Laser Material Interaction

General Scheme of Energy flow in Laser treatment process

PL = PR + PA PR Pconv

Prad Pchem

Ppro Pcon

PL = PR + PA = R.PL + A. PL PA + Pchem = Ppro + Pred + Pconv + Pcon

Dependence of Power coupling on Laser Intensity

1.0 1 < 2 0.8
Re-melting Hardening Shock hardening

Power Coupling

0.6 0.4 0.2 0 2 102

Cutting Conduction welding

Drilling

Plasma formation
Deep penetration welding

104

106

108

Laser Intensity W/cm2

Laser Material Interaction: Time scale dependence

Laser Pulse Duration : tL Electron-Electron Thermalization Time : Te-e < 10-16 s Electron-Ion Energy Transfer time : Te-iI ~ 10-12s (1ps) Lattice Heating Time: Te-l (10-100ps) >> Te-i

Case-I: TL (>1ms, CW) >> Te-l>>Te-i

Heating via Electron- Lattice Thermalization Absorption within skin depth (la) Temperature rise: Heat conduction process Classical Heat Transfer Laws Typical power density: kW-MW/cm2 in this time scale Process: Heating, Melting Heating: Surface Hardening

Material Removal Mechanism: Melting with molten metal ejected by an assist gas Most common machining process : Laser Cutting Typical Lasers in this time scale: CO2 laser in a few kW range

Laser Thermal Effects

Laser Heating: Temperature Depth & Time Profiles T (z,t)
Heating by direct laser beam & / or Thermal Diffusion Process

I0

I,T

Thermal Diffusion Length, = 2 - Thermal Diffusivity = K/ .CP K = Thermal conductivity, = Density, Cp = Specific heat, - Laser pulse duration Case1: Attenuation length la (/4k) > > I (z,t) = Io(t) e-z T (z,t) = To(t) e-z T (z,t) = Q/ .CP = [H. . /.CP] e-z H = PL (1-R) / .a2 Laser power absorbed per unit area at z=0 a- Laser beam diameter ( = 4k/ )

z
Q = Absorbed Laser Energy Density at z = PL(1-R). e-z/ .a2

Case2: Attenuation length la << : Meets in most situation in Metals, Laser power absorbed in thin layer at surface

Laser Thermal Effects

I0 T I

I (z,t) = Io(t) e-z attenuated in 10s nm, Heating of rest of material by thermal diffusion process Heat conduction equation: One dimensional heat flow along z Rate of Heat in = [-KT/z]dx.dy

z
x dz
Z+dz

I0 z
dx dy

Rate of Heat out = [-K{ T + (T/z)dz}z ]dx.dy Resultant rate of Heat input in the volume = [Heat in Heat out] + Heat Generated (=0) = [K 2T/z2]dx.dy.dz This is going to raise the temperature of the volume & Rate of change of Temperature = .Cp.(T/t) dx.dy.dz 2T/z2 = (1/ ) T/t, & 3D Heat conduction eq. 2T = (1/ ) T/t describes Temperature in time and space.

Initial Condition T(z,0) T0 =0 for 0 z , t =0 where T0 = Initial temperature Boundary Conditions At the surface z = 0 laser power absorbed is conducted in -KT/z = H where H = PL (1-R) / .a2 Laser pulse of time duration is incident on the surface

2a = 2 < 2a

Semi-infinite solid with uniform laser beam

Heating T(z,t ) = [H/ K] .ierfc(z/ )
x

Ierfc(x) = (1/) {exp(-x2) x(1-erf(x)} Where erf(x) = (2/ ) exp(-2)d For small x, ierfc (x) = 1/ -x + x2/ Cooling T(z,t ) = [H/ K] [ .ierfc(z/ ) - *.ierfc(z/ *)] = 2t, * = 2(t- ), At z = 0, During heating, neglecting initial temperature T(0,t) = 2(H/K).(t / ) At z=0, t= , T0 = Tmax= 2(H/K).( /) At z =Thermal Diffusion Length = = 2 , T(, ) = T0. .ierfc(1) 0.09 T0 ierfc(x) ierfc(0)=0.564 & ierfc(1) = 0.05
0

Variation of calculated temperature increases with time at various depths during laser irradiation (Reprinted from Wilson &Hawkes 1987. 1. T(z=0) with t T(z=0) = Tmax, at t= T(z=0) with t > Very Fast Cooling Rate: 106-108 K/s 2. At Z > 0 T(z=0) with t Max. T reaches at t> Tmax(Z > 0) < Tmax (z=0)

Laser beam of Finite size with Heat Conduction Loss in lateral direction not negligible

= 2 ~ 2a

2a

T(z,t ) = [H/ K] .[ierfc(z/ ) ierfc{(z2+a2)1/2/}] For long irradiation time i.e. large surface temperature T(0,) = H.a/K = Constant ( Steady state temperature) T(0,)

Semi-infinite solid with Gaussian Laser beam

Surface Temperature, T(0, t) = H{rf / K. (2) } tan-1{ 2. /rf}; rf = Laser beam diameter For Small interaction time, /rf << 1, leads to temperature similar to large uniform beam T(0, Short t) = H. / K. For long interaction time /rf >>1, Final temperature is T = H {(rf / K). ( /8) } = Constant rf

Melting during the Laser Irradiation

Calculation of temporal evolution of depth of melting: (a) surface temperature as a function of time

Calculated values (b) Temperature as a function of depth below the surface during heating and cooling, (c) depth of melting as a function of time

Schematic variation of melt-depths (a) effect of laser power density at constant pulse time, (b) effect of laser pulse time at constant laser power density

Moving Laser Beam: Asymmetric Temperature distribution Analytical solution: Gaussian laser beam of diameter rf moving at velocity v along x direction on the surface T(x,y,z) = (Hrf /4K) {1/(1+2)} exp(C)d Where C = - {2/(1+ 2)}[{ - Pe/22}2+2] -22 = 2x/rf, = 2y/rf, = 2z/rf, = rf/2., Pe = rf.v/22. (Peclet no.)

Laser Beam: Line Heat Source

Laser Cutting Deep Penetration Welding Y X Depends on: Processing speed, v & Material properties, K,

Temperature distribution: T = P*. 1/ 2K . ev.x/2.K0[{v(x2+y2)1/2}/ 2] P*= Laser Power absorbed per unit length across thickness K0 =Zeroth order Bessel function, tables available

Surface Heating by Laser for Transformation Hardening during Laser Irradiation Depth of heating limited by the Surface Temperature reaching to melting point-Tm

T0 Tm Tz TP
1

ZP

What is the maximum depth ZP for phase transformation hardening? Using analytical solution of 1D heat conduction equation TP = (H/K) ierfc(ZP/ ) Surface Temperature Tm = (H/K) / TP/Tm = . ierfc(ZP/ ) ierfc(H.ZP/Tm.K ) = TP/Tm. ZP & Time for reaching the melting point and achieving hardening depth up to ZP can be calculated = 2t = Tm.K/H

Laser Treatment Processes

Surface Transformation Hardening: Suitable combination of Laser Power Density, H & Interaction Time, ( t = Laser beam diameter / Laser Scan velocity) required T0 Tm z1 Tz TP
1

Tm TTH

[H1, t1 ]

[H2, t2]

H1 > H2, t1< t2, [H1, t1 ] will raise T0 to Tm but depth for T TP is less than desired zP

z1

zP

H = 103-104 W/ cm2 t = 0.1- 1s.

1500

Temperature

500

1000

Phase Transformation Tem.-TP

t1

t2

Time duration t2-t1 of holding surface temperature above TP can be estimated from heating and cooling curves.

Case-II: TL >1ns >>Te-l >>Te-i Pulsed Laser in 1-100ns scale

Heating via Electron- Lattice Thermalization Absorption within skin depth (la) Temperature rise: Heat conduction process Classical Heat Transfer Laws Typical Laser Power Densities : MW-GW/cm2 Process: Melting & Vaporization Material Removal Mechanism : Vaporization & Melt Ejection by recoil pressure of vapour Most common machining process: Laser drilling, Grooving, Marking, Scribing Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) less than that in CW Laser processing Typical Lasers in this time scale: Q-switched Nd:YAG (1.06m) Laser and their 2nd (0.53 m) 3rd (0.355 m )& 4th (0.265 m ) harmonics, Excimer (193-248nm) Lasers

Material removal rates due to melt expulsion and vaporization : Typical in Laser Drilling Process

Vaporization during Laser Irradiation Depth of Melting limited by the Surface Temperature reaching to boiling point-Tb What is the maximum melt depth ZMAX ? T*m = (H/K) ierfc(ZMAX/ ) Tm/Tb = . ierfc(ZMAX/ ) ierfc(H.ZMAX/Tb.K ) = Tm/Tb. ZMAX & Time for reaching the boiling point and achieving melting up to ZMAX can be calculated T*m = Tm + Lf/CP = 2t = Tb.K/H

Surface Temperature Tb = (H/K) /

Schematic of the variation of depth of melting with laser irradiation time and power.

Laser Surface Melting: Welding, Fusion Cutting, Alloying, Cladding T(z1,) Tm T(0,) Tb H = 104 106W/cm2 t = 10-2 10-4s Resolidification, Glazing: H = 105 107W/cm2 t = 10-4 10-7s 2a Laser cutting v w Energy balance equation: Negligible conduction loss (Thermal Diffusion length < a /w ) P(1-R) = w.t.v. (Cp.Tm + Lf ) t V = P(1-R) / {w.t. (Cp.Tm + Lf )} P /t

With conduction loss & oxidation energy V = P(1-R) / {w.t. (Cp.Tm + Lf )} + .hox.vox / 2t 1.2K .Tm/ w.t. hox Oxidation enthalpy, vox- Oxidation speed

Laser Evaporation: Drilling

T(0,t) Tb P(1-R) = a2.ve. (Cp.Tb + Lf + Lv) ve- Evaporation speed of metal Ve = P(1-R)/ [a2. (Cp.Tb + Lf + Lv)] = H / [ (Cp.Tb + Lf + Lv)] For Laser pulse duration tp depth of drilled hole d, d = ve.tp =H.tp/ [ (Cp.Tb + Lf + Lv)] H = 106-108W/cm2, t =10-5-10-7s Escaping vapor produces Mbar pressure on molten surface Keyhole formation / Shock wave generation

Two Important Parameters in the analysis of Thermal Effect

Cooling Rate (z,t) = T/t Temperature Gradient G(z,t) = T/z Solidification Rate R = (z,t) / G(z,t) Development of Microstructure: Dendritic, Cellular, Planar growth

Variation of calculated solidification) rate with fractional melt depth during laser irradiation of nickel. (Q0, W/cm2) Melt depth ~0.025mm

Temperature dependence on Temporal and Special Laser Beam Profile

(a) single pulse (b) multipulse laser irradiation of material (dotted curve indicate the average temperature)

Case-III: TL<Te-i<Te-l Femtosecond time scale

Thermal diffusion time =2(.TL)1/2 < la Ultra-short pulse regime Free Electrons in metals are heated instantly during laser pulse. In transparent materials electrons-ion plasma generated by Multi-photon Ionization (MPI) / Tunneling Ionization absorbs laser energy Little energy / heat transfer to ions / lattices during laser pulse After laser pulse, in ~1ps electrons transfer energy to positive ions At high laser power densities ( ~TW/cm2) ions get enough energy to break bonding of lattice structure. They break off instantly without having time to transfer their energy to neighboring lattice ions, thus direct solid-vapour transition occurs. Negligible heat conduction- Little HAZ Laser Processing: Drilling, Cutting, Grooving, Scribing without any thermal damage & HAZ Lasers used: T-Sapphire laser with 780nm and fluence-0.1-10J/cm2 and TL=30-200fs

Material Removal Mechanisms:

Spallation: Fast heating process could generate high tensile pressure wavesmaterial removal due to mechanical fracture of material following the creation of defects induced by tensile stresses; Laser Fluence- Near Ablation Threshold Phase Explosion: At higher intensities Formation of homogeneous nucleation of gas bubble inside a superheated liquid- decomposition into a mixture of liquid droplets and gas), Fragmentation: At still higher energies disintegration of a homogeneous material (supercritical fluid) into clusters under the action of large strain rates Vaporization : Collective ejection of monomers, or, in most cases, a mixture of these. Coulomb Explosion- At very high laser fluences: High Energy Electrons leave the surface- High Electric Field sets in- Ions pulled out

Summary: Laser Beam is reflected, scattered, absorbed, transmitted in a material

Laser radiation is first absorbed by free-electrons in a metal and their energy and temperature increases. Heated electrons share their energy with ions and lattice vibrations, and thus the material gets heated up. In most metals laser radiation is absorbed within 10s nm depth of metal surface Further heating by thermal diffusion In metals laser radiation of any wavelength is absorbed by free- electrons. Interaction of Laser Beam depends upon laser wavelength, Polarization, Intensity and interaction time In semiconductors, laser radiation of photon energy (h) more than the band gap energy ( between Valance & Conduction bands) is absorbed. Si-O bonds in glass, quartz absorb around 10 m radiation Laser radiation could get absorbed during multiple reflections at grainboundaries in ceramics
Transparent / dielectric material can be processed by high intensity laser pulses. Electron plasma is produced by either multi-photon or tunneling ionization process. High intensity Ultra-short laser pulse ablates material with a little thermal effects.

Let us see the effect of conduction in lateral direction in cases of Laser Cutting & Drilling holes. We take an example of steel cutting. The typical laser power in laser cutting is 1-2kW and spot size is 200-300m. Thermo-physical properties of Steel are: Density = 8030 kg/m3, Tm = 14500C, Cp= 500J/kg.C, Lf = 300kJ/kg, K= 20W/mC Thermal diffusivity, = K/. Cp = 20/8030.500 = 5x10-6 m2/s Laser Power density absorbed on the surface = 1000W / 4.10-8 m2 = 2.5x1010W/m2 We will like to find out time taken for surface temperature to reach to melting point. Considering the one dimension heat flow Tm = [2H/K] [(. tm /)] tm = {Tm.K/2H}2. / = {1450. 20 / 2.5x1010}2. {3.14/ 5x10-6} = 8x10-7 s. ~ 1s. Thermal diffusion length = 2 (. tm /) = 2. (5x10-6. 1x10-6/ 3.14) = 2.5 m This is too small compared to the laser spot diameter of 200 m, thus the heat loss by conduction in lateral direction is very small and we can write the energy balance equation in case of such processes neglecting the conduction loss. Typical Cooling rate: 1kW laser beam of 1ms duration falling on steel plate Cooling rate at the end of laser pulse T/t = H.K.(/ ) . --1/2 = 75x106 0C/s Very high cooling rate unachievable by any conventional processing Important in Laser Surface Hardening, Surface Glazing etc.

Effect of Pressure
* Fast vaporization ( Pulse laser in drilling) exerts pressure on molten pool: Increases evaporation temperature * Escaping vapor at elevated temperatures exert pressure on molten pool: Formation of keyhole- Deep penetration welding Shock wave formation- Laser Peening for creating compressive stress, improves fatigue life, surface properties Rate of evaporation Laser Intensity; Importance of TEM00 mode

Heating with Phase change

Heating Melting Vaporization Plasma formation Phase change: Drastic change in thermo-mechanical properties Alter boundary conditions for laser matter interaction Solid Liquid (Fluid): Changes temperature distribution due to Melt flow, convection of heat Melt Flow: External factorsFlow of shield or processing gases Supply of powder or filler wire Internal factorsTemperature,T dependent Surface Tension, Buoyancy, Back pressure of escaping vapor Pure metals: T , Melt flows from centre to boundary, Marangoni Force, Wider melt pool, reduced central temperature. Additives like Sulphur reverse the gradient of , Melt flows from boundary to centre; Narrow melt pool, increased depth

Laser Drilling with UV Excimer Lasers

Laser Photon Energy h > Molecular Binding Energy (Organics, Plastics, Bio-molecules) Ablation through Bond breaks Cold Ablation : --Photolytic Ablation Little Thermal Effects, High Precision & Better quality holes

Interaction of excimer laser radiation with solids. Left: PVC, photolytic ablation. Middle: Al2O3 ceramic, combined photolytic and pyrolytic process; Left: metal, melt.

Ultra-Short Pulse Laser Processing Short Pulse Laser Processing Steel foil 100 m in thickness

Laser Processing with Ultra-short Laser Pulse

*Femtosecond Laser : Pulse duration ~10-13 10-14 s Shorter than electron -lattice thermalization time *Electrons in material get heated up to 10s thousand 0C but little transfer of heat to rest of the material during laser pulse. *Thermal diffusion length = 2 t Attenuation length = la =1/ , *High temperature electrons exert pressure more than yield strength of material causing material ejection / ablation without rise in temperature of substrate. No thermal effects No burr, very clean processing Micro-machining , drilling micro-holes, cutting of stents

Laser Processing with Ultra-short Laser Pulse

Reproducible due to well defined ablation threshold Ablation(a.u.) Micro-drill diameter < , Diffraction limit, Ith ns 100fs Ith I

Lower threshold fluence (Energy density due to very short laser pulse duration) Higher process efficiency Minimal rise in substrate temperature

Summary
Laser energy is coupled by e-s, which gain energy in radiation field. Laser beam of shorter wavelength is better absorbed. Laser beam absorption depends on beam polarization. Absorption increases with rise in temperature. In most metals laser beam is absorbed almost at the surface and heat penetrates further by thermal diffusion process. At high intensities laser produces e- plasma which absorbs laser energy and couples to substrate: Coupling mechanism in dielectrics. Escaping vapour produces keyhole : Deep penetration welding. Ultra-short laser pulse ablates material with a little thermal effects. Controlling laser intensity and interaction time various material processes e.g. cutting, welding, surface hardening, alloying, cladding, glazing, shock hardening, drilling and marking are realised