpcnds upon
how copyiight law is loimulatcd and applicd.
AdditionaI resources
Thc litciatuic on copyiight thcoiy is vast, but unloitunatcly iclativcly littlc ol it
is availablc onlinc. Thc lollowing is a icasonably icpicscntativc sct ol matciials.
Many moic souiccs can bc lound in thc lootnotcs to thcsc aiticlcs.
0VRVlWS
William Fishci, Thcoiics ol Intcllcctual Piopcity," in Stcphcn Munzci, cd., ^ew Lssa,s in
tne Ieqa| and Io|itica| Tneor, oj Iropert, (Cambiidgc Univcisity Picss, zoo). Chincsc
tianslation, by Hailcng Huang, in Cninese Inte||ectua| Iropert, Review (zooz): .
Scanna Shifiin, Intcllcctual Piopcity," in A Companion to Contemporar, Io|itica| Ini|osopn,,
cd. Robcit Goodin, Philip Pcttit, and Thomas Poggc, Blackwcll, zoo;.
FAlRNSS 7H0RY
Robcit Mcigcs, Lockc loi thc Masscs: Piopcity Rights and thc Pioducts ol Collcctivc
Cicativity" (zooj), http://papcis.ssin.com/sol,/papcis.clm?abstiact_id=,z,o8.
Allicd C. Ycn, Rcstoiing thc Natuial Law: Copyiight as Laboi and Posscssion," Onio State
Iaw }ourna| , (jjo): ,;.
WLFAR 7H0RY
Pctci Mcncll and Suzannc Scotchmci, Intcllcctual Piopcity," in Handbook oj Iaw and
Lconomics, cd. A. Mitchcll Polinsky and Stcvcn Shavcll with S. Scotchmci (Noith Holland,
zoo;)
William Landcs and Richaid Posnci, Tne Lconomic Structure oj Inte||ectua| Iropert, Iaw
(Haivaid Univcisity Picss, zoo,).
}oscph E. Stiglitz, Economic Foundations ol Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights," ,; Duke Iaw
}ourna| 6j, (Apiil zoo8).
Stcvcn Shavcll and Tanguy Van Ypcisclc, Rcwaids vcisus Intcllcctual Piopcity Rights,"
NBER Woiking Papci No. w6j,6 (jjj).
PRS0NH000 7H0RY
Maigaict }anc Radin, Piopcity and Pcisonhood, in Reinterpretinq Iropert, (Univcisity ol
Chicago Picss, jj,).
}ustin Hughcs, Thc Philosophy ol Intcllcctual Piopcity," ;; Georqetown Iaw Review z8;
(j88).
|
r
t
.
c
J
J
c
t
|
c
r
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
CUL7URAL 7H0RY
Ncil Nctancl, Copyiight and a Dcmociatic Civil Socicty," o6 Ya|e Iaw }ourna| z8, (jj6).
Madhavi Sundci, iI . YouTube, M,Space, Our Cu|ture (Yalc Univcisity Picss, zoz).
William Fishci, Thc Implications loi Law ol Usci Innovation," j Minnesota Iaw Review
, (zoo).
Contributors
This modulc was dialtcd by William Fishci.
o COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
ncJJ|o
Copyright and
the pubIic domain
Learning objective
This modulc cxploics thc basic conccpts ol copyiight law. It piovidcs a gcncial
intioduction to thc clcmcnts ol copyiight impoitant to libiaiians. Othci modulcs
will discuss thcsc topics in dctail.
Case study
"| want to bulld a course pack for my students. what materlal may | lnclude!"
Angela, a muslc professor, ls vlsltlng her school's llbrary to collect materlal to
bulld a course pack for her students. She would llke to lnclude excerpts from books,
electronlc resources, and muslc scores. She also wants to post selected muslc and
vldeo cllps onllne wlth her commentary. Nadla, the llbrarlan, wlll explaln to Angela
what she may and may not do under copyrlght law.
Lesson
what ls copyrlght!
Copyright is a lcgal conccpt that giants authois and aitists contiol ovci ccitain
uscs ol thcii cications loi dclncd pciiods ol timc. It limits who may copy, changc,
pciloim, oi shaic thosc cications.
As wc saw in thc Intioduction, thcic aic scvcial vicws conccining thc puiposcs
ol copyiight law. Onc vicw is that copyiight law cncouiagcs cicativity by allowing
cicatois to piolt liom thcii woik. This goal ol copyiight is iccctcd in thc woiding
ol many copyiight laws. Foi cxamplc, thc Copyiight Clausc" ol thc Unitcd Statcs
Constitution statcs that Congicss may giant authois copyiight piotcction loi thcii
woiks loi a limitcd timc in oidci to piomotc thc piogicss ol scicncc and usclul
aits" (US Constitution, Aiticlc , Scction 8, Clausc 8). Similaily, thc statcd puiposc
ol thc Statutc ol Annc, thc list copyiight statutc in England, was to cncouiagc
lcaining" (8 Annc Chaptci j (;o)). Anothci vicw is that copyiight law cnsuics
n
c
J
J
|
o
n
c
J
J
|
o
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
sciviccs, libiaiy tiustccs and libiaiy stafs." Its tcncts piovidc a liamcwoik, thcy
cannot and do not dictatc conduct to covci paiticulai situations."
AN7lC0UN7RFl7lN0 7RA0 A0RMN7 lAC7A) PR0P0SAL
A proposed multllateral trade agreement (zoo;) that ls deslgned to better enforce
lntellectual property rlghts by combatlng the percelved lncreaslng threat of
counterfeltlng.
Thc countcilciting in qucstion can bc ol physical goods and copyiightcd woiks,
as wcll as digital and Intcinct-bascd matciials and tcchnologics. Spccilc dctails
ol thc Agiccmcnt's contcnt aic still mostly a sccict, and somc countiics, includ-
ing thc Unitcd Statcs, icstiict acccss to it on thc basis ol national sccuiity. Thc
Agiccmcnt is gcncially undcistood to supciscdc oi bypass UN, WIPO and TRIPS
guidclincs, and would, among othci things, makc all pcci-to-pcci llcshaiing
illcgal, icgaidlcss ol contcnt.
ASSl0NMN7
The means by whlch ownershlp of a copyrlght ls transferred to another person or
entlty.
Foi cxamplc, musicians oltcn assign thc copyiight to thcii music to thcii publishci
oi iccoid company as pait ol thcii contiact, although this is not a icquiicmcnt.
AU7H0R
The orlglnal creator of a work.
Whilc thc woid authoi" is uscd in common vcinaculai to idcntily thc pcison
who wiotc somcthing, such as a book, papci, oi aiticlc, thc tcim authoi" is uscd
in copyiight law to idcntily thc cicatoi ol any woik. Thus, a sculptoi, aitist, oi
photogiaphci would bc considcicd thc authoi" ol his oi hci woik.
Il a copyiight is assigncd oi tianslciicd to a sccond pcison oi cntity, that pcison
docs not bccomc thc authoi, mcicly thc ncw iights-holdci. Thc oiiginal authoi
always ictains that status oi dcsciiption, and in somc lcgal icgimcs has ccitain
iights that cannot bc assigncd, altcicd, oi icnounccd.
In countiics that iccognizc thc woik-loi-hiic doctiinc, thc cmployci can bc
considcicd thc authoi" ol thc woik.
SLL ALSO MoraI rights, Rights: of integrity, of withdrawaI, of attribution
RN C0NVN7l0N F0R 7H PR07C7l0N
0F Ll7RARY AN0 AR7lS7lC W0RKS
The 8erne Conventlon ls an lnternatlonal copyrlght agreement that was rst adopted
and lmplemented ln :886. |ts lntent was to harmonlze copyrlght law across natlonal
borders. There are currently :6( member countrles.
Accoiding to Wikipcdia,
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Thc Bcinc Convcntion was icviscd in Paiis in 8j6 and in Bcilin in jo8,
complctcd in Bcinc in j, icviscd in Romc in jz8, in Biusscls in j8, in
Stockholm in j6; and in Paiis in j;, and was amcndcd in j;j. Thc UK
signcd in 88; but did not implcmcnt laigc paits ol it until oo ycais latci
with thc passagc ol thc Copyiight, Dcsigns and Patcnts Act ol j88.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion is cuiicntly activc and is administcicd by thc Woild Intcl-
lcctual Piopcity Oiganization (WIPO).
Whilc thc Convcntion giants authois an aiiay ol iights, its most impoitant
aspcct is that countiics must giant an authoi that is a citizcn ol anothci mcmbci
countiy thc samc piotcctions it ofcis its own citizcns, in addition to any iights
that thc Convcntion itscll giants. That is to say, a Ficnch citizcn's woik in Poland
oi Moiocco automatically cnjoys thc samc piotcctions that thc woik ol a Polish oi
Moioccan citizcn would.
lLA7RAL A0RMN7S
A bllateral agreement ls an agreement or treaty made dlrectly between two
countrles.
This is in contiast to a multilatcial" agiccmcnt oi intcinational agiccmcnt
such as thc Bcinc Convcntion oi TRIPS. Whilc somc bilatcial agiccmcnts dcal
cxclusivcly with copyiight, copyiight piovisions may bc inscitcd into othci, laigci
ticatics, such as pcacc ticatics oi cconomic ticatics.
In a bilatcial agiccmcnt, an authoi liom onc countiy can claim copyiight
piotcctions in thc othci countiy. Such agiccmcnts aic oltcn uscd to cicatc copyiight
piotcctions oi piovisions that aic moic stiingcnt, oi moic gcncious, than would
bc possiblc in a bioadly multinational agiccmcnt.
A Bcinc Convcntion mcmbci countiy may cntci into bilatcial agiccmcnts as
long as thc piovisions ol thosc agiccmcnts mcct thc minimum standaids ol thc
Bcinc Convcntion. Foi instancc, although it is a mcmbci ol thc Bcinc Convcntion,
thc TRIPS Agiccmcnt, and othci multilatcial agiccmcnts, thc Unitcd Statcs has
bilatcial agiccmcnts with many difcicnt countiics.
LANK7 LlCNS
A blanket llcense allows a user to engage ln certaln uses of a large number of works
under preset terms, wlthout lndlvldual negotlatlon.
In thc copyiight contcxt, such a liccnsc addicsscs all ol a dclncd gioup ol copy-
iightcd woiks. It covcis" all ol thc iclcvant woiks likc a blankct. In this way, it
makcs it casici to ncgotiatc loi thc usc ol a woik by making it possiblc to makc
a dcal only oncc iathci than cntciing into many scpaiatc agiccmcnts.
Usually, such liccnscs aic giantcd and managcd by collcctivc iights managcmcnt
gioups, which contiol acccss to thousands, oi cvcn millions, ol copyiightcd woiks.
SLL ALSO CoIIective rights management organizations
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
6 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
R0WSWRAP
"8rowsewrap" ls a slang term for a contract governlng access to or use of content on
a webslte that does not requlre the webslte user to cllck on a button or otherwlse
take actlon to expressly manlfest consent to the terms of the agreement. Typlcally,
the |nternet user ls consldered to have agreed to the terms of the browsewrap
agreement by accesslng or "browslng" the webslte.
Thc tcims ol a biowscwiap agiccmcnt govcining acccss to a wcbsitc aic not
always piomincntly displaycd to thc Intcinct usci, and instcad aic oltcn listcd
on a scpaiatc pagc that can only bc acccsscd by clicking a link at thc bottom ol
thc sciccn. Foi this icason, somc commcntatois qucstion whcthci biowscwiap
agiccmcnts cicatc cnloiccablc contiacts.
SLL ALSO CIickwrap
CASAN00SlS7 L77R
A letter sent to an alleged copyrlght lnfrlnger or the entlty hostlng allegedly
lnfrlnglng materlal, requestlng that certaln actlvltles be ceased or that access to the
allegedly lnfrlnglng materlal be dlsabled.
With icspcct to Intcinct contcnt, a ccasc-and-dcsist lcttci can takc thc loim ol
a takcdown noticc."
Undci thc US copyiight lcgislation known as thc Digital Millcnium Copyiight
Act, a copyiight holdci who bclicvcs that a wcbsitc is inliinging thc holdci's
copyiight, usually by hosting piotcctcd matciial without pcimission, can scnd a
ccasc-and-dcsist lcttci to thc cntity hosting thc matciial. Thc wcbsitc will not bc
hcld liablc il it immcdiatcly takcs down thc allcgcdly inliinging woik upon icccipt
ol thc takcdown noticc. Thcic aic pioccduics undci which thc pcison who postcd
thc contcnt can challcngc a takcdown noticc, and havc acccss to thc icstoicd.
CH0lC 0F LAWS
The doctrlne by whlch a court or other trlbunal determlnes whlch country's or
[urlsdlctlon's laws wlll apply to a partlcular case or clalm.
In any lcgal disputc that ciosscs political boidcis, whcthci domcstic oi intcinational,
thcic is a qucstion ol which laws will apply to thc disputc. Such cioss-boidci
disputcs aic incicasingly common in thc Intcinct cia. Foi instancc, il an Intcinct
usci in Italy acccsscs a scivci in Swcdcn, and downloads a copy ol a song by a US
iccoiding aitist, what laws should apply? Whcic should thc tiial bc hcld?
A couit hcaiing a suit likc this will icvicw thc lacts and dccidc what location
makcs thc most scnsc loi thc tiial, and will also dccidc which juiisdiction's laws
should apply. It is possiblc, whcn wiiting a contiact, to spccily what laws will
govcin in thc cvcnt ol a disputc. Occassionally, thc laws ol moic than onc countiy
oi juiisdiction might apply to difcicnt issucs oi claims in thc samc litigation.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
ClRCUMVN7l0N
The act of avoldlng, breaklng or otherwlse bypasslng protectlons on dlgltal
content and technology.
Many digital oi clcctionic icsouiccs, including onlinc databascs and soltwaic, comc
with built-in piotcctions which in thcoiy picvcnt illcgal copying oi impcimissiblc
uscs. Foi cxamplc, DVDs may havc a icgion codc" cmbcddcd in thcii data that
picvcnts thcm liom bcing playcd on DVD playcis liom difcicnt paits ol thc
woild. Likcwisc, soltwaic may havc addcd codc, oi cnciyption, which picvcnts
it liom bcing copicd.
Although thcsc tcchnological baiiicis may aiguably hclp to piotcct illcgal
copying oi usc ol contcnt, thcy can also gct in thc way ol lcgitimatc uscs, such as
playing a DVD on a Linux-bascd playci, oi making an aichival copy ol soltwaic. A
usci who wants to do thcsc things will thcicloic havc to ciicumvcnt, oi bicak, thc
piotcction mcasuics. Howcvci, this is illcgal in many countiics.
Notably, in thc Unitcd Statcs, Scction zo ol thc Digital Millcnnium Copyiight
Act (jj8) spccilcally loibids ciicumvcntion ol tcchnological piotcction mcasuics,
and cvcn makcs it illcgal to scll oi own anything that lacilitatcs ciicumvcntion.
Laws likc Scction zo aic contiovcisial, bccausc liom onc pcispcctivc thc
piotcctions a law likc this lacilitatcs aic paiallcl to, and can last longci than, thosc
ofcicd by copyiight. This aiguably dclcats thc puiposc ol copyiight law's limitcd
duiation piotcctions, violatcs copyiight's implicit baigain with thc public, and
haims thc public domain.
SLL ALSO DMCA, Right of access, 7PM
ClSAC
The |nternatlonal Confederatlon of Socletles of Authors and Composers. C|SAC ls an
organlzatlon composed of numerous natlonal preformlng rlghts socletles.
Accoiding to its wcbsitc, CISAC
woiks towaids incicascd iccognition and piotcction ol cicatois' iights. CISAC
was loundcd in jz6 and is a nongovcinmcntal, nonpiolt oiganisation. Its
hcadquaitcis aic in Paiis, with icgional omccs in Budapcst, Bucnos Aiics,
}ohanncsbuig and Singapoic. . As ol }unc zoo8, CISAC numbcis zz, authois'
socictics liom 8 countiics and indiicctly icpicscnts moic than z., million
cicatois within all thc aitistic icpcitoiics: music, diama, litciatuic, audio-
visual, giaphic and visual aits.
ClVlL LAW
A legal system ln whlch the law ls based almost excluslvely on leglslatlon.
Such a systcm is as opposcd to a common law systcm (bascd on tiadition and
couit dccisions) oi a icligious law systcm. Civil law icgimcs tcnd to bc cithci
inspiicd by oi diicctly dcsccndcd liom Roman lcgal systcms.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
8 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Accoiding to Wikipcdia, Thc piinciplc ol civil law is to piovidc all citizcns with
an acccssiblc and wiittcn collcction ol thc laws which apply to thcm and which
judgcs must lollow. It is thc most picvalcnt and oldcst suiviving lcgal systcm in
thc woild."
Most ol Euiopc and its loimci colonics havc civil law-bascd lcgal systcms, many
ol which haik back to thc Napolconic Codc.
This vcision ol civil law is not to bc conluscd with thc soit that occuis in thc
civil law/ciiminal law distinction in, loi instancc, US law.
SLL ALSO Common Iaw, ReIigious IegaI system
CLlCKWRAP OP CLlCK0N
Clickwiap oi Click-on is a liccnsc agiccmcnt loi a wcbsitc oi soltwaic to which
thc usci agiccs by clicking on a button oi link.
Oncc thc usci clicks on thc I acccpt" oi I agicc" button oi link, thcicby
acccpting thc liccnsc, hc oi shc can acccss thc copyiightcd matciial and is bound
by thc tcims ol thc liccnsing agiccmcnt. An End-Usci Liccnsing Agiccmcnt" oi
EULA" is a classic cxamplc ol a clickwiap" agiccmcnt. Sincc thc usci has no choicc
cxccpt to acccpt thc liccnsing contiact in oidci to acccss thc contcnt oi piogiam,
in icccnt ycais both couits and public opinion havc bcgun to pciccivc thcsc soits
ol agiccmcnts as at lcast potcntially oppicssivc.
C0LLC7lV Rl0H7S MANA0MN7 0R0ANlZA7l0N/S0Cl7Y
An organlzatlon that controls the economlc rlghts to a large number of creatlve
works. Also known as "collectlng soclety" or a "copyrlght collectlve."
A collcctivc iights managcmcnt oiganization oi socicty most oltcn dcals with thc
iights to music and tcxt. Thcsc gioups lowci thc tiansaction costs ol acquiiing
iights and makc it casy loi would-bc uscis ol copyiightcd woiks to gct pcimission
to do so. With a collcctivc iights gioup, thcic nccd only bc onc sct ol ncgotiations
and onc lcc paid, icgaidlcss ol how many difcicnt woiks aic uscd. Compaic
having to lnd and ncgotiatc with thc iights-holdcis loi onc hundicd difcicnt
songs with ncgotiating a singlc contiact.
Whilc gioups likc this undoubtcdly solvc a maikct pioblcm, ciiticisms lcvclcd
against thcm includc thc lact that thcy do not channcl cnough ol thc lccs thcy
icccivc to thc actual aitists, and that thcy unlaiily scck to chaigc loi uscs ovci
which thcy should not havc contiol. Also, most notably, thcic aic no collcctivc
iights gioups managing thc iights to sound iccoidings, which has lcd to much
contiovcisy ovci sampling.
Somc collcctivc iights managcmcnt oiganizations includc:
- ASCAP (Unitcd Statcs)
- CISAC (intcinational)
- SoundExchangc (Unitcd Statcs)
- Haiiy Fox Agcncy (Unitcd Statcs)
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
- GESAC (Euiopcan Union)
- AGICOA wcbsitc (intcinational)
- BIEM (intcinational)
- CEPIC (Euiopcan Union)
- IGE (Switzciland)
C0LLC7lV W0RK
A creatlve work that represents the creatlve lnput of more than one author.
Whcn two oi moic pcoplc shaic thc copyiight in a woik thcy aic iclciicd to as
joint authois." A movic is a classic cxamplc ol a collcctivc woik, involving as it
docs thc cfoits ol hundicds, il not thousands, ol pcoplc. Ncvcithclcss, thc iights
to collcctivc woiks aic usually hcld by only onc pcison, oi at most a lcw pcoplc.
In thc casc ol a movic, most ol thc pcoplc woiking on it aic ticatcd, by thcii
contiact, as cmployccs, iathci than as joint authois.
C0MM0N LAW
A legal system based prlmarlly on custom and the precedent of court declslons.
Intcinational lcgal systcms tcnd to lall into onc ol thicc catcgoiics. Typically
lound within countiics that havc somc histoiical conncction with thc Unitcd
Kingdom oi thc loimci Biitish Empiic, common law" systcms havc a lcgal systcm
bascd piimaiily on custom - thc picccdcnt sct by couit dccisions (casc law") ,
in contiast to civil law systcms oi icligious law systcms.
SLL ALSO CiviI Iaw, ReIigious IegaI system
C0MM0NS
Thls term refers to both the property that ls owned by the communlty ln general
and the soclal reglme for governlng usage of that resource.
Somc histoiical commons wcic tiuly opcn to all, but somc wcic govcincd by
iulcs that limitcd acccss. Howcvci, dcspitc what might sccm likc a complctc
lack ol any iulcs loi govcining thc maintcnancc and usagc ol a commons, thcy
wcic histoiically at thc ccntci ol a complcx wcb ol social noims, and wcic wcll-
monitoicd and maintaincd.
In thc latc j6os a school ol thought cmcigcd which claimcd that any ical
commons would quickly bc ovcicxploitcd by an cconomically iational usci, and
that only piivatc ownciship could succcsslully managc socictal icsouiccs.
Although this idca was quickly and widcly acccptcd, it has bccn challcngcd in
icccnt ycais loi misstating thc lacts suiiounding histoiical commons, as wcll as loi
ovcilooking thc ical pioblcms that can aiisc liom complcx wcbs ol piivatc ownci-
ship, a pioblcm Michacl Hcllci has callcd thc tiagcdy ol thc anti-commons."
With icspcct to copyiight, thc commons is thc cnoimous body ol cicativc woik to
which all ol socicty has acccss. Somc is histoiical, somc is contcmpoiaiy. Evciyonc
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,o COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
having acccss to thcm docs not ncccssaiily mcan that no onc holds copyiight in thc
woiks that makc up thc commons. Somc woiks aic in thc public domain, which
mcans that not only can anyonc acccss thcm and makc usc ol thcm, but that no onc
has thc iight to icstiict thcii usagc in any way. On thc othci hand, woiks cxisting
undci icgimcs such as Cicativc Commons, oi thc GPL liccnsc, as wcll as so-callcd
Opcn Acccss" jouinals, aic cxamplcs ol copyiight-contiollcd inloimation that is
noncthclcss pait ol thc commons. Foi cxamplc, thc woiks ol Shakcspcaic, oi a
cultuic's lolk talcs, aic pait ol thc commons, as is any modcin woik which its authoi
has dcdicatcd to thc public domain. Fuithci, any woik to which anyonc has acccss,
but loi which thc usagcs aic icstiictcd (usually with icspcct to kccping luithci uscs
ol thc woik opcn to acccss), aic still considcicd pait ol thc commons.
SLL ALSO PubIic domain
C0MPlLA7l0N
A work that gathers together other prevlously exlstlng copyrlghted works or facts.
Foi cxamplc, an anthology ol stoiics is a compilation. A iccoiding that biought
togcthci songs liom a widc vaiicty ol aitists, such as a soundtiack album, would
bc a compilation. A databasc is also a compilation, ol lacts iathci than cicativc
woiks. In many juiisdictions, it is possiblc to hold a scpaiatc copyiight in a
compilation that is indcpcndcnt ol any copyiight in thc woiks that makc it up,
so long as thcic is sumcicnt cicativity in thc sclcction and aiiangcmcnt ol thc
woiks. It is also possiblc to hold copyiight in a databasc, bascd on thc sclcction
and aiiangcmcnt ol its lactual clcmcnts, oi, altcinativcly, bascd on thc cfoit that
wcnt into cicating it.
C0MPULS0RY LlCNS
A llcense for use of copyrlghted materlal that ls mandated by law to be made
avallable to everyone on an equal basls, usually ln exchange for the payment of a
set fee.
Fiom thc usci's pcispcctivc, it is a usc loi which thc usci docs not nccd to scck
pcimission. That is, thc iights-holdci may not iclusc to giant thc liccnsc to thc
usci. Thc iights-holdci still has thc iight to whatcvci icvcnuc comcs liom thc
usc, but has no iights ol contiol.
Such liccnscs aic always non-cxclusivc, sincc anyonc can obtain onc, and thc lccs
that aic paid to thc iights-holdci loi thcm aic usually sct by statutc. An cxamplc
ol a compulsoiy liccnsc is thc so-callcd mcchanical liccnsc" undci US law loi
iccoiding a ncw vcision ol an cxisting song. Oncc a song has bccn iclcascd to thc
public, any othci aitist may iccoid a vcision ol it, and must pay a sct lcc (cuiicntly
z., ccnts pci copy) to thc iights-holdci ol that song.
This is not thc only cxamplc ol a compulsoiy liccnsc. Thcic is a widc vaiicty,
whosc natuic and tcims dcpcnd on thc laws ol thc countiy in qucstion and thc
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
natuic ol thc woik. Compulsoiy liccnsing schcmcs cxist loi music, tcxt, phaima-
ccuticals, and moic.
Rcccntly, somc copyiight scholais and activists havc pioposcd that thc solution
to thc pciccivcd pioblcm ol pcci-to-pcci llcshaiing will bc somc soit ol compulsoiy
liccnsing schcmc. Filcshaiing would bccomc lcgal, but aitists would gct paid, most
likcly out ol a lund cicatcd by lcvying taxcs on iccoidablc mcdia and associatcd
tcchnologics.
C0NFU
An abbrevlatlon of the "Conference on Palr Use."
Thc Conlcicncc on Faii Usc was a sciics ol mcctings hcld in thc Unitcd Statcs
in thc mid- to latc jjos. Thc puiposc ol CONFU was to havc a mcaninglul
discussion about laii usc" in an incicasingly digital agc, cspccially loi acadcm-
ics and libiaiians. Howcvci, duc in laigc pait to lundamcntal disagiccmcnts
among thc vaiious icpicscntcd intcicst gioups, thc mcctings lailcd to achicvc
any mcaninglul conscnsus.
SLL ALSO Fair use
C0PYRl0H7
The set of rlghts granted to the author of a creatlve work that govern certaln thlrd-
party uses of the work.
Thcsc iights vaiy liom countiy to countiy, although thcic is substantial intci-
national haimonization. Thcy can typically bc dividcd into cconomic iights and
so-callcd moial" iights.
With icspcct to thc cconomic iights, thcy csscntially icpicscnt a tcmpoiaiy
monopoly ovci thc cicativc woik in qucstion. In thcoiy, this monopoly contiol is
supposcd to inccntivizc and icwaid thc cicatoi, convincing thcm to cicatc moic.
Howcvci, whcn thc tcim ol copyiight cnds, thc woik bclongs to thc public. Thc
public's gains liom thc cication ol ncw woiks is thought to compcnsatc loi thc
incmcicncics that a monopoly icpicscnts. Economic iights aic tiuly piopcity" in
that thcy can bc sold, assigncd, inhciitcd, dividcd up, and moic.
With icspcct to moial" iights, thcsc bclong to thc authoi at thc momcnt ol
cication, and cannot usually bc tianslciicd to anyonc clsc.
SLL ALSO Rights
C0UN7RFl7lN0
Counterfeltlng ls the practlce of maklng lllegal coples of somethlng and then
attemptlng to pass the coples on as the real thlng.
Almost anything can bc copicd, whcthci cuiicncy, matciial goods, oi intcllcctual
piopcity. A countcilcitci hopcs to takc advantagc ol any positivc icputation that
thc oiiginal cnjoys without having to invcst timc and icsouiccs in cicating it.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,. COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Countcilcits damagc thc oiiginal by compcting with it in thc maikctplacc and
by huiting thc oiiginal's icputation.
C0URS PACK
A collectlon of documents put together by a teacher as a resource for students ln
a partlcular course or class.
Oltcn, tcachcis with a spccilc cuiiiculum in mind will wish to asscmblc thcii
own matciials iathci than tcach liom a paiticulai tcxtbook. As a coiollaiy to this,
a tcachci cicating a cuiiiculum diawing on a widc iangc ol icsouiccs may wish
simply to piovidc hci studcnts with only thc matciials thcy nccd, iathci than
icquiiing thcm to puichasc many books, oltcn at gicat cost, cach ol which will
contain only a small piccc ol thc cuiiiculum, and thc majoiity ol thc contcnts
ol which will bc supciuous.
Ol couisc, cicating such a couisc pack" ncccssitatcs thc copying ol thc iclcvant
woiks, implicating copyiight law. Such copying may oi may not lall undci laii usc,
laii dcaling, oi othci cxccptions to copyiight, dcpcnding on thc ciicumstanccs
and thc juiisdiction. Thcic havc bccn two scminal cascs in thc Unitcd Statcs
dcaling with couisc packs and copyiight, both ol which wcic icsolvcd against thc
univcisitics in qucstion. It is notcwoithy, though, that cach ol thosc cascs involvcd
a loi-piolt copying scivicc.
CRA7lV C0MM0NS
"Creatlve Commons ls a nonprot corporatlon dedlcated to maklng lt easler for
people to share and bulld upon the work of others, conslstent wlth the rules of
copyrlght."
Thc abovc dclnition comcs liom thc Cicativc Commons wcbsitc. Thc oiganization
was loundcd in zoo by, among othcis, Haivaid piolcssoi Lawicncc Lcssig. Its
goal was to piovidc simplc, casy to undcistand and usc copyiight liccnscs that
would allow cicatois to shaic thcii woik with thc woild undci tcims thcy wcic
comloitablc with, so pcoplc can shaic, icmix, and/oi usc thcm commcicially,
iathci than thc dclault tcims ofcicd by statutc. Cuiicntly, Cicativc Commons
ofcis six difcicnt liccnscs (in ,o countiics and counting), whosc lcatuics vaiy
accoiding to thc uscs thcy allow. Thc cxistcncc and tcims ol thcsc spccial liccnscs
aic communicatcd to uscis by cmploying both thc Cicativc Commons namc and
a sciics ol icons that suggcst thc spccilc tcims ol thc liccnsc.
A zoo8 US casc, }acobsen v. Iatzer, conccining latci usagc ol soltwaic liccnscd
undci a liccnsc similai in stylc and intcnt to thosc ofcicd by Cicativc Commons
hcld that thc liccnsc was a valid onc, and that violating its tcims constitutcd
copyiight inliingcmcnt. Thc iuling gicatly sticngthcncd thc cnloiccability ol
such agiccmcnts, hclping thcii usc to bc pciccivcd as moic mainsticam and
lcgitimatc.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
0AMA0S
The money glven to a copyrlght holder to compensate hlm or her for the harm
caused by lnfrlngement.
Whcncvci thc copyiight in a woik is inliingcd, thcic is at lcast thc thcoictical
possibility that thc lcgal holdci ol thc copyiight has bccn haimcd in somc way.
Il thc iights-holdci sucs thc inliingci and wins, a couit may awaid damagcs to
thc iights-holdci as a way ol compcnsating thcm loi any damagc that has bccn
donc. A iights-holdci may scck actual oi statutoiy monctaiy damagcs, dcpcnding
on which shc thinks aic moic valuablc, oi casici to dctciminc, oi an injunction
compclling thc dclcndant to ccasc thc inliinging activitics.
ACTUAL DAMAGLS
Actual damages represent the true cost of the harm sunered as a result of the
lnfrlngement.
Foi cxamplc, il it wcic possiblc to dctciminc cxactly how many salcs had bccn lost
as a icsult ol an act oi acts ol inliingcmcnt, it would bc possiblc to calculatc actual
damagcs. Onc thousand salcs lost, at a piolt ol co a salc = co,ooo damagcs.
In piacticc, it can bc vciy dimcult to calculatc actual damagcs accuiatcly. Whcn
this is tiuc, statutoiy damagc piovisions will licqucntly bc uscd instcad.
STATUTOP DAMAGLS
Statutory damages are damages where the amount of money a rlghts-holder may
collect as damages ls set by statute.
Many lcgal icgimcs contain piovisions loi statutoiy damagcs. Foi cxamplc, in US
law, ; USCA ,o(c) statcs that Exccpt as piovidcd by clausc (z) ol this subscction,
thc copyiight ownci may clcct, at any timc bcloic lnal judgmcnt is icndcicd, to
iccovci, instcad ol actual damagcs and piolts, an awaid ol statutoiy damagcs
loi all inliingcmcnts involvcd in thc action, with icspcct to any onc woik, loi
which any onc inliingci is liablc individually, oi loi which any two oi moic
inliingcis aic liablc jointly and scvcially, in a sum ol not lcss than s;,o oi moic
than s,o,ooo as thc couit considcis just." Foi willlul inliingcmcnt, thc amount
can go up to s,o,ooo!
0A7AAS
A database ls a collectlon of data on a partlcular toplc or toplcs, usually searchable,
aggregated lnto one place.
Databascs havc an unusual iclationship with copyiight. Thc cicatoi ol a databasc
can hold copyiight in thc databasc, but only in ccitain aspccts ol it, bccausc thc
contcnts ol a databasc aic cithci lacts, in which casc thcy aicn't copyiightablc at
all, oi thcy aic non-lactual, but thcicloic alicady undci copyiight, and contiollcd
by difcicnt iights-holdcis. Howcvci, a lot ol woik can go into cicating a databasc,
and somc juiisdictions iccognizc and piotcct that laboi.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Foi cxamplc, in thc US, thc copyiight in databascs is colloquially known as
thin" (as opposcd to thick") and is only in thc sclcction and aiiangcmcnt ol thc
matciials. On thc othci hand, in thc Euiopcan Union, databascs icccivc , ycais
ol piotcction to piotcct thc invcstmcnt ol timc, moncy, and icsouiccs on thc pait
ol thc databasc cicatoi.
SLL ALSO CompiIation
0A7AMlNlN0
The practlce of slftlng through large quantltles of data, often ln a database, to
ldentlfy and make use of the patterns and detalls that emerge.
Foi cxamplc, consumci goods coipoiations minc thc data gcnciatcd by licqucnt
shoppci caids in oidci to bcttci taigct advcitiscmcnts. Thc company Googlc mincs
thc data gcnciatcd by thc scaichcs it pciloims to pciloim subscqucnt scaichcs
moic accuiatcly and to taigct cfcctivcly thc advcitiscmcnts that aic alongsidc.
Scicntists minc thc data gcnciatcd by laigc-scalc suivcys ol natuial phcnomcna,
whcthci astionomical obscivations oi gcnctic codcs.
Dcpcnding on thc soit ol data bcing mincd, piivacy issucs can bccomc a vciy
ical and impoitant conccin.
0RlVA7lV W0RK
A derlvatlve work ls one that adapts or modles an exlstlng work, drawlng on that
work for lts substance and general materlal.
A llm bascd on a novcl is a dciivativc woik ol that novcl. An action lguic bascd
on a chaiactci liom an oiiginal llm is a dciivativc woik ol thc llm.
A dciivativc woik may oi may not bc copyiightablc on its own, dcpcnding on how
much oiiginal matciial it contains, and whcthci pcimissions wcic giantcd loi thc
copicd matciial. Thc US Copyiight Omcc says: To bc copyiightablc, a dciivativc
woik must bc difcicnt cnough liom thc oiiginal to bc icgaidcd as a ncw woik oi
must contain a substantial amount ol ncw matciial."
Foi cxamplc, Allicd Bcstci's novcl Tne Stars M, Destination is inspiicd by and
modclcd altci Dumas's Tne Count oj Monte Cristo. It is aiguably a dciivativc woik
ol that oldci novcl. Howcvci, Bcstci's book clcaily has sumcicnt oiiginal matciial
to qualily loi copyiight piotcction on its own, and, luithci, is oiiginal cnough that
it would not inliingc copyiight in Dumas's book, wcic that book still piotcctcd
by copyiight. On thc othci hand, an indcpcndcnt sciccnwiitci's ncw sciccnplay
lcatuiing thc Rocky" chaiactci madc lamous by Sylvcstci Stallonc was lound to
bc clcaily a dciivativc woik, in which no copyiight could bc had.
SLL ALSO Fair use, Right of adaptation, Idea/expression dichotomy
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
0MCA
The DMCA ls the short name for the Dlgltal Mlllennlum Copyrlght Act.
Thc DMCA is copyiight lcgislation that was passcd in thc Unitcd Statcs in jj8. Its
intcndcd puiposcs wcic to biing US copyiight law moic into haimony with intci-
national noims and to addicss many ol thc ncw conccins that digital tcchnology
and llc-shaiing iaiscd. Thc DMCA contains thc now-notoiious anti-ciicumvcntion
piovisions, which madc it illcgal, cvcn loi a lcgitimatc usci, to avoid, bicak oi
disablc any tcchnological mcasuics piotccting contcnt. It also cicatcd what aic
known as salc haibois," dcsciiptions ol bchavioi whcic Intcinct scivicc piovidcis
could bc ccitain thcy would not bc lcgally liablc loi thc actions ol thcii uscis.
SLL ALSO Cease-and-desist Ietter, Circumvention, DRM, 7PM, WIP0
0RM
DPM, or "dlgltal rlghts management", ls a catch-all term for any technologlcal
measures, usually but not always software-based, that are put ln place to protect
copyrlghted content.
DRM usually woiks by icstiicting acccss to thc contcnt in somc way. DRM applics
to all would-bc uscis ol thc contcnt, cvcn thosc who havc puichascd it, oi thc
iight to acccss it, lcgally. Most DRM tcchniqucs aic also casily ciicumvcntcd by
a tcchnically adcpt and/oi dctcimincd usci. Thcicloic DRM has thc nct cfcct
ol inconvcnicncing lcgitimatc uscis, somctimcs sciiously, and bcing a minoi
inconvcnicncc at bcst loi piolcssional ciiminal uscis. Additionally, ccitain loims
ol DRM can iaisc sciious piivacy conccins, as wcll as call into qucstion thc vciy
idca ol ownciship" ol digital inloimation.
Foi thcsc icasons, DRM has bccn hcavily ciiticizcd, and thcic may bc a ticnd in
thc contcnt industiy away liom its usc. Foi cxamplc, altci many complaints liom
uscis, iTuncs and Amazon now ofci DRM-licc music downloads, and most ol thc
majoi iccoid labcls havc givcn up on DRM loi digital music. Howcvci, thc Rccoiding
Industiy ol Amciica and thc Motion Pictuic Industiy ol Amciica havc both said
that thcy scc DRM bcing pait ol thcii busincss modcls loi thc loicsccablc lutuic.
0U 0lLl0NC
Due dlllgence refers to the level of enort someone must make ln order to have
fullled thelr legal dutles ln a partlcular sltuatlon.
It is thc standaid ol caic that pcison must cxcicisc. In thc copyiight contcxt, thc
tcim is most oltcn cncountcicd with icspcct to thc ncccssaiy cfoits a would-bc
usci ol contcnt must makc to locatc thc holdci ol thc iights in a paiticulai
piccc ol contcnt. This has bccomc an impoitant conccpt icccntly with icspcct to
so-callcd oiphan woiks" and thc Googlc Book Scaich piojcct.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,6 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
C0N0MlC Rl0H7S
The rlghts assoclated wlth copyrlght that allow the rlghts-holder to exerclse
control over use of the work for economlc benet.
Economic iights includc, among othcis, thc iight to makc and scll copics, to
pciloim thc woik publicly, and to picpaic dciivativc woiks.
lFL
A nonprot organlzatlon that advocates for access to llbrary resources across the
world.
EIFL is an intcinational not-loi-piolt oiganization bascd in Euiopc with a global
nctwoik ol paitncis. EIFL woiks with libiaiics aiound thc woild to cnablc sus-
tainablc acccss to high-quality digital inloimation loi pcoplc in dcvcloping and
tiansition countiics. Foundcd in jjj, EIFL bcgan by advocating loi afoidablc
acccss to commcicial c-jouinals loi acadcmic and icscaich libiaiics in Ccntial and
Eastcin Euiopc. Today, EIFL paitncis with libiaiics and libiaiy consoitia in moic
than , dcvcloping and tiansition countiics in Aliica, Asia and Euiopc. Oui woik
has also cxpandcd to includc piogiammcs dcsigncd to cnablc acccss to knowlcdgc
loi cducation, lcaining, icscaich and sustainablc community dcvclopmcnt. Lcain
moic at www.ci.nct.
XCP7l0NS AN0 LlMl7A7l0NS
The exceptlons and llmltatlons to the otherwlse excluslve rlghts of a copyrlght
holder.
Whilc copyiight is usually conccptualizcd as thc gianting ol a monopoly loi
a limitcd pciiod ol timc, thcic aic ncaily always cxccptions and limitations to
thc othciwisc cxclusivc iights ol a copyiight holdci. Thcsc can bc statutoiy oi
customaiy and icpicscnt uscs loi which a usci nccd not gct pcimission, oi loi
which lccs aic picsct, oi somcthing clsc that placcs limits on thc monopoly ol
thc copyiight holdci. Thcsc cxccptions and limitations aic oltcn diivcn by public
policy conccins.
Faii usc" in US law and laii dcaling" in somc othci paits ol thc woild aic classic
cxamplcs ol doctiincs that placc a limitation on thc copyiight holdci's monopoly.
Any loim ol compulsoiy liccnsing would bc anothci. Somc cxccptions aic diicctcd
at paiticulai classcs ol usci, such as thc cxccptions pcitaining to making copics
loi thc disablcd.
PULL8ASLD
Rulc-bascd cxccptions aic thosc whosc qualitics aic dcsciibcd in spccilc dctail,
so that a paiticulai usc cithci docs oi docs not qualily as an cxccption.
Thc Chalcc Amcndmcnt in US copyiight law that cxcmpts thc making ol copics
loi thc disablcd is an cxamplc ol a iulc-bascd cxccption.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
GU|DLL|NL8ASLD
A guidclinc-bascd cxccption oi limitation is onc that scts loith onc oi moic lactois
to considci whcn dctcimining whcthci a paiticulai usc is laii, iathci than haid
and last biight-linc iulcs.
Any paiticulai usc must bc cvaluatcd on an individual basis to dctciminc il it
qualilcs loi thc cxccption. Foi cxamplc, thc laii usc" doctiinc in US law, which
lists loui non-cxhaustivc lactois and a paitial list ol suggcstcd laii uscs, is a
guidclinc-bascd cxccption.
L|8PAP LXCLPT|ONS
Libiaiics aic oltcn ticatcd as a spccial subclass ol uscis ol copyiightcd matciial
bccausc ol thc public natuic ol thcii mission and thc stiong public policy aigu-
mcnts in thcii lavoi. As such, thcy cnjoy a uniquc sct ol cxccptions and limits on
copyiight law in many countiics. Whilc thc copyiight law conccining libiaiics
vaiics liom countiy to countiy, thcic aic somc ncai-univcisal gcncial cxccptions
loi libiaiics.
PPLSLPvAT|ON
Libiaiics aic licqucntly pcimittcd to makc copics ol woiks in oidci to picscivc
thcm, oi loi aichival puiposcs, without violating thc copyiight in thosc woiks.
This is in linc with thc tiaditional iolc ol libiaiics as icpositoiics ol
knowlcdgc.
LOAN|NG
Undci ccitain ciicumstanccs, libiaiics aic pcimittcd to makc copics ol copyiightcd
woiks loi thc puiposc ol loaning thcm to pations oi to othci libiaiics without
violating thc copyiight in thosc woiks.
PLSLAPCH
Libiaiics aic oltcn pcimittcd to makc copics ol copyiightcd woiks loi icscaich
puiposcs (whcthci thcii own oi that ol thcii pations) without violating thc
copyiight in thosc woiks.
FAlR 0ALlN0
The term used ln the Unlted Klngdom and other Commonwealth natlons to
descrlbe the clrcumstances under whlch one can use copyrlghted works wlthout
payments or permlsslon.
Somcwhat similai to thc conccpt ol laii usc" in thc Unitcd Statcs, laii dcaling" is
lound in many common law juiisdictions, such as Canada, Austialia, Ncw Zcaland
and othcis. Unlikc laii usc, which is a sct ol guidclincs, laii dcaling in most countiics
is limitcd to spccilc catcgoiics ol usc. Il a paiticulai usc lalls into onc ol thcsc
catcgoiics, a couit will asccitain whcthci, on balancc, it should bc considcicd laii."
It is usually considcicd somcwhat moic picdictablc but also somcwhat lcss cxiblc
than thc conccpt ol laii usc" cmploycd in thc Unitcd Statcs.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,8 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
FAlR US
A tenet of US copyrlght law that descrlbes the clrcumstances under whlch one can
sometlmes make use of protected works wlthout rst gettlng permlsslon or paylng
the rlghts holder.
Faii usc is a tcnct ol US copyiight law, lound in ; U.S.C. scction o;. It is oltcn
iclciicd to as a salcty valvc" loi licc spccch and is onc ol thc two aspccts ol US
copyiight law that hclp to picvcnt copyiight's monopoly liom intcilciing with
liccdom ol spccch, anothci impoitant US iight cnshiincd in thc US Constitution.
(Thc othci aspcct ol US copyiight law that sccks to balancc thc copyiight monopoly
against thc public's intcicst in licc spccch is thc idca/cxpicssion dichotomy.)
Faii usc is a sct ol guidclincs, iathci than a iulc, and is cvaluatcd on a casc-by-
casc basis accoiding to loui non-cxclusivc lactois. Thcsc aic:
- Thc puiposc and chaiactci ol thc usc, including whcthci such usc is ol a
commcicial natuic oi is loi nonpiolt cducational puiposcs.
- Thc natuic ol thc copyiightcd woik.
- Thc amount and substantiality ol thc poition uscd in iclation to thc copyiightcd
woik as a wholc.
- Thc cfcct ol thc usc upon thc potcntial maikct loi, oi valuc ol, thc copyiightcd
woik.
Bccausc ol its status as a salcty valvc" loi spccch, laii usc is oltcn callcd upon
oi iclicd on by contcnt uscis attcmpting to asscit thcii iights undci copyiight law.
Howcvci, bccausc laii usc is not clcaily dclncd and can bc haid to intcipict, and
bccausc a copyiight lawsuit can bc cxticmcly cxpcnsivc, many uscis aic scaicd oi
icluctant to icly on laii usc whcn thcy usc copyiightcd woiks. This, in tuin, has
lcd to an cfoit by somc gioups to icclaim laii usc" loi thc public, and picvcnt
what authoi Lcwis Hydc has callcd thc thiid cnclosuic" ol thc commons, that ol
thc mind.
FlRS7 SAL 00C7RlN
The ldea that once the rst legltlmate sale of a physlcal embodyment of a
copyrlghted work has taken place, the copyrlght holder has no clalm to control
further sales or many uses of the partlcular copy.
Thc list salc doctiinc is a conccpt lound in US copyiight law, and in somc loim
in somc othci juiisdictions, whcic it may bc known as "cxhaustion ol iights." Foi
cxamplc, il a pcison buys a book (a physical papci copy), that pcison can icscll
thc book without thc pcimission ol thc iights-holdci.
Thc list salc doctiinc has bccomc moic impoitant with thc advcnt ol non-
iivalious digital goods, goods that can bc copicd and shaicd without tianslcis ol
posscssion. Thc qucstion ol what it mcans to own" somcthing is now moic dimcult
to answci. Many soltwaic companics and othci puivcyois ol digital goods havc
attcmptcd to handlc this by saying that uscis aic actually puichasing a liccnsc to
usc, iathci than buying, an actual thing." This distinction is oltcn lost on uscis,
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
though, who aic licqucntly bamcd and liustiatcd whcn thcy cannot do things thcy
assumcd thcy could with somcthing that, in thcii minds, thcy own.
FlXA7l0N
Peductlon of a work of authorshlp lnto some tanglble form, whlch ls requlred for
copyrlght protectlon ln many countrles.
Fixation is onc ol thc lundamcntal tcncts ol US copyiight law. Such lxation
might includc wiiting somcthing down, iccoiding it, placing it on llm, oi making
it. Foi lcgal systcms with a lxation icquiicmcnt, it is thc lxing that changcs an
idca into a copyiightablc woik.
Thc lxation icquiicmcnt can lcad to somc intcicsting icsults loi cicativc ait
loims that do not noimally iccoid oi othciwisc lx thcii cxpicssion, such as
choicogiaphy, stand-up comcdy, iccipcs, oi thc pciloimancc ol livc music. US law
has a spccilc statutoiy piovision mandating that pciloimcis ol livc music still
hold iights in it cvcn il thcy aic not iccoiding it, and that othcis cannot iccoid thc
pciloimancc without thcii pcimission.
Most juiisdictions do not havc a lxation icquiicmcnt, choosing instcad to vcst
copyiight in a woik using othci ciitciia. Foi cxamplc, Swiss law icquiics only that
a woik havc individual chaiactci."
F0RMALl7lS lL0AL)
The rltual or formulalc observances that must take place ln certaln [urlsdlctlons
before a work can quallfy for copyrlght protectlons, or before sult can be led.
Foi cxamplc, although thc US omcially abandoncd loimalitics with its j;6
Copyiight Act, it is still thc casc that a woik acquiics copyiight at thc momcnt
ol cication, but thc woik must bc omcially icgistcicd with thc Copyiight Omcc
bcloic suit can bc llcd loi inliingcmcnt. At othci timcs in copyiight's histoiy,
copyiight was conlciicd at cication, loi a pciiod ol ycais, and could thcn bc
cxplicitly icncwcd loi a sccond pciiod whcn thc list onc cxpiicd.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion cxplicitly loibids loimalitics. Aiticlc ,, Scction z icads:
Thc cnjoymcnt and thc cxcicisc ol thcsc iights shall not bc subjcct to any
loimality, such cnjoymcnt and such cxcicisc shall bc indcpcndcnt ol thc cxis-
tcncc ol piotcction in thc countiy ol oiigin ol thc woik. Conscqucntly, apait
liom thc piovisions ol this Convcntion, thc cxtcnt ol piotcction, as wcll as thc
mcans ol icdicss afoidcd to thc authoi to piotcct his iights, shall bc govcincd
cxclusivcly by thc laws ol thc countiy whcic piotcction is claimcd.
Howcvci, somc copyiight scholais and activists bclicvc that copyiight is actually
too casy to acquiic and sustain, icsulting in, among othci things, thc oiphan woiks
pioblcm. Thcsc pcoplc advocatc loi at lcast somc loimalitics loi copyiight, most
oltcn having to do with icncwal, so that a woik whosc iights-holdci lailcd to icncw
copyiight would lall into thc public domain.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
6o COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
FR 7RA0 A0RMN7
A free trade agreement (or PTA) ls a treaty between two or more countrles that
establlshes trade guldellnes so that trade between partlclpatlng countrles ls
theoretlcally unrestrlcted by tarlns.
Oltcn, such agiccmcnts includc copyiight-iclatcd clauscs.
0NU-0PL LlCNS
The GNU-GPL llcense ls an open source software llcense.
Onc ol thc most wcll known symbols ol thc licc soltwaic movcmcnt, which is
somctimcs callcd FOSS, loi Ficc opcn souicc soltwaic." GNU is an opcn souicc
opciating systcm, upwaidly compatiblc with Unix.
Richaid Stallman staitcd woiking on GNU at MIT in j8, and loundcd thc Ficc
Soltwaic Foundation in j8, to hclp his cfoits. Whcn GNU was incoipoiatcd with
thc Linux kcincl, thc combination bccamc thc GNU/Linux systcm, now lound in
vaiious difcicnt soltwaic distiibutions.
GPL stands loi Gcncial Public Liccnsc." GPL liccnscs must contain what aic
iclciicd to as thc "loui liccdoms," which aic:
- Thc liccdom to iun thc piogiam, loi any puiposc (liccdom o).
- Thc liccdom to study how thc piogiam woiks, and changc it to makc it do what
you wish (liccdom ). Acccss to thc souicc codc is a piccondition loi this.
- Thc liccdom to icdistiibutc copics so you can hclp youi ncighboi (liccdom z).
- Thc liccdom to impiovc thc piogiam, and iclcasc youi impiovcmcnts (and
modilcd vcisions in gcncial) to thc public, so that thc wholc community bcnclts
(liccdom ,). Acccss to thc souicc codc is a piccondition loi this.
A piogiam is licc soltwaic il uscis havc all ol thcsc liccdoms.
HA00Pl
A slang term for recent Prench leglslatlon (zoo8-op) deslgned to regulate |nternet
usage ln accordance wlth exlstlng Prench copyrlght law.
HADOPI" is an acionym iclciiing to thc namc ol thc Ficnch govcinmcnt agcncy
that would bc cicatcd by thc bill, thc High Authoiity loi Copyiight Piotcction
and Disscmination ol Woiks on thc Intcinct.
Thc HADOPI law was thc subjcct ol intcnsc lobbying, both loi and against it, and
bccamc notoiious loi its so-callcd thicc stiikcs piovision" and loi thc lact that, in
its oiiginal loim, it piovidcd that an Intcinct usci could bc sanctioncd altci having
only bccn accused ol copyiight inliingcmcnt. Although thc law cvcntually passcd,
thc Ficnch High Couit latci stuck down this pait ol thc bill as unconstitutional.
Soon altciwaids, tcchophilc cnthusiasts dcmonstiatcd that it would bc tcchnologi-
cally lcasiblc to disguisc intcinct usagc in a way that would call thc law's basic
cfcctivcncss into qucstion.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
6 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
l0A/XPRSSl0N 0lCH070MY
The concept that ldeas cannot be copyrlghted, but thelr partlcular expresslon can.
Thc idca/cxpicssion dichotomy is lundamcntal in copyiight law. Foi cxamplc, thc
paiticulai tcxt ol Stcphcnic Mcyci's Twi|iqnt sciics ol vampiic novcls is piotcctcd
by copyiight, but thc idca ol a giil lalling in lovc with a vampiic cannot bc
piotcctcd.
Whilc this may sccm obvious oi scll-cvidcnt, thc linc bctwccn thc two is not
always so casy to lnd, and aggicssivc iights-holdcis continuc to tiy to push thc
limits ol what thcy can claim copyiight on. Foi cxamplc, in thc US casc Metro-
Go|dw,n-Ma,er, Inc. v. American Honda Motor Co., Inc., thc holdci ol thc iights to
thc intcllcctual piopcity making up thc }amcs Bond chaiactci succcsslully sucd
an automobilc company loi an advcitiscmcnt thcy had aiicd. MGM claimcd that
thc ad's contcnt was sumcicntly similai to, oi cvocativc ol, }amcs Bond, that it had
inliingcd, although no actual copying took placc.
In US law, idca/cxpicssion is usually hcld up, along with laii usc, as a salcty
valvc" that picvcnts thc monopolics giantcd by copyiight liom intcilciing with
public policy, liccdom ol spccch, and moic.
Undci ccitain ciicumstanccs, couits havc hcld that thcic aic a limitcd numbci
ol ways in which to cxpicss a paiticulai idca (such as thc iulcs loi lottciics oi
swccpstakcs) and that, thcicloic, no copyiight can bc hcld in thosc matciials. This
is known as thc mcigci" doctiinc.
lFLA
|nternatlonal Pederatlon of Llbrary Assoclatlons and |nstltutlons.
Thc Intcinational Fcdciation ol Libiaiy Associations and Institutions (IFLA)
is thc lcading intcinational body icpicscnting thc intcicsts ol libiaiy and
inloimation sciviccs and thcii uscis. It is thc global voicc ol thc libiaiy and
inloimation piolcssion. (IFLA wcbsitc)
lFRR0
The |nternatlonal Pederatlon of Peproductlon Plghts Organlsatlons.
Thc Intcinational Fcdciation ol Rcpioduction Rights Oiganisations (IFRRO)
is an indcpcndcnt oiganisation cstablishcd on thc basis ol thc lundamcntal
intcinational copyiight piinciplcs cmbodicd in thc Bcinc and Univcisal
Copyiight Convcntions. Its puiposc is to lacilitatc, on an intcinational basis,
thc collcctivc managcmcnt ol icpioduction and othci iights iclcvant to
copyiightcd woiks thiough thc co-opciation ol national Rcpioduction Rights
Oiganisations (RROs). Collcctivc oi ccntialiscd iights managcmcnt is piclci-
ablc whcic individual cxcicisc ol iights is impiactical.
Thiough its mcmbcis IFRRO suppoits cicatois and publishcis alikc and
piovidcs intcinationally a common platloim loi thcm to lostci thc cstablish-
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
6. COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
mcnt ol appiopiiatc lcgal liamcwoiks loi thc piotcction and usc ol thcii
woiks.
IFRRO woiks to incicasc on an intcinational basis thc lawlul usc ol tcxt
and imagc bascd copyiight woiks and to climinatc unauthoiiscd copying
by piomoting cmcicnt Collcctivc Managcmcnt ol iights thiough RROs to
complcmcnt cicatois' and publishcis' own activitics. (IFRRO wcbsitc)
lNCN7lVS
The aspects of copyrlght law deslgned to motlvate creators to create.
Copyiight law giants to thc iights-holdci, loi a limitcd timc, a monopoly ovci
uscs ol thc copyiightcd woik. Sincc monopolics aic usually considcicd incmcicnt,
thc justilcation loi doing this is usually dcsciibcd as pioviding thc ncccssaiy
inccntivcs to cicatois to gct thcm to cicatc. That is, without thc inccntivc ol
bcing ablc to bcnclt cconomically by cxploiting contiol ol thc woik, why would
an aitist cicatc? This is oltcn callcd thc cconomic thcoiy ol cicatoi inccntivcs,
oi somcthing similai. Thc assumption is that thcic is a nct gain loi socicty. Foi
cxamplc, thc Copyiight clausc ol thc US Constitution icads: To piomotc thc
Piogicss ol Scicncc and usclul Aits, by sccuiing loi limitcd Timcs to Authois and
Invcntois thc cxclusivc Right to thcii icspcctivc Wiitings and Discovciics."
Thc inccntivc-diivcn vicw ol copyiight and cication has comc undci somc ciiti-
cism loi lailing to takc into account thc many difcicnt motivations aitists havc
loi cicating thcii woik, somc ol which aic not lnancial at all. Othci ciitics point
out that cvcn il inccntivc thcoiy is accuiatc, cxticmcly long copyiight tcims do
not incicasc thc cconomic oi monctaiy valuc ol copyiight, aiguing against tcim
cxtcnsions.
lNFRlN0MN7
vlolatlon wlthout [ustlcatlon or excuse of one or more of the excluslve rlghts ln a
work granted by copyrlght law.
Foi cxamplc, il a copy ol a book, song, oi computci piogiam is madc, oi a song oi
play pciloimcd without pcimission, thc copyiight in that woik has bccn inliingcd.
What soit ol inliingcmcnt has takcn placc dcpcnds on thc lcvcl ol knowlcdgc
and involvcmcnt ol thc inliingci.
D|PLCT
Dlrect lnfrlngement takes place when a person who ls not the rlghts-holder
performs or engages ln one of the actlvltles that the copyrlght holder has the
excluslve rlght to perform.
Diicct inliingcmcnt is thc most common kind ol inliingcmcnt and takcs placc
whcncvci a usci violatcs any ol thc iights giantcd to a copyiight holdci.
A plaintif must mcct two icquiicmcnts to cstablish a piima lacic casc ol
copyiight inliingcmcnt: () ownciship ol thc allcgcdly inliingcd matciial and
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
6, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
(z) violation by thc allcgcd inliingci ol at lcast onc ol thc cxclusivc iights
giantcd to copyiight holdcis. (IGS Arcnitects, Inc. v. Concordia Homes oj ^ev.,
, F.,d ,o, ,6 (jth Cii. jj6))
Foi cxamplc, il a copy has bccn madc without pcimission, that is diicct
inliingcmcnt.
|ND|PLCT/SLCONDAP
Thcsc aic two typcs ol ol inliingcmcnt that takc placc in conjunction with diicct
inliingcmcnt. Notc: Thcic can bc no indiicct oi sccondaiy inliingcmcnt without
a concuiicnt act ol diicct inliingcmcnt. An act qualilcs as a paiticulai typc ol
inliingcmcnt accoiding to thc knowlcdgc, intcnt, and abilitics ol thc inliingci.
CONTP|8UTOP
A contrlbutory lnfrlnger has knowledge of the related dlrect lnfrlngement and
makes a materlal contrlbutlon to lt ln some way.
Examplcs ol contiibutoiy inliingcmcnt would bc a CD lactoiy ownci who knows
that his machincs aic bcing uscd to makc illcgal copics ol piotcctcd woiks, oi
somconc who piovidcs soltwaic tools loi ciacking cnciyption icgimcs.
v|CAP|OUS
A vlcarlous lnfrlnger ls one who, whlle not dellberately encouraglng or materlally
contrlbutlng to the dlrect lnfrlngement, has the rlght and ablllty to control or
prevent lnfrlngement, and benets from lt, even lf he or she does not reallze the
lnfrlngement ls taklng place.
Vicaiious inliingmcnt is ioughly akin to you should havc known inliingcmcnt
was taking placc, and donc somcthing about it."
A club ownci who hiics pciloimcis who thcn play piotcctcd woiks without
pcimission to do so, and without thc ownci's knowlcdgc, is vicaiiously inliing-
ing. Thc ownci hciscll is not inliinging, oi hclping thc pciloimci to do so, but
shc could makc suic ol thc pciloimcis' liccnsing, and shc is indiicctly piolting
liom thc inliingcmcnt bccausc ol thc icvcnucs liom pations ol thc club. Anothci
cxamplc would bc somconc who iuns an outdooi maikct, icnting stalls to vcndois.
Il a paiticulai vcndoi is sclling inliinging goods, thc maikct ownci is vicaiiously
inliinging. (Foi a classic cxamplc in US law, scc Ionovisa Inc. v. Cnerr, Auction, Inc.,
8; F.Supp. jz (E.D. Cal. jj).
|NDUCLMLNT
The ldea that someone mlght not only make the means of lnfrlngement posslble,
but mlght encourage others to lnfrlnge, even lf the lnducer ls not protlng, elther
dlrectly or lndlrectly.
Induccmcnt was pcihaps madc most lamous by thc US casc M.G.M. v. Grokster.
Thc couit lound Giokstci liablc loi indiicct inliingcmcnt, bccausc it had activcly
induccd othcis to diicctly inliingcd, icgaidlcss ol any substantial non-inliinging
usc ol thc Giokstci tcchnology. This was in contiast to thc Sony Bctamax dccision
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
6 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
in thc j8os which lound vidco iccoidcis non-inliinging bccausc thcy could bc
uscd in non-inliinging ways, and bccausc Sony had not cncouiagcd inliinging
uscs.
lN7LLC7UAL FF0R7
Llterally, an enort of the mlnd, as opposed to a physlcal enort. The phrase ls often
synonymous wlth "creatlvlty."
In copyiight law, this conccpt is impoitant bccausc not cvciything qualilcs loi
copyiight piotcction. Most impoitantly, simply having spcnt a lot ol timc and
cncigy on somcthing is not usually cnough to qualily loi copyiight. Howcvci,
in icccnt lcgislation, databascs ol lacts havc icccivcd piotcction solcly by viituc
ol thc cfoit that wcnt into thcm.
Each juiisdiction has a difcicnt sct ol ciitciia as to what may icccivc copyiight.
Thc US icquiics that thc woik bc thc icsult ol cicativc input, but has a vciy low
thicshold loi cicativity. Thc US also icquiics that thc woik bc lxcd in a tangiblc
loim. Italian law, loi cxamplc, statcs things a littlc difcicntly: a woik must involvc
an intcllcctual cfoit and posscss cicativc chaiactci.
SLL ALSO Sweat of the brow
LX L0Cl 0LlC7l
Llterally, "the law of the place of the wrongdolng." (The full term ls lex loc| Jel|ct|
comm|ss|.)
This conccpt comcs up whcn discussing a toit oi ciimc that takcs placc in multiplc
lcgal juiisdictions. In such a sccnaiio, a couit will havc to dccidc which juiisdiction's
laws apply. Iex |oci de|icti iclcis to thc laws that apply in thc placc whcic thc ciimc
- copyiight inliingmcnt loi oui puiposcs - was actually committcd, iathci than
whcic thc iights-holdci livcs, oi whcic thc iights to thc woik wcic list icccivcd.
SLL ALSO Choice of Iaws
LlCNS
A llcense ls a form of contract whereby a rlghts-holder grants permlsslon to a
person or entlty to make use of a copyrlghted work ln some way.
Liccnscs can bc quitc spccilc, gianting pcimission loi only onc paiticulai kind
ol usc, and loi a limitcd timc, oi thcy can bc compichcnsivc. Thcy may bc opcn
souicc oi icstiictivc. Thcy may oi may not bc tianslciablc to othcis. Liccnscs havc
always bccn pait ol copyiight law, but havc comc to gicatci piomincncc icccntly
with thcii cxtcnsivc usc in conjunction with computci soltwaic.
MODLL L|CLNSL
A liccnsc that docs not iclci to any paiticulai copyiightcd woik, oi to spccilc
paitics, but is instcad picscntcd as an cxamplc ol thc liccnsc in gcncial.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
6, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Thc modcl liccnsc can thcn bc modilcd accoiding to ciicumstanccs. Foi cxamplc,
Cicativc Commons, which ofcis six difcicnt typcs ol liccnsc, makcs modcl vcisions
ol cach availablc.
8LANKLT L|CLNSL see Ianket Iicense
COMPULSOP L|CLNSL see CompuIsory Iicense
|NST|TUT|ONAL L|CLNSL
A llcense granted to an lnstltutlon, such as a llbrary or school, rather than an
lndlvldual.
An institutional liccnsc's tcims aic picdicatcd on thc idca that thc institution
will bc sciving many difcicnt uscis, undci a widc vaiicty ol ciicumstanccs,
and that, liom a tiansaction costs pcispcctivc, it is lai moic cmcicnt loi all
conccincd to ncgotiatc tcims only oncc. Foi cxamplc, most, il not all, univcisitics
havc institutional liccnsing agiccmcnts with thc vaiious collcctivc managcmcnt
agcncics loi thc pciloimancc ol musical woiks. Many libiaiics, whcthci public oi
acadcmic, havc institutional subsciiptions to commcicial oi acadcmic databascs,
undci which any pation ol thc libiaiy may acccss thc databasc without having
to ncgotiatc pcisonal acccss.
|ND|v|DUAL L|CLNSL
An lndlvldual llcense ls a llcense granted to a slngle person.
Individual liccnscs can bc ncgotiatcd loi any soit ol copyiightcd woik, but aic
piobably most oltcn sccn in thc soltwaic contcxt, whcic bcloic using puichascd
soltwaic a usci must agicc to thc liccnsing tcims.
LXCLUS|vL/NONLXCLUS|vL L|CLNSL
An excluslve llcense ls one granted to the holder only.
Il a liccnsc is cxclusivc, it mcans that no othci similai liccnsc will bc giantcd.
Foi cxamplc, a iights-holdci in thc Unitcd Statcs might giant an cxclusivc liccnsc
to somconc in Gcimany to bc thc solc distiibutoi ol thc copyiightcd woik in
Gcimany, oi vicc vcisa. A non-cxclusivc liccnsc is just thc oppositc. A pcison
with such a liccnsc knows that many othcis may havc bccn giantcd thc cxact
samc iights. Foi cxamplc, whcn a pcison puichascs soltwaic, hc knows that hc
is not thc only onc who has bccn giantcd pcimission to usc that soltwaic.
MA7RlAL RACH
A vlolatlon of a contract serlous enough that the person harmed may compel
performance and collect damages, and/or termlnate the contract.
A contiact is lundamcntally a list ol tcims to which thc paitics havc agiccd
- things cach paity has agiccd to do oi not do. Howcvci, no contiact, no mattci
how complcx oi caiclully wiittcn, can loicscc cvciy possiblc cvcntuality. Thcicloic
it will somctimcs happcn that a paity to a contiact will violatc onc oi moic ol thc
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
66 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
contiact's tcims. Somctimcs thc bicach will bc dclibciatc, somctimcs accidcntal,
somctimcs diivcn by ciicumstancc. Thc qucstion that aiiscs, in thc casc ol a
bicach, is what will bc donc about thc violation.
Typically, minoi violations ol a contiact mcan only that thc pcison haimcd by
thc violation can collcct only actual damagcs. Il thc bicach is sumcicntly immatciial
thcsc damagcs may wcll bc zcio.
Howcvci, substantial violations, which aic also known as matciial bicachcs,
aic a difcicnt stoiy. Thcy aic matciial bicachcs bccausc thc bicachcd clauscs
lundamcntally mattci to thc contiact. Such bicachcs typically mcan that thc injuicd
paity can lcgally compcl pciloimancc ol thc contiact in addition to collccting
damagcs. Ol couisc, a paiticulai contiact may contain spccilc piovisions loi what
will happcn in thc casc ol a matciial bicach.
M0N0P0LY
A monopoly ls excluslve control over a partlcular resource.
A copyiight in a paiticulai woik can usclully bc conccivcd ol as a monopoly ovci
that woik and its uscs, albcit loi a limitcd timc.
Economic thcoiy typically sccs most monopolics as incmcicnt uscs ol icsouiccs.
Thcsc incmcicncics aic haim to thc public good. This haim is justilcd in copyiight
law by claiming that thc inccntivcs a monopoly piovidcs to would-bc cicatois
balancc it out. Howcvci, this vicw ol things is bcing challcngcd moic and moic in
icccnt ycais by ciitics who lccl that copyiight tcims aic too long, oi that cicatois
havc motivations othci than monctaiy icwaid.
SLL ALSO Incentives, Commons
M0RAL Rl0H7S
8roadly speaklng, the set of rlghts ln a work that glve control over the exlstence or
fate of a work, rather than over lts economlc exploltatlon.
Moial iights (a tianslation ol thc Ficnch conccpt droit mora|) in a cicativc woik
aic thc coiollaiy to cconomic iights. Thcy icpicscnt thc iights in a woik that aic
inhcicnt in its status as a cicativc woik and in its iclationship with its cicatoi.
Whilc thcy aic statutoiily icinloiccd, thcy typically aic thought ol as cxisting on
thcii own. That is, thcy aic much closci to bcing natuial" iights. Pcihaps bccausc
ol thc natuic ol thc iights, thcy aic moic oltcn associatcd with visual woiks, such
as painting oi sculptuic, than with inloimational" woiks, such as tcxts.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion cxplicitly iccognizcs moial iights, but US law docs not
omcially iccognizc moial iights, which is an ongoing souicc ol tcnsion bctwccn
US law and that ol othci Bcinc Convcntion mcmbcis. Thc US maintains that its
laws havc sumcicnt piovisions in placc, such as thc Visual Aitists Rights Act, to
accommodatc moial iights.
Aiticlc 6bis () ol thc Bcinc convcntion icads:
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
6, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
() Indcpcndcntly ol thc authoi's cconomic iights, and cvcn altci thc tianslci
ol thc said iights, thc authoi shall havc thc iight to claim authoiship ol thc
woik and to objcct to any distoition, mutilation oi othci modilcation ol, oi
othci dciogatoiy action in iclation to, thc said woik, which would bc picjudi-
cial to his honoi oi icputation.
Thc cnumciation ol moial iights vaiics liom countiy to countiy, but thcy aic
most oltcn listcd as:
- Thc iight ol patcinity - to claim authoiship (oi disclaim it, in thc cvcnt ol
unauthoiizcd changc).
- Thc iight ol intcgiity - to appiovc ol oi objcct to any modilcation, distoition
oi changc to thc woik.
- Thc iight ol withdiawal - to icmovc a woik liom thc public sphcic at will.
- Thc iight ol iclcasc - thc iight to contiol whcn a woik is sccn by thc public.
M0R7NS0N CN7R
The Mortenson Center for |nternatlonal Llbrary Programs.
Thc Ccntci was loundcd in jj at thc Univcisity ol Illinois at Uibana-
Champagnc.
Accoiding to its wcbsitc, Thc Moitcnson Ccntci and thc Moitcnson Distin-
guishcd Piolcssoiship scck to sticngthcn intcinational tics among libiaiics and
libiaiians, icgaidlcss ol gcogiaphic location oi acccss to tcchnology."
Individuals at thc Moitcnson Ccntci paiticipatcd in thc initial tcsting ol this
cuiiiculum.
Nl0H0RlN0 Rl0H7S
The rlghts of people who have partlclpated ln the creatlon of a copyrlghted work,
but who dld not "wrlte" lt, and for a varlety of reasons do not normally quallfy for
tradltlonal forms of copyrlght.
Ncighboiing iights aic copyiights that cxist adjaccnt to moic tiaditional authoi's
copyiights and aic giantcd to a lcw spccilc catcgoiics ol pcison. Examplcs might
includc thc sound cnginccis at a iccoiding studio, thc pciloimcis ol a musical
composition, oi a bioadcast oiganization.
Ncighboiing iights as such do not cxist in all copyiight law systcms. Somc
juiisdictions subsumc thcm within copyiight" in gcncial without ticating thcm
as any difcicnt.
As just onc cxamplc, thc Romc Convcntion cxplicitly addicsscs thc iights ol
pciloimcis and pioduccis ol sound iccoidings.
SLL ALSO Rome Convention
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
68 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
N07lC AN0 7AK00WN
"Notlce and takedown" refers to the partlcular sort of cease-and-deslst letter
assoclated wlth the US Dlgltal Mlllennlum Copyrlght Act.
An intcinct cntity (such as YouTubc), upon iccciving noticc that it is hosting oi
othciwisc making availablc a copyiightcd woik, can avoid liability loi inliingcmcnt
by immcdiatcly taking down thc copy ol thc woik in qucstion.
Thcsc noticcs aic oltcn ciiticizcd bccausc thcii pioccss stiongly lavois iights-
holdcis, who can cfcctivcly shut down any and all uscs ol thcii woik, whcthci laii,
pcimissiblc oi not, sincc most postcis will not bothci to challcngc a takcdown
noticc with a countcinoticc.
COUNTLPNOT|CL
The response to a DMCA takedown notlce.
A countcinoticc is thc action takcn by thc pcison who oiiginally postcd thc woik
that was takcn down undci a DMCA Scction ,z noticc and takcdown." Il thc
postci bclicvcs that thc woik was uscd lcgitimatcly, hc oi shc can inloim thc
host, who is thcn icquiicd to put it back up and notily thc allcgcd iights-holdci
that thc copyiight has bccn challcngcd.
Thc pioccss loi challcnging takcdowns with a countcinoticc is much moic timc-
consuming than that loi a takcdown itscll, lcading somc to ciiticizc thc systcm as
unlaiily lavoiing allcgcd iights-holdcis, cicating a lcgal avcnuc loi piivatc ccnsoiship
ol spccch, and conlionting Intcinct hosting sitcs with skcwcd inccntivcs.
PUT8ACK
when a webslte that took content down ln response to a DMCA takedown notlce
puts lt back up after recelvlng a counternotlce.
Putback" iclcis to whcn an Intcinct contcnt host, such as YouTubc, having icccivcd
a noticc and takcdown" and thcn a countcinoticc," puts thc possibly inliinging
contcnt back onlinc, pcnding a icvicw ol its copyiight status.
0PN ACCSS
Open access ls a term descrlblng an lnformatlon resource that ls open to all.
It also iclcis to a movcmcnt within thc acadcmic community dcdicatcd to making
scholaily icscaich moic acccssiblc, iathci than hiddcn bchind a piicc oi pcimission
baiiicis.
Opcn acccss" jouinals aic not ncccssaiily licc, sincc thcy may chaigc a lcc loi
maintcnancc costs, oi to compcnsatc authois, but typically an opcn acccss icsouicc
is licc to all to icad and usc. }ouinals that ask loi somc paymcnt aic somctimcs
callcd hybiid" acccss jouinals.
Haivaid Univcisity icccntly adoptcd a policy whcic all ol its laculty aic pcimittcd
and cncouiagcd to makc thcii icscaich availablc as opcn acccss. Thc US National
Institutcs ol Hcalth havc an opcn acccss policy icquiiing all icscaich conductcd
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
6, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
with public lunding to makc its icsults opcn acccss, at lcast altci a shoit intcival
ol cxclusivity.
0P7lN
when a person must choose to do somethlng, rather than lt happenlng
automatlcally.
Opt-in dcsciibcs thc dclault statc any situation in which a usci oi paiticipant
has a choicc ol whcthci to do somcthing oi not, and whcic thc dclault statc is
not." That is, a pcison must cxplicitly and consciously choosc to takc pait. Il no
action is takcn, thc pcison will paiticipatc, agicc to tcims, ctc.
0P70U7
when a person must choose to not do somethlng, otherwlse lt wlll happen
automatlcally.
Opt-out dcsciibcs thc dclault statc in any situation in which a usci oi paiticipant
has a choicc ol whcthci to do somcthing oi not, and thc dclault statc piioi to
any usci involvcmcnt oi activc dccision is doing it."
That is, unlcss thc usci consciously and dclibciatcly dccidcs not to agicc, oi not
to paiticipatc, and chooscs no," thc assumption going loiwaid is that hc oi shc
agiccs to thc conditions pioposcd.
0Rl0lNAL XPRSSl0N
Orlglnal expresslon refers to a creator's orlglnal, copyrlghtable, creatlve work.
This is in contiast to any latci dciivativc woiks, othci latci woik that in somc
way incoipoiatcs thc oiiginal woik, oi woik that isn't oiiginal at all. Expicssion
that is not oiiginal cannot qualily loi copyiight.
0RPHAN W0RKS
Orphan works are creatlve works that are stlll under copyrlght protectlon, but
for whlch lt ls elther lmposslble or prohlbltlvely dlmcult to ldentlfy the copyrlght
holder.
This is most oltcn a pioblcm with photogiaphs on thc Intcinct, but aiiscs with
othci typcs ol woiks as wcll. Sincc thc woiks aic undci copyiight, pcimission is
nccdcd to usc thcm, but sincc thc iights-holdci cannot bc lound no pcimission
can bc obtaincd. This puts thcsc woiks into a soit ol limbo. Pcoplc want to makc
usc ol thcm, but usually won't loi lcai ol liability, and thc woiks cannot pass into
thc public domain until thc tcim ol thcii copyiight cxpiics.
Thc scttlcmcnt with thc Authoi's Guild in thc Googlc Book Scaich lawsuit
contains contiovcisial piovisions loi oiphan woiks, although it docs not iclci to
thcm by that tcim. Thcsc tcims aic thc subjcct ol much dcbatc and opposition
woildwidc.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,o COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Oiphan woiks lcgislation has also bccn pioposcd at scvcial difcicnt timcs in
thc US Congicss.
PRF0RM
Maklng lt posslble for others to experlence slmultaneously a copyrlghted work.
Thc iight to pciloim a woik publicly is onc ol thc basic iights giantcd to a
copyiight holdci. Public pciloimancc covcis a widc iangc ol activity, and thc law
addicssing this tcnds to bc quitc complcx and lact-spccilc. Putting on a play,
icading a book aloud to an audicncc, oi playing a music iccoiding at a club aic
all public pciloimanccs.
Thc limits ol thc ability oi iight ol a iights-holdci to contiol public pciloimanccs
camc undci sciutiny in zooj whcn, among othci incidcnts, a icpicscntativc ol
ASCAP, thc Amciican Socicty loi Composcis, Aitists and Pciloimcis, asscitcd his
bclicl that ASCAP should bc ablc to chaigc liccnsing lccs loi ccllphonc iingtoncs,
sincc whcncvci thc phonc iang it was a public pciloimancc" ol thc undcilying
musical woik. Ciitics accuscd ASCAP ol mcicly tiying to gct a piccc ol thc luciativc
iingtonc maikct.
In anothci contiovcisial cpisodc, thc Authois Guild ol Amciica asscitcd that thc
tcxt-to-spccch lunction ol thc Amazon Kindlc cbook icadci constitutcd a public
pciloimancc whcn it was activatcd, sincc thc book was icad" aloud. Although
Amazon asscitcd that thc tcxt-to-spccch lunction was complctcly lcgal, it ncvcithc-
lcss acquicsccd to authois' dcmands by making thc lunction woik on a titlc-by-titlc
basis. Somc publishcis immcdiatcly chosc to disablc that lunction loi thcii cbooks.
Both Amazon's actions and thosc ol thc publishcis dicw hcavy ciiticism liom
disablcd pcisons' iights gioups.
PlRACY
8roadly, any lnfrlngement of copyrlght by copylng, or copyrlght-related theft.
Dcspitc thc imagcs it may cvokc ol occan-going bcaidcd villains with swoids,
whcn it comcs to copyiight law, piiacy is a catch-all tcim, uscd to dcsciibc many
difcicnt soits ol copyiight inliingcmcnt and all typcs ol illcgal copying.
Somc analysts havc pointcd to and ciiticizcd a scmantic ticnd, liom using thc
tcim piiacy" to dcsciibc only laigc-scalc copying loi commcicial gain to using it
to dcsciibc any unauthoiizcd copying.
But thc lact icmains that in common usagc thc tcim piiacy" dcsciibcs not
only oiganizations making hundicds ol thousands ol countcilcit DVDs, but also
pcci-to-pcci llc shaiing and at-homc, individual pcisonal copying, which may oi
may not bc laii usc, dcpcnding on who is doing thc analysis.
Thc contcnt industiy sccs illcgal copying as a vciy sciious thicat, which may
account loi thcii ioutinc usc ol such a loadcd woid, pcihaps in an attcmpt to imputc
thc tiaits ol thc vciy woist soits ol copying to all ol it.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
PLA0lARlSM
Thc usc ol anothci's woik without citation oi accicditation, with thc intcnt ol
passing it of as onc's own.
Plagiaiism is a typc ol copying, but is not ncccssaiily copyiight inliingcmcnt.
Thcicloic, it would bc possiblc to havc a situation in which usc ol somconc clsc's
woik was not a copyiight inliingcmcnt (thc usc was laii, thc woik was in thc public
domain, thc usci had pcimission) but was still plagiaiism, bccausc thc usci did not
acknowlcdgc thc tiuc authoi ol thc woik in qucstion. Although such a usc would
bc lcgal, it would bc uncthical.
Copying and giving appiopiiatc cicdit is not plagiaiism, but could still bc
copyiight inliingcmcnt.
PULlC 00MAlN
The great mass of creatlve work to whlch no one holds copyrlght. The world's
common cultural resources and herltage.
In copyiight law, thc public domain can bc thought ol as thosc cicativc woiks to
which cvciyonc has acccss, and ovci which no onc has cxclusivc contiol. Somc
woiks in thc public domain wcic cicatcd piioi to any loimal lcgal systcm ol
copyiight. Somc woiks in thc public domain wcic oncc undci copyiight, but thc
tcim ol thosc copyiights has cxpiicd, allowing thc woik to pass into thc public
domain. Thc lcngth ol timc bcloic a woik passcs into thc public domain dcpcnds
on whcn a woik was cicatcd, and thc copyiight icgimc in placc at thc timc.
Thc public domain has bccn an issuc in scvcial icccnt copyiight contiovcisics,
including thc Googlc Book Scaich scttlcmcnt and thc casc ol a Gciman man who
was uploading photogiaphs ol public domain aitwoiks to Wikipcdia
DLD|CAT|ON TO
A cicatoi can, il hc oi shc wants to, choosc to waivc thc copyiight in his oi hci
woik by dclibciatcly dcdicating it to thc public domain. Oncc this is donc, thc
cicatoi can no longci claim thc piivilcgcs conlciicd by copyiight, and any mcmbci
ol thc public may makc usc ol thc woik.
PULlC PRF0RMANC 0R 0lSPLAY
A copyrlghted work ls publlcly dlsplayed lf the publlc has access to lt.
Thc iight to display oi pciloim a cicativc woik publicly is onc ol thc lundamcntal
iights giantcd to a copyiight holdci. A woik is publicly displaycd oi pciloimcd il
thc public can vicw it. Whcthci thc public has to pay is not an issuc.
US Copyiight Act, Scction o statcs:
To pciloim oi display a woik publicly" mcans () to pciloim oi display it at a
placc opcn to thc public oi at any placc whcic a substantial numbci ol pcisons
outsidc ol a noimal ciiclc ol a lamily and its social acquaintanccs is gathcicd,
oi (z) to tiansmit oi othciwisc communicatc a pciloimancc oi display ol thc
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,. COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
woik to a placc spccilcd by clausc () oi to thc public, by mcans ol any dcvicc
oi pioccss, whcthci thc mcmbcis ol thc public capablc ol iccciving thc pciloi-
mancc oi display icccivc it in thc samc placc oi in scpaiatc placcs and at thc
samc timc oi at difcicnt timcs.
So, a painting on thc wall ol somconc's homc is not publicly displaycd, but a
painting on thc wall ol City Hall is. Whcn thc woik in qucstion is an outdooi
aitwoik, oi a building, things can bccomc dimcult to dctciminc. Thcic is also
thc qucstion ol whcthci a scaich cnginc is publicly displaying woiks whcn it
shows thumbnail imagcs.
R0lS7RA7l0N
Pormally obtalnlng copyrlght protectlons for a creatlve work by notlfylng the
Copyrlght Omce that lt exlsts.
In US copyiight law, although a cicativc woik icccivcs copyiight at thc momcnt it
is lxcd in a tangiblc loim, a copyiight holdci cannot llc suit against an allcgcd
inliingci without omcially icgistciing thc woik with thc Copyiight Omcc.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion docs not icquiic icgistiation, oi any othci omcial
loimalitics.
SLL ALSO FormaIities
RLlF
what a court grants a rlghts-holder who has won an lnfrlngement lawsult.
Whcn a copyiight lawsuit is icsolvcd in lavoi ol thc iights-holdci, a couit will
thcn giant thcm iclicl - iclicl liom thc haim thcy havc sufcicd as a icsult ol
thc inliingcmcnt.
|N1UNCT|vL
|n[unctlve rellef occurs when a court lssues an ln[unctlon or a restralnlng order
agalnst an lnfrlnger.
Thc injunction might oidci that inliinging contcnt bc icmovcd liom display, oi
that cxtant illcgal copics bc collcctcd and dcstioycd, oi whatcvci mcasuics thc
couit lnds appiopiiatc.
STATUTOP
Statutory rellef ls rellef accordlng to whatever provlslons for rellef exlst expllcltly ln
statute.
Thcsc could includc damagc awaids, ciiminal punishmcnt, oi moic.
RLl0l0US L0AL SYS7M
A rellglous legal system ls one where the law ls based on the tenets of a partlcular
rellglon.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Somc icligious lcgal systcms cxist on thcii own, whilc somc cxist in conjunction
with anothci lcgal systcm. Shaiia, thc systcm ol icligiously inspiicd Islamic law, is
an cxamplc ol a icligious lcgal systcm, as aic Hindu law and Halakha oi }cwish
law.
SLL ALSO Common Iaw, CiviI Iaw
Rl0H7S
The rlghts a creator, copyrlght holder, the publlc or member of the publlc has as a
result of copyrlght.
Copyiight giants its holdci vaiious cxclusivc iights as pait ol its limitcd timc
monopoly. Thcsc iights can bc usclully dividcd into cconomic iights and moial
iights. In addition, as pait ol thc copyiight baigain" thc public gains ccitain iights
in a copyiightcd woik as wcll. A list ol thcsc iights lollows.
P|GHT OP |NTLGP|T
Thc iight to picvcnt thc dcstiuction oi dclaccmcnt ol a cicativc woik, oi to objcct
to any changcs madc to a cicativc woik
Most oltcn sccn in thc contcxt ol a painting oi sculptuic. Foi cxamplc, thc iights
to a piccc ol ait on display.
P|GHT OP ATTP|8UT|ON
Thc iight to bc known as thc cicatoi ol a paiticulai cicativc woik, to bc givcn
appiopiiatc cicdit loi onc's cications, and not to bc blamcd loi things onc did
not cicatc.
P|GHT OP D|SCLOSUPL
Thc iight to dctciminc whcn and il a woik shall bc madc public.
P|GHT OP PLPPODUCT|ON
Thc iight to makc copics ol a woik.
P|GHT OP ADAPTAT|ON
Thc iight to makc dciivativc woiks.
P|GHT OP D|STP|8UT|ON
Thc iight to scll, cxpoit, oi impoit a woik oi copics ol a woik.
P|GHT OP PU8L|C PLPPOPMANCL AND D|SPLA
Thc iight to pciloim oi display a woik in public.
P|GHT OP w|THDPAwAL
Thc iight to withdiaw a woik liom thc public sphcic.
Most commonly sccn with aitwoiks ol which only a singlc copy cxists, but also
somctimcs sccn as a iight to puichasc cxtant copics ol a cicativc woik at a icduccd
iatc. Foi cxamplc, a book a wiitci no longci wants on thc maikct.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
P|GHT OP ACCLSS
Thc iight ol thc public to havc acccss to a publishcd copyiightcd woik.
This paiticulai iight is actually not a iight ol thc copyiight holdci, but iathci
ol thc public. In ictuin loi gianting thc cicatoi thc vaiious copyiights, aiguably
at thc cxpcnsc ol thc public, thc public gains acccss to thc woik.
R0M C0NVN7l0N
The Pome Conventlon for the Protectlon of Performers, Producers of Phonograms
and 8roadcastlng Organlsatlons.
Thc Romc Convcntion is an intcinational copyiight agiccmcnt spccilcally addicss-
ing thc iights ol thicc gioups. Thcsc gioups aic: pciloimcis, thc pioduccis ol
sound iccoidings, and thc bioadcastcis ol bioadcasts, all ol whom icccivc piotcction
loi thcii cfoits, cspccially against acts to which thcy havc not conscntcd, likc
bcing iccoidcd. Fiist diawn up in j6, thc Convcntion attcmpts to ofci spccilc
piotcction loi cicativc woik that might othciwisc not qualily loi copyiight, usually
bccausc ol its tiansitoiy natuic.
SLL ALSO Neighboring rights
SAF HAR0RS
A clearly dened set of clrcumstances or actlons wlth respect to a partlcular law
that shleld the actor from llablllty.
A law with salc haibois says Thcsc things will makc you liablc, but il you do
'this,' thcn you aic guaiantccd to bc salc." Salc haibois play an impoitant iolc in
aicas ol thc law that aic piimaiily govcincd by guidclincs (which ultimatcly nccd
to bc intcipictcd by a couit), iathci than iulcs. Sincc many pcoplc may lack thc
icsouiccs oi lcgal sophistication to know oi lnd out il thcii bchavioi is lcgal, a
salc haiboi piovidcs ccitainty.
In thc contcxt ol copyiight law, although it is also uscd as a gcnciic tcim loi thc
limits ol salc" activity," salc haibois aic most oltcn cncountcicd with icspcct to
Scction ,z ol thc US Digital Millcnnium Copyiight Act, Limitations on liability
iclating to matciial onlinc," which dcsciibcs vaiious ways in which Intcinct contcnt
piovidcis can cnsuic that thcy will avoid liability loi thc bchavioi ol thcii uscis and
pations. Thc most impoitant ol thcsc is thc noticc and takcdown" piocccding.
Notc: Salc haiboi" may also iclci to a US-EU agiccmcnt icgaiding thc salcty
and piivacy ol pcisonal data and databascs.
SLL ALSO DMCA, Notice and takedown, Cease-and-desist Ietter
S7A7U7 0F LlMl7A7l0NS
A statute of llmltatlons ls a law that llmlts how long a person can walt to brlng a
legal actlon after a law ls broken.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Whcn thc timc limit spccilcd by thc statutc ol limitations has iun out, oi tollcd,"
any lutuic lcgal action is said to bc baiicd." Foi cxamplc, il thc statutc ol limita-
tions loi a paiticulai ciimc is tcn ycais, it is gcncially not possiblc to piosccutc
loi that ciimc twclvc ycais altci it took placc.
With icspcct to copyiight law, thc statutc ol limitations will dcsciibc how long
altci an act ol inliingcmcnt a iights-holdci can wait to biing a suit. It will also
limit thc numbci ol inliinging acts loi which thc iights-holdci may scck damagcs.
Thc lcngth ol thc timc limit vaiics bctwccn juiisdictions, and thc cxact natuic ol
thc limits vaiics as wcll.
Foi instancc, in thc Unitcd Statcs, thcic is a thicc-ycai statutc ol limitations loi
copyiight violations, although this is a gcnciic limit, not spccilc to copyiight. This
thicc-ycai clock bcgins on thc datc ol thc most icccnt inliinging act. Howcvci,
somc couits ticat this as a iolling" thicc ycais, mcaning that a iights-holdci can
only scck damagcs loi acts within thc thicc ycais piioi to biinging suit. Othci
couits havc hcld that cvcn il thc inliinging bcgan moic than thicc ycais piioi to
thc suit, il thc inliingcmcnt was ongoing, and at lcast onc act was within thc last
thicc ycais, thc iights holdci may scck damagcs loi all ol thc inliinging acts.
S7A7U70RY XMP7l0N
An exemptlon to copyrlght law protectlons expllcltly wrltten lnto statute.
Whilc a paiticulai bchavioi might bc inliinging undci thc gcncial dcsciiption
ol copyiight, it is spccilcally cxcmptcd, usually loi public policy icasons. Foi
cxamplc, copying books without thc cxpicss pcimission ol thc iights-holdci is
a violation ol copyiight. Howcvci, making copics cxpicssly loi thc puiposc ol
pioviding thc disablcd with acccss to thc book is cxcmptcd by statutc. Thcicloic
such bchavioi is not inliinging.
Othci statutoiy cxcmptions includc copying loi ccitain acadcmic uscs, cspccially
instiuctional activitics, copying loi aichival puiposcs, oi to dcal with biokcn oi
obsolctc tcchnology, distancc cducation, and moic.
Thc Bcinc Convcntion placcs somc limits on what statutoiy cxcmptions a
countiy can havc in its national lcgislation with its thicc-stcp tcst, saying
It shall bc a mattci loi lcgislation in thc countiics ol thc Union to pcimit
thc icpioduction ol such [litciaiy and aitistic woiks in ccitain spccial cascs,
piovidcd that such icpioduction docs not conict with a noimal cxploitation
ol thc woik and docs not unicasonably picjudicc thc lcgitimatc intcicsts ol
thc authoi.
SLL ALSO erne Convention
SWA7 0F 7H R0W
The enort put lnto somethlng, and any value created as a result.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,6 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Il you woik haid at somcthing, you swcat. Somc tianslations ol thc book ol
Gcncsis in thc Chiistian Biblc oi }cwish Pcntatcuch havc God tclling Adam that,
as pait ol Adam's punishmcnt, hc will havc to pioducc his lood by thc swcat
ol his biow."
In copyiight law, thc logic iuns as lollows: somconc who has invcstcd a gicat
dcal ol timc and cncigy in pioducing somcthing nccds to bc piotcctcd, othciwisc
somconc clsc can takc it (by copying) and icap all ol thc bcnclt with nonc ol thc
laboi. This is thc laboi thcoiy" ol piopcity, histoiically associatcd with }ohn Lockc.
Howcvci, most copyiight icgimcs do not giant copyiight in somcthing simply
bccausc it is thc icsult ol haid woik. Thcic is typically an oiiginality icquiicmcnt
as wcll. Thc Unitcd Statcs has cxplicitly icjcctcd thc swcat ol thc biow thcoiy, in
thc casc Ieist Iub|ications v. Rura| Te|epnone, which dcalt with thc paitial copying ol
a tclcphonc diicctoiy.
That bcing said, thc EU giants piotcction in lactual databascs on what is
csscntially a swcat ol thc biow" thcoiy.
SLL ALSO InteIIectuaI eort
7AN0lL M0lUM
The physlcal form that a copyrlghted work may take.
US copyiight law icquiics that a cicativc woik bc lxcd in a tangiblc mcdium"
bcloic it qualilcs loi copyiight, in contiast with thc law ol somc othci countiics,
which conlci copyiight at thc momcnt ol conccption.
Thc tangibility icquiicmcnt has lcd to somc pioblcms with piotcction loi
typcs ol woiks that aic not noimally lxcd," such as dancc, stand-up comcdy, livc
musical pciloimanccs, and moic. It has also bccn thc subjcct ol much discussion
with icspcct to computcis, computci displays, and computci mcmoiy, in tcims ol
whcn a piogiam oi a piogiam's output is lxcd" oi not. Somc ol thcsc issucs havc
bccn addicsscd with taigctcd lcgislation.
SLL ALSO Fixation
7HRS7P 7S7
The 8erne Conventlon's Three-Step Test descrlbes the crlterla by whlch a
partlclpatlng country can have lts own unlque llmlts or statutory exemptlons on
copyrlght law wlthout vlolatlng the terms of the Conventlon.
Thc thicc stcps comc oiiginally liom Aiticlc j(z) ol thc Bcinc Convcntion:
It shall bc a mattci loi lcgislation in thc countiics ol thc Union to pcimit thc
icpioduction ol such woiks in ccitain spccial cascs, piovidcd that such icpio-
duction docs not conict with a noimal cxploitation ol thc woik and docs not
unicasonably picjudicc thc lcgitimatc intcicsts ol thc authoi.
This languagc can bc biokcn down into thc lollowing thicc stcps.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
. Thc cxcmptions must bc loi spccial cascs oi typcs ol cicativc woik only.
z. Thc cxcmptions allowcd must not conict with thc noimal' cxploitation ol
thc woik that copyiight usually makcs possiblc.
,. Thc cxcmptions must not unicasonably picjudicc thc lcgitimatc intcicsts ol
thc authoi.
This languagc has sincc bccn cxpoitcd - with impoitant modilcations - to
a numbci ol othci intcinational copyiight ticatics, including thc TRIPS agicc-
mcnt, scvcial WIPO ticatics, and thc EU Copyiight Diicctivc. Thc widc iangc ol
contcmpoiaiy intcipictations ol thc thicc-stcp tcst is discusscd in Modulc z: Thc
Intcinational Fiamcwoik.
SLL ALSO Statutory exemption
7HRS7RlKS LAWS
A law where the thlrd onense results ln more serlous penaltles.
A thicc-stiikcs" law is a iclcicncc to bascball, whcic it is thicc stiikcs and you
aic out." Such laws havc stiongci pcnaltics lollowing a thiid inliaction. In thc
copyiight contcxt, thicc stiikcs laws aic copyiight cnloiccmcnt statutcs whcic an
Intcinct usci's Intcinct acccss can bc summaiily cut of altci thicc accusations
ol copyiight inliingcmcnt.
Whilc stiongly suppoitcd by thc contcnt industiy and institutional iights-
holdcis, thcsc laws havc comc undci a gicat dcal ol ciiticism liom Intcinct uscis,
advocacy gioups, intcinct scivicc piovidcis, and libiaiics loi hcavily lavoiing
contcnt piovidcis and iights-holdcis ovci thc public. This is bccausc thcsc laws
pcnalizc uscis bascd on accusations (icccivcd complaints about a usci), not piovcn
inliingcmcnt, so thcic is a stiong scnsc ol guilty until piovcn innoccnt." Fuithci,
thc pioccduics loi making an accusation aic highly sticamlincd, whcicas thc
pioccduics loi challcnging thcm aic dimcult. Such laws havc bccn pioposcd oi
passcd in Fiancc, South Koica, Ncw Zcaland, and Canada, among othcis, although
somc havc lailcd to pass oi havc bccn stiuck down.
SLL ALSO DMCA, Notice and takedown
7PM - 7CHN0L00lCAL PR07C7l0N MASURS
Securlty measures added to dlgltal technology and content by content provlders
ln order to restrlct and control access and exert greater control over the uses of
the content they sell.
TPM is a bioadci tcim than DRM," which ically iclcis only to soltwaic-cncodcd
piotcctions. TPM is potcntially both soltwaic- and haidwaic-bascd. Mcasuics
could includc icquiiing passwoids, lltciing soltwaic, ccnsoi chips in computcis,
monitoiing/suivcillancc tcchnology, (scmi-)autonomous soltwaic tools and moic.
Rcgionally codcd DVDs and DVD playcis aic onc cxamplc ol a TPM. Othci
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,8 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
cxamplcs aic Miciosolt's Tiustcd Computing" and thc lcatuic" ol Applc's iTuncs
that pcimits uscis to tianslci a song to only lvc difcicnt computcis.
Whilc ostcnsibly aimcd only at inliinging uscis, TPM tcchniqucs oltcn havc
ncgativc impact on lcgitimatc uscis, with icspcct to both lcgal uscs and to piivacy
conccins. Howcvci, at lcast undci US law, it is illcgal both to ciicumvcnt any tcch-
nological piotcction mcasuic and to posscss anything that makcs ciicumvcntion
possiblc. Thc potcntially swccping natuic ol TPMs has lcd somc to aiguc that TPMs
makc it possiblc loi a iights-holdci not only to cnloicc thcii copyiight, but to cxcit
contiol ovci a woik that cxcccds thc limits ol what copyiight law pcimits.
SLL ALSO DRM
7RANSFRAlLl7Y l0F Rl0H7S)
The feature of copyrlghts that makes lt posslble for one rlghts-holder to transfer
ownershlp of the rlghts to another person.
Onc ol thc basic chaiactciistics ol piopcity is that it can bc tianslciicd to othcis,
whcthci by salc, gilt, oi somcthing clsc. Copyiights aic no difcicnt. Whilc a
cicatoi initially holds copyiight in his oi hci cicativc woik, thosc iights can bc
tianslciicd to anothci pcison oi cntity, who can thcn tianslci thcm again, and
so on. Foi cxamplc, iccoiding aitists licqucntly tianslci thc copyiight in thcii
songs to a iccoid company. Michacl }ackson lamously owncd thc iights to all ol
thc Bcatlcs' music.
Thc vaiious iights that copyiight" subsumcs can bc tianslciicd as a bloc, but
moic oltcn aic tianslciicd oi sold onc at a timc, somctimcs to difcicnt pcoplc.
7RlPS
The Agreement on Trade-Pelated Aspects of |ntellectual Property Plghts.
TRIPS is an intcinational agiccmcnt on piopcity iights that camc into cfcct in
jj,. Thc Woild Tiadc Oiganization's wcbsitc dcsciibcs TRIPS as to datc, thc most
compichcnsivc multilatcial agiccmcnt on intcllcctual piopcity," and statcs:
Thc aicas ol intcllcctual piopcity that it covcis aic: copyiight and iclatcd
iights (i.c. thc iights ol pciloimcis, pioduccis ol sound iccoidings and
bioadcasting oiganizations), tiadcmaiks including scivicc maiks, gcogiaphical
indications including appcllations ol oiigin, industiial dcsigns, patcnts includ-
ing thc piotcction ol ncw vaiictics ol plants, thc layout-dcsigns ol intcgiatcd
ciicuits, and undiscloscd inloimation including tiadc sccicts and tcst data.
Thc thicc main lcatuics ol TRIPS aic its scctions on standaids, cnloiccmcnt, and
disputc scttlcmcnt. In a way, it is an umbiclla agiccmcnt, sincc it icquiics that its
paiticipants agicc to and uphold thc tcncts ol scvcial othci agiccmcnts, ticatics, and
convcntions. Thcsc aic thc main convcntions ol thc WIPO, thc Paiis Convcntion loi
thc Piotcction ol Industiial Piopcity (Paiis Convcntion), and thc Bcinc Convcntion
loi thc Piotcction ol Litciaiy and Aitistic, in thcii most icccnt vcisions.
SLL ALSO erne Convention, WIP0
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
,, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
UNSC0
The Unlted Natlons Lducatlonal, Sclentlc and Cultural Organlzatlon.
UNESCO was loundcd in j,. Accoiding to its wcbsitc it lunctions as a laboia-
toiy ol idcas and a standaid-scttci to loigc univcisal agiccmcnts on cmciging
cthical issucs. Thc Univcisal Copyiight Convcntion ol j,z was adoptcd undci
UNESCO's auspiccs."
UNl70 KlN000M'S CHAR7R0 lNS7l7U7 0F LlRARY
AN0 lNF0RMA7l0N PR0FSSl0NALS lClLlP)
Thc lcading piolcssional body loi libiaiians, inloimation spccialists, and knowlcdgc
managcis. Accoiding to its wcbsitc,
CILIP loims a community ol aiound ,6,ooo pcoplc cngagcd in libiaiy and
inloimation woik, ol whom appioximatcly z,ooo aic CILIP mcmbcis and
about ,,ooo aic icgulai customcis ol CILIP Entcipiiscs. CILIP spcaks out
on bchall ol thc piolcssion to thc mcdia, govcinmcnt and dccision makcis.
CILIP piovidcs piactical suppoit loi mcmbcis thioughout thcii cntiic caiccis,
hclping thcm with thcii acadcmic cducation, piolcssional qualilcations, job
hunting and continuing piolcssional dcvclopmcnt.
UNlVRSAL C0PYRl0H7 C0NVN7l0N lUCC)
The UCC, whlch came lnto enect ln :p, represents an alternatlve to the 8erne
Conventlon.
It was dcsigncd by UNESCO to piovidc a loim ol multilatcial copyiight piotcction
loi countiics that wantcd such a thing, but that disagiccd with somc oi all ol thc
Bcinc Convcntion. Thcsc countiics includc thc Unitcd Statcs and Russia, as wcll
as much ol Latin Amciica and thc loimci USSR. Its opcning scction statcs:
Thc Contiacting Statcs, Movcd by thc dcsiic to cnsuic in all countiics
copyiight piotcction ol litciaiy, scicntilc and aitistic woiks, Convinccd that
a systcm ol copyiight piotcction appiopiiatc to all nations ol thc woild and
cxpicsscd in a univcisal convcntion, additional to, and without impaiiing
intcinational systcms alicady in loicc, will cnsuic icspcct loi thc iights ol
thc individual and cncouiagc thc dcvclopmcnt ol litciatuic, thc scicnccs and
thc aits, Pcisuadcd that such a univcisal copyiight systcm will lacilitatc a
widci disscmination ol woiks ol thc human mind and incicasc intcinational
undci-standing, Havc icsolvcd to icvisc thc Univcisal Copyiight Convcn-
tion as signcd at Gcncva on 6 Scptcmbci j,z (hcicinaltci callcd thc j,z
Convcntion")
All Bcinc Convcntion paiticipants aic also UCC mcmbcis. Additionally, thc
UCC's Aiticlc ; cxplicitly statcs that nonc ol its piovisions is intcndcd to conict
with thc Bcinc Convcntion, making thc UCC ol limitcd impoitancc today, sincc
most countiics aic Bcinc mcmbcis.
SLL ALSO UNSC0
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
8o COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
WlP0
w|PO ls the world |ntellectual Property Organlzatlon.
Accoiding to its wcbsitc, WIPO is a spccializcd agcncy ol thc Unitcd Nations.
It is dcdicatcd to dcvcloping a balanccd and acccssiblc intcinational intcllcctual
piopcity (IP) systcm, which icwaids cicativity, stimulatcs innovation and contiib-
utcs to cconomic dcvclopmcnt whilc salcguaiding thc public intcicst." WIPO was
cstablishcd by thc WIPO Convcntion in j6; with a mandatc liom its Mcmbci
Statcs to piomotc thc piotcction ol IP thioughout thc woild thiough coopciation
among statcs and in collaboiation with othci intcinational oiganizations. Its
hcadquaitcis aic in Gcncva, Switzciland. Thc diicctoi gcncial is Fiancis Guiiy.
WIPO administcis z difcicnt ticatics, including thc WIPO Convcntion, thiitccn
ol which aic intcllcctual piopcity ticatics.
WlP0 PRF0RMANCS AN0 PH0N00RAMS 7RA7Y lWPP7)
A w|PO treaty that came lnto enect ln zooz, expllcltly addresslng the rlghts of
performers and producers of sound recordlngs.
WIPO's wcbsitc statcs that
Thc Ticaty dcals with intcllcctual piopcity iights ol two kinds ol bcncl-
ciaiics: (i) pciloimcis (actois, singcis, musicians, ctc.), and (ii) pioduccis ol
phonogiams (thc pcisons oi lcgal cntitics who oi which takc thc initiativc and
havc thc icsponsibility loi thc lxation ol thc sounds).
Thcy aic dcalt with in thc samc instiumcnt bccausc most ol thc iights
giantcd by thc Ticaty to pciloimcis aic iights conncctcd with thcii lxcd,
puicly auial pciloimanccs (which aic thc subjcct mattci ol phonogiams).
As lai as pciloimcis aic conccincd, thc Ticaty giants pciloimcis loui
kinds ol cconomic iights in thcii pciloimanccs lxcd in phonogiams (not in
audiovisual lxations, such as motion pictuics): (i) thc iight ol icpioduction,
(ii) thc iight ol distiibution, (iii) thc iight ol icntal, and (iv) thc iight ol making
availablc.
SLL ALSO Fixation, Rights
W0RK F0R HlR
A creatlve work that the creator has made at someone else's request, usually for
pay.
Woik loi hiic is a conccpt liom US copyiight law and cxists in a lcw othcis as wcll.
Foi cxamplc, il a pcison commissions a sculptuic liom an aitist, and piovidcs vciy
spccilc icquiicmcnts as to matciials and appcaiancc, thc sculptuic will piobably
bc a woik loi hiic, although thc ultimatc dctcimination is lact-spccilc.
Thc conccpt scivcs to clcai up any conlusion that might icsult whcn an cmploycc
cicatcs a copyiightablc woik in thc couisc ol thcii cmploymcnt. Undci thc woiks
madc loi hiic" doctiinc, thc cmployci holds thc copyiight in such a situation.
|
c
s
s
.
.
y
8 COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
It is this doctiinc that cnsuics that, loi cxamplc, thc hundicds ol pcoplc who woik
on thc pioduction ol a motion pictuic do not havc any claim to thc copyiight.
Howcvci, thc natuic ol thc cmployci-cmploycc iclationship can bc complcx
and dimcult to dclnc, cspccially whcn it cxists only loi thc duiation ol thc woik's
cication, oi thc woik is cicatcd in an cducational contcxt.
Fuithci complicating things, sincc thc Bcinc Convcntion scpaiatcly iccognizcs
cconomic and moial iights, cvcn a cicatoi who has madc a woik loi hiic may still
posscss moial iights in that woik.
SLL ALSO Neighboring rights, 7ransferabiIity of rights, Academic exception
W70
The world Trade Organlzatlon ls an organlzatlon devoted to the rules of
lnternatlonal trade.
Accoiding to its wcbsitc, thc WTO's main lunction is to cnsuic that tiadc ows
as smoothly, picdictably and liccly as possiblc."
Thc WTO is icsponsiblc loi, among othci things, thc TRIPS agiccmcnt, which
was thc list timc and placc that copyiight issucs bccamc a locus ol an intcinational
tiadc agiccmcnt.
SLL ALSO 7RIPS
8. COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
Index
"Cllck wrap" llcenses and the Unlform Commerclal Code :z
Collectlve management ;o
Compulsory llcenses 6:
Copyrlght duratlon (z
Copyrlght law and folklore :6
Copyrlght llcenses :
Creatlve commons 8:
Culture ;
Lconomlc rlghts (8
Lxceptlons and llmltatlons (
Lxtenslons of the scope of copyrlght protectlon (
Palrness (
Pree software llcenses 8o
How lndlvldual natlons deal wlth tradltlonal knowledge :oo
|ndlvldual management 6(
|nternatlonal lnstruments :p
|nternatlonal legal lnstruments ::
Llbrary exceptlons 8
Moral rlghts :
Nelghborlng and su| enet|s rlghts z
Orphan works ;(
Personhood 6
Perspectlves for developlng countrles zp
Physlcal and dlgltal commons ;p
Pollcy arguments :z:
Procedures and penaltles pz
Peglonal codes governlng tradltlonal knowledge :o8
Pental and lendlng rlghts
Technologlcal protectlon measures ;
The complex responslbllltles of llbrarlans p6
The llmlts of copyrlght :(
The Open Access movement 8
The ratlonale for the lnternatlonal system :8
The relatlonshlp between copyrlght lnfrlngement and other unauthorlzed
actlvltles (:
The Swedlsh Plrate Party :zp
8, COPP|GHT POP L|8PAP|ANS
welfare
what does copyrlght law cover! :z
what does copyrlght law protect! (
what lnfrlnges copyrlght! 8p
what ls an author! 8
what ls copyrlght! :o
what ls the publlc domaln! ::
what ls tradltlonal knowledge! pp
what rlghts come wlth copyrlght! :
who gets a copyrlght! :
who makes copyrlght law! ::
|
r
J
o
x