UTTAR PRADESH POWER TRANSMISSION CORPORATION LIMITED SUMMER TRAING REPORT

About UPPTCL
Up Power Transmission Corporation Limited, incorporated under the Companies Act 1956, was incorporated in 2006 with the main objective to acquire, establish, construct, take over, erect, lay, operate, run, manage, hire, lease, buy, sell, maintain, enlarge, alter, renovate, modernize, work and use electrical transmission lines and/or network through extra high voltage, high voltage and associated substations, cables, wires, connected with transmission ancillary services, telecommunication and telemetering equipment in state of Uttar Pradesh, India and elsewhere.

132 KV Substation Lalitpur

It comes under the control of Executive Engineer, Munna Lal Power House, UPPTCL, Jhansi. Primarily it is having 3 transformers, two of 132/33 KV, 40MVA each and one of 132/66 KV, 20 MVA . Two small transformers of 66/11 KV & 33KV/400V are also present. It has one primary bus and two transfer / secondary buses of 132KV, two buses of 33KV & one bus of 66KV. Substation has four 132 KV Feeders (Jhansi , Rajghat & two Railways Feeder). Substation takes electricity from Jhansi 132 KV Feeder. Rajghat Feeder is a bidirectional feeder( it imports and exports power). Substation supplies electricity to 132 KV Railways Feeder. Railways has two feeders from lalitpur substation in which one is for backup purpose. Two 66KV feeders (Lalitpur and Matatila Feeders ) are connected to secondary of 132/66KV, 20MVA Transformers. 66/11KV transformer is also connected to 66 KV secondary of 20 MVA transformer. 11 KV is supplied to narendra industries. First 40 MVA Trasnformer has four 33 KV feeders. (Lalitpur, Hospital, Mehroni & Jakhlon Feeders)
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UTTAR PRADESH POWER TRANSMISSION CORPORATION LIMITED SUMMER TRAING REPORT

Second 40 MVA Transformer has three 33 KV Feeders. (Bansi,Birdha & Pali Feeders). However, Birdha and pali Feeders are spare feeders so electricity goes to birdha and pali through birdha feeder. Substation has also two 33KV spare control and relay panel & two 132 KV spare control and relay feeder. S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Average Voltage(KV) 128 128 128 128 Average Current (A) 300 160 160

Feeder name 132 KV Jhansi Feeder 132 KV Rajghat Feeder 132 KV Railway 1 Feeder 132 KV Railway 2 Feeder 20 MVA, 132/66 KV Transformer

5. 6. 7.

66 KV Lalitpur Feeder 66 KV Matatila Feeder 11 KV Jack Bus Feeder 40 MVA, 132/33 KV Transformer

64.5 64.5 -

95 80 -

8. 9. 10. 11.

33 KV Mehroni Feeder 33 KV Jakhlon Feeder 33 KV Hospital Feeder 33 KV Lalitpur Feeder 40 MVA, 132/33 KV Transformer

33 33 33 33

353 80 2 230

12. 13. 14.

33 KV Bansi Feeder 33 KV Birda Feeder 33 KV Pali Feeder

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33 33 33

120 280 -

UTTAR PRADESH POWER TRANSMISSION CORPORATION LIMITED SUMMER TRAING REPORT

One Line Diagram of 132 KV Substation Lalitpur :-

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Substation also contains following devices :1. Lightning Arresters or Surge monitor A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems (usually above 1000V) and telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor to earth. 2. SF6 Circuit Breakers :

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. Some of the outstanding properties of SF6 making it desirable to use in power applications are: a. b. c. d. High dielectric strength Unique arc-quenching ability Excellent thermal stability Good thermal conductivity

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3. Isolators In electrical engineering, a disconnector or isolator switch is used to make sure that an electrical circuit can be completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical distribution and industrial applications where machinery must have its source of driving power removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. Often the isolation switch is not intended for normal control of the circuit and is used only for isolation; in such a case, it functions as a second, usually physically distant master switch (wired in series with the primary one) that can independently disable the circuit even if the master switch used in everyday operation is turned on.

4. Capacitive Voltage Transformers

A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT), or capacitance coupled voltage transformer(CCVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step down extra high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for measurement or to operate a protective relay.

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UTTAR PRADESH POWER TRANSMISSION CORPORATION LIMITED SUMMER TRAING REPORT

5. Current Transformers

In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power systems.

6. Grounding Mat

The sole purpose of substation grounding/earthing is to protect the equipment from surges and lightning strikes and to protect the operating persons in the substation. The substation earthing system is necessary for connecting neutral points of transformers and generators to ground and also for connecting the non current carrying metal parts such as structures, overhead shielding wires, tanks, frames, etc to earth. Earthing of surge arresters is through the earthing system. The function of substation earthing system is to provide a grounding mat below the earth surface in and around the substation which will have uniformly zero potential with respect to ground and lower earth resistance to ensure that :-

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To provide discharge path for lightning over voltages coming via rod-gaps, surge arresters, and shielding wires etc. . To ensure safety of the operating staff by limiting voltage gradient at ground level in the substation

7.Wave Trap : It traps the high frequency communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation and diverting them to the telecom/teleprotection panel in the substation control room (through coupling capacitor and LMU). This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for communication among various substations without dependence on the telecom company network. The signals are primarily teleprotection signals and in addition, voice and data communication signals. The Line trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication signals thus obstructs the flow of these signals in to the substation busbars. If there were not to be there, then signal loss is more and communication will be ineffective/probably impossible.

8. PLCC(Power Line Carrier Comunication)

PLCC, Power Line Carrier Communication, is an approach to utilize the existing power lines for the transmission of information from one substation to another or from homes to substation. In todays world every house and building has properly installed electricity lines. By using the existing AC power lines as a medium to transfer the information, it becomes easy to connect the houses with a high speed network access point

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without installing new wirings. It reduces a lot of time & money and so is the biggest advantage of the technology. 9. Relays

Relays are electrical switches that open or close another circuit under certain conditions. Relay Purpose Are : Isolate controlling circuit from controlled circuit. Control high voltage system with low voltage. Control high current system with low current. Logic Functions.

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10. Insulators 11. Steel Towers, etc.

Transmission Lines
The main elements of Transmission Lines are :-

1. Tower
Towers can be made of steel or wood, and can be rigid and non-rigid. Rigid towers can stand on their own. Non-rigid need guy wires to stay up. The advantage of the rigid tower is that the right of way is reduced. The disadvantage is that it requires more steel. On the other hand, the non-rigid tower has less steel but it needs more land or right of way.

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2. Conductors
The following drawing shows the cross section of a transmission line :

In the middle it has steel strands and in the outside it has aluminium. Due to the skin effect the current tends to the outer part, where aluminium is a good conductor. The steel in the middle gives strength to the wire.

The lines sag because of the weight of the line and temperature of the conductor. The sag increases with higher temperature. Normally medium or high voltage lines have bundled conductors.

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UTTAR PRADESH POWER TRANSMISSION CORPORATION LIMITED SUMMER TRAING REPORT

The reason for this is that the electric fields around the conductor are reduced. This leads to lower corona losses and lower noise. Also the line reactance in ohm/km is reduced therefore there is an increase in power transmission. In the early days conductor used on transmission lines were usually Copper, but Aluminium Conductors have Completely replaced Copper because of the much lower cost and lighter weight of Aluminium conductor compared with a Copper conductor of the same resistance. The fact that Aluminium conductor has a larger diameter than a Copper conductor of the same resistance is also an advantage. With a larger diameter the lines of electric flux originating on the conductor will be farther apart at the conductor surface for the same voltage. This means a lower voltage gradient at the conductor surface and less tendency to ionise the air around the conductor. Ionisation produces the undesirable effect called corona. The symbols identifying different types of Aluminium conductors are as follows:AAC : All Aluminium conductors. AAAC : All Aluminium Alloy conductors ACSR : Aluminium conductors, Steel-Reinforced ACAR : Aluminium conductor, Alloy-Reinforced Aluminium alloy conductors have higher tensile strength than the conductor of EC grade Aluminium or AAC, ACSR consists of a central core of steel strands surrounded by layers of Aluminium strands. ACAR has a central core of higher strength Aluminium Alloy surrounded by layer of Electrical-Conductor-Grade Aluminium.

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UTTAR PRADESH POWER TRANSMISSION CORPORATION LIMITED SUMMER TRAING REPORT

The alternate layers of a stranded conductor are spiraled in opposite direction to prevent unwinding and make the outer radius of one layer coincide with the inner radius of the next. Standing provides flexibility for a large cross-sectional area. The number of strands depend on the number of layers and on whether all the strands are of the same diameter. The total number of strands in concentrically stranded conductors, where the total annular space is filled with strands of uniform diameter is 7,19,37,91 or more. STANDARD SIZES OF CONDUCTOR FOR LINES OF VARIOUS VOLTAGES: The following sizes have now been standardised by CEA for transmission lines of different voltages-(i) For 132 KV lines (ii) for 220 KV lines (iii) for 400 KV lines : 'Panther' ACSR having 7-strands of steel of dia 3.00 mm and 30-Strands of Aluminium of dia 3.00 mm : 'Zebra' ACSR having 7-strand of steel of dia 3.18 mm and 54-Strands of Aluminium of dia 3.18 mm. : Twin 'Moose' ACSR having 7-Strands of steel of dia 3.53 mm and 54-Strands of Aluminium of dia 3.53 mm.

3. Insulator
Insulators are the ones that insulate conductors from the tower. Note that conductors are insulated from the earth by air. The insulators are made of strings of porcelain. Because of the shape, the current would have to go all around every piece making a larger path to the tower. When dirt accumulates, it reduces the resistance from the conductor to the tower.

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Overhead conductors are isolated from the towers through insulation. Various types of insulators are available like Composite Insulators, Glass Insulators and Porcelain Insulators and can be offered to meet customer requirement. Overhead conductors are isolated from the towers through insulation and they play an important role in the power system consisting of generators, transmission lines and distribution. For a safe and reliable system performance under adverse weather conditions like strong winds and heavy rains, the insulators protect the system from short circuits. Various types of insulators are available like Composite Insulators, Glass Insulators and Porcelain Insulators and can be offered to meet customer requirement. Transmission lines with higher system-voltage carry greater power flow. They serve the role of trunk feeder in the delivery of power. Instability in EHV and UHV line operation may cause great negative impact on the entire power system. Thus, insulators for EHV and UHV transmission lines require not only endurance against higher electrical and mechanical stress but must also ensure uniformly high quality to maintain the reliability of system operation. Different types of line insulators are used, depending on voltage and mechanical strain (tension) requirements. The more widely used types are as follows:

DISC TYPE: where insulation discs (also called insulation units) are strung together depending on the insulation level desired. LONGROD TYPE: These may also be strung together for higher insulation and may have similar ball-socket and clevis-tongue locking mechanisms used among the disc types. Their longer length makes them applicable for phase-to-phase insulation to reduce line galloping during strong winds. Both disc and longrod-type insulators are commonly used in suspension or strain (tension) insulator applications. PIN TYPE: Pin types are screwed onto a bolt shank secured on the cross-arm of
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UTTAR PRADESH POWER TRANSMISSION CORPORATION LIMITED SUMMER TRAING REPORT

the transmission pole or pylon. The pin type does not take main transmission line strain (tension), and functions as a jumper line insulator. SHACKLE TYPE: These are mostly applied to support line strain (tension), such as at changes of transmission line direction. POST TYPE: These may have thicker insulation and more discs than pin types and can be mounted via clamp or pin method. Since post-type insulators may also act as a cantilever to support line weight, post-type insulators normally have a Maximum Design Cantilever Load (MDCL) rating. HEWLETT TYPE: A variation of the disc type, but can take more mechanical strain due to internally insulated steel bolt interlocks holding discs together instead of cement. Hewlett type has higher internal electrical stress due to its internal steel bolts. POT TYPE: are usually pin mounted and often used with telephone lines. Insulators are made primarily of Glass, Porcelain or Composite polymer material and we can supply any of these types based on design requirements.

4. Overhead Ground Wires

Overhead ground wires are used to protect the conductors from lightning. The following figure shows a 3 phase line with shield or overhead protectors.

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Note that earth is also a conductor. Then, e.g. a 735 kV with 4 bundled conductors per phase has 15 wires or conductors in total.

Power Transformer
Substations are the places where the level of voltage undergoes change with the help of power transformers. Thus Power transformer is the most important thing in a substation.The term power transformer is used to refer to those transformers used between the generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually rated at 500 kVA and above.

20 MVA, 132/66 KV, Three phase Power Transformer with online Tap changing

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Rating and Classifications

Transformers are rated based on the power output they are capable of delivering continuouslyat a specified rated voltage and frequency under usual operating conditions without exceeding prescribed internal temperature limitations. Insulation is known to deteriorate with increases in temperature, so the insulation chosen for use in transformers is based on how long it can be expected to last by limiting the operating temperature. The temperature that insulation is allowed to reach under operating conditions essentially determines the output rating of the transformer, called the kVA rating. The normal life expectancy of a power transformer is generally assumed to be about 30 years of service when operated within its rating. However, under certain conditions, it may be overloaded and operated beyond its rating, with moderately predictable loss of life. Situations that might involve operation beyond rating include emergency rerouting of load or through-faults prior to clearing of the fault condition. Power transformers have been loosely grouped into three market segments based on size ranges. These three segments are: 1. Small power transformers: 500 to 7500 kVA. 2. Medium power transformers: 7500 to 100 MVA. 3. Large power transformers: 100 MVA and above. Usually , unusual service conditions for a transformer include, but are not limited to, the following: high (above 40C) or low (below 20C) ambient temperatures, altitudes above 1000 m above sea level, seismic conditions, and loads with total harmonic distortion above 0.05 per unit.

Cooling Classes
Since no transformer is truly an ideal transformer, each will incur a certain amount of energy loss, mainly that which is converted to heat. Methods of removing this heat can

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depend on the application, the size of the unit, and the amount of heat that needs to be dissipated. The insulating medium inside a transformer, usually oil, serves multiple purposes, first to act as an insulator, and second to provide a good medium through which to remove the heat. The windings and core are the primary sources of heat, although internal metallic structures can act as a heat source as well. It is imperative to have proper cooling ducts and passages in the proximity of the heat sources through which the cooling medium can flow so that the heat can be effectively removed from the transformer. The natural circulation of oil through a transformer through convection has been referred to as a thermosiphon effect. The heat is carried by the insulating medium until it is transferred through the transformer tank wall to the external environment. Radiators, typically detachable, provide an increase in the surface area available for heat transfer by convection without increasing the size of the tank. In smaller transformers, integral tubular sides or fins are used to provide this increase in surface area. Fans can be installed to increase the volume of air moving across the cooling surfaces, thus increasing the rate of heat dissipation. Larger transformers that cannot be effectively cooled using radiators and fans rely on pumps that circulate oil through the transformer and through external heat exchangers, or coolers, which can use air or water as a secondary cooling medium. Allowing liquid to flow through the transformer windings by natural convection is identified as nondirected flow. In cases where pumps are used, and even some instances where only fans and radiators are being used, the liquid is often guided into and through some or all of the windings. This is called directed flow in that there is some degree of control of the flow of the liquid through the windings. The use of auxiliary equipment such as fans and pumps with coolers, called forced circulation, increases the cooling and thereby the rating of the transformer without increasing the units physical size. Ratings are determined based on the temperature of the unit as it coordinates with the cooling equipment that is operating. Usually, a transformer will have multiple ratings corresponding to multiple stages of cooling, as the supplemental cooling equipment can be set to run only at increased loads.

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Short-Circuit Duty
A transformer supplying a load current will have a complicated network of internal forces acting on and stressing the conductors, support structures, and insulation structures. These forces are fundamental to the interaction of current-carrying conductors within magnetic fields involving an alternating-current source. Increases in current result in increases in the magnitude of the forces proportional to the square of the current. Severe overloads, particularly through-fault currents resulting from external short-circuit events, involve significant increases in the current above rated current and can result in tremendous forces inside the transformer. The short-circuit current is primarily limited by the internal impedance of the transformer, but it may be further reduced by impedances of adjacent equipment, such as current limiting reactors or by system power-delivery limitations. Magnitudes of forces during these situations can range from several hundred kilograms to hundreds of thousands of kilograms in large power transformers. The transformer must be capable of withstanding the maximum forces experienced at the first peak of the transient current as well as the repeated pulses at each of the subsequent peaks until the fault is cleared or the transformer is disconnected. The high currents experienced during through-fault events will also cause elevated temperatures in the windings. These high temperatures are rarely a problem due to the short time span of these events, but the transformer may experience an associated increase in its loss of life.

Efficiency, Losses, and Regulation

Efficiency
Power transformers are very efficient, typically 99.5% or greater, i.e., real power losses are usually less than 0.5% of the kVA rating at full load. The efficiency is derived from the rated output and the losses incurred in the transformer. The basic relationship for efficiency is the output over the input is efficiency = [kVA rating/(kVA rating + total losses)] X 100%
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and generally decreases slightly with increases in load. Total losses are the sum of the no-load and load losses.

Losses
The no-load losses are essentially the power required to keep the core energized. These are commonly referred to as core losses, and they exist whenever the unit is energized. No-load losses depend primarily upon the voltage and frequency, so under operational conditions they vary only slightly with system variations. Load losses result from load currents flowing through the transformer. The two components of the load losses are the I2R losses and the stray losses. I2R losses are based on the measured dc (direct current) resistance, the bulk of which is due to the winding conductors and the current at a given load. The stray losses are a term given to the accumulation of the additional losses experienced by the transformer, which includes winding eddy losses and losses due to the effects of leakage flux entering internal metallic structures. Auxiliary losses refer to the power required to run auxiliary cooling equipment, such as fans and pumps, and are not typically included in the total losses as defined above.

Economic Evaluation of Losses

Transformer losses represent power that cannot be delivered to customers and therefore have an associated economic cost to the transformer user/owner. A reduction in transformer losses generally results in an increase in the transformers cost. Depending on the application, there may be an economic benefit to a transformer with reduced losses and high price (initial cost), and vice versa. This process is typically dealt with through the use of loss evaluations, which place a rupee value on the transformer losses to calculate a total owning cost that is a combination of the purchase price and the losses. Typically, each of the transformers individual loss parameters no-load losses, load losses, and auxiliary losses are assigned a rupees value per kW (Rs/kW). Information obtained from such an analysis can be used to compare prices from different manufacturers or to decide on the optimum time to replace existing transformers. There are guides available, through standards organizations, for estimating the cost associated with transformers losses.

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Regulation
Regulation is defined as the change (increase) in the output voltage that occurs when the load on the transformer is reduced from rated load to no load while the input voltage is held constant. It is typically expressed as a percentage, or per unit, of the rated output voltage at rated load. A general expression for the regulation can be written as: % regulation = [(VNL VFL)/VFL] X100 where VNL is the voltage at no load and VFL is the voltage at full load. The regulation is dependent upon the impedance characteristics of the transformer, the resistance (r), and more significantly the ac reactance(x), as well as the power factor of the load. It should be noted that lower impedance values, specifically ac reactance, result in lower regulation, which is generally desirable. However, this is at the expense of the fault current, which would in turn increase with a reduction in impedance, since it is primarily limited by the transformer impedance. Additionally, the regulation increases as the power factor of the load becomes more lagging (inductive).

Accessory Equipments
There are many different accessories used to monitor and protect power transformers, some of which are considered standard features, and others of which are used based on miscellaneous requirements. A few of the basic accessories are briefly discussed here. Liquid-Level Indicator A liquid-level indicator is a standard feature on liquid-filled transformer tanks, since the liquid medium is critical for cooling and insulation. This indicator is typically a roundfaced gauge on the side of the tank, with a float and float arm that moves a dial pointer as the liquid level changes. Pressure-Relief Devices Pressure-relief devices are mounted on transformer tanks to relieve excess internal pressures that might build up during operating conditions. These devices are intended to avoid damage to the tank. On larger transformers, several pressure-relief devices may be required due to the large quantities of oil.

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Liquid-Temperature Indicator Liquid-temperature indicators measure the temperature of the internal liquid at a point near the top of the liquid using a probe inserted in a well and mounted through the side of the transformer tank. Winding-Temperature Indicator A winding-temperature simulation method is used to approximate the hottest spot in the winding. An approximation is needed because of the difficulties involved in directly measuring winding temperature.The method applied to power transformers involves a current transformer, which is located to incur a current proportional to the load current through the transformer. The current transformer feeds a circuit that essentially adds heat to the top liquid-temperature reading, which approximates a reading that models the winding temperature. This method relies on design or test data of the temperature differential between the liquid and the windings, called the winding gradient. Sudden-Pressure Relay A sudden- (or rapid-) pressure relay is intended to indicate a quick increase in internal pressure that can occur when there is an internal fault. These relays can be mounted on the top or side of the transformer, or they can operate in liquid or gas space. Desiccant (Dehydrating) Breathers Desiccant breathers use a material such as silica gel to allow air to enter and exit the tank, removing moisture as the air passes through. Most tanks are somewhat free breathing, and such a device, if properly maintained, allows a degree of control over the quality of air entering the transformer. Buchholz Relay On power transformers using a conservator liquid-preservation system, a Buchholz relay can be installed in the piping between the main transformer tank and the conservator. The purpose of the Buchholz relay is to detect faults that may occur in the transformer. One mode of operation is based on the generation of gases in the transformer during certain minor internal faults. Gases accumulate in the relay, displacing the liquid in the relay, until a specified volume is collected, at which time a float actuates a contact or switch. Another mode of operation involves sudden increases in pressure in the main transformer tank, a sign of a major fault in the transformer. Such an increase in pressure forces the liquid to surge through the piping between the main
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tank and the conservator, through the Buchholz relay, which actuates another contact or switch.

Modern and Future Developments

High-Voltage Generator
Because electricity is generated at voltage levels that are too low to be efficiently transmitted across the great distances that the power grid typically spans, step-up transformers are required at the generator. With developments in high-voltage-cable technology, a high-voltage generator, called the Powerformer (ABB Generation, Vasteras, Sweden) is developed. This Powerformer reportedly can be designed to generate power at voltage levels between 20 kV and 400 kV to feed the transmission network directly.

High-Temperature Superconducting (HTS) Transformer

Superconducting technologies are being applied to power transformers in the development of hightemperature superconducting (HTS) transformers. In HTS transformers, the copper and aluminum in the windings would be replaced by superconductors. In the field of superconductors, high temperatures are considered to be in the range of 116K to 144K, which represents a significant deviation in the operating temperatures of conventional transformers. At these temperatures, insulation of the type currently used in transformers would not degrade in the same manner. Using superconducting conductors in transformers requires advances in cooling, specifically refrigeration technology directed toward use in transformers. The predominant cooling medium in HTS development has been liquid nitrogen, but other media have been investigated as well. Transformers built using HTS technology would reportedly be smaller and lighter, and they would be capable of overloads without experiencing loss of life due to insulation degradation, using instead increasing amounts of the replaceable coolant. An additional benefit would be an increase in efficiency of HTS transformers over conventional transformers due to the fact that resistance in superconductors is virtually zero, thus eliminating the I2R component of the load losses.

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Numerous Latest technologies to boost the efficiency in transmission HVDC

Most of the transmission lines are high-voltage alternating current (HVAC) lines. Direct current (DC) transmission offers great advantages over AC, however: 25% lower line losses, two to five times the capacity of an AC line at similar voltage, plus the ability to precisely control the flow of power. Historically, the relatively high cost of HVDC terminal stations relegated the technology to being used only in long-haul applications. With the advent of a new type of HVDC, invented by ABB and dubbed HVDC Light , the benefits of DC transmission are now being realized on much shorter distances.

FACTS Devices
A family of power electronics devices known as Flexible AC Transmission Systems, or FACTS, provides a variety of benefits for increasing transmission efficiency. Perhaps the most immediate is their ability to allow existing AC lines to be loaded more heavily without increasing the risk of disturbances on the system. Actual results vary with the characteristics of each installation, but industry experience has shown FACTS devices to enhance transmission capacity by 20-40%. FACTS devices stabilize voltage, and in so doing remove some of the operational safety constraints that prevent operators from loading a given line more heavily. In addition to the efficiency gains, these devices also deliver a clear reliability benefit.

Gas-Insulated Substations
Most substations occupy large areas of land to accommodate the design requirements of the given facility. However, each time power flows through a substation to step down the voltage, more energy is lost as the power flows through the transformers, switches and other equipment. The efficiency of the lower-voltage lines coming out of the substation is also markedly lower than their high-voltage counterparts. If power can be transmitted at
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higher voltage to a substation that is closer to where the energy will be consumed, significant efficiency improvements are possible.

Gas-insulated substations essentially take all of the equipment you would find in an outdoor substation and encapsulate it inside of a metal housing. The air inside is replaced with a special inert gas, which allows all of the components to be placed much closer together without the risk of a flashover. The result is that it is now possible to locate a substation in the basement of a building or other confined space so that the efficiency of high-voltage transmission can be exploited to the fullest extent.

Superconductors
Superconducting materials at or near liquid nitrogen temperatures have the ability to conduct electricity with near-zero resistance. So-called high temperature superconducting (HTS) cables now under development, which still require some refrigeration, can carry three to five times the power of conventional cables. The losses in HTS cables are also significantly lower than the losses in conventional lines, even when the refrigeration costs are included. A major vendor of superconducting conductors claims that the HTS cable losses are only half a percent (0.5%) of the transmitted power compared to 5-8% for traditional power cables. Superconducting materials can also be used to replace the copper windings of transformers to reduce losses by as much as 70% compared to current designs.

Wide Area Monitoring Systems

Much of the transmission system could feasibly be operated at a higher loading, were it not for reliability concerns. However, if operators were given the ability to monitor grid conditions more precisely and in real time, some of these constraints would be removed. One example relates to the simple fact that when transmission lines heat up, the metal becomes pliable and the lines sag, which can cause a short circuit if they come into contact with a tree or other grounding object. Wide area monitoring systems (WAMS) have many promising capabilities, one of which is line thermal monitoring. With this functionality, transmission operators could conceivably change the loading of transmission lines more freely by virtue of having a very clear understanding of how close a given line really is to its thermal limits.
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