CHAPTER 4 : MODELLING &

ANALYSIS FOR PROCESS CONTROL

When I complete this chapter, I want to be
able to do the following.
Analytically solve linear dynamic models
of first and second order
Express dynamic models as transfer
functions
Predict important features of dynamic
behavior from model without solving
Outline of the lesson.
Laplace transform
Solve linear dynamic models
Transfer function model structure
Qualitative features directly from model
Frequency response
Workshop
CHAPTER 4 : MODELLING &
ANALYSIS FOR PROCESS CONTROL
WHY WE NEED MORE DYNAMIC MODELLING
T
A
I can model this;
what more do
I need?
T
A
I would like to
model elements
individually
combine as needed
determine key
dynamic features
w/o solving
WHY WE NEED MORE DYNAMIC MODELLING
T
A
I would like to
model elements
individually
This will be a
transfer function
Now, I can combine
elements to model
many process
structures
WHY WE NEED MORE DYNAMIC MODELLING
Now, I can combine
elements to model
many process
structures
Even more amazing,
I can combine to
derive a simplified
model!
THE FIRST STEP: LAPLACE TRANSFORM

= =

0
dt e t f s f t f L
st
) ( ) ( )) ( (
s
C
e
s
C
dt Ce C L
t
t
st st
= = =
=
=

0
0
) ( : Constant
Step Change at t=0: Same as constant for t=0 to t=
t=0
f(t)=0
THE FIRST STEP: LAPLACE TRANSFORM

= =

0
dt e t f s f t f L
st
) ( ) ( )) ( (

+ = =
0 0 0
1 1 dt e e dt e dt e ) e ( )) e (( L
st / t st st / t / t
s / 1 =


/ s
e
/ s
dt e
t ) s / ( t ) s / (
1
0
1
1
0
1
1 1
+
=
+
= =

+

) s ( s s s / s s 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 +
=
+
=
+
=

We have seen
this term
often! Its the
step response to
a first order
dynamic system.
THE FIRST STEP: LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Lets consider plug flow through a pipe. Plug flow has no
backmixing; we can think of this a a hockey puck
traveling in a pipe.
What is the dynamic response of the outlet fluid property
(e.g., concentration) to a step change in the inlet fluid
property?
Lets learn a new
dynamic response
& its Laplace
Transform
THE FIRST STEP: LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Lets learn a new
dynamic response
& its Laplace
Transform
time
X
in
X
out
= dead time

What is the value of

dead time for
plug flow?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-0.5
0
0.5
1
time
Y
,

o
u
t
l
e
t

f
r
o
m

d
e
a
d

t
i
m
e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-0.5
0
0.5
1
time
X
,

i
n
l
e
t

t
o

d
e
a
d

t
i
m
e
THE FIRST STEP: LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Lets learn a new
dynamic response
& its Laplace
Transform
Is this a
dead time?
What is the
value?
THE FIRST STEP: LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Lets learn a new
dynamic response
& its Laplace
Transform
The dynamic model for dead time is
) t ( X ) t ( X
in out
=
The Laplace transform for a variable after dead time is
) ( )) ( ( )) ( (

s X e t X L t X L
in
s
in out

= =
Our plants have
pipes. We will
use this a lot!
THE FIRST STEP: LAPLACE TRANSFORM
We need the Laplace transform of
derivatives for solving dynamic models.
First
derivative:
General:
0 =
=
(

t
) t ( f ) s ( sf
dt
) t ( df
L
constant
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
(
(

0
1
1
0
1
0
1
t
n
n
t
n
t
n n
n
n
dt
) t ( f d
....
dt
) t ( df
s ) t ( f s ) s ( f s
dt
) t ( f d
L
constant
I am in desperate
need of examples!
SOLVING MODELS USING THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM
Textbook Example 3.1: The CSTR (or mixing tank)
experiences a step in feed composition with all other
variables are constant. Determine the dynamic response.
(Well solve this in class.)
F
C
A0
V
C
A
A A A
A
VkC' ) C' F(C'
dt
dC'
V =
0
A A
kC r
B A
=

kV F
F
K and
kV F
V
with
' '
'
+
=
+
= = +
0 A A
A
KC C
dt
dC
I hope we get the same
answer as with the
integrating factor!
SOLVING MODELS USING THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM
A A
kC r
B A
=

F
C
A0
V1
C
A1
V2
C
A2
Two isothermal CSTRs are initially at steady state and
experience a step change to the feed composition to the
first tank. Formulate the model for C
A2
.
(Well solve this in class.)
2 2 2 2 1
2
2
1 1 1 1 0
1
1
A A A
A
A A A
A
C' k V ) C' F(C'
dt
dC'
V
C' k V ) C' F(C'
dt
dC'
V
=
=
' '
'
' '
'
1 2 2
2
2
0 1 1
1
1
A A
A
A A
A
C K C
dt
dC
C K C
dt
dC
= +
= +

Much easier than

integrating factor!
SOLVING MODELS USING THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM
Textbook Example 3.5: The feed composition experiences a
step. All other variables are constant. Determine the
dynamic response of C
A
.
(Well solve this in class.)
2
A A
kC r
B A
=

F
C
A0
V
C
A
Non-linear!
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS: MODELS VALID
FOR ANY INPUT FUNCTION
Lets rearrange the Laplace transform of a dynamic model
Y(s) X(s)
G(s)
Y(s) = G(s) X(s)
A TRANSFER FUNCTION is the output variable, Y(s),
divided by the input variable, X(s), with all initial
conditions zero.
G(s) = Y(s)/X(s)
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS: MODELS VALID
FOR ANY INPUT FUNCTION
Y(s) X(s)
G(s)
G(s) = Y(s)/ X(s)
How do we achieve zero initial
conditions for every model?
We dont have primes on the
variables; why?
Is this restricted to a step input?
What about non-linear models?
How many inputs and outputs?
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS: MODELS VALID
FOR ANY INPUT FUNCTION
Y(s) X(s)
G(s)
G(s) = Y(s)/ X(s)
Some examples:
? ) (
) (
) (
: CSTRs Two
? ) (
) (
) (
: tank Mixing
= =
= =
s G
s C
s C
s G
s C
s C
A
A
A
A
0
2
0
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS: MODELS VALID
FOR ANY INPUT FUNCTION
Y(s) X(s)
G(s)
G(s) = Y(s)/ X(s)
Why are we doing this?
To torture students.
We have individual models that we can
combine easily - algebraically.
We can determine lots of information
about the system without solving the
dynamic model.
I chose the
first answer!
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS: MODELS VALID
FOR ANY INPUT FUNCTION
T
open
s m
s v
s F
s G
valve


%
/
10 .
) (
) (
) (
3
0
= =
1 250
2 . 1
) (
) (
) (
0
1
+

= =
s s F
s T
s G
/s m
K

3
tank1
1 300
0 1
1
2
+
= =
s
K K
s T
s T
s G
/ .
) (
) (
) (
tank2
1 10
0 1
2
+
=
=
s
K K
s T
s T
s G
measured
sensor
/ .

) (
) (
) (
(Time in seconds)
Lets see how to
combine models
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS: MODELS VALID
FOR ANY INPUT FUNCTION
The BLOCK DIAGRAM
G
valve
(s)
G
tank2
(s) G
tank1
(s) G
sensor
(s)
v(s) F
0
(s) T
1
(s) T
2
(s) T
meas
(s)
Its a picture of the model equations!
Individual models can be replaced easily
Helpful visualization
Cause-effect by arrows
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS: MODELS VALID
FOR ANY INPUT FUNCTION
Combine using BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA
G
valve
(s)
G
tank2
(s) G
tank1
(s) G
sensor
(s)
v(s) F
0
(s) T
1
(s) T
2
(s) T
meas
(s)
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
s G s G s G s G
s v
s F
s F
s T
s T
s T
s T
s T
s G
s v
s T
v T T s
meas meas
1 2
0
0
1
1
2
2
=
(

= =
G(s)
v(s) T
meas
(s)
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS: MODELS VALID
FOR ANY INPUT FUNCTION
Key rules for BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA
QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING
FINAL VALUE THEOREM: Evaluate the final valve of
the output of a dynamic model without solving for the
entire transient response.
sY(s)
lim
) (


=
s
t
t Y
Example for first order system
p A
p A
s
t A
K C
s s
K C
s t C
0
0
0
) 1 (
lim | ) ( =
+

... )] sin( ) cos( [ ...

..) ( ... ) (
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + =
t
t
t t
q
p
e t C t C
e t B t B B e A e A A t Y

2 1
2
2 1 0 2 1 0
2 1
What about dynamics
can we determine
without solving?
QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING
We can use partial fraction
expansion to prove the following
key result.
Y(s) = G(s)X(s) = [N(s)/D(s)]X(s) = C
1
/(s-
1
) + C
2
/(s-
2
) + ...
With
i
the solution to the denominator of the transfer
function being zero, D(s) = 0.
... )] sin( ) cos( [ ...
..) ( ... ) (
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + =
t
t
t t
q
p
e t C t C
e t B t B B e A e A A t Y

2 1
2
2 1 0 2 1 0
2 1
... )] sin( ) cos( [ ...
..) ( ... ) (
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + =
t
t
t t
q
p
e t C t C
e t B t B B e A e A A t Y

2 1
2
2 1 0 2 1 0
2 1
Real, distinct
i
Real, repeated
i
Complex
i

q
is Re(
i
)
QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING
With
i
the solutions to D(s) = 0, which is a polynomial.
... )] sin( ) cos( [ ...
..) ( ... ) (
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + =
t
t
t t
q
p
e t C t C
e t B t B B e A e A A t Y

2 1
2
2 1 0 2 1 0
2 1
1. If all
i
are ???, Y(t) is stable
If any one
i
is ???, Y(t) is unstable
2. If all
i
are ???, Y(t) is overdamped
(does not oscillate)
If one pair of
i
are ???, Y(t) is
underdamped
Complete statements
based on equation.
QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING
With
i
the solutions to D(s) = 0, which is a polynomial.
... )] sin( ) cos( [ ...
..) ( ... ) (
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + =
t
t
t t
q
p
e t C t C
e t B t B B e A e A A t Y

2 1
2
2 1 0 2 1 0
2 1
1. If all real [
i
] are < 0, Y(t) is stable
If any one real [
i
] is 0, Y(t) is unstable
2. If all
i
are real, Y(t) is overdamped (does not
oscillate)
If one pair of
i
are complex, Y(t) is underdamped
A A
kC r
B A
=

F
C
A0
V1
C
A1
V2
C
A2
(Well solve this in class.)
' '
'
' '
'
1 2 2
2
2
0 1 1
1
1
A A
A
A A
A
C K C
dt
dC
C K C
dt
dC
= +
= +

QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING

1. Is this system stable?
2. Is this system over- or underdamped?
3. What is the order of the system?
(Order = the number of derivatives
between the input and output variables)
4. What is the steady-state gain?
Without
solving!
QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING
FREQUENCY RESPONSE:The response to a sine input of
the output variable is of great practical importance. Why?
Sine inputs almost never occur. However, many
periodic disturbances occur and other inputs can be
represented by a combination of sines.
For a process without control, we want a sine input to
have a small effect on the output.
QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
time
Y
,


o
u
t
l
e
t

f
r
o
m

s
y
s
t
e
m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
time
X
,


i
n
l
e
t

t
o

s
y
s
t
e
m
input
output
B
A
P
P
Amplitude ratio = |Y(t)|
max
/ |X(t)|
max
Phase angle = phase difference between
input and output
QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING
Amplitude ratio = |Y(t)|
max
/ |X(t)|
max
Phase angle = phase difference between
input and output
For linear systems, we can evaluate directly using transfer function!
Set s = j, with = frequency and j = complex variable.
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
+ = = =

)) ( Re(
)) ( Im(
tan ) ( angle Phase
)) ( Im( )) ( Re( ) ( Ratio Amp.

j G
j G
j G
j G j G j G AR
1
2 2
These calculations are tedious by hand but easily performed in
standard programming languages.
QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING
Example 4.15 Frequency response of mixing tank.
Time-domain
behavior.
Bode Plot - Shows
frequency response for
a range of frequencies
Log (AR) vs log()
Phase angle vs log()
QUALITATIVE FEATURES W/O SOLVING
F
C
A0
V1
C
A1
V2
C
A2 Sine disturbance with
amplitude = 1 mol/m
3
frequency = 0.20 rad/min
Must have
fluctuations
< 0.050 mol/m
3
C
A2
Using equations for the frequency response amplitude ratio
050 0 12 0 12 0 0 1
1
1
2
2 2
0 2
2 2
0
2
. . ) . )( . ( | |
) (
| | | |
) (
| ) ( |
| |
| |
> = =
+
=
+
= =
A
p
A A
p
A
A
C
K
C C
K
j G
C
C

Not acceptable. We need

to reduce the variability.
How about feedback
control?
Data from 2 CSTRs
OVERVIEW OF ANALYSIS METHODS
We can determine
individual models
and combine
1. System order
2. Final Value
3. Stability
4. Damping
5. Frequency response
We can determine
these features without
solving for the
entire transient!!
Transfer function and block diagram
Flowchart of Modeling Method
Goal: Assumptions: Data:
Variable(s): related to goals
System: volume within which variables are independent of position
Fundamental Balance: e. g. material, energy
Check
D.O.F.
Is model linear? Expand in Taylor Series
DOF = 0
Another equation:
-Fundament al balance
-Const ituti ve equat ions
DOF 0
No
Express in deviation var iables
Group parameter s to evaluate [gains (K), time-constants (), dead-times()]
Take Laplace transform
Substitute specific input, e.g.,
step, and solve for output
Analytical solution
(step)
Numerical solution
Analyze the model for:
- causali ty
- order
- stabi lity
- damping
Yes
Combine several models into
integrated system
We can use a
standard modelling
procedure to
focus our
creativity!
Combining Chapters 3
and 4
Too small to read here - check it out in the textbook!
CHAPTER 4: MODELLING & ANALYSIS WORKSHOP 1
Example 3.6 The tank with a drain has a continuous flow in
and out. It has achieved initial steady state when a step
decrease occurs to the flow in. Determine the level as a
function of time.
Solve the linearized model using Laplace transforms
CHAPTER 4: MODELLING & ANALYSIS WORKSHOP 2
1. System order
2. Final Value
3. Stability
4. Damping
5. Frequency response
The dynamic model for a non-
isothermal CSTR is derived in
Appendix C. A specific example
has the following transfer
function.
Determine the features
in the table for this
system.
) . . (
) . . (
) (
) (
80 35 79 1
83 45 07 6
2
+ +

=
s s
s
s F
s T
c
T
A
CHAPTER 4: MODELLING & ANALYSIS WORKSHOP 3
F
C
A0
V1
C
A1
V2
C
A2
Answer the following using the MATLAB program
S_LOOP.
Using the transfer function derived in Example 4.9,
determine the frequency response for C
A0
C
A2
. Check
one point on the plot by hand calculation.
CHAPTER 4: MODELLING & ANALYSIS WORKSHOP 4
Feed
Vapor
product
Liquid
product
Process
fluid
Steam
F1
F2 F3
T1
T2
T3
T5
T4
T6 P1
L1
A1
L. Key
We often measure pressure for process monitoring and
control. Explain three principles for pressure sensors, select
one for P1 and explain your choice.
CHAPTER 4 : MODELLING &
ANALYSIS FOR PROCESS CONTROL
When I complete this chapter, I want to be
able to do the following.
Analytically solve linear dynamic models of first
and second order
Express dynamic models as transfer functions
Predict important features of dynamic behavior
from model without solving
Lots of improvement, but we need some more study!
Read the textbook
Review the notes, especially learning goals and workshop
Try out the self-study suggestions
Naturally, well have an assignment!
LEARNING RESOURCES
SITE PC-EDUCATION WEB
- Instrumentation Notes
- Interactive Learning Module (Chapter 4)
- Tutorials (Chapter 14)
Software Laboratory
- S_LOOP program
Other textbooks on Process Control (see course
outline)
SUGGESTIONS FOR SELF-STUDY
1. Why are variables expressed as deviation variables
when we develop transfer functions?
2. Discuss the difference between a second order reaction
and a second order dynamic model.
3. For a sine input to a process, is the output a sine for a
a. Linear plant?
b. Non-linear plant?
4. Is the amplitude ratio of a plant always equal to or
greater than the steady-state gain?
SUGGESTIONS FOR SELF-STUDY
5. Calculate the frequency response for the model in
Workshop 2 using S_LOOP. Discuss the results.
6. Decide whether a linearized model should be used for
the fired heater for
FT
1
FT
2
PT
1
PIC
1
AT
1
TI
1
TI
2
TI
3
TI
4
PI
2
PI
3
PI
4
TI
5
TI
6
TI
7
TI
8
TI
9
FI
3
TI
10
TI
11
PI
5
PI
6
a. A 3% increase in the
fuel flow rate.
b. A 2% change in the
feed flow rate.
c. Start up from ambient
temperature.
d. Emergency stoppage
of fuel flow to 0.0.
fuel
feed
air